SUMMARY OF SURGE PREVENTION SYSTEM:

1) Surge occurs at a low flow rate and high differential pressure in a centrifugal compressor. At
these conditions, gas back-flows through the compressor unit.

2) The primary means of preventing surge is to prevent flow from dropping to the point that
surge will occur by recycling discharge gas to the suction of the compressor.

3) Secondary control devices that measure compression ratio in some form are often used to
override the primary flow control device and increase flow of recycle gas to prevent the
compression ratio from reaching the surge condition.

4) The surge prevention system should be set to avoid surging conditions at the lowest power
consumption of the driver.

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On variable speed machines, the gas flow rate that results in surging varies with speed. The set
point in the surge flow controller has to be reset each time the speed changes. This is done
automatically with a speed controller, which resets the set point on the surge flow controller when
speed changes. Normally, the surge flow controller set point is reset by change in compression
ratio or differential pressure [head] of the compressor. Regardless of the sophistication and
complexity of the surge prevention system, the basic control is that of maintaining flow above the
surge condition. In any event, recycle control regulates flow [capacity] to maintain a certain
compression ratio for the gas being compressed.

The combination of flow and compression ratio that results in surge at each different compressor
speed should be determined at the time the unit is commissioned. This information is then used
for subsequent control of the surge prevention system to prevent it from occurring during normal
operation.

Surge can also occur during start up and shutdown of a centrifugal compressor. So surge
protection must be provided during these operations, particularly on large volume flow machines.

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SURGE PRVENTION

Surge may cause severe damage to the compressor and piping. Check valve flappers often
break, and internal damage to the compressor can occur. In addition, the back flowing gas tries
to reverse the rotation of the machine so added strain is put on couplings between the
compressor and the driver.

Surge can be avoided by maintaining the flow above the surge point. This is done by competent
operation and through the operation of a reliable surge prevention system that will sense the
compressor approaching surge at approximately 15% of the surge line as flow rates fall at a given
speed. This will signal opening of the compressor gas recycle valve allowing some discharge gas
back to the suction side to maintain enough flow to the unit so the surge condition is avoided.

Generally, a valve called an anti-surge control valve is installed in the discharge from the
compressor system. The valve is regulated with a flow controller that senses the flow rate of gas
entering the compressor. The set point on the flow controller is set above the flow rate that surge
occurs. If the flow to the compressor is less than the set point in the controller, the controller
signals the anti-surge control valve to open and allow enough recycle gas to flow into the suction
line so that the total flow to the compressor is above its surge point.

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[Refer to the diagrams on the previous page]

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The surge cycle in a centrifugal gas compressor may be understood as follows:

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Surge may occur several times a minute, or several times a second, depending upon a
compressor’s size, speed, etc. Surge is obvious from a definite sound that may be characterized
as a whine, scream, moan, or a sharp audible hammer tapping noise, or thumping sound in large
capacity pipeline gas transmission centrifugal compressors.

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SURGE PHENOMENON

The operation range of a centrifugal compressor is restricted by a condition called surge at low
flow rates.

Inside the compressor there are no check valves or other mechanical devices to prevent
discharge gas from flowing backwards towards the suction side of the compressor. Flow
passages are open throughout all impellers, diffusers, etc. Backflow can occur if two conditions
prevail.

1) Low gas flow rate 2) High compression ratio

A high compression ratio can result from a high discharge pressure, or low suction pressure, or a
combination of the two. For example, at 100% speed, surge will occur at a flow rate less than
58% and a compression ratio slightly over 110%. At these conditions of low flow and high
compression ratio, discharge gas will backflow through the compressor. As soon as backflow
occurs, the discharge pressure drops, and forward flow starts again. When discharge pressure
rises to the surge point, flow reversal occurs again as shown on the following pages.

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STONEWALL OPERATION (Choke)

Maximum flow at a given speed is fixed by the stonewall limitation. Stonewall occurs at high flow
rates when the impellers raise the velocity of gas to the point that it reaches sonic speed, which is
the speed of sound. At sonic speed, we cannot force anymore gas through the compressor,
regardless of what we try, so we have hit a “stone wall”. When this occurs, shock waves cause a
rapid decrease of pressure. Consequently, we want to stay away from the operating range near
the stonewall or high flow point. The compressor operating curve map will reflect maximum flow.
It will appear at the far right of the operating curve map.

The stonewall effect is of minimal concern in most oilfield and gas processing centrifugal
compressor applications where the gas is methane, ethane, propane, or a mixture of the three.
The conditions of flow, speed, and compression ratio that result in stonewall seldom occur in
most oilfield operations. Consequently, controls to prevent stonewall are rarely used.

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STONEWALL OPERATION

The operating range of a centrifugal compressor is restricted by a condition called surge at low
flow rates and high process resistance, and a condition called stonewall or “choke”, which is
operating at maximum inlet flow rate while developing no increase in head. Prior to reaching
stonewall the gas is flowing at high velocity. Stable flow patterns begin to break down; no more
work can be done on the gas. Production compressors will not normally operate at or near the
stonewall or choke point. Surge is the most critical of the two operating conditions.

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Summary of Capacity Control

1. The capacity of a compressor must be controlled so that it is the same as the volume of gas
flowing to it.
2. Capacity is affected by speed and compression ratio.
3. Capacity is controlled on variable speed machines by adjusting speed and compression ratio.
4. Capacity is controlled on constant speed machines by adjusting the compression ratio. This
is accomplished with:

a. Throttling control valve in suction line.

b. Throttling control valve in discharge line.
c. Control valve in recycle line.
d. Adjustable guide vanes at the compressor inlet [ these are not supplied by all
compressor manufacturers].
Note:

It should be noted that variable speed machines are limited by how much speed can be reduced.
There is a limit to the amount speed can be reduced to control capacity and still develop the
required compression ratio. Below that limit, gas recycle is required to maintain flow.

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In some compressors, adjustable guide vanes can pre-rotate the gas entering the impeller. This
may load or unload an impeller depending on the pre-rotation of the gas in relation to impeller
rotation and blade angle which results in changing the capacity of the machine.

The four capacity control systems using only one method per unit for machines operating at
constant speed are:

• Throttling suction capacity control valves

• Throttling discharge capacity control valves
• Recycle gas
• Adjustable guide vanes

Speed Control

If the unit has a variable speed driver, the primary capacity control is that of varying the speed of
the compressor utilizing the driver. Referring to the capacity map shown previously, the
compressor will develop the design compression ratio of 3.0 with a 84% flow rate if the speed is
reduced to about 97%. A throttling valve installed in the suction or discharge line is a secondary
control for maintaining the desired compression ratio when speed alone will not provide the
necessary capacity control.

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CAPACITY CONTROL – RECYCLE GAS FLOW CONTROL

Another method of controlling capacity is by recycling some discharge gas back to suction of the
compressor. Because this results in unwanted heat added to the compression process which is
detrimental to the compressor’s operation, recycle gas is withdrawn from the discharge gas
scrubber, which has been cooled and liquids removed. NOT RECOMMENDED FOR NORMAL
OPERATION. Although this will control compressor capacity, a recycle valve is not
intended for use as a continuous compressor throttle control.

Recycle valve opens

approximately 10% before
occurrence of surge event to
X recycle the flow of gas
through the compressor.

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Assume that the gas flow is 84% of capacity, speed is 100%, and suction and discharge pressure
are at their design points which require a compression ratio of 3.0. The compression ratio
developed at 84% flow and 100% speed is 3.20, but operating conditions require a compression
ratio of only 3.0. The capacity control system must get rid of the excess compression ratio. One
way of doing this is with a throttling [capacity control] valve in the discharge line. The pressure
drop across the throttling valve must be calculated properly to correct an excessive discharge at
reduced capacity condition. Throttling valves can also be used in suction gas piping to get rid of
excess compression ratio at reduced capacity and operation at 100% speed.

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For example, at a gas flow rate of 84% of design and a speed of 100%, the compression ratio this
machine develops will be 3.2. Design compression ratio at 100% flow is 3.0. At 84% flow, the
discharge pressure will be higher than design, or suction pressure will be lower than design. But,
suppose suction and discharge pressure are at design conditions, which means that the
compression ratio will also be at 100% design, which is 3.0. The compressor is going to deliver
gas at a compression ratio of 3.2 at 84% flow. The control system must get rid of the extra 0.2 of
compression ratio that the unit will develop at 100% speed and 84% gas flow

84% Flow
100% Speed

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Gas Density – The pressure rise in a centrifugal compressor is higher with a gas having a high
density than that of a low density gas.

The variables combine in a compressor to form its capacity characteristics, which are defined in
the compressor operating curves or “map”. At any compressor speed, the compression ratio
developed at various gas flow rates are defined by the curve for that speed. The unit will operate
only on a single curve at one speed.

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PRINCIPLES OF CAPACITY CONTROL

Centrifugal compressors driven by constant speed drivers, such as electric motors, are usually
equipped with capacity control systems of varied type. If the suction and discharge pressure, and
gas flow rate to a compressor remain constant, no control is required. The capacity control
system provides the means for operating the unit when process conditions of flow and pressure
are not constant.

The process conditions that can vary are:

Suction conditions – temperature, pressure, and flow rate.

Discharge conditions - Temperature, pressure, and flow rate.

Compression ratio = Discharge Pressure (Absolute)

Suction Pressure (Absolute)

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Compressor Operation

We know that a compressor is designed ideally to compress a fixed volume of gas from a
designated suction pressure to a designated discharge pressure. In operating situations, the
suction pressure, discharge pressure, and gas flow rate are seldom at design conditions.
The function of the control system is to safely operate the machine at the lowest cost within safe
operating limits, while keeping operating supervision time low.

Centrifugal compression controls serve three distinct purposes:

• Control Capacity
• Prevent Surge
• Equipment protection

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Compressor Operation

To avoid operation detrimental to the centrifugal compressor, the compressor must deliver
enough flow to overcome process system resistance and maintain the compressor discharge
check valve in the open position during normal operation. With gas turbine driven units this can
be done by varying the driver speed at start up and during sustained operation at or near design
point operation shown on the compressor operating curve shown as point ‘C’ on the previous
page.

Operation at design point will flow the right amount of gas at about 90% speed point operation
relative to the density [composition and temperature] of the gas being compressed. At this point
the compressor impeller(s) will deliver the increase in gas pressure required at each stage and
across the compressor between suction and discharge. Flow is defined as ‘Q’ on the abscissa
and pressure or “Head” on the ordinate axis of the compressor map. Design point operation is
unique for each compressor designed and built. Operation at design point should ensure safe
operation in an area that satisfies production requirements without surging the gas in the
compressor, assuming the process and inlet conditions do not change such as to interfere with
design point operation [compressor speed].

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Compressor Operation at Design Point

Every centrifugal compressor is designed to operate at a preferred optimum speed point relative
to the impeller design. Impellers are designed to raise the gas pressure within limits that ensure
the gas will flow at a desired production rate from the suction of the compressor to the discharge
of the compressor. This operating point is graphically defined along an operating curve and is
referred to as “Design Point” operation.

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DIAPHRAGM

The diaphragm is a stationary aerodynamic element which separates impellers in a multi-stage

compressor. Diaphragms with vanes cast into them form the diffuser and return bend and rotate
and control the incidence of gas flowing into the eye of the next impeller in a multi-staged
centrifugal compressor. Thus, energy levels are conserved by effectively shortening the flow path
and reducing losses from one stage to the next.

INTERNAL SEALS

The internal seals are devices used between rotating and stationary parts to separate and
minimize gas leakage between areas of unequal pressure. Almost without exception on natural
gas and process applications, the internal seals are labyrinth type; typically, this term covers
interstage shaft seals and impeller eye seals.

Impeller Cover Labyrinth

“Eye” Seals

Interstage Shaft Seal Labyrinth

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 The diffuser is a stationary passage surrounding an impeller in which velocity provided by the
impeller is converted into static pressure. The diffuser is formed by the backside of the
diaphragm from the preceding stage and the front side of the diaphragm of the following stage.

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Bend Diaphragm

Diffuser Vane Area

Passage

Impeller

STAGING &
FLOW

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[Reference Previous Page]

In the case of centrifugal compressors, the gas enters the impellers at the eye, moving in an axial
direction. The flow is then changed to a radial direction and accelerated as it moves through the
impeller from the eye to the tip. It then exits into a diffuser (flow decelerator). In a single-stage
compressor the gas is discharged to the process. In a multi-stage compressor the flow must be
returned to the eye of the next impeller. About two-thirds of the rise in gas pressure occurs in the
impeller with the remaining increase taking place in the diffusion as the velocity of the gas is
reduced. Flow passages are open throughout the compressor. There is no mechanical means of
preventing back-flow in the design of the unit, and re-circulation can occur at standstill at reduced
compressor speeds unless a check valve is used externally. The impeller is the only means of
adding energy to the gas and all the work on the gas is done in this element.

The stationary components such as diffusers, guide vanes, return channels designed to control
the overall aerodynamic flow of gas, convert velocity energy into pressure energy, and, incur
losses due to friction on their surfaces. These components unlike the impeller do not perform
work on the gas flowing through the compressor.

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Method Used to Pressurize Gas in the Centrifugal Compressor:

• Efficient acceleration of gas flow

• 90 degree turning of gas flow from axial [at the eye of the impeller] into radial direction or flow
at the tip of the impeller.
• Efficient deceleration of gas to convert velocity energy into pressure energy in the diffuser
and return bend after the impeller.

Efficient acceration of the gas - work performed by the impeller inside the compressor
Turning of the gas – performed by the inlet guide, return bend and diaphragms.
Efficient deceleration of the gas –Diffuser passage following the impeller

Rotation &
Gas flow out

Tip
Impeller Eye

Shroud
Gas flow in

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Centrifugal and axial compressors achieve compression by applying inertial forces to the gas
(acceleration, deceleration, turning) by means of rotating bladed impellers impacting and
performing work on the gas during operation.

Impeller Function: Conversion of rotative shaft energy into gas

velocity energy & pressure.

2/3 pressure increase occurs in the impeller

Direction of Rotation

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For this process to work properly without possible destruction to the compressor, the gas
being compressed must flow continuously at prescribed rates and at specified pressures
through the compressor from suction to discharge based upon the following:

• Gas composition
• Pre-determined design of the impeller(s) and aerodynamic assembly
• Temperature of the gas at suction
• Speed of the compressor during operation

In doing so, the compressor must overcome resistance and losses from the downstream
process to succeed in flowing compressed gas at specified values. Inability to maintain
flow within the design parameters and pressure characteristics for a particular centrifugal
compressor can and probably would result in turbulent gas flow pattens, back flow and
development of an operating condition know as “surge”, or. “surging” of the gas inside
the compressor. This condition is very detrimental or destructive to the working parts of a
centrifugal gas compressor.

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In this example, the view shows gas flowing from inlet at lower pressure right to left through five
stages of compression to final discharge. The overall pressure achieved in this process
represents the pressure differential across the compressor from inlet [suction] to discharge
pressure.

Anatomy of a Centrifugal Compressor

Inlet
Discharge Stationary
Aerodynamics

Casing

Seals
Cover
Bearings Bearings

Rotor Seals

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Shown in the example of the centrifugal compressor, gas enters the inlet, or, suction and flows
through one or more rotating impellers attached to a shaft spinning at high speed. The impellers
perform work on the gas in combination with non-rotating parts that guide the gas to flow to and
from each impeller in the multi-staged centrifugal compressor illustrated below.

Anatomy of a Centrifugal Compressor

Inlet
Discharge Stationary
Aerodynamics

Casing

Seals
Cover
Bearings Bearings

Rotor Seals

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The centrifugal compressor, like the axial-flow compressor, is dynamic in contrast to positive
displacement-type compressors. For example, in a reciprocating compressor a quantity of gas is
drawn into the cylinder and trapped by the action and motion of a piston moving back and forth in
the cylinder. As the piston moves in the cylinder, compression is achieved by direct volume
reduction. Back-flow or re-circulation of the gas is prevented by check type valves, both during
operation of the machine and at standstill.

Anatomy of a Centrifugal Compressor

Inlet
Discharge Stationary
Aerodynamics

Casing

Seals
Cover
Bearings Bearings

Rotor Seals

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 SURGE IN CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

OBJECTIVE: Understand the phenomenon of surge and the process of surge prevention
during operation of a centrifugal gas compressor.

To understand SURGE it is necessary to understand the basic principles of gas compression in a centrifugal
compressor.

Basic Principle:

Compressor : A gas compressor is a device that increases gas pressure by

mechanically reducing its volume during operation.

Centrifugal compressors are sometimes referred to as “dynamic”

machines because of the energetic forces involved in the movement,
turning and conversion of energy put into the gas during operation.

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