SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
General Education Department
THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD
LESSON 7 GLOBALIZATION OF RELIGION
This chapter examines the globalization of religion, specifically how
globalization affects religion, and affects global conflict and peace.
Religion has been a vehicle and an instrument in the process of
globalization. In fact, argues Reza Aslan (2009), “no single force can
be said to have had a greater impact on propelling globalization
forward than religion, which has always sought to spread its
message” beyond the ethnic and territorial frontiers of its origin.
Religions have crossed many boundaries, having been spread by
religious crusades, immigrants, refugees, or by the social ties.
Fundamentally, different cultures have changed religious beliefs and traditions overtime within religious
practices.
Religion and globalization are two equally shapers of social realities. Yet, religion has existed far longer
than globalization. Unlike “religion”, there is a lot of confusion and dilemmas about the definition of
globalization. Like religion, globalization is a challenging concept to define since most of dominant
discussions suggest that globalization is, dominantly, economic and political processes. But
McCorquodale and Fairbrother (1999) describe globalization is also a driving force where “political,
economic, social, and cultural relationships are not restricted to territorial boundaries or to state
actors,” globalization has much done with its impact on cultures. As goods and finance have been
sweeping across the globe, globalization changes the cultural spaces of the globe and generates a
homogenized global culture. The process of globalization has truly made the world a smaller village in
which affects individuals and societies anywhere. Religion, as a social institution has been greatly
affected by this force.
In globalization of economics and politics, Giddens (1991) argued that individuals feel insecure for the
reason of how they live their lives are being questioned and changed at the same time. Hence, in order
for a person to avoid existential anxiety and to maintain a sense of psychological well-being, individuals
turn to teachings and scripture stories that provide a perspective on how they can attain the
“meaningful world,” a world that is rapidly changing every day. But Durkheim (1965, orig. 1915)
emphasized that society has a life and power of its own beyond the life of any individual. In other words,
society itself is godlike, shaping the lives of its members and living on beyond them. Practicing religion,
people celebrate the awesome power of their society.
DEFINING RELIGION
Sociologists, anthropologists, and scholars of religious studies throughout much of the 20th century
argued over the definition of religion. Defining religion is a useful epistemological exercise and would
help us in clarifying ambiguous concepts. This lesson begins by explaining what religion is from a
sociological point of view since we will be examining people’s social relationships. We then explore the
relationship of religion with globalization and how globalization changes religion.
Generally, religion is a system of beliefs and practices. More specifically, the word comes from the Latin
“religare” which means to bind together again that which was once bound but has since been torn apart
or broken (Perry, 1998). The French sociologist Emile Durkheim stated that religion involves “things that
surpass the limits of our knowledge” (1965:62, orig. 1915). We define most objects, events, or
experiences as profane (from Latin, meaning “outside the temple”), included as an ordinary element of
everyday life. But we also consider some things sacred, set apart as extraordinary, inspiring awe and
reverence. Setting the sacred apart from the profane is the essence of all religious belief. Religion, then,
is a social institution involving beliefs and practices based on recognizing the sacred.
LEARNING ACTIVITY NO. 1
MUST WATCH!
1. Choose 1 video clip and make a critical analysis of what you have watched.
Watch Video:
1) The Big Story: Origins of Religion https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V9mFNgu6Cww
2) The five major world religions - John Bellaimey https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m6dCxo7t_aE
FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION
Durkheim identified three major functions of religion that contribute to the operation of society:
1. Establishing social cohesion. Religion unites people through shared symbolism, values, and
norms. Religious thought and ritual establish rules of fair play, organizing our social life.
2. Promoting social control. Every society uses religious ideas to promote conformity. By defining
God as a “judge,” many religions encourage people to obey cultural norms. Religion can also be
used to back up the power of political systems. In medieval Europe, for example, monarchs
claimed to rule by “divine right,” so that obedience was seen as doing God’s will. Even today,
our leaders ask for God’s blessing, implying that their efforts are right and just.
3. Providing meaning and purpose. Religious belief offers the comforting sense that our brief lives
serve some greater purpose. Strengthened by such beliefs, people are less likely to despair in
the face of change or even tragedy. For this reason, we mark major life course transitions—
including birth, marriage, and death—with religious observances.
In Durkheim’s structural-functional analysis, religion represents the collective life of society. As
globalization shapes and reshapes the society, it would also reshape the religion as a collective life of
society. Nonetheless, the relationship between globalization and religion is a dynamic process which
subjected to different challenges.
GLOBALIZATION AFFECTS RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND BELIEFS
Azzouzi (2013) argued that while religion takes advantage of communication and transportation
technology, it is at the same time the source of globalization’s greatest resistance by acting as a haven
for those standing in opposition to its power. On the other hand, because globalization allows for daily
contact, religion enters a circle of conflict in which religions become “more self-conscious” of
themselves as being world religions.
In this chapter, as Golebiewski (2014) acknowledges the relationship of religion and globalization as a
complex process, we focus on its advantages and disadvantages.
Globalization greatly promotes religious tolerance in the areas of economics, politics
and society.
Globalization disrupts traditional communities, promote economic marginalization, and
cause mental stress to individuals, all of which engender a backlash of religious
parochialism.
Though globalization serves as an instrument in bringing identities, cultures, and
religions interacting together, globalization also serves as an arena of greater religious
conflict that reinforces particular identities.
Watch Video: Animated map shows how religion spread around the world
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AvFl6UBZLv4
1. Globalization Promotes Greater Religious Tolerance
Globalization promotes a pluralistic culture, meaning religions with overlapping buthave discrete
interest and ethics interact with each other. Significantly, the dominant religious in the world –
Hinduism, Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam – educate and teach values like equality, human
dignity, peace, solidarity, and freedom. Particularly, religions carry on the Golden Rule: “Do not do unto
others what you don’t want others do unto you.” Hence, with those religious values, globalization
promotes greater religious tolerance especially in the areas of economics, politics, and society.
a. In the area of economics, when there is economic prosperity in a country, the main religions
of those countries have also grown financially, meaning, there are more financial resources
for religions to spread their beliefs (e.g. Missionary work, media coverage, social media
evangelization).
b. In political areas, globalization encourages global political forums which integrate ethnic,
cultural, and religious diversities – ideas and beliefs that perceived to divide the world –
through international organizations such as United Nations (UN), World Health Organization
(WHO), European Union (EU), Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). In discussing
issues such as international security and peace, poverty, environment, and health issues,
these organizations generally share the same dedication as religious traditions – primarily
human dignity, human equality, peace and conflict resolution in which they actively
participate in diplomacy, mediation and negotiation. Moreover, the Roman Catholic Church
including several religions –Hindu, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity and others, are active in
peace building. In February 3, 2019, Pope Francis arrived in the United Arab Emirates - his
first ever visit to the Arabian Peninsula and was welcomed by Crown Prince Sheikh
Mohammed bin Zayed al-Nahyan – for an interfaith conference.
c. Lastly, religion benefited a lot from technological developments. For instance, internet and
mass media provide an exchange of information on different religions to any parts in the
world. It also serves as an opportunity to communicate with others which allow religious
doctrines and ideas to spread around the globe.
2. Globalization Creating Backlash of Religious Parochialism
Globalization process promotes greater religious tolerance, but it also creates a backlash of religious
parochialism. Considerably, globalization is a world revolution, though all revolutions interfere the
peoples’ customs and traditions – that is, “people’s very security, safety, and identity” (Kurth, 1999).
Since globalization disrupts communities, resulting economic insecurities and marginalization,
and brings mental stress, individuals feel the undesirable aspect of globalization. Though, as Hans Kung
stated, religion has the power to “convey a picture of stability,security and simple answers” through
beliefs and stories – apart from political-economic plans, programs or legal regulations – individuals
refer to religion.
a. Globalization disrupts traditional communities and introduces a much more impersonal,
larger organizations. As globalization constantly shaping and reshaping our identities, thru
the creation of “global village,” it drastically alters individual’s conventional understanding
on his – “nationality,” “citizenship”, and “immigration.” For example, instead of calling the
French, German, Spanish or by country of origin, rather it addresses them as European
citizens – causing individuals to feel that they are not notably represented. Because of this,
many individuals find comfort in religion by giving them sense of belonging and as religious
groups facilitate in finding themselves in modern times. By that, it reinforces a feeling of
security as being part of a group which represents collective interests. Allowing them to
redeem their traditional sense of identity.
b. Globalization promotes economic marginalization. As multinational corporations assume
control over the state’s regulation in the economic sector, the state loses its function as a
social welfare provider. Generally, it increases the gaps between those who have benefit the
global market (generally the West) and those who have in the peripheries (Global South).
Globalization is seen as “Americanization” and “Western imperialism” by promoting their
culture and undermines local cultures. For example, individuals are encouraged to buy Nike
rather than Marikina shoes, and drink Starbucks coffee rather than Monk’s blend coffee
(produce by Monastery of Transfiguration Monks in Malaybalay City, Bukidnon). With the
response to individual’s desire for welfare, religion acts as a cultural and social protection
against globalization, as it plays a social role and greater recognition from the marginalized
countries, specifically the Global South.
c. Globalization causes mental stress. Although it allows people to move from one country to
another, it makes individuals worry about their status, privileges and work. Furthermore,
since globalization promotes material abundance rather than life over inner peace,
individuals concentrate to obtain material possession such as car, house, gadgets, or any
object. But later they realize that inner peace cannot be attained through material
possessions. Then religion gives them the sense of personal fulfillment and way to inner
peace. For instance, in a globalized world, a person who feels insecure, in personal life,
studies or work, will seek spiritual support and will pray to God. Others engage in religious
communities and social movements for a good cause that brings greater satisfaction to
them compared to material possessions. In a nutshell, in the presence of a fast phase
globalized world, individuals arelookingfor a sense of certainty that’s why they turn to
religion to find an explanation of what is happening in the world. Religion becomes a
“home” in times of insecurity and crisis.
3. Religious Identity and Globalization: Furthering Challenges
Religion provides answers to questions regarding self-identity, although, in search for answers, religion
constituted a notion of “truth” of which the God has set rules and has made them formidable to
challenge. A person who does not adhere to such “truth” – labeled as an “abject” – automatically be
excluded from the religious community.
In the age of globalization where there is uncertainty, collective identity is restricted to several
cultural and religious characteristics – as an in-group and out-group – “them” and “us” and “theirs” and
“ours.” That is to say, the abject turns into a recognized threat(Kinvall, 2004).
Generally speaking, as globalization paved the way for religions to interact with another, it
generates an arena of conflicts and competition. If religions view themselves as “world religions” and
reinforce their distinct identities, there would always be tensions.
RELIGION, CONFLICT AND PEACE
Even there are a lot of specific and different religions across the globe, religion itself is an abstract
concept. This could manifest in various ways of how the different social groups and cultures express
their belief system. Evidently, religion has continued to shape every aspect of human society. Though,
religion has been associated with violent activities, there are many dimensions and contributions of
religion that has been ignored or even neglected completely. A discussion on the relationship between
conflict and religion is important in understanding its complexity to achieve conflict resolution and
peace in general. In this section, I discussed several terrorism cases of different religious background all
over the world.
Islam Extremist Ideology
For decades, the world has been focused on attacks perpetrated by Muslim extremists. If we recall the
horror of September 11 (or the 9/11) attacks coordinated by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda, of
which certainly religious conviction was one of the motivating factors. There were 2,977 people killed of
this deadliest terror attack in the history of United States (Boot, 2019). This was just a preliminary of the
terrors have come. In recent decades - a lot of horrifying acts of terrorism have been perpetrated in the
name of Islam in different parts of the world.
Amparo (2013) described the Philippines as “haven for terrorists.”Moreover, in the recent decades, the
Philippines was identified as one of the greatest numbers of terrorist groups. The Philippines was ranked
as top 10 of countries affected by terrorism in 2018 Global Terrorism Index published in Institute of
Economics and Peace and ranked first in the Asia-Pacific region terrorism index. In 2017, there were 326
fatalities, recorded as the highest number of deaths from terrorism – the highest since 2002 according
to the report. The New People’s Army – Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP-NPA) was responsible
for 35-percent of these deaths, followed by Abu Sayyaf responsible for 18-percent of the deaths and the
Maute group, responsible for 26 (Macasero, 2018; CNN Report, 2018).
On May 23, 2017, the war in Islamic City of Marawi in Mindanao brought horror across the globe. The
Maute Brothers had reportedly pledged allegiance to Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) (Wadiasari,
2018). According to Professor Greg Fealy, an expert of contemporary politics and terrorism, the battle
for Marawi is the most significant terrorist event in Southeast Asia since the 2002 Bali bombings, an Al-
Qaeda-link extremist network Jemaah Islamiah (JI) attacks. The Global Extremism Monitor (2017)
reported that the violent movements by Muslim extremists in different parts of the world will continue
to spread unless decision makers completely engage in the warfare of ideas and deal with extremists’
ideologies, recognizing that these radical thoughts are bounded with multinational religious-political
ideology.
Buddhist Chauvinism
Like Islam, Buddhism has seen many disturbing and violent episodes, despite the notion of being a
peaceful religion, over the past years in different parts of Asia, there were friction between Buddhism
and Islam that has killed hundreds, mostly Muslims. The violence was perpetrated by extremist Buddhist
monks, who preach and propagate a dangerous form of religious chauvinism to the followers (Beech,
2013). There are Buddhist monks in Sri Lanka who assert for an exclusivity of Buddhist identity which
incite violent conflict in the country. Early 2018, there were clashes between Muslims and Buddhist
extremists in Sri Lanka. The riots have resulted death of a Muslim and the destruction of several
buildings.
The same with any other religious adherents, Buddhist and their holy men are also subjected to politics.
For instance, the Bocu Bala Sena (Buddhist power force, or BBS), Sri Lanka’s most active Buddhist
extremist group, has entered politics in 2012 advancing its Buddhist-nationalist agenda and ideology.
The BBS leaders protested that Sri Lankans had become immoral and deviated from Buddhism, blaming
the Sri Lankan Muslims (Johansson, 2018).
The situation in Myanmar – a majority Buddhist country – troubled not just the Buddhist communities,
but also the world for its massive human rights violations systematically being committed against the
Muslim Rohingya minority. In 2017, Al Jazeera and The New York Times articles exposed mass graves of
Rohingya massacred by Burmese troops in the same year. There were estimated over 10,000 Rohingya
had been killed due to violent upsurge, and there are more or less 700,000 have fled and exiled in
neighboring India and Bangladesh. The United Nation Human Rights chief declared the situation as a
classic example of ethnic cleansing (Rosenthal, 2018).
Penny Green, Director of the International State Crime Initiative (ISCI) at London’s Queen Mary
University released a report in 2018 asserting that the government of Myanmar is “guilty of genocidal
intent toward the Rohingya.”Over the century, the Burmese people have a strong notion on that they
need to protect Buddhism from enemy foreign invaders. There were not just only anti-Muslim
movements arose before, in 1930s and 1940s there were a rise of anti-Hindu and anti-Christian
sentiments. All of these occurrences were fueled by anti-colonial movements and solidified by the idea
of to be truly Burmese one must be a Buddhist.
A Call for a Hindu Nation
Marshall (2004) asserted that the world’s attention has properly been focused on Islamic extremism
violence since 2001, but there are also major violent trends emerging in Hindu extremism though
usually ignored in the United States. Not just ignored in the US but also in India (Lowry, 2019: United
States Commission on International Religious Freedom, 2018 as cited by Shah, 2018). For the past
decades in India, as Bauman (2013) argued that the Hindu-Muslim violence has greatly received
scholarly attention, but the conflict of Hindu-Christian has not. Decades ago, there have been increased
attacks on Christians by extremists Hindu. There are already several hundred violent attacks per year.
This Hindu extremist’s violence against religious and ethnic minorities is supported by the pro-Hindu
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) who came to power since 2014 in the Indian government (Lal & Clark, 2019;
Lowry, 2019; UCAnews.com, 2019; Shah, 2018).
In India, there were horrific attacks to Christian communities. Since May 2014, when the BJP political
party rose into power and their candidate became India’s prime minister – the number of violent attacks
against Christians has gone up dramatically. In 2018, the Research for Open Doors’ World Watch List
reported that there are more than 12,000 Christians attacked, but this is just a tip of an iceberg. There
are increasing numbers of persecution towards Christians which go unreported. Moreover, asthe Hindu
Munnani, one of the south’s most active Hindu extremist group claim it - “India belongs to only Hindus,
not to any other!”-in front of Almighty God Church, Kodumudi, Erode District, Tamil Nadu, India, on a
Sunday Christian prayer service. This has become a common narrative by Hindu Nationalist groups. The
growing number of Christians in the Tribal regions of India is seen as a threat by Hindus (Lowry,
2019).Discrimination is widespread in India due to its age-old caste system. This caste system greatly
inflicts Christians generally because most converts to Christians come from the Dalits (the “untouchable”
caste) who belongs to the lower castes.
Christians are not the only victims of Hindu extremists’ violence. Members of these Hindu extremist
groups also incite and perpetrate violence against Muslim minorities (Komireddi, 2011). UCAnews.com
reported that between May 2015 and December 2018, there were 44 people – 36 are Muslims – were
killed all over Indian states. Also,there were 254 recorded cases of crimes attacking religious minorities
between the period of January 2009 and October 2018, 579 people were injured and at least 91 were
killed. After the BJP political party rose into power in May 2014 there were about 90 percent of these
reported attacks and 66 percent happened in BJP-run states. 66 percent of these cases were attacks
against Muslims, and 14 percent against Christians. These cases include attacks on interfaith couples,
communal clashes, and violence related to religious conversions and protecting cows. Same with the
Buddhist nationalist sentiments, these incidents were fuelled by anti-colonial movements and
strengthened by the idea of to be truly Indian one must be a Hindu.
Contemporary Christian Crusaders
There is a rise of new right-wing extremism in contemporary North America and Europe. Koch (2017)
further described those who embrace this ideology expressed radical hatred towards left, which
accounted as “disloyal” and “treacherous”, and towards immigrants and Muslims, and ultimately display
violence against them. Among this right-wing extremism, the use of crusaders (and mainly the
KnightsTemplar) narrative is not new. For instance, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), the American white
supremacist group produced a newspaper called Crusader.In 2016, three Kansas men calling themselves
‘Crusaders’ were charged in terror plot (Berman, Larimer, & Wootson, 2016) andlater convicted in terror
plot to bomb mosque and apartment complex housing of Muslim Somali refugeesin Kansas, USA
(Sterling, 2019; Hegemen, 2018). Thesewhite supremacists are just one of the many extreme rightswho
use Christian motifs and make use of the crusader symbols inspired from Christian knights. These motifs
have been used as a narrative to justify their struggle against Muslims.There has been a new movement
in Europe known as Counter Jihad Movement (CJM) which broadly shares a great deal with right wing
extremism and fascism (Koch, 2017; Lee, 2016). They also make use of crusader symbols.
In July 22, 2011, a man named Anders Behring Breivik murdered 77 people. He planted a bomb in Oslo
which has killed eight people. Two hours later after the bomb explosion, he then proceeded to small
island of Utoya, where left-wing Workers Youth League was having their yearly summer youth camp –69
killed due to mass shooting incident. Claiming he did all of this in the name of the Knights Templar.The
Knights Templar is an ancient Christian military order established in the early 12th century in Jerusalem
for the protection of Holy Sepulcher, pilgrims, and especially active throughout the Crusades. The
Templars had been notable and known as monks-warriors, who were significant in the encounter
against the Muslims (Anderson & Hull, 2017). According to American and Norwegian officials who
conducted the investigation,Breivik’s 1500-page manifesto detailed his preparations and calling for a
Christian war to defend Europe against Muslim domination. The turning point why he created such act
may come to his late 20’s paranoia grew about – the Islamization of Western Europe (Lee, 2016; BBC,
2012).
Similar case that happened in March 2019, the shootings by an Australian man, Brenton Tarrant in New
Zealand’s Christchurch mosquewhich resulted in the deaths of at least 50 Muslims, is also connected
with the Knights Templar narrative. Tarrant even pointed out his relationship with the Knights Templars,
a group of Anders Breivik, who perpetrated the bombings and mass shootings that killed 77 people in
Norway in July 2011.Tarrant’s 74-page manifesto has escalated the idea on white supremacist groups
worldwide that have been ideologically connected to each other. His allusions included U.S. President
Donald Trump as “a symbol of renewed white identity and common purpose”, with the determination to
effect politics, and his beliefs. Despite his detailed manifesto with clear religious and racial reference, he
has not been referred to as a “Christian terrorist” or a “white terrorist”. But when a Muslim who
committed such act, his origin, race, and religion has been easily noticed (Hassan, 2019). As Ibrahim &
Karcic (2019) pointed out the idea of ongoing war between Islam and Christendom that has existed long
time ago and may continue in the future. It is just a matter of time with the resurgence of this European
fascism writ at large.
Is Religion a source of Conflict or a Path to Peace?
Though there are violent episodes associated with religious extremists’ organizations all over the world,
religion has also been instrumental to peace building. In 2008, Smock reported and published “Religion
in World Affairs: Its Role in Conflict and Peace” in United States Institute of Peace Report. His report had
shown and demonstrated the nature of the religious dimension of international conflict, which more
often overlooked, sometimes misunderstood, and mostly exaggerated. With the efforts of several
religious leaders to address injustices and conflict confronting their communities. Furthermore, religious
leaders utilized various peacemaking approaches, extending from mediation and facilitation to interfaith
dialogue, to resolve conflict all over the world and make it a better world to live in. This is the summary
of his report:
No religion is exempted from complicity and making violent conflict. People should be aware on
universalizing tendency to oversimplify the role it plays in international affairs. Religion is not
just the prevailing sole or the principal cause of conflict.
Religion has been often highlighted as the source of conflict, its role as a social force in
peacemaking is prevalently ignored.
Religious conviction and affiliation usually encourage the religious communities to support and
advocate peace-related policies of the government. Religious communities also primarily oppose
repression and promote reconciliation and peace.
The religious leaders and institutions serve an important role in mediating conflict situations as a
bridge of the opposing parties, and provide training in peacemaking programs. Though this kind
of religious peacemaking gets a little public attention but serves as an important strategy.
Another form of religious peacemaking is interfaith dialogue. Instead of seeking to resolve
specific conflict, this approach aims to mitigate interfaith tensions that may prompt further
conflict or derive from preceding conflict. Interfaith dialogue is a very useful method especially
in areas where there are highest interreligious tensions. The most disputed interfaith
relationships make us understand the context for more productive and significant exchanges.
Furthermore, the research findings of Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP)2014 studying
collaboration with the Religious Freedom& Business Foundation reported that religious freedom is
linked to peace. Moreover, the findings of the study revealed no general causal relationship between
conflict and religion pertaining to the world’s entire current conflicts. Countries with greater religious
freedom are commonly more peaceful while countries with less religious freedom are usually less
peaceful.
LEARNING ACTIVITY NO. 2
1. Direction: Globalization as a driving force to change, it transforms the society in general including
your way of life. Identify at least 5 positive and negative effects of globalization to your religious
practices and beliefs.
EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
5
2. Reflection Questions:
1. How globalization changes your society’s religious practices and tradition in general?
2. How does religion helps solve the global conflict and promote global peace?
