Journal of Business Strategy

Managing the wickedness of socially responsible marketing

Dale Fodness
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Dale Fodness , (2015),"Managing the wickedness of socially responsible marketing", Journal of Business Strategy, Vol. 36
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 Managing the wickedness of socially
responsible marketing
Dale Fodness

Dale Fodness is mong the most important issues facing marketing today is sustainability. Although
Associate Professor of
Marketing at Satish & A the definition of sustainability is far from settled, one frequently finds it described
along the lines of meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability
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Yasmin Gupta College of

of future generations to meet their own needs. Marketing organizations, along with those in
Business, University of
many other industries, are expected by consumers, policy makers and other stakeholders
Dallas, Irving, Texas,
USA.
to demonstrate sustainability in their missions and operations while still maintaining
productivity and profitability. Sustainable marketing enterprises manage their impacts on
the environment and on society in general while maintaining financial profitability, the
so-called “triple bottom line”.
Sustainability issues present everyday business challenges and strategic implications for
marketing managers. In many industries and businesses, not only is the definition of
sustainability ambiguous, its operationalization and management is frequently uncertain.
After examining the relationships between a company’s social and environmental practices
and its financial performance, Business Week concluded in 2007 that the results were
mixed. Indeed, ambiguity and uncertainty have long been the hallmarks of sustainability.
Clark (2005), writing in The Times, suggested that the inherent vagueness of sustainability
(“It could mean anything and therefore means absolutely nothing”) was its greatest
challenge. Today, however challenging sustainability may be, society and other
stakeholders demand it and marketers struggle to respond.
All too often, when marketing managers approach sustainability issues with traditional
methods and tools that have worked well in prior circumstances, they find that not only do
they sometimes fail to deliver desired outcomes, but also result in unintended, undesirable
consequences (Peattie and Crane, 2005). Yet, at other times, they produce the intended
results. This inconsistency begs the question whether traditional methods and tools are
only appropriate for certain types of sustainability issues and that alternatives may be
needed. Indeed, sustainable marketing issues range from the simple to the highly complex,
and it makes sense that approaches and tools for simple problems may be less effective
for more complex problems. Others have already criticized traditional marketing methods
and tools as “one size fits all”. Yet, there is no widespread recognition of the need for
alternative methods or tools, nor any conceptual framework commonly used to help identify
approaches appropriate to the type of problem being addressed in sustainable marketing.
Much marketing theory and practice is based on a reductionist paradigm inherited from
management science (Freedman, 1992). Although its well-known and broadly applied
empirical approaches and tools are effective in well-ordered, stable conditions, conditions
change, generally in the direction of greater complexity (Doherty and Delener, 2001). As
they become more complex, established approaches and tools may lose their relevance
and effectiveness (Black and Farias, 2000; Freedman, 1992). To succeed in sustainable

PAGE 10 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS STRATEGY VOL. 36 NO. 5 2015, pp. 10-17, © Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 0275-6668 DOI 10.1108/JBS-07-2014-0077
 ‘‘Sustainable marketing enterprises manage their impacts on
the environment and on society in general while maintaining
financial profitability, the so-called ‘triple bottom line’.’’

marketing, managers need to recognize the conditions under which sustainability issues
occur and apply the appropriate methods and tools. As the future is likely to take marketing
leaders and decision makers further into unfamiliar territory, the time is right to explore new
approaches to solving problems in sustainable marketing.
This paper draws insights from three related conceptual areas to better understand the
conditions in which sustainable marketing takes place and to identify which methods and
tools deliver replicable, reliable results. First, we apply the Cynefin framework to make
sense of sustainable marketing issues to ensure that we are solving the right problem. Next,
we turn to complexity science for a deeper understanding of the context of sustainable
marketing and to identify which methods and tools are most likely to be effective. Finally, we
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unmask the “wickedness” of sustainable marketing issues and consider implications for
theory and practice.

First, use the Cynefin Framework to make sense of sustainable marketing

Marketing’s challenges with sustainability are not so much with its traditional methods and
tools, which have their place, as with its traditional way of approaching problems. As noted,
marketing’s default problem-structuring method reflects a traditional reductionist
paradigm. Because this approach has worked well in the past, little or no thought may be
given to determining the best methods and tools to use for problems as they arise (Mason
and Staude, 2009). In this section, we propose the Cynefin framework as a sense-making/
problem-structuring tool which can help marketing scholars and practitioners uncover the
context of sustainability issues as a first step toward identifying and selecting appropriate
approaches and tools.
The Cynefin framework consists of five operating conditions (i.e. business environments) or
contexts (simple, complicated, complex, chaotic and disorder) which an individual may
face (Snowden and Boone, 2007). One of these, disorder, is ignorance of what the actual
situation is, precluding a thoughtful choice of how best to proceed. In this context,
problems are only vaguely defined, ambiguity generates multiple competing perspectives
among stakeholders and uncertainly can result in unintended consequences. Although at
first glance this might seem to resemble our earlier description of sustainable marketing, its
issues range across the four remaining contexts. We shall now briefly explore their
characteristics (what are the conditions under which we are operating?) and appropriate
approaches (what methods and tools can be effective in this context?), as proposed by
Snowden and applied using sustainable marketing examples. Those seeking a more
comprehensive treatment of the Cynefin framework are directed to Snowden and Boone
(2007).
In a simple context, everyone understands and agrees on what the problem is and what to
do to “solve” it. Cause-and-effect relationships as well as the “right” answer are self-evident
and undisputed. For example, reducing waste is a common sustainability objective across
all four of the traditional Ps of the marketing mix. Although technical challenges may arise
from time to time, success in achieving this objective results from consistent, efficient
day-to-day operations using standardized processes (best practices) which benefit from
the application of traditional planning methods and analytical tools. According to Snowden,
the appropriate problem solving approach here is to “sense” incoming data and

VOL. 36 NO. 5 2015 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS STRATEGY PAGE 11

 information (e.g. the presence of waste), “categorize” it (within or outside of acceptable
standards) and then “respond” (either take immediate action or continue to monitor).
In a complicated context, there may be more than one “right” answer and these can be
determined by experts or research based on empirically verifiable facts. Simple and
complicated contexts both assume an ordered universe (critical for the success of
reductionist methods and tools mentioned earlier).
Consider the impact of marketing a resort destination in fragile ecosystems. Experts and
research are needed to clarify the existence and nature of the relationships in the system
to better define the key elements of “good practice”. The term “good practice” differs from
“best practice” in that there may be a number of acceptable options. The problem-solving
approach here, says Snowden, is to “sense” incoming information (e.g. local environmental
policies and regulations; environmental carrying capacity), “analyze” (prepare
environmental impact forecasts) and then “respond” on the basis of findings (implement
and measure environmental impact mitigation programs). In this context, as in the simple
context, structured techniques (planning, analysis) based on reductionist science are
effective and appropriate. Impressive bodies of marketing knowledge in the simple and
complicated contexts have been produced using such methods and tools. Problems can
arise, however, when these are automatically applied to problems occurring in the following
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context.
In a complex context, there is no clear “right answer” for problems that arise and no
expectation that there may be a “solution”. That does not mean that there is nothing to be
done. However, methods and tools appropriate in a simple or complicated context may
prove ineffective or even make the problem worse if used in a complex context (Black and
Farias, 2000). In this “un-ordered” domain, cause/effect relationships are nonlinear
(perceptible in retrospect, but not in advance) and a profusion of interconnected
stakeholders with diverse perceptions and preferences confound traditional reductionist
approaches effective in the ordered domain (Doherty and Delener, 2001). There may or
may not be high levels of technical complexity, but there are always high levels of social
complexity in this context. For example, for some, marketing is the antithesis of
sustainability and the two are inherently incompatible. Results of this have been
documented in conflicts around the social/cultural impact of tourism development and
recreational usage of public lands (Brooks and Champ, 2006). Here, unintended
consequences may emerge to be understood only in retrospect (e.g. unanticipated
community resistance to relatively minor changes in tourism operations or governmental
regulation of recreational use). As noted earlier, in a complex context, problems are not
likely to be “solved” in the manner with which we are accustomed to thinking, but they can
become better or worse. Snowden’s problem-solving approach here is to “probe” the issue
to allow patterns to emerge. As patterns emerge, we then need to “sense” which
approaches and actions are making things better to “respond” by amplifying and
resourcing them. The emergent, self-organizing characteristics of issues arising in the
complex context of sustainable marketing highlight the importance of context and the
limitations of linear approaches in the complex context. After we round off our review of
the Cynefin framework with a look at the chaotic context, we will consider the nature of the
complex context in more detail.
Unexpected climatic, environmental or man-made catastrophes (tsunamis, snowstorms, oil
spills, terrorist attacks, for example) operate in a chaotic context. Best practices, good

‘‘Much marketing theory and practice is based on a

reductionist paradigm inherited from management science.’’

PAGE 12 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS STRATEGY VOL. 36 NO. 5 2015

 ‘‘Few would disagree that sweeping change is making the
conditions in which marketing theory and practice are
applied even more complex.’’

practices and standard operating procedures are of limited use, as dynamic, dangerous
circumstances call for immediate responses. Here, there are no data to analyze and no
time to wait for analysis or even for patterns to emerge. In this chaotic context, according
to Snowden, the right approach is to take “action” to mitigate the most time-sensitive issues
(e.g. rescue survivors), “sense” the influence of that action (number of survivors remaining)
and then “respond” appropriately (switch from rescue to recovery).
The Cynefin framework is a powerful conceptual tool that has much to offer marketing
theory and practice. It can help marketing managers identify the context of their
sustainability issues, so that they can identify the outcomes possible and make choices of
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methods and tools appropriate to the simple, complicated, complex or chaotic conditions
of the issues they address.
Although the choice and application of (traditional) methods and tools in the ordered
contexts of simple and complicated are already strengths of marketing theory and practice,
the Cynefin framework prompts us to learn more about the complex context in which so
many sustainable marketing issues arise.

Next, apply insights from complexity science to better understand the context of
sustainable marketing
Sustainable marketing issues are frequently approached as if they take place in simple or
complicated (ordered) contexts and, as we have seen, some do. Many of the more
intractable problems, however, take place in a complex context where traditional methods
and tools are of limited effectiveness or even counterproductive. Few would disagree that
sweeping change is making the conditions in which marketing theory and practice are
applied even more complex (Doherty and Delener, 2001). Escalating complexity makes it
critical for marketing to become better acquainted with the complex context of the Cynefin
framework. Otherwise we risk finding ourselves in the unfortunate context of disorder
where, heedless of the conditions in which we are operating, we are apt to automatically
apply what have always been the right tools to the wrong problem. To more readily
recognize complex contexts as well as to understand which methods and tools should and
should not be used in them, our next section applies insights from complexity science to
sustainable marketing. Our focus will be on the developing literature on applications of
complexity science to marketing. By contrast with the management literature in this area,
conceptual and empirical investigations of complexity in marketing have been relatively
scarce.
Complexity – like sustainability itself – has numerous meanings. “From a ‘technical’ point of
view we do not have universally accepted definitions nor rigorous theoretical formulations
of complexity” (Baggio, 2008). Thus, complexity is often described in terms of its
characteristics (Doherty and Delener, 2001). We have already encountered two key
characteristics of complexity in our previous discussion: the nonlinear nature of
cause-and-effect relationships and the large number of interconnected stakeholders
representing diverse (and often conflicting) perspectives and interests (Mason and Staude,
2009). In addition:

VOL. 36 NO. 5 2015 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS STRATEGY PAGE 13

  Complexity can result in disproportionately large responses to minor changes. What
works well in one setting may result in totally unintended consequences in another,
seemingly similar situation.
 Complexity can only be understood by considering it as a whole. Critical relational
information is lost if – as in traditional approaches – the whole is decomposed into
sub-elements so that each can be analyzed separately. This is a case where the whole
is more than the sum of the parts.
 Complexity is dynamic and displays behavior that “emerges” in response to the
interactions among the elements (stakeholders, environment) making up the system. As
Pascale (1999) puts it, you can never really change a complex system, you only
disturb it.
 Complexity is deceptively easy to analyze in retrospect, but impossible to forecast
or to predict because the elements are always changing (Snowden and Boone,
2007).
Complexity science was developed to address these and other unique characteristics of
dynamic, emergent conditions (Mason and Staude, 2009). It represents an alternative
to traditional reductionist science and is being accepted and adopted across many
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disciplines, including physics, biophysics, mathematics, ecology, astronomy,

economics and the social sciences. Recognition of complexity at work in marketing
systems is found within the academic literature (Doherty and Delener, 2001; Hibbert
and Wilkinson, 1994; Mason and Staude, 2009). Yet, much of marketing theory and
practice continues to take a reductionist approach (Mason and Staude, 2009) which,
while highly beneficial for dealing with sustainability problems in simple and
complicated contexts, does not suffice for problems that occur in a complex context.
Nearly 20 years ago, Hibbert and Wilkinson (1994, p. 231) concluded “The majority of
marketing scholars tend too easily to rely on traditional techniques and models and”
and specifically called out mainstream research for its “resist(ance to) seeing the
opportunities arising from [. . .] new developments”. It is, they say, time for a new
framework to guide and add to the study and practice of marketing. Others have also
identified the inability of the reductionist approach to accommodate what are inherently
complex marketing systems and warned of steadily decreasing relevance and
effectiveness as a result (Doherty and Delener, 2001; Mason and Staude, 2009).
Complexity science offers marketing the needed alternative paradigm for viewing and
understanding sustainability. Just as the Cynefin framework sensitizes us to the
existence and importance of the context in which sustainable marketing takes place,
understanding the nature of complex adaptive systems appears essential to managing
sustainable marketing. Applying complexity science gives far greater significance to
vital ecosystem goods and services, structures and functions, society, its perceptions
and aspirations and a host of other components that affect sustainability efforts. In the
same way, understanding sustainability in terms of complexity adds further substance
and meaning and the possibility of discovering how marketers can be more successful
in this area.
In the first section of our paper, we applied the Cynefin framework to sustainable marketing
and saw that our traditional approaches and tools may not be a good match for the context
of the issues involved. Our traditional approaches and tools are based on reductionist

‘‘Wicked problems are characterized by several features

deriving from the complex context in which they are found.’’

PAGE 14 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS STRATEGY VOL. 36 NO. 5 2015

 ‘‘Sustainability itself is often used as an example of a wicked
problem.’’

theories, which while appropriate for issues that arise in simple and complicated contexts,
fall short in the complex context in which sustainability takes place.
In the second section, we did a deeper dive into the context of complexity, where we looked
to complexity science for insights on appropriate perspectives and approaches for the
complex context in which the more challenging aspects of sustainable marketing take
place.
In our next and final section, we now consider a special case of problems that can arise in
complex domains, “wicked problems”, and consider their implications for sustainable
marketing.
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Finally, recognize and respond to the inherent wickedness of sustainable

marketing
Growing concern for so-called “wicked problems” appears in the literature of a number
of disciplines in both the hard and soft sciences. Although the concept has appeared
in the management and strategy literature (Camillus, 2008), it is relatively unknown in
marketing. Marketing needs to become more familiar with the concept and implications
of wicked problems. They occur within the complex context of the Cynefin framework,
they often result from a “perfect storm” of the unique characteristics of complexity, they
are pervasive in issues involving high levels of social complexity and they are
recognized as presenting significant challenges to successful sustainability outcomes
(Batie, 2008). In this section, we present a brief overview of wicked problems and
explore the implications and contributions of the wicked problem literature to
sustainable marketing. The objective is to allow the reader to gain a deeper
appreciation of this point of view.
The term “wicked problems ” was introduced by Rittel and Webber (1973), who, writing
in the policy sciences literature, distinguished between tame and wicked problems. In
terms of our prior discussions, we can think of tame problems as those occurring in the
ordered domains (simple and complicated contexts) of the Cynefin framework and
wicked problems as unique to the unordered (complex context) domain. Tame
problems can be clearly defined (and solved) by experts who produce clear, workable
solutions using traditional analytical (reductionist) approaches. Wicked problems are
characterized by several features deriving from the complex context in which they
are found:
 No definitive formulation of wicked problems exist, as stakeholders have radically
different frames of reference concerning the problem; constraints and resources for
addressing wicked problems change over time, contributing to high uncertainty not
only with outcomes but also with the potential causes and effects underlying the
problems.
 Key to understanding wicked problems – because of their complex interdependencies
and associated high levels of social complexity, wicked problems are never solved in
a traditional sense (Conklin, 2006), but rather they become better or worse (Rittel and
Webber, 1973).
Common examples of wicked problem issue areas in society in general include abortion,
air quality, biofuels, climate change, genetically modified food, globalization, gun control,

VOL. 36 NO. 5 2015 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS STRATEGY PAGE 15

 healthcare, poverty, terrorism and stem cell research. Sustainability itself is often used as
an example of a wicked problem (Batie, 2008; Camillus, 2008).
In their original work, Rittel and Weber (1973) identified ten characteristics that
distinguished wicked from tame problems and the interested reader is referred there for
more detail.
The issues raised in sustainable marketing more closely resemble a wicked problem than
a well-defined analytical or tame problem. Problem definition based on linear reasoning
(described by Conklin, 2006, as following the traditional approach of gathering and
analyzing data about a problem to formulate the solution, and then proceeding to
implement that solution) is ill-suited for addressing wicked problems because in the case
of wickedness, no one definitive and consensual definition can be formulated (Rittel and
Webber, 1973). We have already seen that traditional approaches do not work in a complex
context, and with wicked problems, the issues are amplified.
Given that there are wicked problems in sustainability for marketing, how are such
problems to be managed? From our previous discussions, we can take-away some key
insights for managing the wickedness of sustainable marketing.
First, sustainable marketing is clearly an issue occurring in a complex context and it fits the
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description of a wicked problem, but marketing managers often make decisions and take
actions as if they were facing a simple or tame problem. To succeed in managing the
wickedness of sustainable marketing, it must first be recognized as such. Problem
structuring tools such as the Cynefin framework can help.
Second, while marketers have become familiar with complexity, they remain largely
unaware of its methods and tools and that using their traditional linear problem-solving
approaches ensures failure in the long term and may make the situation worse in the short
term (2006). Intractable controversies such as those often found in sustainable marketing
moves problem solving beyond objective reasoning (Conklin, 2006) and technical
complexity where one or more “right” answers exist. Sustainable marketing problems exist
in the realm of extreme social complexity, where each stakeholder has a unique
perspective and problems can be made better or worse but never “solved”. Managers and
decision makers cannot simply apply technical or regulatory solutions and hope to
succeed – sustainability is not just a matter of reconciling the imperative of sustainability
with the reality of profitability.
Third, problems become wicked when stakeholders hold diverse perspectives and do not
agree on what the problem is, let alone the solution. In addressing such problems, an early
objective, therefore, must be to begin to unravel the social complexity by identifying all
stakeholders, identifying their perspectives and seeking common understanding while not
expecting consensus (Brooks and Champ, 2006). Overcoming wickedness requires a
social process that involves inclusive communication and collective action among all
stakeholders. Working together by building relationships with stakeholders is the key to
resolving issues of sustainability (Brooks and Champ, 2006).

‘‘Sustainable marketing problems exist in the realm of

extreme social complexity, where each stakeholder has a
unique perspective and problems can be made better or
worse but never ‘solved’.’’

PAGE 16 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS STRATEGY VOL. 36 NO. 5 2015

 Conclusion
This paper began with the observation that marketers are under increasing pressure to
adopt sustainability practices as well as to achieve a variety of sustainability goals from
both internal and external stakeholders. The success of sustainable marketing strategies
Keywords: and tactics is uneven, however, as the discipline struggles with the inherent challenges of
Complexity, sustainability. As documented in the marketing literature, traditional management
Wicked problems, approaches and tools do not seem to work as expected for solving more recent issues,
Socially responsible including sustainability problems. Marketing needs to accept and apply new and evolving
marketing, approaches and tools to help ensure the successful development and implementation of
Sustainable marketing, sustainable marketing. Three relevant concepts, the Cynefin framework, complexity
Sustainability, science and wicked problems, and their associated perspectives and approaches were
Cynefin framework offered to help deliver successful results in sustainable marketing.

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About the author

Dale Fodness is an Associate Professor of Marketing in the Satish & Yasmin Gupta College
of Business at the University of Dallas where he teaches marketing and sustainability
topics. Dale Fodness can be contacted at: dfodness@[Link]

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