NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering
Computer Aided Design (CAD) [TIE 5211]
Main Assignment Cluster Task
Group: Cluster B – QU7 CASE
Class: Parallel [TIE 5211]
Lecturer: Dr. Eng. N. Tayisepi
10 MAY 2020
Group members
Student Number Surname Name
1 N01521021M Mvunabo Hirwa Yvan
2 N01519754Y Purazi Tichaona Peter
3 N01522576W Museba Simbarashe Kelvin
4 P0112201N Mangwana Wellington
5 N01521368Y Mtyida Adrian B.
6 N01520854V Makono Edric K.
7 N0143423D Ndiweni Romeo M.
8 N01522674T Musengeyi Willard
9 N01523500Y Matenda Divine
10 N01518900M Ncube Michael A.
11 N01523429Y Nyamande Farai
12 N01414310R Khoza Phumzile
13 N01519799R Mhlongwa Mbekezeli
14 N01523440X Nkomo Francoise
15 N01518823Y Phiri Jasintumba M.M
16 N01522865B Makaranga Arnold D.
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QUESTION SEVEN
Write a literature review account on the applicable/enabling Hardware Technology systems for
Adaptive Control Manufacturing Systems Development on lathe machine turning operations as
a tool for sustainable economic development. You are given that the practical control
parameters which may be utilized are surface roughness, energy consumption or cutting forces.
Indicate which parameters are applicable with the identified and discussed hardware system
and sketch the system network arrangement of the components.
7.1 Introduction
With the accelerated evolution of technology, mechanization, cut-throat competition and paradigm
shift towards mass customization; it is imperative that industry players make a commitment to
customer responsiveness and continuous improvement towards the goal of quickly developing
innovative products that have best combination of exceptional quality, fast and on-time delivery,
with low prices and costs. Adaptive Control Systems on lathe machines is a key drive for
sustainable economic development through control of such parameters like surface roughness,
energy consumption or cutting forces.
Increasing requirements for high accuracy and productivity have forced many manufacturing firms
to pursue automation. In order to meet the stringent requirements imposed on products, various
forms of controllers have been used to regulate manufacturing processes and systems. Due to the
heterogeneous nature of manufacturing systems which are inherently complex, non-linear,
multivariable and subject to unknown external disturbance, Adaptive Control (AC) is thus
conceived to adapt to the dynamic change of such systems. The objective of Adaptive Control
Manufacturing Systems is to adjust parameters such as surface roughness, speed, feed rate, cutting
forces in order to reduce the variability of parts being produced and increase productivity (Shin, et
al, 2014).
Adaptive control, being the automatic monitoring and adjustment of machining conditions in
response to variations in operation performance, has underlying supporting Hardware Technology.
Hardware systems are the components/ infrastructure which necessitate functionality of AC. The
hardware elements are independent units which are interlinked to provide an overall backbone to
the entire system (Peklenik, 2014).
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In the manufacture of discrete products in the mechanical, electrical and other industries there are
three major objectives:
good performance and reliability of the product
competitive price related to comparable products on the market
high-quality products
The quality of the geometrical parameters of parts is basically related to dimensional deviations,
shape deviations and surface roughness. In CNC systems of turning processes the machining
variables (cutting speed and feed rate) are prescribed by the part programmer. The main idea in
adaptive control is the improvement in production rate and of part quality by calculation and setting
of the optimal variables during the machining itself. This calculation is based upon measurements
of process variables in real time and is followed by a subsequent on-line adjustment of the
machining variables subject to constraints with the objective to optimize the performance of the
overall system (Koren, 2008).
Figure 7.1: Adaptive control system for machine tool (Koren, 2008)
For a machining operation the term AC denotes control systems that measures certain output
variables and uses to control speed or feed. Some of the process variables that have been used in
AC machining systems include spindle deflection or force, torque, cutting temperature and horse
power.
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7.2 Functions of Adaptive Control Manufacturing Systems
There are three main functions which are:
Identification function
Decision function
Modification function
Identification
Adaptive
Control
Manufacturing
Systems
Modification Decision
Figure 7.2: Schematic illustrating main functions of Adaptive Control
The main idea of AC is the improvement of the turning process by automatic online determination
of speed and/or feed. Adaptive Control is basically a feedback system in which cutting speed and
feed automatically adapt themselves to the actual condition of the process and are varied
accordingly to the changes in the work conditions as work progresses. This allows for better
surface finish, control of cutting forces, tolerances and reduced production time.
7.2.1 Identification Functions
This involves determining the current performance of the process or system. The identification
function is concerned with determining the current value of this performance measure by making
use of the feedback data from the process.
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7.2.2 Decision Function
Once the system performance is determined, the next function is to decide how the control
mechanism should be adjusted to improve process performance. The decision procedure is carried
out by means of a pre-programmed logic provided by the designer.
7.2.3 Modification Function
The third AC function is to implement the decision. While the decision function is a logic function,
modification is concerned with a physical or mechanical change in the system. The modification
involves changing the system parameters or variables so as to drive the process towards a more
optimal state.
7.3 Classification of Adaptive Control Manufacturing Systems
In practice, the AC system of machine tools can be classified into three main types:
AC with constrains (ACC)
AC with optimization (ACO)
Geometric Adaptive Control (GAC)
Figure 7.3: Classification of Adaptive Control and corresponding elements (Haran, 2008)
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7.3.1 Adaptive Control with Constrains (ACC)
ACC are systems in which machining conditions such as spindle speed or feed rate are maximized
within the prescribed limits of machines and tool constrains such as maximum torque, force or
horse power.
ACC systems do not utilize a performance index and are based on maximizing a machining
variable (feed rate) subject to process and machine constraints (such as allowable cutting force on
the tool, or maximum power of the machine).
The objective of most ACC types of systems is to increase the material removal rate (MRR) during
rough cutting operations.
Figure 7.4: Schematic of Adaptive Control with Constraints (Koren, 2008)
For instance, in order to maximize the machining feed rate while maintaining a constant load on
the cutter, despite variations in width and depth of cut:
the feed rate is programmed to accommodate the largest width and depth in a particular
cut, and this small feed rate is maintained along the entire cut. As a result, the machining
rate is reduced.
By contrast, with the ACC system, the maximum allowable load (such as cutting force) on
the cutter is programmed.
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Hence, when the width or depth of cut are small the feed rate is high; when either the width or
depth of cut (or both) are increased, the feed rate is automatically reduced, and consequently the
allowable load on the cutter is not exceeded.
The result is that the average feed with ACC is much larger than its programmed counterpart.
7.3.2 Adaptive Control with Optimization (ACO)
The ACO System for machine tools is a control system that optimizes performance index subject
to various constraints. It is basically a sophisticated closed loop control system, which
automatically works in optimum conditions, even in the presences of work piece and tools
materials variations.
Figure 7.5: Schematic of Adaptive Control with Optimization (Haran, 2004)
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7.3.3 Geometric Adaptive Control (GAC)
GAC are typically used in finishing machining operations. In GACs the part quality is maintained
in real time by compensating for the deflection and wear of cutting tools.
The objectives of GAC are mainly to achieve:
(1) the required dimensional accuracy
(2) a consistency of surface finish of machined parts despite tool wear or tool deflection
Both the dimensional accuracy and the surface finish are affected by the flank wear and the crater
wear of the tools which deteriorate during cutting. These variables cannot be measured in real
time; neither can they be accurately predicted from off-line tool testing.
Therefore. the GAC approach usually taken is that the tool is assumed to be worn out when the
above criteria, (1) or (2), are no longer at acceptable values. This method has been found to
correlate well in practice with actual tool deterioration (Smith, et al, 2006).
7.4 Hardware System for Adaptive Control Manufacturing System
In order to act as an Adaptive Control for turning operations, the system has to perform some
specific tasks, as measuring the instantaneous values of a certain parameter of the process, and
delivering correction inputs to the process. Furthermore, it must have a specific component that
allows dimensioning the correcting inputs for the operation being undertaken, related to the
perturbations occurred, to ensure the process stabilization. The main hardware components of the
AC are thus discussed (Anton, 2014).
Figure 7.6: Typical Hardware Architecture of an ACM System (Anton, et al, 2014)
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The hardware system consists of:
CNC lathe machine (EMCO 55)
Dynamometer (Kistler type 9257B) and Accelerometer
Piezoelectric sensors
Actuators
Input and Output Platform
Analogue to Digital (A/D) Board
Feed Amplifier
At the heart of the entire hardware architecture is a CNC lathe machine (EMCO 55), on which is
mounted a dynamometric table (Kistler type 9257B). The cutting forces are measured with
piezoelectric sensors.
Piezoelectric sensors convert mechanical quantities such as pressure, force and acceleration
directly into an electric charge. The charge produced is proportional to the force acting on the
quartz crystal contained in the sensor. The sensitivity of the sensor is stated in pC/M.U.
The electrical signal is sent via RS-232 cable to a charge amplifier (Kistler type 5070A11100).
The mains-operated multi-channel charge amplifier receives the charge from the piezoelectric
sensor and converts it into a proportional voltage.
The interface hardware module also consists of a connecting plan block, analogue signal
conditioning modules and analogue to digital (A/D) interface board (PCIM-DAS1602/16)
In the A/D board, the analogue signal is transformed into a digital signal, so that the LabVIEW
software is able to read and receive the data. With this program, the three axis force components
can be obtained simultaneously, and can be displayed on the screen for further analysis. The Feed
Rate Override percentage variable is available to the control system at a frequency of 1 kHz.
Communication between the control system and the CNC machine controller is accomplished with
a NI USB-6009 over USB protocol. The output signal (electric voltage) can override the
programmed values of the cutting parameters (feed-rate and/or spindle speed) according to the real
cutting conditions in order to maintain the proposed characteristic (cutting force or material
removal rate) at a certain level.
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7.4.1 Dynamometer and Accelerometer
The cutting forces generated in metal cutting have a direct influence on heat generation, tool wear
or failure, quality of machined surface and dimensional accuracy of the work piece. Figure 7.7
below shows a schematic of cutting forces measurement using a dynamometer.
Figure 7.7: Dynamometer setup for measuring the cutting forces on turning (Yaldiz, 2006)
A turning dynamometer that measures static and dynamic cutting forces by using strain gauge and
piezo-electric accelerometer respectively. The orientation of octagonal rings and strain gauge
locations help to maximize sensitivity and to minimize cross-sensitivity. The force signals captured
are then processed using the data acquisition system.
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7.4.2 Actuators and Piezoelectric Sensors
In high precision machining, surface finish is strongly correlated with vibrations and the dynamic
interactions between the part and the cutting tool. Parameters affecting these vibrations and
dynamic interactions, such as spindle speed, cut depth, feed rate, and the part's material properties
can vary in real-time, resulting in unexpected or undesirable effects on the surface finish of the
machining product (Park, et al, 2010).
Figure 7.8: Vibration and Surface finish control using Piezoelectric Actuator (Park, 2010)
The tool holder employs a high bandwidth piezoelectric actuator with an adaptive positive position
feedback control for vibration and chatter suppression. In addition, capacitive sensors are
incorporated to measure the dynamic responses from machining processes. The performance of
this method is evaluated by comparing the surface finishes obtained with active vibration control
versus baseline uncontrolled cuts. Considerable improvement in surface finish (up to 50%) has
been proven achievable by employing the piezo system (Park, 2010).
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7.4.3 Analogue to Digital (A/D) Board and Feed Amplifier
In the A/D board, the analogue signal is transformed into a digital signal. The three axis force
components are obtained simultaneously, and can be displayed on the screen for further analysis.
The Feed Rate Override percentage variable is available to the control system at a frequency of 1
kHz (Anton, 2014).
Figure 7.9: Amplifier and A/D configuration on drilling operation (Wandi, 2018)
Communication between the control system and the CNC machine controller is accomplished with
a NI USB-6009 over USB protocol. The output signal (electric voltage) can override the
programmed values of the cutting parameters (feed-rate and/or spindle speed) according to the real
cutting conditions in order to maintain the proposed characteristic (cutting force or material
removal rate) at a certain level.
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7.5 Hardware Components Interrelation
An Adaptive Control Manufacturing System seeks to compensate for variations in system
dynamics by adjusting the controller characteristics so that the overall system performance remains
the same, or rather maintained at optimum level. This control system takes into account any
degradation in plant performance with time (Zhang, 2010).
Figure 7.9: Interconnection of Adaptive Control Manufacturing components (Peng, 2016)
The adaptive control system includes elements to measure (or estimate) the process dynamics and
other elements to alter the controller characteristics accordingly. The controller adjusts the
controller characteristics in a manner to maintain the overall system performance.
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7.6 Brief on Lathe machine turning operations
Turning is a machining process in which a single-point tool removes material from the surface of
a rotating cylindrical workpiece. Depending on the turning operation, the tool can be fed in a
direction parallel to the axis of work rotation (Groover, 1996).
The working of the lathe machine changes with every operation and cut desired. There are
numerous operations achieved by the lathe machine. Figure 7.10 highlights some of the common
lathe operations.
Figure 7.10: Schematic of main turning processes on a Lathe (Sahin, et al, 2008)
CNC Lathes are machine tools where the material or part is clamped and rotated by the main
spindle, while the cutting tool that work on the material, is mounted and moved in various axis. It
is operated with Computer Numerical Control (CNC) systems and provided with precise design
instructions, through part programs whose specifications and dimensions are specified prior to
machining (Davim, 2008).
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Table 7.1: Basic Lathe machine operations explained (Davim, 2008)
Operation Explanation
Facing This is usually the first step of any lathe operation. Facing is the process of
removing metal from the end of a workpiece to produce a flat surface. The metal
is cut from the end to make it fit in the right angle of the axis and remove the marks.
Tapering Tapering is to cut the metal to nearly a cone shape with the help of the compound
slide. This is in between the parallel turning and facing off. Instead of feeding the
tool parallel to the axis of rotation of the work, the tool is fed at an angle, thus
creating a tapered cylinder or conical shape.
Forming It is a process in which a convex, concave or any irregular surface is formed on the
workpiece with the help of a forming tool. The forming tool has a shape that is
imparted to the work by plunging the tool radially into the work.
Threading Thread cutting is a process that produces a helical ridge of uniform section on the
workpiece. This involves taking successive cuts with a threading tool bit the same
shape as the thread form required. A pointed tool is fed linearly across the outside
surface of the rotating workpart in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation at a
large effective feed rate, thus creating threads in the cylinder
Drilling Is a process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid
materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often multi-point Drilling is
performed on a lathe by feeding the drill into the rotating work along its axis and
rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute
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7.5 Advantages of Adaptive Control Manufacturing System
The main advantages of AC are:
shortening of total cutting times, increase of tool life and protection of the machine-tool
and workpiece during cut.
reduction in machine ineffective (idle) time
programme preparations are done more quickly and with limited errors
both tight and relaxed tolerances are easily achieved.
7.6 Conclusion
Adaptive control applied to machine-tool enables making speed and/or feed corrections during an
operation on the basis of the information obtained through sensed variables such as tool tip
temperature, vibrations or cutting force so that the overall process economics or efficiency is
improved. Since AC is a feedback control system with the principal aim of doing the metal cutting
process more efficiently it can be applied to any machine-tool.
Adaptive Control Manufacturing Systems also help to increase tool life and metal removal rate in
machining toughest alloys. They can be frequently used with High Speed Steels tools to do jobs
that usually call for carbides and they often eliminate semi-finish cuts by removing more stock in
one operation.
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REFERENCES
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3. Hassan, M., Sadek, A., Attia, M.H. and Thomson, V., 2018. Intelligent machining: real-time
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9. Al-Wandi, S., 2018. Drilling of uni-directional carbon fibre reinforced plastics with diamond
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10. Sahin, Y. and Motorcu, A.R., 2008. Surface roughness model in machining hardened steel with
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