STATICS OF RIGID BODIES - LECTURE NOTES

MODULE 4: DOT & CROSS PRODUCT

Objectives:
After completing this module, the student must be able to:
1. Find the angle between two vectors;
2. Find the projection of one vector onto another;

4.1 Dot Product

The dot product is used to determine the angle between two vectors or the projection of a vector in a
specified direction. The dot product of vectors A and B, written A ∙ B and read “A dot B,” is the product of
the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the angle θ between their tails. Expressed in equation form,
A ∙ B = AB cos θ,
where 0° ≤ θ ≤ 180°. The dot product is often referred to as the scalar product of vectors since the result is a
scalar and not a vector.
4.2 Laws of Operation
1. Commutative law: A ∙ B = B ∙ A
2. Multiplication by a scalar: a (A ∙ B) = (aA) ∙ B = A ∙ (aB)
3. Distributive law: A ∙ (B + D) = (A ∙ B) + (A ∙ D)
4.3 Cartesian Vector Formulation
The product A ∙ B = AB cos θ must be used to find the dot product for any two Cartesian unit vectors. For
example, i ∙ i = (1)(1) cos 0° = 1 and i ∙ j = (1)(1) cos 90° = 0. If we want to find the dot product of two
general vectors A and B that are expressed in Cartesian vector form, then we have
A ∙ B = (Axi + Ayj + Azk) ∙ (Bxi + Byj + Bzk) = AxBx(i ∙ i) + AxBy(i ∙ j) + AxBz(i ∙ k)
+ AyBx(j ∙ i) + AyBy(j ∙ j) + AyBz(j ∙ k)
+ AzBx(k ∙ i) + AzBy(k ∙ j) + AzBz(k ∙ k).
Carrying out the dot-product operations, the final result becomes A ∙ B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz..
Thus, to determine the dot product of two Cartesian vectors, multiply their corresponding x, y, z
components and sum these products algebraically. Note that the result will be either a positive or negative
scalar, or it could be zero.
4.4 Applications
The dot product has two important applications in mechanics.
1. The angle formed between two vectors or intersecting lines.
𝐀 ∙ 𝐁
𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) , 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180°.
𝐴𝐵
In particular, notice that if A ∙ B = 0°, 𝜃 = cos-1 (0) = 90° so that A will be perpendicular to B.
2. The components of a vector parallel and perpendicular to a line. The component of vector A parallel
to or collinear with the line aa is defined by Aa where Aa = A cos 𝜃.
Aa = A cos 𝜃 = A ∙ ua
The component Aa represented as a vector is therefore,
Aa = Aa ua.

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The component of A that is perpendicular to line aa can also be obtained, see figure below. Since 𝐀 =
𝐀 𝑎 + 𝐀 ⊥ , then 𝐀 ⊥ = 𝐀 − 𝐀𝑎 . There are two possible ways of obtaining 𝐀⊥ . One way would be to
determine 𝜃 from the dot product, 𝜃 = cos–1 (A ∙ uA/A), then 𝐀 ⊥ = A sin 𝜃. Alternatively, if 𝐴𝑎 is known,
then by Pythagorean’s theorem we can also write

𝐴⊥ = √𝐴2 + 𝐴2𝑎 .

Let θ and λ be the angles shown in the accompanying figure. The direction cosines of v can be
expressed as cos α = cos λ cos θ, cos β = cos λ sin θ, and cos γ = sin λ.
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Find the dot product of the vectors and the cosine of the angle between them:
(a) u = i + 2j & v = 6i − 8j.
(b) u = -7i - 3j & v = j.
(c) u = (1, -3, 7) & v = (8, -2, -2).
(d) u = (-3, 1, 2) & v = (4, 2, -5).
Solution:
(a) u ∙ v = AxBx + AyBy = (1)(6) + (2)(−8) = −10
𝐮 ∙ 𝐯 −10 −10 1
cos 𝜃 = = = =− .
𝑢⋅𝑣 2 2 2
√1 + 2 √6 + (−8) 2 √5√100 √5
(b) u ∙ v = AxBx + AyBy = (−7)(0) + (−3)(1) = −3
𝐮 ∙ 𝐯 −3 −3 3
cos 𝜃 = = = =− .
𝑢⋅𝑣 √(−7)2 + (−3)2 √02 + 12 √58√1 √58
(c) u ∙ v = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz = (1)(8) + (−3)(−2) + (7)(−2) = 0
𝐮 ∙ 𝐯 0
cos 𝜃 = = = 0.
𝑢⋅𝑣 √12 + (−3)2 + 72 √82 + (−2)2 + (−2)2
(d) u ∙ v = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz = (−3)(4) + (1)(2) + (2)(−5) = −20
𝐮 ∙ 𝐯 −20 −20 20
cos 𝜃 = = = =− .
𝑢⋅𝑣 2 2 2 2 2
√(−3) + 1 + 2 √4 + 2 + (−5) 2 √14√45 3√70

2. In each part, determine whether u and v make an acute angle, an obtuse angle, or are orthogonal.
(a) u = 7i + 3j + 5k, v = −8i + 4j + 2k
(b) u = 6i + j + 3k, v = 4i − 6k
(c) u = (1, 1, 1), v = (−1, 0, 0)
(d) u = (4, 1, 6), v = (−3, 0, 2)
Solution:
(a) u ⋅ v = (7)(−8) + (3)(4) + (5)(2) = −56 + 12 + 10 = −34 < 0, obtuse.
(b) u ⋅ v = (6)(4) + (1)(0) + (3)(−6) = 6 > 0, acute.
(c) u ⋅ v = (1)(−1) + (1)(0) + (1)(0) = −1 < 0, obtuse.
(d) u ⋅ v = (4)(−3) + (1)(0) + (6)(2) = 0, orthogonal.
3. Explain why each of the following expressions makes no sense.
(a) u ⋅ (u ⋅ v) (b) (u · v) ⋅ w (c) ‖𝐮 · 𝐯 ‖ (d) k · (u + v)

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Solution:
(a) The dot product of a vector u and a scalar v · w is not defined.
(b) The sum of a scalar u · v and a vector w is not defined.
(c) u · v is not a vector, it is a scalar.
(d) The dot product of a scalar k and a vector u + v is not defined.

4. Explain why each of the following expressions makes sense.

(a) (u · v)w (b) (u · v)( v · w) (c) u · v + k (d) (ku) · v
Solution:
(a) A scalar u · v times a vector w.
(b) A scalar u · v times a scalar v · w.
(c) A scalar u · v plus a scalar k.
(d) A dot product of a vector ku with a vector v.

5. . Find r so that the vector from the point A(1, −1, 3) to the point B(3, 0, 5) is orthogonal to the vector from
A to the point P (r, r, r).
Solution:
𝐀 · 𝐁 = (2𝐢 + 𝐣 + 2𝐤) ⋅ ((𝑟 − 1)𝐢 + (𝑟 + 1)𝐣 + (𝑟 − 3)𝐤)
𝐀 · 𝐁 = 2(𝑟 − 1) + (𝑟 + 1) + 2(𝑟 − 3) = 5𝑟 − 7 = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 = 7/5.

6. Find two unit vectors in 2-space that make an angle of 45° with 4i + 3j.
Solution:
By inspection, 3i − 4j is orthogonal to and has the same length as 4i + 3j, so
𝐅1 = (4i + 3j) + (3i − 4j) = 7i − j and 𝐅2 = (4i + 3j) + (−1)(3i − 4j) = i + 7j
each make an angle of 45° with 4i + 3j; unit vectors in the directions of 𝐮1 and 𝐮2 are
7𝐢 − 𝐣 7𝐢 − 𝐣
𝐮1 = =
√72 + (−1)2 √50
𝐢 + 7𝐣 𝐢 + 7𝐣
𝐮2 = = .
√12 + 72 √50
7. Find the direction angles of the vector shown in the accompanying figure to the nearest degree.
Solution:
√3
cos α = cos λ cos θ = cos 60° cos 30° = 𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = 64°.
4
cos β = cos λ sin θ = cos 60° sin 30° = 3/4 𝑜𝑟 𝛽 = 41°.
1
cos γ = sin λ= sin 30° = or 𝛾 = 60°.
2

8. Find, to the nearest degree, the acute angle formed by two diagonals of a cube.
Solution:
With the cube as shown above, and a the length of each edge,
𝑑1 = ai + aj + ak
𝑑2 = ai + aj – ak.
𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 − 𝑎2 𝑎2 1
cos 𝜃 = = = 2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝜃 = 71°.
|𝑑1 | ⋅ |𝑑2 | √𝑎2 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 √𝑎2 + 𝑎2 + (−𝑎)2 3𝑎 3

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9. Find, to the nearest degree, the angles that a diagonal of a box with dimensions 10 cm by 15 cm by 25 cm
makes with the edges of the box.
Solution:
Take i, j, and k along adjacent edges of the box, then 10i + 15j + 25k is along a diagonal, and a unit
vector in this direction is
𝐅 10𝐢 + 15j + 25𝐤 2 3 5
= = 𝐢+ 𝐣+ 𝐤.
𝐹 √10 + 15 + 25
2 2 2 √38 √38 √38
The direction cosines are α ≈ 71°, β ≈ 61°, and γ ≈ 36°.
10. Express the force F in Cartesian vector form if it acts at the midpoint B of the rod.
SOLUTION.
𝐫𝐴𝐶 −3𝐢 + 4𝐣 − 4𝐤
𝐫𝐴𝐵 = = = −1.5𝐢 + 2𝐣 − 2𝐤.
2 2
𝐫𝐴𝐷 = 𝐫𝐴𝐵 + 𝐫𝐵𝐷
𝐫𝐵𝐷 = 𝐫𝐴𝐷 + 𝐫𝐴𝐵
𝐫𝐵𝐷 = (4𝐢 + 6𝐣 − 4𝐤) − (−1.5𝐢 + 2𝐣 − 2𝐤)
𝐫𝐵𝐷 = (5.5𝐢 + 4𝐣 − 2𝐤) m.

𝑟𝐵𝐷 = √(5.5)2 + (4)2 + (−2)2 = 7.0887 m.

𝐫𝐵𝐷 5.5𝐢 + 4𝐣 − 2𝐤
𝐅 = 600 ( ) = 600 ( )
𝑟𝐵𝐷 7.0887
= 465.5𝐢 + 338.6𝐣 − 169.3𝐤.
𝐅 ≈ {466𝐢 + 339𝐣 − 169𝐤} N.
11. Express force F in Cartesian vector form if point B is located 3 m along the rod from the end C.
SOLUTION.
𝐫𝐶𝐴 = (3𝐢 − 4𝐣 + 4𝐤) = 6.4
3 3
𝐫𝐶𝐵 = ( ) 𝐫𝐶𝐴 = ( ) (3𝐢 − 4𝐣 + 4𝐤) = 1.4𝐢 − 1.9𝐣 + 1.9𝐤 .
6.4 6.4
𝐫𝑂𝐵 = 𝐫𝑂𝐶 + 𝐫𝐶𝐵 = (−3i + 4j) + (1.4𝐢 − 1.9𝐣 + 1.9𝐤 = −1.6𝐢 + 2.1𝐣 + 1.9𝐤.
𝐫𝐵𝐷 = 𝐫𝑂𝐷 − 𝐫𝑂𝐵 = (4𝐢 + 6𝐣) − 𝐫𝑂𝐵 = (4𝐢 + 6𝐣) − (−1.6𝐢 + 2.1𝐣 + 1.9𝐤)
𝐫𝐵𝐷 = 5.6𝐢 + 3.9𝐣 − 1.9𝐤.

𝑟𝐵𝐷 = √(5.6)2 + (3.9)2 + (−1.9)2 = 7.06.

𝐫𝐵𝐷 5.6𝐢 + 3.9𝐣 − 1.9𝐤.
𝐅 = 600 ( ) = 600 ( ) = {476𝐢 + 329𝐣 − 159𝐤} N.
𝑟𝐵𝐷 7.06
12. The chandelier is supported by three chains which are concurrent at point O. If the force in each chain has
a magnitude of 60 lb, express each force as a Cartesian vector and determine the magnitude and
coordinate direction angles of the resultant force.
SOLUTION.

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𝐫𝐴 (4 cos 30 °𝐢 − 4 sin 30 °𝐣 − 6𝐤)

𝐅𝐴 = 60 ( ) = 60 ( )
𝑟𝐴 √(4 cos 30 °)2 + (− 4 sin 30 °)2 + (− 6)2
𝐅𝐴 = {28.8𝐢 − 16.6𝐣 − 49.9𝐤} lb.
𝐫𝐵 (−4 cos 30 °𝐢 − 4 sin 30 °𝐣 − 6𝐤)
𝐅𝐵 = 60 ( ) = 60 ( )
𝑟𝐵 √(−4 cos 30 °)2 + (− 4 sin 30 °)2 + (− 6)2
𝐅𝐵 = {−28.8𝐢 − 16.6𝐣 − 49.9𝐤} lb.
𝐫𝐶 (4𝐣 − 6𝐤)
𝐅𝐶 = 60 ( ) = 60 ( ) = {33.3𝐣 − 49.9𝐤}lb.
𝑟𝐶 √(0)2 + ( 4)2 + (−6)2
𝐅𝑅 = 𝐅𝐴 + 𝐅𝐵 + 𝐅𝐶 = {−149.8𝐤} lb.
𝛼 = 90°, 𝛽 = 90°, & 𝛾 = 180°.
13. The chandelier is supported by three chains which are concurrent at point O. If the resultant force at O has
a magnitude of 130 lb and is directed along the negative z axis, determine the force in each chain.
𝐫𝐵 (4𝐣 − 6𝐤)
𝐅𝐵 = 𝐹 = 𝐹 = 0.5547𝐹𝐣 − 0.8321𝐹𝐤.
𝑟𝐵 √(4)2 + (−6)2

𝐅𝐴 = 𝐅𝐵 = 𝐅𝐶 = {−149.8𝐤} lb.
𝐹𝑅𝑧 = 𝛴𝐹𝑧
130 = 3(0.8321𝐹)
𝐹 = 52.1 lb.
14. The frame shown below left is subjected to a horizontal force F = {300j} N. Determine the magnitudes of
the components of this force parallel and perpendicular to member AB.

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Solution: The magnitude of the component of F along AB is equal to the dot product of F and the unit
vector uB, which defines the direction of AB. Since
𝐫𝐵 2i + 6j + 3k
𝐮𝐵 = = = 0.286 i + 0.857 j + 0.429k
𝑟𝐵 √(2)2 + (6)2 + (3)2

Then
𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 = ∙ 𝐮𝐵 = (300𝐣) ∙ (0.286𝐢 + 0.857𝐣 + 0.429𝐤)
𝐹𝐴𝐵 = (0)(0.286) + (300)(0.857) + (0)(0.429) = 257.1 N.
𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 257.1 N.
Since the result is a positive scalar, FAB has the same sense of direction as uB. Expressing FAB in Cartesian
vector form, we have
𝐅𝐴𝐵 = 𝐹𝐴𝐵 ∙ 𝐮𝐵 = (257.1 N)(0.286𝐢 + 0.857𝐣 + 0.429𝐤) = {73.5𝐢 + 220𝐣 + 110𝐤} N.
The perpendicular component, is therefore
𝐅⊥ = 𝐅 − 𝐅𝐴𝐵 = 300𝐣 − (73.5𝐢 + 220𝐣 + 110𝐤) = {−73.5𝐢 + 79.6𝐣 − 110𝐤} N.
Its magnitude can be determined either from this vector or by using the Pythagorean Theorem:

2
𝐅⊥ = √𝐹 2 − 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = √(300 𝑁)2 + (257.1 𝑁)2 = 155 N.

15. Given the three vectors A, B, and D, show that A ∙ (B + D) = (A ∙ B) + (A ∙ D).

Proof: Since the component of (B + D) is equal to the sum of the components of B and D, then
𝐀 ∙ (𝐁 + 𝐃) = 𝐀 ∙ 𝐁 + 𝐀 ∙ 𝐃.
𝐀 ∙ (𝐁 + 𝐃) = (𝐴𝑥 𝐢 + Ay 𝐣 + Az𝐤) ∙ [(Bx + Dx)𝐢 + (By + Dy)𝐣 + (Bz + Dz)𝐤]
= 𝐴𝑥 (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐷𝑥 ) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝐵𝑦 + 𝐷𝑦 ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝐵𝑧 + 𝐷𝑧 )
= (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 (𝐵𝑧 ) + (𝐴𝑥 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐷𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐷𝑧 )
𝐀 ∙ (𝐁 + 𝐃) = (𝐀 ∙ 𝐁) + (𝐀 ∙ 𝐃) □.
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS
16. Find the dot product of the vectors and the cosine of the angle between them:
(e) u = i + 5j & v = 3i − 8j.
(f) u = -2i - j & v = 4j.
(g) u = (2, 0, 7) & v = (6, 1, -2).
(h) u = (-3, 1, 0) & v = (4, 2, -4).
17. In each part, determine whether u and v make an acute angle, an obtuse angle, or are orthogonal.

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(a) u = 2i + 3j + 2k, v = i + 4j + 2k
(b) u = 2i + j + 2k, v = 3i − 4k
(c) u = (1, 3, 1), v = (−1, 0, 3)
(d) u = (2, 1, 6), v = (−3, 1, 2)

18. . Find r so that the vector from the point A(1, −4, 3) to the point B(1, 0, 5) is orthogonal to the vector from
A to the point C(r, 2r, 3r).

19. Find two unit vectors in 2-space that make an angle of 30° with 2i + 3j.
20. Find the direction angles of the vector shown in the accompanying figure to the nearest degree.
Solution:
√3
cos α = cos λ cos θ = cos 60° cos 30° = 𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = 64°.
4
cos β = cos λ sin θ = cos 60° sin 30° = 3/4 𝑜𝑟 𝛽 = 41°.
1
cos γ = sin λ= sin 30° = or 𝛾 = 60°.
2

21. Find, to the nearest degree, the acute angle formed by two long diagonals of a box whose length, width
and height ratio is 1:2:3.
22. Find, to the nearest degree, the angles that a diagonal of a box with dimensions 10 cm by 15 cm by 20 cm
makes with the edges of the box.
23. Determine the angle θ between the two cables.

24. Determine the magnitude of the projection of the force F1 along cable AC.
25. Determine the magnitudes of the projected components of the force F = [60i + 12j - 40k] N along the
cables AB and AC.

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26. Determine the angle θ between cables AB and AC.

27. Determine the magnitude of the projected component of the 100-lb force acting along the axis BC of the
pipe.

28. Determine the angle θ between pipe segments BA and BC.

29. Determine the magnitudes of the components of F acting along and perpendicular to segment BC of the
pipe assembly.

30. Determine the magnitude of the projected component of F along AC. Express this component as a
Cartesian vector.
31. Determine the angle θ between the pipe segments BA and BC.

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32. Determine the angle θ between the two cables.

33. Determine the projected component of the force F = 12 lb acting in the direction of cable AC. Express the
result as a Cartesian vector.

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4.5 CROSS PRODUCT

In many applications of vectors in mathematics, physics, and engineering, there is a need to find a vector
that is orthogonal to two given vectors. In this unit we will discuss a new type of vector multiplication that can
be used for this purpose.
The moment of a force will be formulated using Cartesian vectors. Before doing this, however, it is first
necessary to expand our knowledge of vector algebra and introduce the cross-product method of vector
multiplication, first used by Willard Gibbs in lectures given in the late 19th century.
4.6 Introduction to Determinants
Some of the concepts that we will develop in this section require basic ideas about determinants, which
are functions that assign numerical values to square arrays of numbers. For example, if a1, a2, b1, and b2 are
real numbers, then we define a 2 × 2 determinant by

The purpose of the arrows is to help you remember the formula—the determinant is the product of the
entries on the rightward arrow minus the product of the entries on the leftward arrow. For example,

A 3 × 3 determinant is defined in terms of 2 × 2 determinants by

The right side of this formula is easily remembered by noting that a1, a2, and a3 are the entries in the first
“row” of the left side, and the 2 × 2 determinants on the right side arise by deleting the first row and an
appropriate column from the left side. The pattern is as follows:

For example,

There are also definitions of 4 × 4 determinants, 5 × 5 determinants, and higher, but we will not need them
in this text. Properties of determinants are studied in a branch of mathematics called linear algebra, but we
will only need the two properties stated in the following theorem.

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4.7 Cross Product

The cross product of two vectors A and B yields the vector C, which is written
C=A*B
and is read “C equals A cross B.”
Magnitude. The magnitude of C is defined as the product of the magnitudes of
A and B and the sine of the angle u between their tails (0 < θ < 180). Thus, C =
AB sin θ.
Direction. Vector C has a direction that is perpendicular to the plane
containing A and B such that C is specified by the right-hand rule; i.e., curling
the fingers of the right hand from vector A (cross) to vector B, the thumb points
in the direction of C, as shown in the figure. Knowing both the magnitude and
direction of C, we can write
C = A * B = (AB sin θ)
where the scalar AB sin θ defines the magnitude of C and the unit vector uC defines the direction of C.
4.8 Laws of Operation
• The commutative law is not valid; i.e., A * B B * A. Rather,
A * B = -B * A This is shown in Fig. 4–7 by using the right-
hand rule. The cross product B * A yields a vector that has the
same magnitude but acts in the opposite direction to C; i.e., B
* A = -C.
• If the cross product is multiplied by a scalar a, it obeys the
associative law; a(A * B) = (aA) * B = A * (aB) = (A * B)a
• The vector cross product also obeys the distributive law of
addition, A * (B + D) = (A * B) + (A * D)
• The proof of this identity is left as an exercise. It is
important to note that proper order of the cross products must
be maintained, since they are not commutative.
4.9 Cartesian Vector Formulation.
To find 𝐢 × 𝐣, the magnitude of the resultant vector is (i)(j)(sin
90) = (1)(1)(1) = 1, and its direction is determined using the right-hand rule. As shown below, the
resultant vector points in the +k direction. Thus, 𝐢 × 𝐣 = 𝐤. In a similar manner,
𝐢×𝐣 =𝐤 𝐢 × 𝐤 = −𝐣 𝐢 × 𝐢 = 𝟎 𝐣 × 𝐤 = 𝐢 𝐣 × 𝐢 = −𝐤 𝐣 × 𝐣 = 𝟎
𝐤 × 𝐢 = 𝐣 𝐤 × 𝐣 = −𝐢 𝐤×𝐤=𝟎

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These results should not be memorized; rather, it should be clearly understood how each is obtained by
using the right-hand rule and the definition of the cross product. A simple scheme shown above is helpful
for obtaining the same results when the need arises. If the circle is constructed as shown, then “crossing”
two unit vectors in a counter-clockwise fashion around the circle yields the positive third unit vector; e.g.,
𝐤 × 𝐢 = 𝐣. “Crossing” clockwise, a negative unit vector is obtained; e.g., 𝐢 × 𝐤 = −𝐣.
Let us now consider the cross product of two general vectors A and B which are expressed in Cartesian
vector form. We have
𝐀 × 𝐁 = (𝐴𝑥 𝐢 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐣 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐤)(𝐵𝑥 𝐢 + 𝐵𝑦 𝐣 + 𝐵𝑧 𝐤)
= 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 (𝐢 × 𝐢) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 (𝐢 × 𝐣) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 (𝐢 × 𝐤)
+𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 (𝐣 × 𝐢) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 (𝐣 × 𝐣) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 (𝐣 × 𝐤)
+𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 (𝐤 × 𝐢) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 (𝐤 × 𝐣) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 (𝐤 × 𝐤)
Carrying out the cross-product operations and combining terms yields
𝐀 × 𝐁 = (𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 )𝐢 − (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 )𝐣 + (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝑦𝐵𝑥 )𝐤
This equation may also be written in a more compact determinant form as
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
𝐀 × 𝐁 = | 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 |
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
Thus, to find the cross product of any two Cartesian vectors A and B, it is necessary to expand a
determinant whose first row of elements consists of the unit vectors i, j, and k and whose second and third
rows represent the x, y, z components of the two vectors A and B, respectively.
4.10 ALGEBRAIC PROPERTIES OF THE CROSS PRODUCT
Our next goal is to establish some of the basic algebraic properties of the cross product. As you read the
discussion, keep in mind the essential differences between the cross product and the dot product:
• The cross product is defined only for vectors in 3-space, whereas the dot product is defined for vectors
in 2-space and 3-space.
• The cross product of two vectors is a vector, whereas the dot product of two vectors is a scalar.
The main algebraic properties of the cross product are listed in the next theorem.

4.2.2 Theorem. If u, v, and w are any vectors in 3-space and k is any scalar, then:
(a) u × v = −(v × u)
(b) u × (v + w) = (u × v) + (u × w)
(c) (u + v) × w = (u × w) + (v × w)
(d ) k(u × v) = (ku) × v = u × (kv)
(e) u × 0 = 0 × u = 0
(f)u×u=0

The following cross products occur so frequently that it is helpful to be familiar with them:
𝐢 × 𝐣 = 𝐤 𝐣 × 𝐤 = 𝐢 𝐤 × 𝐢 = 𝐣 𝐣 × 𝐢 = −𝐤 𝐤 × 𝐣 = −𝐢 𝐢 × 𝐤 = −𝐣
These results are easy to obtain; for example,
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
0 0 1 0 1 0
𝐢 × 𝐣 = |1 0 0| = | |𝐢−| |𝐣+| | 𝐤 = 𝐤.
1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0
However, the cross product of two consecutive vectors in the counter-clockwise direction is the next
vector around, and the cross product of two consecutive vectors in the clockwise direction is the
negative of the next vector around.

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ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
1. Let u = (1, 2, −2) and v = (3, 0, 1). Find (a) u × v (b) v × u.
Solution:
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
2 −2 1 −2 1 2
𝐮 × 𝐯 = |1 2 −2| = | |𝐢−| |𝐣+ | | 𝐤 = 2𝐢 − 7𝐣 − 6𝐤.
0 1 3 1 3 0
3 0 1

Solution (b). We could use the method of part (a), but it is really not necessary to perform any
computations. The net effect of reversing the factors in a cross product is to reverse the signs of the
components. Thus, by inspection
v × u = −(u × v) = −2i + 7j + 6k.

2. Show that u × u = 0 for any vector u in 3-space.

Solution. We could let u = u1i + u2j + u3k and apply the method.
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
𝐮 × 𝐮 = |𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3 | = 0.
𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3
The actual computations are unnecessary. We need only observe that if the two factors in a cross product
are the same, then each 2 × 2 determinant is zero because its array has identical rows. Thus, u × u = 0 by
inspection.

3. Calculate the area of the parallelogram spanned by the vectors a = (3, −3, 1) and b = (4, 9, 2).
Solution: The cross product is
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
−3 1 3 1 3 −3
𝐚 × 𝐛 = |3 −3 1| = | |𝐢− | |𝐣 + | | 𝐤 = −15𝐢 − 2𝐣 − 39𝐤.
9 2 4 21 4 9
4 9 2
The area is √(−15)2 + (−2)2 + (39)2 = √1750 = 5√70 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠.

4. Calculate the area of the parallelogram spanned by the vectors a = (3, −3, 1) and c = (−12, 12, −4).
Solution:
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
−3 1 3 1 3 −3
𝐚×𝐜 =| 3 −3 1 | = | |𝐢− | |𝐣+ | | 𝐤 = 0𝐢 + 0𝐣 + 0𝐤.
12 −4 −12 −4 −12 12
−12 12 −4

The magnitude of the zero vector is zero, so the area of the parallelogram is zero. What happened? The
second vector falls on the same line with a factor -4; no area can be formed.

5. Area of triangle formed by vectors a = (2,2,7) and b = (1,1,6)

Solution:
Calculate the cross product of vectors
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
2 7 2 7 2 2
𝐚 × 𝐛 = |2 2 7| = | |𝐢−| |𝐣+ | | 𝐤 = 12𝐢 − 5𝐣 − 3𝐤 = 12𝐢 − 5𝐣 − 2𝐤.
0 6 1 6 1 0
1 0 6
1 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ( ) 𝐚 × 𝐛 = ( ) √(12)2 + (−5)2 + (−2)2 = √144 + 25 + 4 = 6.5765
2 2
6. Calculate the scalar triple product of the vectors a = (1, 2, 3), b = (0, 3, 4), and c = (2, 0, 1).
Solution:

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 STATICS OF RIGID BODIES - LECTURE NOTES

𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 1 2 3
𝐚 ⋅ (𝐛 × 𝐜) = |𝑏𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑧 | = |0 3 4| = 3 + 16 + 0 − 18 − 0 − 0 = 1.
𝑐𝑥 𝑐𝑦 𝑐𝑧 2 0 1
7. Find the volume of pyramid formed by vectors: u = (2, 3, 1), v = (2, 3, 5), and w = (4, 5, 6).

We evaluate the scalar triple product of vectors, then

𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎 𝑧 2 3 1
𝐚 ⋅ (𝐛 × 𝐜) = | 𝑏𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑧 | = |2 3 5| = 36 + 60 + 10 − 12 − 36 − 50 = 8.
𝑐𝑥 𝑐𝑦 𝑐𝑧 4 5 6
We calculate the volume of the pyramid, then
1 1 4
𝐕 = ( ) |𝐚 ⋅ (𝐛 × 𝐜)| = ( ) |8| = cubic units.
6 6 3
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS
8. Use a determinant to find the cross product i × (i + j + k).
9. Find j × (i + j + k)
10. Find u × v and check that it is orthogonal to both u and v.
(a) u = (1, 2, −3), v = (−4, 1, 2)
(b) u = 3i + 2j − k, v = −i − 3j + k
11. 7. Let u = (2, −1, 3), v = (0, 1, 7), and w = (1, 4, 5). Find (a) u × (v × w) (b) (u × v) × w
12. Find the direction cosines of u × v for the vectors u and v in the accompanying figure.

13. Find two unit vectors that are normal to the plane determined by the points A(0, −2, 1), B(1, −1, −2), and
C(−1, 1, 0).
14. Find the area of the parallelogram that has u = i − j + 2k and v = 3j + k as adjacent sides.
15. Find the area of the triangle with vertices P, Q, and R; where
(a) P(1, 5, −2), Q(0, 0, 0), R(3, 5, 1)
(b) P (2, 0, −3), Q(1, 4, 5), R(7, 2, 9)
16. 21–24 Find u (v × w) if u = 2i − 3j + k, v = 4i + j − 3k, w = j + 5k
17. Find u (v × w): u = (1, −2, 2), v = (0, 3, 2), w = (−4, 1, −3)
18. Use a scalar triple product to find the volume of the parallelepiped that has u, v, and w as adjacent edges:
u = (2, −6, 2), v = (0, 4, −2), & w = (2, 2, −4).

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 STATICS OF RIGID BODIES - LECTURE NOTES

19. Use a determinant to find the cross product i × (i + j + k) by rewriting the cross product as i × (i + j + k) =
(i × i) + (i × j) + (i × k) and evaluating each term.
20. Find k × (i + j + k).
21. Find u × v and check that it is orthogonal to both u and v; where
(a) u = (0, 1, −2), v = (3, 0, −4) (b) u = 4i + k, v = 2i − j
22. Let u = (2, −1, 3), v = (0, 1, 7), and w = (1, 4, 5); find (a) (u × v) × (v × w) & (b) (v × w) × (u × v).
23. Use a scalar triple product to find the volume of the parallelepiped that has u, v, and w as adjacent edges.
u = 3i + j + 2k, v = 4i + 5j + k, w = i + 2j + 4k
24. If A, B, and D are given vectors, prove the distributive law for the vector cross product, i.e., A × (B + D)
= (A × B) + (A × D).
25. Prove the triple scalar product identity A ∙ (B × C) = (A × B) ∙ C.
26. Given the three nonzero vectors A, B, and C, show that if A ∙ (B × C) = 0, the three vectors must lie in the
same plane.

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