Metal Cutting and Machine Tools

Metal Cutting and Machine Tools

• Cutting Tool & Their Materials
– High Carbon Steel
– Alloy Carbon Steel
– High Speed Steel
– Cast Alloys
– Cemented Carbides
– Ceramics
– Diamonds
– CBN
• Tool Geometry of Single Point Cutting Tool
• Tool Nomenclature
• Twist Drill and Reamer
• Milling Cutter
• Effects of Cutting Speed and Feed
• Tool Failure
Classification of cutting Tools
No of Points
1. Single Point Cutting tools-
Lathe tools, shaper tools, Planer tools, Boring tools.
2. Multi Point cutting tools-
Milling cutters, drills, broaches, Grinding wheels

Type of Motion
1. Linear motion tools-
Lathe , Boring, Broaching, Planing, Shaping
2. Rotary motion tools-
Milling cutters, Grinding wheels
3. Linear & Rotary tools-
Drills, Reamers, Honing tools , Boring Heads
 Properties of cutting Tool
Materials
•Hot Strength

•Wear resistance

•Impact toughness

•Availability in different shapes & configuration

•Low cost

•Less Friction

•High thermal conductivity

Hot Hardness or hot strength or red hardness
•Cutting tool must be atheist 1.5 times harder than
the material which is to be cut.
•Hot hardness is the ability of cutting tool to
withstand high temperature without loosing its cutting
edge. This property becomes increasingly important
as the speed of cutting operation is increased .
•Can be increased by adding chromium,
molybdenum, tungsten and vanadium

Wear Resistance or abrasive resistance

•It is the ability to resist wear or ability maintain
sharpened edge throughout the cutting
operation. As during process of machining , tool is
affected by abrasive action of work piece and if if its
cutting edge does not remain sharpened , poor
surface finish will be achieved and proper cutting will
not take place.
•Impact Toughness
•From this we mean that, cutting edges do not break
or chip when tool is suddenly loaded.
•But if we increase the toughness, then hardness
of tool tends to decrease. Proper compromise has
to be maintained between the two. Toughness is very
important property when there are interrupted cuts.

Availability in different shapes & configuration &

low cost
Cutting tool material must be available in different
sizes and configurations in low cost as different sizes
and shapes of tools are required in different
applications.
Less Friction
In order to have low tool wear, and better surface
finish, the coefficient of friction between the tool and
chip should be as low as possible in the operating
range of speed and feed.

High thermal conductivity

This is required so that there is quick removal of heat
from chip tool interface.
 Plain High Carbon steel

•These are the oldest type of tool steels. This material is

cheap but has its own constraints.
• The properties of metal will depend upon percentage of
carbon content. Low carbon steels are tough and shock
resistant, whereas high carbon steels are abrasion resistance.
•They are easy to machine
•They are usually hardened by quenching in water or brine
solution after heating
•. Hardness of plain carbon steels decreases rapidly after 200
degrees centigrade and do not regain even after cooling.
•They are used for low speed operations like drilling,
woodwork operations, cold chisels, hammers, punches etc.
• Carbon steels are broadly classified into two categories-
water hardening steels and oil hardening steels.
 Low alloy carbon tool steels

•In order to increase hardness of steel , simple addition of carbon

content makes it brittle. Small amount of alloying elements like
chromium, molybdenum etc. are added to improve hardness
properties. The alloy tool steels can operate upto cutting
temperature of 300 degree centigrade. They are used for drills,
taps and reamers but can not be used in high speed turning .
They are normally of two types.

•Type – O tool steels- They are usually hardened by quenching in

oil . The most common composition is C- .90 % , Mn- 1% , W-
.5% , Cr-.5%

•Type- A tool steel- These steels are hardened by cooling in air.

The content of alloying elements is higher as compared to type O
steels
 High speed steel
•This tool material is basically high carbon steel to various
alloying elements have been added in large amounts as
compared to alloy tool steels , to improve hardness, toughness
and wear resistance properties. These materials can be quenched
in oil , water or salt bath. They are capable of retaining hardness
upto 600 degrees centigrade. They are normally of following
types-
•High tungsten (T-type), which has tungsten as main alloying
constituent. Popular HSS is 18-4-1, which contains 18% W, 4%
Cr, 1% V and carbon is 0.75%. Cobalt can also be added to
increase red hardness.This material is designated as T-4
•High molybdenum ( M-type), which contains
1.5%W,4%Cr,1%V, 8.5% Mo.
•Tungeston Molybdenum – It contains 6%W, 4%Cr, 2%V and
5%Mo.
Various type of grades of High speed steels are designated as M-
1, M-2, M-3 , M-4 , M-41, M-42 , M-43 and T-1, T-2, T-4 etc.
High speed steels can be made by casting and powder
metallurgy. These can be used for taps, gear cutters and drills.
 Non-ferrous cast alloys -Stellites
•It is an alloy of Cobalt , chromium and tungeston with
composition as : Cobalt-38-53%, Chromium – 30-33%,
Tungeston- 10-20% and carbon 1-3%

• Cast alloy tools are cast and ground to any desired shape. Cast
alloys bridge the gap between HSS and carbides.

• This material maintains great hardness at high temperatures

and good wear resistance. It is not as tough as HSS. This
material is in form of tool bits and as well in form of bars of round
or square section. This can withstand temperatures upto 900
degree centigrade.

• This material is used at speeds above HSS and below those of

car bides. Used for deep roughing, boring and continuous
turning.The coefficient of thermal expansion of cast alloys is
same as that of steel and as such two can be brazed.
Cemented carbides or sintered carbides:
•Tungsten carbide was discovered long time back as very hard
material but difficulty was faced in joining fine crystals of tungsten
carbides into tool bits. The cemented carbides are manufactured by
powder metallurgy technique. There are following general group of
cemented carbides in use:

•The C- grade consisting of tungsten carbide with cobalt as binder.

Higher is the cobalt content, greater is resistance to shock

•The S- grade consisting of tungsten carbide, titanium carbide and

tantalum carbide with a cobalt binder for use in machining steel.
TiC reduces the tendency of, chips to weld to tool, increases hot
hardness.

The cemented carbides have high hardness over wide range

of temperatures, are very stiff ( Young’s modulus is three
times as that of steel), have low thermal expansion
compared with steel
 Cemented carbides or sintered carbides:

•Determined by size of tungsten carbide particles and percentage

of cobalt, qualities of tungsten carbide tools are as follow-

•Finer the grain particles, lower the tool toughness

•Finer the grain particles, higher tool hardness

•Higher the hardness, greater wear resistance

•Lower cobalt content, lower tool toughness

•Lower cobalt content, higher hardness

 Cemented carbides or sintered carbides:

General Rules for Selection of Proper Cemented-Carbide

Grade

•Use grade with lowest cobalt content and finest grain size

•Use straight tungsten carbide grades to combat abrasive wear

•To combat cratering, seizing, welding, and galling, use titanium

carbide grades

•For crater and abrasive wear resistance, use tantalum carbide

grades

•Use tantalum carbide grades for heavy cuts in steel, when heat
and pressure might deform cutting edge
There are different shapes of inserts which are used. Tips can be
fixed with brazing or fixed by screws.
 Ceramics:
•Ceramics consists mainly of Aluminium oxide and containing
additions like MgO, NiO, TiO, TiC to improve grain structure ,
cutting properties and sintering.

•These materials are produced by powder metallurgy as sintered

carbides. Ceramic tools have high abrasion resistance, harder
than cemented carbides and have less tendency to weld to
metals during machining. They have less toughness . These
materials are suitable for machining cast iron at high speeds.
Another ceramic tool material is silicon nitride.

•Ceramics are always used in form of indexable inserts of

standard shapes and sizes. They can not be brazed to tool
shanks .

•Thesetools can retain cutting edge hardness upto about 1400

degree centigrade.
Cubic Boron Nitride – CBN:

•Next to diamond , CBN is the hardest material currently available.

• This material consists of atoms of nitrogen and boron by high pressure

and high temperature processing.

•CBN has high hardness and high thermal conductivity.

•It is chemically inert. It is used as grinding wheel for HSS tools and
stellites and it is also used for machining steel and other high temperature
alloys.

• Its tensile strength is more than diamond .While machining iron based
alloys, life of CBN is 4 to 5 times higher than that of diamond tool.
 Diamond:
•Diamond is hardest of all the cutting tool materials. Diamond
has following properties

•Extreme hardness, Low thermal expansion, very low co-efficient

of friction, high heat conductivity . This is used when good
surface finish and and dimensional accuracy are required.

•This is used for non-ferrous metals and not suitable for ferrous
metals. Diamond tools are brittle in nature and poor resistance to
shock

•Diamond tools are used as single point turning and boring tools,
milling cutters, reamers, grinding wheels and honing tools

•Diamonds are of two type natural and man made ( synthetic).

Natural diamonds are of low grade. Now , polycrystalline
diamonds are used instead of single point tools. This material is
known as Compacts. It has more strength and shock resistance.
Property Carbon and H Cast Cemented Coated Ceramic Poly - Diamon
low to S Cobalt carbide carbide s crystallin d
medium S alloys e
alloy steels CBN
Hot increasing
hardness
increasing
Toughness

Wear increasing
resistance
Chipping increasing
resistance
increasing
Cutting
speed
increasing
Thermal
shock
resistance
increasing
Total
material cost
Property Carbon HSS Cast Cemente Coated Ceramics Poly - Diamond
and low Cobalt d carbide carbide crystallin
to alloys e
medium CBN
alloy
steels
Depth of Light to Light to Light to Light to Light to Light to Light to Very light
cut medium heavy heavy heavy heavy heavy heavy for single
crystal

Finish Rough Rough Rough Good Good Very good Very good excellent
Obtainable

Method of Wrought Wrought, Cast, HIP Cold CVD Cold High High
processing cast, HIP, and pressing pressing pressure pressure
sintering sintering and and and high and high
sintering sintering temp. temp
sintering sintering

Fabrication Machinin Machinin Grinding Grinding Grinding Grinding Grinding Grinding

g and g and and and
grinding grinding polishing polishing
 Methods of Machining
There are Two methods of metal cutting depending upon cutting
arrangement of the cutting edge w.r.t the direction of relative work
tool motion
1. Orthogonal Cutting or Two dimensional cutting
2. Oblique cutting or Three dimensional cutting
Orthogonal Cutting : Cutting edge of the tool is arranged
perpendicular to cutting velocity vector V
Oblique cutting : Cutting edge is set at some angle other then 90° to
the cutting velocity vector, which gives an inclination angle.
Orthogonal cutting or 2-D cutting Process

depth of cut, to, and the cutting speed, V

 Chip Breaker

Figure 21.7 (a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker. Note that the
chip breaker decreases the radius of curvature of the chip and eventually breaks it.
(b) Chip breaker clamped on the rake face of a cutting tool
Type of chips
 Discontinuous Chip

Discontinuous chips tends to be formed when one or more or the

following conditions exist:
1. Brittle material , such as cast iron and bronze.
2. large chip thickness
3. low cutting speed
4. small rack angle
Discontinuous chips are also produced when cutting more ductile
material with the use of a cutting fluid.
 Continuous Chip

Continuous chips tend to be formed when the following condition

exist:

1. ductile material
2. high cutting speed
3. small chip thickness
4. large rack angle
5. minimum friction of chip on tool face by :
· polished tool face
· use of efficient cutting lubricants.
· Use of tool material with low-coefficient of friction.
 Continuous Chip with Built up edge

This type of chip is very similar to the continuous chip. With the
difference that it has a built up edge adjacent to tool face and also
it is not so smooth. It is obtained by machining on ductile
material, in this condition of high local temperature and
extreme pressure in the cutting and high friction in the tool
chip interference, may cause the work material to adhere or
weld to the cutting edge of the tool.
Increasing the Cutting Speed, increasing Rake angle and
introduction of cutting fluid eliminates the built up edge.
Methods of Cutting operation:
There are Two methods of metal cutting depending upon cutting
arrangement of the cutting edge w.r.t the direction of relative work tool
motion
1. Orthogonal Cutting or Two dimensional cutting
2. Oblique cutting or Three dimensional cutting
Orthogonal Cutting : Cutting edge of the tool is arranged perpendicular
to cutting velocity vector V
Oblique cutting : Cutting edge is set at some angle other then 90° to the
cutting velocity vector, which gives an inclination angle.
 Type of cutting
Orthogonal cutting
or 2-D cutting

Oblique cutting or
3-D cutting
Nomenclature of single point cutting tool
Nomenclature of single point cutting tool:

1: Shank
It is the main body of the tool.
2: Flank:
The surface or surfaces below the adjacent to the cutting edge is
called flank of the tool.
3: Face
The surface on which the chip slides is called the face of the tool.
4: Heel
It is the intersection of the flank and the base of the tool.
5: Nose
It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge
intersect.
6: Cutting Edge
It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material
from the work piece. The cutting edge consists of the side cutting
edge(major cutting edge) and cutting edge(minor cutting edge)
and the nose.
Cutting Tool angles
 Cutting Tool angles
1: Side Cutting Edge Angle:
The angle between side cutting edge and the side of
the tool shank is called side cutting edge angle. It is
often referred to as the lead angle.

2: End Cutting Edge Angle:

The angle between the end cutting edge and a line
perpendicular to the shank of the tool shank is called
end cutting edge angle.

3: Side Relief Angle:

The angle between the portion of the side flank
immediately below the side cutting edge and a line
perpendicular to the base of the tool.
4: End Relief Angle:
The angle between the end flank and the line perpendicular
to the base of the tool is called end relief angle.
5: Back Rake Angle:
The angle between the face of the tool and line
perpendicular to the base of the tool measures on
perpendicular plane through the side cutting edge. It is the
angle which measures the slope of the face of the tool from
the nose, towards the rack. If the slope is downward the
nose it is negative back rake.
6: Side Rake Angle:
The angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel to
the base of the tool measured on plane perpendicular to the
base and the side edge. It is the angle that measure the
slope of the tool face from the cutting edge, if the slope is
towards the cutting edge it is negative side rake angle and
if the slope is away from the cutting edge, it is positive side
rake angle. If there is no slope the side rake angle is zero.
 Important Points
1: Increased rake angle will reduce strength of
cutting edge. Tools used for cutting hard metals
are given smaller rake angle.

2: Normally rake angle is negative , but positive

rake angle can be given on carbide tipped tools.
Tool Signature The numerical code that describes all the
key angles of a given cutting tool. A tool signature may be
used for HSS or carbide inserts.
 Tool Angles

• Side Cutting Edge Angle: It is the angle between the side

cutting edge and the side of the tool shank.

– It is also known as ‘Lead Angle’.

– Its complementary angle is known as ‘Approach Angle’.
– This angle prevents interference as the tool enters the work
material. Its values vary from 15 ̊ to 30 ̊ for general
machining.
 Tool Angles
• End Cutting Edge Angle:
– This is the angle between the end cutting edge and a
line normal to the tool shank.
– This angle provides a clearance or relief to the
trailing end of the cutting edge to prevent rubbing
or drag between the machined surface and the
trailing part of the cutting edge. Only a small angle is
sufficient for the purpose.
– An angle of 8 ̊ to 15 ̊ has been found satisfactory in
most cases on side cutting tools, like boring and
turning tools.
– End cutting tools, like cut off and necking tools often
have no cutting edge angle.
 Tool Angles
• Side Relief Angle: It is the angle between the portion of the
side flank immediately below the side cutting edge and a
line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and measured at
the right angle to the side flank.
• End relief Angle: It is the angle between the portion of the
end flank immediately below the end cutting edge and a
line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and measured at
right angle to the end flank.
• The side and relief angles are provided so that the flank of
the tool clears the workpiece surface and there is no
rubbing action between the two.
• These angles range from 5̊ ̊ to 15 ̊ for general turning.
• Small relief angles are necessary to give strength to the
cutting edge when machining hard and strong materials.
 Tool Angles
• Back Rake Angle: It is the angle between the face of
the tool and a line parallel to the base of the tool and
measured in a plane perpendicular through the side
cutting edge.
• This angle is positive, if the side cutting edge slopes
downwards from the point towards the shank and is
negative if the slope of the side cutting edge is reverse.
• Side Rake Angle: It is the angle between the tool face
and a line parallel to the base of the tool and measured
in a plane perpendicular to the base and the side
cutting edge.
• This angle gives the slope of the face of the tool from
the cutting edge.
 Tool Angles
• The side rake is negative if the slope is towards the
cutting edge and positive if the slope is away from the
cutting edge.
• The rake angle specifies the ease with which a metal is
cut.
• Higher the rake angle, better is the cutting and less are
the cutting forces. Maximum limit to the rake angle is 15.
• Increase in rake angle reduces the strength of the tool
chip as well as the heat dissipation.
• It is possible to have rake angle as zero or negative. These
are generally used in case of highly brittle tool materials
such as carbides or diamonds for giving extra strength to
the tool tip.
 Tool Angles
• Clearance angle: This is the angle between the machined
surface and underside of the tool called the flank face.
• The clearance angle is provided such that the tool will
not rub the machined surface thus spoiling the surface
and increasing the cutting forces.
• A very large clearance angle reduces the strength of the
tool lip, and hence normally an angle of the order of 5 ̊ –
6 ̊ is used.
• Nose Angle: It is the angle between the side cutting edge
and end cutting edge.
• Nose radius is provided to remove the fragile corner of
the tool; it increases the tool life and improves surface
finish.
 Tool Signature ( or Tool Designation)
• The seven important elements comprise the signature of the
cutting tool and are always stated in the following order:
• (i) Back Rake Angle.
• (ii) Side Rake Angle.
• (iii) End Relief Angle.
• (iv) Side Relief Angle.
• (v) End Cutting Edge Angle.
• (vi) Side Cutting Edge Angle.
• (vii) Nose radius.
• It is usual to omit the symbols for degrees and mm, simply
listing the numerical value of each component:
• A typical tool designation (signature) is :
0 – 10 – 6 – 6 – 8 – 90 – 1
Adjustable cutting factors in turning
The three primary factors in any basic turning
operation are
speed,
feed,
and depth of cut.
Other factors such as

kind of material and type of tool

have a large influence, of course, but these
three are the ones the operator can change by
adjusting the controls, right at the machine.
Operating Conditions.. Cutting Speed
D – Diameter (mm)
N – Revolutions per Minute (rpm)
 DN
v m/min
1000
The Peripheral Speed of Workpiece past the
Cutting Tool
=Cutting Speed
Speed, always refers to the spindle and the
workpiece.

When it is stated in revolutions per minute(rpm) it

tells their rotating speed. But the important figure for
a particular turning operation is the surface speed, or
the speed at which the workpeece material is
moving past the cutting tool.

It is simply the product of the rotating speed times

the circumference (in meter) of the workpiece
before the cut is started. It is expressed in surface
meter per minute (m/min), and it refers only to the
workpiece. Every different diameter on a workpiece
will have a different cutting speed, even though the
rotating speed remains the same.
 Cutting Speed
• Selection of Cutting Speed
– Work Material: Hard and strong material require a lower cutting speed;
whereas soft and ductile material require to cut at higher cutting speed.
– Cutting Tool Material : Cemented carbides, ceramics, HSS requires much
higher cutting speed than alloy or carbon steel tool
– Depth of cut and feed : Fine feed along with a small depth of cut will leads
to better surface finish
– Cutting Tool Life : Tool life is a direct function of cutting temperature which
increases with the increase in cutting speed. Thus cutting tool life
decreases with the increases cutting speed.
– Rigidity and conditions of machine: To get a better dimensional accuracy
and surface finish a stable and good condition of the machine is required.
Operating Conditions.. Feed
f – the distance the tool advances for every
rotation of workpiece (mm/rev)

D1 D2

f
Feed
Feed: always refers to the cutting tool, and it is the rate
at which the tool advances along its cutting path. On most
power-fed lathes, the feed rate is directly related to the
spindle speed and is expressed in inches (of tool advance)
per revolution ( of the spindle), or mm/rev. The figure, by
the way, is usually much less than an inch and is shown as
decimal amount.
Selection of Feed:
1. Smooth of the finish required: nose radius + fine
feed result to a smooth finish
2. Type of cut: Depth of cut should be less for smooth
finish
3. Tool life: cutting temperature increases with the
increases of feed, resulting in decreases in tool life.
Thumb rule for feed is f (mm/rev) = 0.5 x Nose Radius
Or maximum feed can be of 2/3 of nose radius
Operating Conditions.. Depth of Cut
perpendicular distance between machined
surface and uncut surface of the Workpiece
d = (D1 – D2)/2 (mm)

D1 D2

d Depth
of Cut
Depth of Cut,

is practically self explanatory. It is the thickness of the

layer being removed from the workpiece or the distance
from the uncut surface of the work to the cut surface,
expressed in inches. It is important to note, though, that
the diameter of the workpiece is reduced by two times
the depth of cut because this layer is being removed from
both sides of the work.

Selection of Depth of cut:

Type of cut: Large DOC for roughing and viceversa for
finishing
Tool life: Higher DOC reduces the tool life as there is in
creses in cutting temperature.
Power required: As the cutting speed multiplied by
area of cut ( feed x depth of cut) gives metal removal
rate, which gives the power requirement.
 Cutting Speed, Feed and Depth of Cut
• Cutting Speed: It is defined as the relative surface speed
between the tool and the job.
• It is expressed in meters per minute(m/ min). It is thus the
amount of length that will pass the cutting edge of the tool per
unit of time.
• The cutting speed to be used depends on the following factors:
– Work material.
– Cutting Tool Material.
– Depth of cut and Feed.
– Desired Cutting Tool Life.
– Rigidity and conditions of the machine and tool and the rigidity
of the work.
– Cutting speed is given as : V = (π d n)/ 1000 , m/min
 Cutting Speed, Feed and Depth of Cut
• Feed: It is defined as the relatively small movement per
cycle of the cutting tool, relative to the workpiece in a
direction which is usually perpendicular to the cutting
speed direction.
• It is expressed in mm per revolution ( mm/ rev) or mm
per stroke ( mm/ str).
• In turning and drilling, the feed is the axial advance of
the tool along or through the job during each revolution
of the tool or job.
• In case of shaper and planer, it is lateral offset between
the tool and work for each stroke.
 Cutting Speed, Feed and Depth of Cut
• For multitooth milling cutters, it is the advance of work
or cutter between the cutting action of two successive
teeth. (Expressed basically as mm per tooth)

• Feed to be used depends on the following factors:

– Smoothness of finish required.
– Power available, condition of machine and its drive.
– Type of cut.
– Tool life.
 Cutting Speed, Feed and Depth of Cut
• Depth of Cut: It is the thickness of the layer of metal removed in
one cut, or pass, measured in a direction perpendicular to the
machined surface.
– The depth of cut is always, perpendicular to the direction of
feed motion.
– Depth of cut is usually taken 3 to 5 times the feed for rough
operations. The values for finishing operations are usually
small.
• Depth of cut to be used depends on the following factors:
– Type of cut.
– Tool life.
– Power required.
 Tool Wear
• During machining process, the cutting tool is subjected to three distinct factors:
• Forces; Temperature; sliding action btw tool and work piece. Due to
these factors, tool failure occurs and produces unsatisfactory machined
surfaces.
• Tool failure is classified as :
Flank wear, Crater wear on tool face, Localized wear such as rounding of
cutting edges, chipping off of the cutting edge.
 Tool Wear
• Reasons of wear
– Flank Wear : Abrasion by hard particles, Shearing of micro welds btw tool
& work material, Abrasion of fragments of built up edge blowing against
the clearance face of the tool
– Crater wear : sever abrasion btw chip and tool face, High temperature rise
during machining
– Nose wear: Tool material is too brittle, vibration due to high speed
machining, high positive rake angle.
 TOOL LIFE & MACHINABILITY
Tool no longer performs desired function failed
Re-sharpen and use it again.
TOOL LIFE:
• Useful life of a tool expressed in terms of time from start of a cut to
termination point (defined by failure criterion). Sometimes also expressed
in terms of no. Of the parts machined.
• Tool failure criterion depends on
• 1. The requirements of the component being produced.
• 2. Type of Operation:
• Roughing: force and power requirement.
• Finishing : Surface finish & dimensional accuracy.
TAYLOR’S TOOL LIFE EQUATION
VT n C After 12 Years of Experiments
Where,V  CuttingSpeed
T  Tool life (Minutes)
n  Exponent for conditions tested Ct  Taylor’s constant
Ct  represents cutting speed for 1 minute as tool life
 TOOL LIFE & MACHINABILITY

Does not account for:

Feed (f)

Cutting Speed (m/min.) Log

Depth of cut (d)
Tool geometry (Rake Angle )
1 Unit
n= 1/2.5
(n<1), Ct is very large
2.5 Unit
Taking logarithm on both sides
LogV + nlogT= LogCt
Tool life (minutes) Log
This becomes a straight line on the log-log scale

VTnfn1dn2=C
N, n1, n2: Constants depending upon tool material (=0.1 to 0.4).
C: constant that depends on tool-work material combination and tool geometry (>100)
 VARIABLES AFFECTING TOOL LIFE
• Cutting Conditions (V, d, f)
• Tool Geometry (all six angles, and nose radius)
• Workpiece Material
• Cutting fluid
• Machine tool and Work piece region
• Tool Material

MACHINABILITY

. Mainly concerned with workpiece material properties not the tool properties. It
depends on workpiece material properties and good machinability means:
1.Low tool wear
2.Good surface finish produced
3.Low cutting forces
Machinability is defined as “THE EASE WITH WHICH A GIVEN
WORKPIECCE MATERIAL CAN BE MACHINED WIT A SPECIFIED
CUTTING TOOL.
 TOOL SPECIFICATION
•Apart from tool material, one has to give tool angles and tool nose radius
in the following sequence while going to purchase or asking some
one to make a tool :
•Tool specifications (all six angles, and nose radius) :7-8-5-6-9-4-1mm.

•Back rake angle (70 ),

•Side rake angle (80),
•End clearance (relief) angle (50 ),
•Side clearance (relief) angle (60),
•End cutting edge angle (90),
•Side cutting edge angle (40),
•Nose radius (1 mm)
 Face milling cutter

Fig:Terminology for a face milling cutter

• Turning • Chamfering
• Facing • Taper turning
• knurling
• Drilling
• Grooving
• Threading
• Parting
 Turning ..
Cylindrical job
Workpiece
Cutting
speed Depth of cut (d)
N
Machined
surface
Chuck Feed Chip
Tool
Depth of cut
 Facing
Operations on Lathe ..
Flat Surface/Reduce length

Chuck Workpiece
d
Machined
Face
Cutting
speed Depth of
cut
Tool Feed
Operations on Lathe .. Knurling
Knurled surface
Cutting
speed
Feed Movement
for depth
Knurling tool
Tool post
Operations on Lathe .. Grooving
• Produces a Groove on
workpiece
• Shape of tool  shape of
groove
• Carried out using Grooving Tool
 A form tool
• Also called Form Turning
 Parting ..
Operations on Lathe ..

Feed
Parting tool
Operations on Lathe .. Chamfering

Chamfer

Feed
Chamfering tool
 Drilling
Operations on Lathe ..
Drill – cutting tool – held in TS – feed from TS

Quill
Drill clamp moving
quill
Tail stock
Feed
Tail stock clamp
 Taper Turning
Operations on Lathe ..
D1  D2
tan  
2L

90°
D1  D2

B  C

A L
 Threading Contour Turning

Pointed form Tool follows a

tool is fed at a contour that is
large feed rate, other than
thus creating straight
threads
 Boring
• Difference between boring and turning:
– Boring is performed on the inside diameter of
an existing hole
– Turning is performed on the outside diameter of
an existing cylinder

• Boring machines
– Horizontal or vertical - refers to the orientation
of the machine spindle’s: axis of rotation
 Reaming Tapping

• Enlarges hole, Used to provide internal

• Provides better diameter screw threads on an
tolerance existing hole. Tool
• Improves surface finish called a tap
 Three jaw chuck

- For holding cylindrical

stock centered.
- For facing/center
drilling the end of your
aluminum stock

Four-Jaw Chuck

- This is independent chuck

generally has four jaws ,
which are adjusted
individually on the chuck
face by means of adjusting
screws
 Collet Chuck

Collet chuck is used

to hold small
workpieces
• Thin jobs can be held by means of
magnetic chucks.

Magnetic Chuck

Thin jobs can be held

by means of magnetic
chucks.
 Lathe Dogs
• Drives work machined between
centers
• Has opening to receive work and
setscrew to fasten the dog to work
• Tail of dog fits into slot on driveplate
and provides drive to workpiece
• Made in variety of sizes and types to
suit various workpieces

89
 • Driven by stud in driveplate
• Used in precision turning

• Most commonly used for round

workpieces
• Available with square-head setscrews
of headless setscrews
Workholding Devices .. Mandrels
Workpiece (job) with a hole

Workpiece Mandrel
Steady rest Follower Rest

92
Follower Rest

93
Steady Rest Follower Rest

Jaws
Work Work Jaws
Hinge

Carriage

Lathe bed guideways

Both the steady rest and the follow rest are used
while turning a long slender piece of work to
prevent it from bending away from the tool while
it cuts.
The steady rest mounts to the bed of the
lathe and stays in one place, while the follow
rest mounts to the carriage and moves with
the tool post
Geometry of twist drill +
What is tool signature +
How is milling machine classified
Explain mechanism of chip formation
Differentiate push & pull type of broaching
Notes:
1. Radial drilling machine
2. Differential indexing
3. Specifications of shaper
Specifications of tool room grinding machine
Purpose of coolants in machining
Purpose of indexing
Explain milling operation
Different tool materials , composition, application
Thread cutting operation
Broaching operation
Size of grinding wheel
 Properties of cutting Tool Materials
• The performance of a cutting tool material in a given
machining application is mainly determined by three
important properties:
– Wear resistance, necessary to enable the cutting
tool to retain its shape and cutting efficiency .
– Hot Hardness, necessary to enable the cutting tool
to retain its cutting ability and hardness at the high
temperatures developed at the tool-chip interface.
– Toughness, necessary to enable the tool to
withstand the forces, to absorb shocks associated
with interrupted cuts and to prevent the chipping of
the fine cutting edge.
 Tool Materials
• Carbon tool steels. • Cast Cobalt base alloys.
• High speed steels. (HSS) • Cemented Carbides.
• Conventional HSS. • Ti Carbides & Ti Nitrides.
• Conventional HSS with • Coated Carbides.
Co. • Micro Grain Carbide.
• High Vanadium HSS. • Cast Carbides.
• High hardness Co steels. • Cemented Oxides.
• PM tool steels. • Diamond tools.
• UCON.
• Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
 Properties of PM Tech Tools
• The tools manufactured by the powder metallurgy
technique are claimed to have:
• Good dimensional stability.
• Improved grindability.
• Extremely tough cutting edges.
• Very high wear resistance.
• Higher stock removal rates.
• Greater impact strength.
• Good hot workability.
 General guidelines
for selection of Tool Materials
• Plain carbon Steels:
• For cutting tools such as hand taps, threading dies, saws, etc.
• Machining of non-ferrous materials.
• Intricate form tools for low volume production.
• Handtools like chisels, hammers, files, shears, etc.
• Application where keenness of edges is important like razor
blades, knives, engraving tools, reamers, etc.
 General guidelines
for selection of Tool Materials

High Speed Steels (HSS):

• High volume low cutting speed operations.
• General purpose tools like drills, milling cutters, broaches, etc.
• Form tools, parting off and recessing tools.
• On machine tools or set ups lacking rigidity and power.
• Machining of heat resistant steels and tough alloys.
 General guidelines
for selection of Tool Materials

Cast Alloys:

• For the range of applications intermediate between high speed

steel and carbides.
• In multiple tooling set-ups.
• Form tools and parting-off tools.
• On machines lacking rigidity.

• High-Cobalt high speed steels also exhibit similar properties, and

they are replacing cast alloy tools.
 General guidelines
for selection of Tool Materials
Carbides

• Carbides are used for applications employing higher

cutting speeds on machine tools having sufficient power.

• The rigidity of the machine tool, tooling and workpiece

is to be ensured.
 General guidelines
for selection of Tool Materials
Ceramics

• For applications where rigidity of the machine tool,

tooling and workpiece is extremely high and the
workpiece configuration does not cause interrupted
cutting.
• For machining operations permitting higher cutting
speeds compared to carbides.
• For applications where good surface finish is demanded
on the workpiece.
 General guidelines
for selection of Tool Materials
Diamond Tools

• High volume production of precision components.

• Machining non-metallic and non-ferrous materials,
bearing elements, and precious metals.
• For applications where the demand for surface finish
geometrical and dimensional accuracies is very high.
• In applications where machine rigidity is extremely high.
 Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
• Next to diamond CBN is the hardest substance known.
• It consists of atoms of Nitrogen and Boron, with a special
structural configuration similar to diamond.
• Boron Nitride is polymorphic and exists in three forms:
• Hexagonal graphite like structure.
• Ultra hard cubic structure.
• Ultra hard hexagonal wurtzite structure.
• With sufficiently high pressure and temperature, the hexagonal
form of boron nitride can be converted into the cubic form in
presence of a catalyst.
• CBN has high hardness and high thermal conductivity.
 Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
• It differs from diamond in that diamond reacts with oxygen and
burns away at temperatures above 800 ̊C. Also Carbon in
diamond reacts with iron at elevated temperatures.
• CBN is chemically inert, but in an atmosphere of steam it breaks
down chemically to boric acid and ammonia at 900 C ̊ .
• CBN is successfully used as a grinding wheel on high speed steel
tools, providing good surface finish, precision and high output.
• The second application includes grinding of hardened steels in the
form of lead screws, bores, splines, threads, ball and roller
bearing parts.
 Classification of Cutting Tools
• Cutting tools are classified as follows:
• Single point cutting tools:
– These tools have only one cutting edge; such as
lathe tools, shaper tools, planer tools, boring tools,
etc.
• Multipoint cutting tools:
– Solid angle.
– Brazed tool.
– Inserted bit tool.
– These tools have more than one cutting edges such
as milling cutters, drills, broaches, grinding wheels,
etc.
 Cutting Fluids
• A cutting fluid may be defined as any substance ( may
be liquid, gas or solid) which is applied to a tool during
a cutting operation to facilitate removal of chips.
• Function of Cutting Fluids:
– To cool the cutting tool and the workpiece.
– To lubricate the chip, tool and workpiece.
– To help carry away chips.
– To lubricate some of the moving parts of the
machine tool.
– To improve the surface finish.
– To prevent the formation of built up ridge.
– To protect the workpiece against rusting.
 Cutting Fluids
• The prime function of a cutting fluid in a metal cutting
operation is to control the total heat. This can be done
by dissipating the heat generated as well as reducing it.
The mechanism by which a cutting fluid performs those
functions are cooling action and lubricating action.
• The cutting fluid may be applied to the cutting tool in
the following ways:
– By hand, using a brush.
– By means of a drip tank attached to the machine
body.
– By means of a pump.
 Cutting Fluids
• Requirements of a cutting fluid:
– It should have long life, free of excessive oxide formation that
might clog circulation system.
– It should be suitable for a variety of cutting tools and
materials and the cutting operations.
– It should have the lubricating qualities, high thermal
conductivity and low viscosity to permit easy separation from
impurities and chips, and should not stick to the workpiece
or machine.
– It should be transparent where high dimensional accuracy
and fine finish are required in order to enable the operator to
have a clear view of tool and workpiece.
– It should present no fire or accident hazards or emit
obnoxious odours or vapours harmful to the operator or
workpiece; and cause no skin irritation.
 Type of Cutting Fluids
• The broad classification of cutting and grinding fluids is as
follows:
• Straight or neat-oils.
• Water-miscible cutting fluids.
• Synthetic or semi chemical cutting fluids.
• Straight or neat-oils
• These are derived from petroleum, animal, marine, or vegetable
substances and may be used straight or in combination.
• Their main function is lubrication and rust prevention.
• They are chemically stable and lower in cost.
• They are usually restricted to light duty machining on metals of
high machinability, such as aluminium, magnesium, brass and
leaded steels.
 Type of Cutting Fluids
• Water miscible cutting fluids
 Type of Cutting Fluids
• Synthetic or semi chemical cutting fluids.
 Functions of the cutting fluids
• The functions of the cutting fluids are:
– To lubricate the contact at the tool and the
workpiece and at the tool and the chip, thus
reducing the friction and welding between the
contact surfaces.
– To dissipate the heat generated during the cutting
process in order to keep the tool and the workpiece
cool.
– To wash away the chips from the cutting zone.
– To improve the surface finish and to reduce the
cutting force.
 Properties of cutting fluids
• Cutting fluids should have the following properties:

– It should be stable and not foam.

– It should not have deleterious effect on the
operator, by emitting bad odour or causing skin
irritation.
– It should be compatible with other lubricants and
elements of the machine.
– It should have a low evaporation rate and should
not fume.
 Effects of cutting fluid in metal cutting
Metal Cutting

Friction Heat Chips

Washing Off
Reduction Reduction
Various angles of a Single Point Tool
Single Point Right Hand Cutting Tool
Effect of Cutting Speed on Temperature
Tool Cutting at Different Rake Angles
 Effects of Cutting Fluid in Metal Cutting
• Friction – Reduction High shear angle; Thinner chips;
reduction of cutting force; less heat; low built up edge
Reduce heat generation Lubricating action.
• Heat – Reduction Cooler tool Tool hardness
maintained; less tool wear; longer tool life.
Heat – Reduction Cooler workpiece Less distortion;
easy handling.
To transport heat Cooling action
• Chips – Washing Off Better surface finish; Higher feed rate.
Flushing action.
 Types of cutting fluids
• Petroleum based; non petroleum based.
• Petroleum based
– Neat oil -ST mineral oil; Compounded oil; EP oil -
Active EP oil ( sulpurised oil; chlorinated sulphurised
oil) ; Inactive EP oil (chlorinated oils; chlorinated
fatty oils; sulphurised oils)
– Soluble oil – Milky; Translucent; Heavy duty
• Non Petroleum based
– water based fluids;
– Synthetic coolants
 Twist Drill and Milling Cutter
• twist drill (plural twist drills)
• A rotating cutting tool, used for cutting holes in rigid materials,
that consists of an essentially conical point, relieved and fluted to
form cutting lips, and spiral flutes which direct the chips away
from the lips and toward ejection from the hole.
• A drill having deep helical grooves along the shank from the point.
• A twist drill is used in woodwork to make small holes in
circumstances in which the use of the ordinary drill may lead to
the wood splitting. A twist drill can alternatively refer to a drill
with deep helical grooves from the point up the shank and is
meant for medal cutting.
• Using a drill is very simple, and much easier than using a
screwdriver. Make sure you have the proper size drill bit for your
job, and put it into the opening of the drill.
Twist Drill
Twist drill
Single Point Cutting Tool