CHAPTER – 4
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION
Block Diagram
Components
Ratings
Working
Theory
Calculations
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CHAPTER – 4
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION
4.1) SOLAR PANEL:
A solar panel is a device that collects and converts solar energy into electricity or
heat. It transfers energy from the sun into electricity or heat.
Fig.4.1 Solar Panel
Solar (photovoltaic) panels convert energy in the form of light from the sun into
electrical energy. Between 4 and 22 percent of the energy falling on a panel is actually
converted to usable electrical energy. The rest is reflected or turned into heat.
Solar energy refers to the utilization of the radiant energy from the Sun. Solar power
is used interchangeably with solar energy, but refers more specifically to the conversion of
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sunlight into electricity by photovoltaic, concentrating solar thermal devices, or by an
experimental technology such as a solar chimney or solar pond.
Solar panels are Photovoltaic cells which gives voltage directly if you place them in
sun light. Here if you change the position of panels the power output will vary.
Means, direct sunrays on solar panel can give good output otherwise there might be
decrease in the value of their outputs. So we have to track the path where the maximum
power will attain.
Solar panel devices are of two types that collect energy from the sun. One is solar
photovoltaic modules which use solar cells to convert light from the sun into electricity and
the other is solar thermal collector which converts the sun’s energy to heat water or another
fluid such as oil or antifreeze.
The Solar Cell block represents a solar cell current source. The solar cell model
includes the following components:
Solar-Induced Current
Temperature Dependence
Thermal Port
4.1.1. Solar-Induced Current:
The block represents a single solar cell as a resistance Rs that is connected in series
with a parallel combination of the following elements:
Current source
Two exponential diodes
Parallel resistor Rp
The following illustration shows the equivalent circuit diagram:
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Fig.4.2 Equivalent circuit diagram of solar panel
The output current I is
Where:
Iphis the solar-induced current
Where:
Ir is the irradiance (light intensity) in W/m2falling on the cell.
Iph0is the measured solar-generated current for the irradiance
Ir0. Is is the saturation current of the first diode.
Is2 is the saturation current of the second diode.
Vt is the thermal voltage, kT/q
k is the Boltzmann constant.
T is the Device simulation temperature parameter value. q is the elementary charge
on an electron.
N is the quality factor (diode emission coefficient) of the first diode. N 2 is the
quality factor (diode emission coefficient) of the second diode. V is the voltage
across the solar cell electrical ports.
4.1.2. Temperature Dependence:
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Several solar cell parameters depend on temperature. The solar cell
temperature is specified by the device simulation temperature parameter value.
The block provides the following relationship between the solar-induced current Iph
and the solar cell temperature T:
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Where:
TIPH1 is the First order temperature coefficient for I ph, TIPH1 parameter value.
Tmeas is the Measurement temperature parameter value.
The block provides the following relationship between the saturation current of
the first diode Is and the solar cell temperature T:
Where TXIS1 is the Temperature exponent for Is, TXIS1 parameter value.
The block provides the following relationship between the saturation current of the
second diode Is2 and the solar cell temperature T:
Where TXIS2 is the Temperature exponent for Is2, TXIS2 parameter value.
The block provides the following relationship between the series resistance Rs and
the solar cell temperature T:
Where TRS1 is the Temperature exponent for Rs, TRS1 parameter value.
The block provides the following relationship between the parallel resistance Rp and
the solar cell temperature T:
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Where TRP1 is the Temperature exponent for Rp, TRP1 parameter value.
4.1.2. Thermal Port:
The thermal port model, shown in the following illustration, represents just the
thermal mass of the device. The thermal mass is directly connected to the component
thermal port H. An internal Ideal Heat Flow Source supplies a heat flow to the port and
thermal mass. This heat flow represents the internally generated heat.
(Fig. 4.3 Equivalent circuit of Thermal Port)
The internally generated heat in the solar cell is calculated according to the
equivalent circuit diagram, shown at the beginning of the reference page, in the Solar-
Induced Current section. It is the sum of the i 2R losses for each of the resistors plus the
losses in each of the diodes.
The internally generated heat due to electrical losses is a separate heating effect to that
of the solar irradiation.
4.2) WIND TURBINE:
A wind turbine is the popular name for a device that converts kinetic energy
from the wind into electrical power. Technically there is no turbine used in the design
but the term appears to have migrated from parallel hydroelectric technology.
4.2.1) TYPES OF WIND TURBINE:
Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical axis, i.e.,
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1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)
2. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)
4.2.1.1) Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine:
Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical
generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are
pointed by a simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor
coupled with a servo motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the
blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.
(Fig. 4.4 Horizontal axis wind turbine)
Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually positioned
upwind of its supporting tower. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from
being pushed into the tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a
considerable distance in front of the tower and are sometimes tilted forward into the
wind a small amount.
Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric power are
usually three-bladed and pointed into the wind by computer-controlled motors. These
have high tip speeds of over 320 km/h (200 mph), high efficiency, and low torque
ripple, which contribute to good reliability. The blades are usually colored white for
daytime visibility by aircraft and range in length from 20 to 40 meters (66 to 131 ft) or
more. The tubular steel towers range from 60 to 90 meters (200 to 300 ft) tall. The
blades rotate at 10 to 22 revolutions per minute.
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A gear box is commonly used for stepping up the speed of the generator,
although designs may also use direct drive of an annular generator. All turbines are
equipped with protective features to avoid damage at high wind speeds, by feathering
the blades into the wind which ceases their rotation, supplemented by brakes.
4.2.1.2) Vertical Axis Wind Turbine:
Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged
vertically. One advantage of this arrangement is that the turbine does not need to be
pointed into the wind to be effective, which is an advantage on a site where the wind
direction is highly variable. Also, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the
ground, using a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox,
improving accessibility for maintenance.
(Fig. 4.5 Vertical axis wind turbine)
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4.2.2) MAIN COMPONENTS OF WIND TURBINES:
4.2.2.1) Blades:
Blades are a vital component of a wind turbine. Manufacturers make blades from
several different types of materials. The blades of modern wind turbines are typically
made of extremely durable and relatively inexpensive synthetic materials, various types
of plastic or composites — plastic reinforced with fiber glass or carbon fibers, for
example. These synthetic blades typically last between 10 and 20 years. And, unlike the
metal blades once used in small wind turbines, plastic blades don’t interfere with
television, satellite TV or wireless Internet signals.
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Fig.4.6 Blade shape of wind turbine
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(Fig. 4.7 Graph of Effect of blade size on voltage of wind turbine)
(Fig. 4.8. Graph of no. of blades effect on voltage of wind turbine)
4.2.2.2) GENERATOR:
Horizontal axis wind turbines consist of three main parts: (1) a rotor, (2) an
alternator, and (3) a tail. Most upwind turbines have three blades. This entire assembly
rotates when wind blows past the blades, hence the name “rotor.” In many small wind
turbines the rotor is attached to a shaft that’s attached to an alternator, a device that
produces AC electricity the name implies, in HAWTs the axis of the rotor is oriented
horizontally, that is, parallel to the ground.
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(Fig. 4.9 Anatomy of a Wind Generator)
4.3) SEPICCONVERTERS:
Single-ended primary-inductor converter (SEPIC) is a type of DC-DC
converter allowing the electrical potential (voltage) at its output to be greater than, less
than, or equal to that at its input; the output of the SEPIC is controlled by the duty cycle
of the control transistor.
A SEPIC is essentially a boost converter followed by a buck-boost converter,
therefore it is similar to a traditional buck-boost converter, but has advantages of having
non-inverted output (the output has the same voltage polarity as the input), using a
series capacitor to couple energy from the input to the output (and thus can respond
more gracefully to a short-circuit output), and being capable of true shutdown: when the
switch is turned off, its output drops to 0 V, following a fairly hefty transient dump of
charge.
SEPICs are useful in applications in which a battery voltage can be above and
below that of the regulator's intended output.
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(Fig. 4.10 Circuit diagram of SEPIC)
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4.3.1) CAPACITOR:
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal
electrical component used to store energy electro statically in an electric field. The
forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical
conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e. insulator). The conductors can be thin
films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc. The non-
conducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can be
glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuums, paper, mica, oxide layer etc. Capacitors are
widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a
resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy
in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.
4.3.2) RESISTOR:
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the
same time, act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits resistors are
used to limit current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias active elements, terminate
transmission lines among other uses.
4.3.3) INDUCTOR:
An inductor also called a coil or reactor is a passive two terminal electrical
component which resists change in electric current passing through it. It consists of
conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a coil when a current flows through it
energy is stored temporarily in a magnetic field in the coil. when the current flowing
through an inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the
conductor, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which opposes the
change in current that created it.
4.3.4) TRANSISTOR:
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic
signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least
three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one
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pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals.
Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power,
a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but
m any more are found embedded in integrated circuits.
Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, both for high-power
applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications
such as logic gates.
4.3.5) BRIDGE RECTIFI ER:
A circuit which is used to convert A.C to D.C is known as REC TIFIER.
The process of conversion A. C to D.C is called “rectification”.
1. Half wave Rectifier
2. Full wave rectifier
i. Centre tap full wave rectifier.
ii. Bridge type full bridge rectifier.
A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve
full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes
wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired
internally. A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement as shown
in figure to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both
with individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where the
diode br idge is wired interna
(Fig. 4.12 Bridge Rectifier)
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The operations of bridge rectifier during positive half cycle of secondary, the diodes
D2 and D3 are in forward biased while D1 and D4 are in reverse biased. During negative half
cycle of secondary voltage, the diodes D1 and D4 are in forward biased while D2 and D3 are
in reverse biased.
4.3.6)555 TIMER:
The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse
generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an
oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up to four timing circuits in one
package.
(Fig.4.13 555 Timer)
PIN PIN PURPOSE
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NUMBER NAME
1. GND Ground reference voltage, low level (0 V)
The OUT pin goes high and a timing interval
2. starts
when this input falls below 1/2 of CTRL voltage
TRIG (hence TRIG is typically 1/3 VCC, CTRL being
2/3 VCC
by default, if CTRL is left open).
This output is driven to approximately 1.7 V
3. OUT below +
VCC or GND.
A timing interval may be reset by driving this
4. RESET input to
GND, but the timing does not begin again until
RESET
rises above approximately 0.7 volts. Overrides
TRIG
which overrides THR.
5. CTRL Provides "control" access to the internal voltage
divider (by default, 2/3 VCC).
The timing (OUT high) interval ends when the
6. THR voltage
at THR is greater than that at CTRL (2/3 VCC if
CTRL
is open).
Open collector output which may discharge a
7. DIS capacitor
between intervals. In phase with output.
Positive supply voltage, which is usually
8. Vcc between 3
and 15 V depending on the variation.
(Table 4.1 pin configuration of 555 timer)
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4.3.6.1) MODES OF 555 TIMER:
The IC 555 has three operating modes:
Monostable mode: In this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse
generator. Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free
switches, touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-
width modulation (PWM) and so on.
Astable (free-running) mode: The 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include
LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security
alarms, pulse position modulation and so on. The 555 can be used as a simple
ADC, converting an analog value to a pulse length. E.g. selecting a thermistor as
timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor: the period of
the output pulse is determined by the temperature. The use of a microprocessor
based circuit can then convert the pulse period to temperature, linearaize it and
even provide calibration means.
Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: The 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS
pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free latched
switches.
4.4) BATTERY:
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells
that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Each cell contains a positive
terminal, or cathode, and a negative terminal, or anode. Electrolytes allow ions to move
between the electrodes and terminals, which allows current to flow out of the battery to
perform work.
Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common
fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric
motors in producing mechanical work, compared to combustion engines.
Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. A battery consists
of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-cells connected in series
by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations.
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Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to
drive electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell
is the difference between the emf of its half-cells.
4.5) INVERTER:
4.5.1) CHOKE COIL:
In electronics, a choke is an inductor used to block higher-frequency alternating
current (AC) in an electrical circuit, while passing lower-frequency or direct current
(DC). A choke usually consists of a coil of insulated wire often wound on a magnetic
core, although some consist of a donut-shaped "bead" of ferrite material strung on a
wire. The choke's impedance increases with frequency. Its low resistance passes both
AC and DC with little power loss, but it can limit the amount of AC due to its
reactance.
The name comes from blocking—“choking”—high frequencies while passing
low frequencies. It is a functional name; the name “choke” is used if an inductor is used
for blocking or decoupling higher frequencies, but is simply called an “inductor” if used
in electronic filters or tuned circuits. Inductors designed for use as chokes are usually
distinguished by not having the low-loss construction (high Q factor) required in
inductors used in tuned circuits and filtering applications.
4.5.2) TRANSFORMER:
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers alternating current energy
from one circuit to another circuit by magnetic coupling of the primary and secondary
windings of the transformer. This is accomplished through mutual inductance (M). The
coefficient of coupling (K) of a transformer is dependent upon the size and shape of the
coils, their relative positions, and the characteristic of the core between the two coils.
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Fig. 4.14 Transformer
There is no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by an alternating
magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit
symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to
the power in.
4.6) TOGGLE SWITCH:
A toggle switch is a class of electrical switches that are manually actuated by a mechanical
lever, handle, or rocking mechanism.
Toggle switches are available in many different styles and sizes, and are used in numerous
applications. Many are designed to provide the simultaneous actuation of multiple sets of electrical
contacts, or the control of large amounts of current or mains voltages.
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Block Diagram:
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PROJECT KIT VIEW
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