1-Maxwell's Equations

Fig.1 shows the electrical and magnetic field lines due to an oscillating
dipole. With changing electric fields as a source of magnetic fields, the
field lines (both electric and magnetic) can break free of the dipole,
from closed loops, and travel away from the dipole as an
electromagnetic wave. The electric and magnetic fields sustain one
another as the wave travels outward. Although the field do diminish in
strength, they do so much less rapidly than if the field lines were tied to
the dipole. Since changing electric fields are a source of magnetic fields,
a wave consisting of just an oscillating electric field without an
oscillating magnetic field is impossible. Since changing magnetic fields
are a source of electric fields, a wave consisting of just an oscillating
magnetic field without an oscillating electric field is also impossible.
Fig. 1 Electric and magnetic field lines due to an oscillating dipole. The
green lines are electric field lines in the plane of the page. The orange
dots and crosses are magnetic field lines crossing the plane of the page.
The field lines break free of the dipole and travel away from it as an
electromagnetic wave. Far from the dipole, the fields are strongest in
direction perpendicular to the dipole axis and weakest in direction
along the axis. R.A.J

N.B. There are no electric waves or magnetic waves; there are only
electromagnetic waves.

Maxwell modified Ampere's law and then used it with the three other
basic laws of electromagnetism to show that electromagnetic waves
exist and to derive their properties. In honor of this achievement, the
four laws are collectively called Maxwell's equations. They are:

A-Gauss's law for electricity:

ΦE = 4π k q = q/ ɛ0

If an electric field line is not a closed loop, it can only start and stop on
electric charges. Electric charges produce electric field.

B -Gauss's law for magnetism:

0
Magnetic field lines are always closed since there are no magnetic
charges (monopoles). The magnetic flux through a closed surface ( or
the net number of field lines leaving the surface) is zero. R.A.J

C -Faraday's law:

Changing magnetic fields are another source of electric field.

D-The Ampere- Maxwell law:

Changing electric field as well as currents are sources of magnetic field.

Magnetic field lines are still always closed loops, but the loops do not
have to surround currents; they can surround changing electric fields
as well.

Questions:
 a) State Maxwell's equations, explaining the symbols
used.
b) What are the discussed ideas in Maxwell's equations?

2-Momentum and Radiation Pressure

Electromagnetic waves transport linear momentum as well as energy.
It follows that, as this momentum is absorbed by some surface,
pressure is exerted on the surface. We shall assume in this discussion
that the electromagnetic wave strikes the surface at normal incidence
and transports a total energy U to the surface in a time interval ∆t.
Maxwell showed that, if the surface absorbs all the incident energy U
in this time interval (as does a black body), the total momentum p
transported to the surface has a magnitude R.A.J

(m1)

The pressure exerted on the surface is defined as force per unit area
F/A. Let us combine this with Newton’s second law:

If we now replace p, the momentum transported to the surface by

radiation, from Equation m1, we have
We recognize (dU/dt)/A as the rate at which energy is arriving at the
surface per unit area, which is the magnitude of the Poynting vector.
Thus, the radiation pressure P exerted on the perfectly absorbing
surface is

If the surface is a perfect reflector (such as a mirror) and incidence is

normal, then the momentum transported to the surface in a time
interval ∆t is twice that given by Equation m1. That is, the momentum
transferred to the surface by the incoming light is p = U/c, and that
transferred by the reflected light also is p = U/c. Therefore. R.A.J

(m2)

The momentum delivered to a surface having a reflectivity somewhere

between these two extremes has a value between U/c and 2U/c,
depending on the properties of the surface. Finally, the radiation
pressure exerted on a perfectly reflecting surface for normal incidence
of the wave is ,

(m3)
(For oblique incidence on a perfectly reflecting surface, the momentum
transferred is (2U cosθ)/c and the pressure is P = (2S cos2θ)/c where
θ is the angle between the normal to the surface and the direction of
wave propagation). R.A.J
Fig.( 1 ) An apparatus for measuring Fig.( 2 ) Mariner 10 used
to the pressure exerted by light. In practice, "sail on
sunlight."
the system is connected in high vacuum.
Although radiation pressures are very small (about 5×10-6) N/m2 for
direct sunlight), they have been measured with torsion balances such as
the one shown in Figure 1. A mirror (a perfect reflector) and a black
disk (a perfect absorber) are connected by a horizontal rod suspended
from a fine fiber. Normal-incidence light striking the black disk is
completely absorbed, so all of the momentum of the light is transferred
to the disk. Normal-incidence light striking the mirror is totally
reflected, and hence the momentum transferred to the mirror is twice
as great as that transferred to the disk. The radiation pressure is
determined by measuring the angle through which the horizontal
connecting rod rotates. The apparatus must be placed in a high
vacuum to eliminate the effects of air currents.
NASA is exploring the possibility of solar sailing as a low-cost means of
sending spacecraft to the planets. Large sheets would experience
radiation pressure from sunlight and would be used in much the way
canvas sheets are used on earthbound sailboats. In 1973 NASA
engineers took advantage of the momentum of the sunlight striking the
solar panels of Mariner 10 (Fig. 2) to make small course corrections
when the spacecraft’s fuel supply was running low. (This procedure
was carried out when the spacecraft was in the vicinity of the planet
Mercury. Would it have worked as well near Pluto?) R.A.J

Quick Quiz 1 To maximize the radiation pressure on the sails of a

spacecraft using solar sailing, should the sheets be (a) very black to
absorb as much sunlight as possible or (b) very shiny, to reflect as
much sunlight as possible?

Quick Quiz 2 In an apparatus such as that in Figure 1, the disks

are
illuminated uniformly over their areas. Suppose the black disk is
replaced by one with half the radius. Which of the following are
different after the disk is replaced? (a) radiation pressure on the disk,
(b) radiation force on the disk, (c) radiation momentum delivered to
the disk in a given time interval.

Example 1 Pressure from a Laser Pointer

Many people giving presentations use a laser pointer to direct the
attention of the audience to information on a screen. If a 3.0-mW
pointer creates a spot on a screen that is 2.0 mm in diameter,
determine the radiation pressure on a screen that reflects 70% of the
light that strikes it. The power 3.0 mW is a time-averaged value.

Solution In conceptualizing this situation, we do not expect the

pressure to be very large. We categorize this as a calculation of
radiation pressure using something like Equation m1 or Equation m2,
but complicated by the 70% reflection. To analyze the problem, we
begin by determining the magnitude of the beam’s Poynting vector.
We divide the time-averaged power delivered via the electromagnetic
wave by the cross-sectional area of the beam:

Now we can determine the radiation pressure from the laser beam.
Equation m3 indicates that a completely reflected beam would apply
an average pressure of Pav = 2Sav/c. We can model the actual
reflection as
follows. Imagine that the surface absorbs the beam, resulting in
pressure Pav = Sav/c. Then the surface emits the beam, resulting in
additional pressure Pav = Sav/c. If the surface emits only a fraction f of
the beam (so that f is the amount of the incident beam reflected), then
the pressure due to the emitted beam is Pav = f Sav/c. Thus, the total
pressure on the surface due to absorption and re-emission (reflection)
is
Notice that if f = 1, which represents complete reflection, this equation
reduces to Equation m4. For a beam that is 70% reflected, the pressure
is

To finalize the example, consider first the magnitude of the Poynting

vector. This is about the same as the intensity of sunlight at the Earth’s
surface. (For this reason, it is not safe to shine the beam of a laser
pointer into a person’s eyes; that may be more dangerous than looking
directly at the Sun.) Note also that the pressure has an extremely small
value, as expected. ( the atmospheric pressure is approximately
105 N/m2.)

What If? What if the laser pointer is moved twice as far away
from the screen ? Does this affect the radiation pressure on the
screen?
Answer Because a laser beam is popularly represented as a beam of
light with constant cross section, one might be tempted to claim that
the intensity of radiation, and therefore the radiation pressure, would
be independent of distance from the screen. However, a laser beam
does not R.A.J
have a constant cross section at all distances from the source — there is
a small but measurable divergence of the beam. If the laser is moved
farther away from the screen, the area of illumination on the screen
will increase, decreasing the intensity. In turn, this will reduce the
radiation pressure.
In addition, the doubled distance from the screen will result in more
loss of energy from the beam due to scattering from air molecules and
dust particles as the light travels from the laser to the screen. This will
further reduce the radiation pressure. R.A.J

Example 2-
Solar Energy
As noted in the preceding example, the Sun delivers about 103 W/m2
of energy to the Earth’s surface via electromagnetic radiation.
(A) Calculate the total power that is incident on a roof of dimensions
8.00 m ×20.0 m.
Solution We assume that the average magnitude of the Poynting vector
for solar radiation at the surface of the Earth is Sav = 1 000 W/m2; this
represents the power per unit area, or the light intensity. Assuming
that the radiation is incident normal to the roof, we obtain
Pav = Sav A = (1 000 W/m2)(8.00 × 20.0 m2) = 1.60× 105 W

(B) Determine the radiation pressure and the radiation force exerted
on the roof, assuming that the roof covering is a perfect absorber.
Solution Using Equation m3 with Sav = 1 000 W/m2, we find that the
radiation pressure is

Because pressure equals force per unit area, this corresponds to a

addition force of

F = Pav A = ( 3.33× 10-4 N/m2)( 160 m2) = 5.33× 10-4 N

What If ? Suppose the energy striking the roof could be captured and
used to operate electrical devices in the house. Could the home operate
completely from this energy?
Answer:- The power in part (A) is large compared to the power
requirements of a typical home. If this power were maintained for 24
hours per day and the energy could be absorbed and made available to
electrical devices, it would provide more than enough energy for the
average home. R.A.J
However, solar energy is not easily harnessed, and the prospects for
large-scale conversion are not as bright as may appear from this
calculation. For example, the efficiency of conversion from solar
energy is typically 10% for photovoltaic cells, reducing the available
power in part (A) by an order of magnitude. Other considerations
reduce the power even further. Depending on location, the radiation
will most likely not be incident normal to the roof and, even if it is (in
locations near the Equator), this situation exists for only a short time
near the middle of the day. No energy is available for about half of
each day during the nighttime hours. Furthermore, cloudy days reduce
the available energy. Finally, while energy is arriving at a large rate
during the middle of the day, some of it must be stored for later use,
requiring batteries or other storage devices. The result of these
considerations is that complete solar operation of homes is not
presently cost-effective for most homes .

3-The Doppler Effect for (Electromagnetic Waves)

As we saw in Section 14.6, sound waves exhibit the Doppler effect
when the observer, the source, or both are moving relative to the
medium of propagation. Recall that in the Doppler effect, the
observed frequency of the wave is larger or smaller than the
frequency emitted by the source of the wave. A Doppler effect also
occurs for electromagnetic waves, but it differs from the Doppler
effect for sound waves in two ways. First, in the Doppler effect for
sound waves, motion relative to the medium is most important
because sound waves require a medium in which to propagate. In
contrast, the medium of propagation plays no role in the Doppler
effect for electromagnetic waves because the waves require no
medium in which to propagate. Second, the speed of sound that
appears in the equation for the Doppler effect for sound depends on
the reference frame in which it is measured. In contrast, as we see
in Chapter 26, the speed of electromagnetic waves has the same
value in all coordinate systems that are either at rest or moving at
constant velocity with respect to one another. The single equation
that describes the Doppler effect for electromagnetic waves is given
by the approximate expression

where fO is the observed frequency, fS is the frequency emitted by

the source, u is the relative speed of the observer and source, and c
is the speed of light in a vacuum. Note that Equation 21.32 is valid
only if u is much smaller than c. Further, it can also be used for
sound as long as the relative velocity of the source and observer is
much less than the velocity of sound. The positive sign in the
equation must be used when the source and observer are moving
toward each other, whereas the negative sign must be used when
they are moving away from each other. Thus, we anticipate an
increase in the observed frequency if the source and observer are
approaching each other and a decrease if the source and observer
recede from each other. Astronomers have made important
discoveries using Doppler observations on light reaching Earth from
distant galaxies. Such measurements have shown that the more
distant a galaxy is from Earth, the more its light is shifted toward the
red end of the spectrum. This cosmological red shift is evidence that
the Universe is expanding. The stretching and expanding of space,
like a rubber sheet being pulled in all directions, is consistent with
Einstein’s theory of general relativity. A given star or galaxy,
however, can have a peculiar motion toward or away from
Earth. For example, Doppler effect measurements made with the
Hubble Space Telescope have shown that a galaxy labeled M87 is
rotating, with one edge moving toward us and the other moving
away. Its measured speed of rotation was used to identify a
supermassive black hole located at its center.

21.10 Production of Electromagnetic

Waves by an Antenna Page 758

49. The U.S. Navy has long proposed the construction of extremely low
frequency (ELF waves) communications systems; such waves could penetrate
the oceans to reach distant submarines. Calculate the length of a
quarter-wavelength antenna for a transmitter generating ELF waves of
frequency 75 Hz. How practical is this antenna

51. The Earth reflects approximately 38.0% of the incident sunlight from its
clouds and surface. (a) Given that the intensity of solar radiation at the top of
the atmosphere is 1 370 W/m2, find the radiation pressure on the Earth, in
pascals, at the location where the Sun is straight overhead. (b) State how this
quantity compares with normal atmospheric pressure at the Earth’s
surface, which is 101 kPa
52. Experimenters at the National Institute of Standards and Technology have
made precise measurements of the speed of light using the fact that, in
vacuum, the speed of electromagnetic waves is ,
where the constants and . What
value (to four significant figures) does this formula give for the speed of light in
vacuum?
53. Oxygenated hemoglobin absorbs weakly in the red (hence its red color)
and strongly in the near infrared, whereas deoxygenated hemoglobin has the
opposite absorption. This fact is used in a “pulse oximeter” to measure oxygen
saturation in arterial blood. The device clips onto the end of a person’s finger
and has two light-emitting diodes—a red (660 nm) and an
infrared (940 nm)—and a photocell that detects the amount of light transmitted
through the finger at each wavelength. (a) Determine the frequency of each of
these light sources. (b) If 67% of the energy of the red
source is absorbed in the blood, by what factor does the amplitude of the
electromagnetic wave change? Hint: The intensity of the wave is equal to the
average power per unit area as given by Equation 21.28

55. The Sun delivers an average power of 1 370 W/m2 to the top of Earth’s
atmosphere. Find the magnitudes of for the electromagnetic
waves at the top of the atmosphere.
57. A microwave oven is powered by an electron tube called a magnetron that
generates electromagnetic waves of frequency 2.45 GHz. The microwaves
enter the oven and are reflected by the walls. The standing-wave pat tern
produced in the oven can cook food unevenly, with hot spots in the food at
antinodes and cool spots at nodes, so a turntable is often used to rotate the
food and distribute the energy. If a microwave oven is used
with a cooking dish in a fixed position, the antinodes can appear as burn
marks on foods such as carrot strips or cheese. The separation distance
between the burns is measured to be 6.00 cm. Calculate the speed
of the microwaves from these data.

58. Consider a bright star in our night sky. Assume its distance from the Earth
is 20.0 light-years (ly) and its power output is , about 100 times
that of the Sun. (a) Find the intensity of the starlight at the Earth. (b) Find the
power of the starlight the Earth intercepts. One light-year is the distance
traveled by light through a vacuum in one year
67. A 25.0-mW laser beam of diameter 2.00 mm is reflected at normal
incidence by a perfectly reflecting mirror. Calculate the radiation pressure on
the mirror.

72. (a) What capacitance will resonate with a one-turn loop of inductance 400
pH to give a radar wave of wavelength 3.0 cm? (b) If the capacitor has square
parallel plates separated by 1.0 mm of air, what should the edge length of the
plates be? (c) What is the common reactance of the loop and capacitor at
resonance?
73. A dish antenna with a diameter of 20.0 m receives (at normal incidence) a
radio signal from a distant source, as shown in Figure P21.73. The radio signal
is a continuous sinusoidal wave with amplitude Assume the
antenna absorbs all the radiation that falls on the dish. (a) What is the
amplitude of the magnetic field in this wave? (b) What is the intensity
of the radiation received by the antenna? (c) What is the power received by
the antenna?
76. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration limits the radiation leakage of
microwave ovens to no more than 5.0 mW/cm2 at a distance of 2.0 in. A
typical cell phone, which also transmits microwaves, has a peak output power
of about 2.0 W. (a) Approximating the cell phone as a point source, calculate
the radiation intensity of a cell phone at a distance of 2.0 in. How does the
answer compare with the maximum allowable microwave oven leakage? (b)
The distance from your ear to your brain is about 2 in. What would the
radiation intensity in your brain be if you used a Bluetooth headset, keeping
the phone in your pocket, 1.0 m away from your brain? Most headsets are so-
called Class 2 devices with a maximum output power of 2.5 mW.