SUBJECT FORENSIC SCIENCE

Paper No. and Title PAPER No.1: General Forensic Science

Module No. and Title MODULE No.34: Introduction to Forensic Photography- I

Module Tag FSC_P1_M34

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER NO.1: General Forensic Science

MODULE NO.34: Introduction to Forensic Photography- I
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Learning Outcomes
2. Introduction
3. Light sources
4. Illumination or Lighting Conditions
5. Contrast
6. Filters
7. Temperature and Colour balance
8. Lenses
9. Selection of Photographic Lenses
10. Summary

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER NO.1: General Forensic Science

MODULE NO.34: Introduction to Forensic Photography- I
 1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to know about -

 The basics of forensic photography

 Selection of Photographic Lenses

2. Introduction

The word photography is derived from the Greek word, photos meaning “light” and
graphos meaning ‘pertaining to drawing or writing’. Therefore, photography can be
defined as the art, science and practice of creating the durable images by recording light
or other electromagnetic radiations, either chemically by means of a light sensitive
material such as photographic film, or electronically by means of an image sensor.

In crime cases, the documentation of evidence is one of the most important stages of any
crime scene investigation. Besides others, photography is considered as one of the
important documentation technique in the field of forensic science which can record the
whole crime scene area, exact conditions of crime scene and the evidences present over
there. Photography is also sometimes used to further enhance the details that are not
being visible to the human eye. The forensic photography section supports the forensic
science in general, but to various divisions like questioned document; chemistry;
toxicology; ballistics; physical section; biological section; DNA and medical examiner's
departments by documenting evidence, crime scenes, and autopsies etc. specifically. The
photography section of any laboratory is also responsible for the design of displays and
graphics for reports to be presented in the court of law, training and the web. So this
division is considered to be an essential part of general crime scene investigation and
thereafter in the laboratory.

In addition, it is often used in the laboratory to visualize and store the patterns and
phenomena that some time might not be detectable with naked eye. This application of
photography in Forensic Science is based upon the fact that it can be done in different
spectral regions like ultraviolet and infrared.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER NO.1: General Forensic Science

MODULE NO.34: Introduction to Forensic Photography- I
 Knowledge of some of the following basics is essential to understand the basics of
photography.

3. Light sources
There is need to understand the concept of light and their types to understand the
photography. Light or visible light is a narrow region of electromagnetic spectrum
(Table-1&2). Electromagnetic energy with wavelengths within the range of 400 to 700
nm is capable of stimulating receptors (rods and cones) in the retina of the eye and for
this reason is known as visible light (Fig-1 and Table-1). When light falls on the object
the visual and photographic images are produced by gathering a portion of the light
emitted or reflected by an object and reassembling it to form an image. When light
interacts with object sometimes it gets transmitted in case of transparent objects and other
times it get reflected when there is an opaque object. The way in which the light has
interacted with the object helps in getting information about the resembling of the light to
form an image.

4. Illumination or Lighting Conditions

Illumination or lighting conditions makes a significant difference between a photograph
which is of good quality and the photograph which is of poor quality. When the natural
light is not sufficient or it is not available then we have to opt for artificial light. Artificial
illumination sources include arc light, flashbulb, and electronic flash etc. They can be
moved and positioned accordingly so that various angles of illumination can be obtained.
Control of the illumination angle is difficult when available light such as sunlight or
normal room light is being relied upon for the exposure. Thus, artificial illumination is
preferred when control of the angle of illumination is important. For this, one should try
different angles if it is not sure which of the illumination angle is to be used.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER NO.1: General Forensic Science

MODULE NO.34: Introduction to Forensic Photography- I
 Table-1 Frequency and Wavelength of Electromagnetic Spectrum

S. No Name of Radiation Frequency Wavelength

(Hz) (meters)

1 Gamma rays 1021-1019 More than 10-12

2 X-Rays 1019-1017 10-8-10-12

3 UV Rays 1017-7x1014 3x10-7-10-8

4 Visible rays 7x1014-4x1014 8x10-7-4x10-7

5 IR Rays 4x1014-1012 10-3-8x10-7

6 Microwaves 1012-109 1-10-3

7 Radio waves 109-107 Less than 1

Fig-1: Showing Range of colours present in the Visible Part of Spectrum

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER NO.1: General Forensic Science

MODULE NO.34: Introduction to Forensic Photography- I
 The electromagnetic radiation other than visible light which are called infrared radiation
was first discovered by William Harchel in 1800, when he was checking the temperature
of various colours of the spectrum by splitting through the prism. He observed the highest
temperature away from red colour. Then he suggested a theory that change of
temperature was due to a type of "calorific rays" or light ray that could not be seen.

Immediately in the next year, Johann Ritter, while working on the other end of the visible
spectrum, noticed ‘chemical rays’ later named as ultraviolet radiation, which are also
invisible light rays but induced certain chemical reactions. These were beyond visible
spectrum and behaved similar to visible violet light rays.

Ultraviolet Light (UV) has shorter wavelength than the shortest visible wavelength. But
Infrared Light (IR) has longer wavelength than longest visible wavelength. These two
lights (UV and IR) do not fall in the sensitivity level of the human eye (which varies from
400-750nm), but still have important applications in forensic examination of clue
materials at crime scene and in the laboratory as well.

Photographs has to be taken on a special film with these two lights (UV and IR) and
reveals different properties of different types of physical evidences like semen stained
garments or bed sheets, questioned documents (including obliterated writing), and GSR
discharge, etc. etc.

Table-2: Showing Major Colors and their complements along with Wavelengths

S. No. Wavelength Range (approx.) Colour Major

Complements
In nm

1 400-450 Violet Yellow-Green

2 450-480 Blue Yellow

3 480-490 Green-blue Orange

4 490-500 Blue-green Red

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MODULE NO.34: Introduction to Forensic Photography- I
 5 500-560 Green Purple

6 560-575 Yellow-green Violet

7 575-590 Yellow Blue

8 590-625 Orange Green-blue

9 625-750 Red Blue-green

5. Contrast

Contrast is the degree of difference between black and white or dark shadows and bright
highlights of the photographs/images. Without contrast, there wouldn't be any difference
between light and dark. There are two types of contrasts in photography; high contrast
and low contrast.

An image is said to be in high contrast when it exhibits a full range of tones ranging from
black to white and strong, bold colours and textures of the images are emphasized. On the
contrary, in a low contrast photograph appears dull as it doesn’t exhibit a great deal of
difference between its darks and lights. Best examples of low contrast are the photos
taken in the fog or mist.

Contrast in forensic photography is very important. Light sources play significant role in
providing contrast. Angle of incident light is one parameter that can be different. In a
unidirectional light source, the light is subjected from one direction only which gives too
much contrast or shadowing. In such situations, source of diffuse illumination can be
selected which can be obtained by placing a translucent material such as thin white paper
or ground glass in between the source and the subject to scatter the light and act as a
diffuser and further help in the reduction of shadow contrast.

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MODULE NO.34: Introduction to Forensic Photography- I
 6. Filters
Filters are camera accessory, which modify the images recorded may be on any recording
medium. Sometimes they are used to make only minor changes to images; other times
they need a major change in the images. Coloured filter plays an important role to get the
selected colour and further enhancing the contrast of an image, when placed over the
light source or the camera lens. An object will appear darker in the photograph if the
filter of complementary colour is used. For example if a filter of the same colour is used
then the object appears comparatively lighter. If filters of black and white film are used
then they are called colour contrast filter (fig-2). The filter which is to be placed over the
camera lens must be of higher quality but there is no such requirement in case of white
light source.

Fig-2: Showing Different types of Filters

Filters also changes the colour balance of images, so photographs taken under
incandescent light source show colours as they are perceived, rather than a reddish tinge.
There are filters which distort the image as desired, diffusing an otherwise sharp image,
adding a starry effect, etc. Supplementary close-up lenses can also be used as filters.

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MODULE NO.34: Introduction to Forensic Photography- I
 7. Temperature and Colour balance
It is well known that white light is made up of all the seven colours of visible spectrum
(Fig-1). The colour of the white light used in colour photography is critical. Colour
contrast filters are required for black and white photography. However, all sources of
white light are not the same. For example, the light given off by a candle contains a
higher proportion of the longer wavelengths corresponding to yellow, orange, and red
colour. Hence light appears yellowish or yellow-white. The light produced by a tungsten
filament in a normal incandescent lamp bulb also contains a preponderance of longer
wavelengths, although to a lesser degree. This light appears whiter than that from the
candle flame but is noticeably yellow as compared to sunlight. The tungsten filament is
hotter than the candle flame. There is a direct correlation between the temperature and
colour balance. For example the hotter the incandescent light source, the whiter the light
it will produces. This relationship between the colour of the source and its temperature
specify the degree of whiteness of the source by comparing it to the colour of the light
emitted from a standard source.

To prove, when an experiment was conducted by matching the colours of the two sources
by adjusting the temperature of the known standard source in Kelvin scale (K), which is a
measure of the colour temperature of light or in other words the degree of whiteness of
the unknown source. The numerical values are called the colour temperature of the source
and are given below:

Electronic flash has approximately 6000 K colour temperature; whereas the photo floods
bulbs/ professional tungsten have 3200 or 3400 K colour temperatures and 5500 K for
daylight. Sources with colour temperatures other than 6000 K can be utilized with
daylight films if special filters are used to change the colour temperature to 6000 K. The
filters of are known as colour correction filters.

The Kelvin scale (K) has little value,

 As colour correction filters are identified by non-standardized numbers which

vary from manufacturer to manufacturer.

 Because it runs counter to the way in which we use some photographic terms.

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MODULE NO.34: Introduction to Forensic Photography- I
 For example, in photographic terms, when a photographers talk about adding “warmth”
to a scene, which usually mean to add some reddish tones. On the other hand, when
photographers talk about “cool” tones, they’re referring to the bluish side of the
spectrum. This logic is just the opposite of the Kelvin scale of colour temperature.

The need for these filters has been greatly reduced by the widespread adoption of digital
photography, since colour balance may be corrected with camera settings as the image is
captured, or by software manipulation afterwards.

8. Lenses
Some of the lenses are fixed permanently on the camera or some time interchangeable
with lenses of different physical properties like focal length and apertures. Lenses used in
still and video camera are more or less same as used in a microscope or a telescope, their
detailed construction is different.

A camera lens or photographic lenses either individually or assembly of lenses are

capable of making image on either photographic film chemically or presently on any
other media (hard disc or card) electronically.

The image formed onto film in a camera is a real image. As the latent image formed on
the film is affected by the spatial variation of intensity, the treatment with developer and
fixer chemicals make the latent image permanent. The following factors contribute
significantly in the selection and use of photographic lenses:

Focusing
Focusing of a camera is accomplished by altering the distance that separates the lens and
the film.

 For a distant subject this separation should be little more than the focal length of
the lens.
 If the subject is at infinite distance with respect to the focal length of the camera
lens in that case parallel light is brought to focus at the principal focus of the lens.
 For objects closer to the camera, the lens must be moved farther from the film to
produce an image.

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MODULE NO.34: Introduction to Forensic Photography- I
 9. Selection of Photographic Lenses

Lens Types
The quality of camera depends upon the type of lenses used. The better quality cameras
often have complex lens. These lenses are made up of a combination of individual lenses
as various elements mounted together. These assemblies are called multi element lenses.
The additional elements are some time necessary to make this lens perform more closely
to a hypothetical ideal lens.

Focal Length
Focal length of a lens is one of the major parameter to select the lens for a particular type
of camera and photography. Focal length can be defined as the distance from the lens and
a point where the parallel rays of light comes to meet. Particular types of lens can be
selected for a particular type of camera used for a particular type of photography.

There are three general classes of lenses which can be distinguished on the basis of their
focal length. These are

 Normal
 The wide-angle
 Telephoto

 Normal lens
Focal length these lenses are approximately equal to the length of a diagonal line drawn
between opposite corners of the picture area on the film (Fig-3). A normal lens cannot
focus much if tried from a distance. For example if we need to focus the interior part of a
room it has to be focused from a closer distance.

 The wide-angle lenses

Lenses with focal length substantially less than 45 mm, particularly when they are used
on 35-mm cameras (Fig-3) are known as wide angle lenses. These lenses provide a wider
angle of view than a normal lens. Wide-angle lenses are particularly useful for making
overall photographs in the cramped quarters that are typical of many indoor scenes.

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MODULE NO.34: Introduction to Forensic Photography- I
  Telephoto lenses

Focal lengths these lenses are longer than the normal have narrower angles of view but
yield larger images of distant objects (Fig-3). A telephoto lens may be used to produce an
enlarged image of a remote or inaccessible object from a reasonable or more convenient
distance.

The normal and wide-angle lenses are sufficed for most crime-scene situations. Telephoto
lenses (a "tele lens" or "long lens") are less commonly used for taking photographs of
subjects at moderate to far distances. True zoom lens is par focal lens; is one that
maintains focus when its focal length changes and is available for most 35-mm cameras.
These are complex lenses with provision for moving certain groups of internal elements
so that the focal length can be varied continuously. The image quality produced with
zoom lenses is generally not as good as it is with high-quality fixed-focus lenses. This
lens should have macro capabilities so that close-ups of evidence at crime scenes can also
be taken.

Fig-3: Showing Different Types of Lenses

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MODULE NO.34: Introduction to Forensic Photography- I
  Lens Speed:

To select a photographic lens the second main descriptive variable is its speed. Lens
speed refers to the maximum aperture diameter (or a smaller minimum f-number) of
photographic lens. The aperture of a lens can be defined as the diameter of the open
circle or diaphragm inside the lens. This diameter can also be expressed in the form of f-
number, such as f/2.8 or f/16 (Fig-4). Lens speed is to measure a power of a lens to gather
light.

Two lenses with same focal length can have different speeds. When both are used under
identical conditions, the speed of a lens is related to the maximum size of its opening or
aperture. Larger the aperture, faster will be the speed of lens.

Fig-4: Showing Lens Speed

A lens with a larger maximum aperture or a smaller minimum f-number is called a fast
lens, as it delivers more light intensity to illuminate the focal plane, achieving the same
exposure with a faster shutter speed. It also requires reducing interference from
extraneous (light) noise i.e. lower the noise floor.

A smaller maximum aperture or a larger minimum f-number is slow lens as it delivers

less light intensity i.e. has a higher noise floor and requires a slower shutter speed.

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MODULE NO.34: Introduction to Forensic Photography- I
 Lens speed has importance:

 While taking pictures in dim light,

 taking pictures with Telephoto lenses
 In controlling depth of field especially in portrait photography
 With respect to key variable in combination with other variables such as focal
length and camera format size.

10. Summary

1. The word photography is derived from the Greek word, photos meaning “light”
and graphos meaning ‘pertaining to drawing or writing’. Therefore, photography
can be defined as the art, science and practice of creating the durable images by
recording light or other electromagnetic radiations, either chemically by means of
a light sensitive material such as photographic film, or electronically by means of
an image sensor.
2. Contrast is the degree of difference between black and white or dark shadows and
bright highlights of the photographs/images. Without contrast, there wouldn't be
any difference between light and dark. There are two types of contrasts in
photography; high contrast and low contrast.
3. A camera lens or photographic lenses either individually or assembly of lenses are
capable of making image on either photographic film chemically or presently on
any other media (hard disc or card) electronically.
4. Some of the lenses are fixed permanently on the camera or some time
interchangeable with lenses of different physical properties like focal length and
apertures. Lenses used in still and video camera are more or less same as used in a
microscope or a telescope, their detailed construction is different.

5. Two lenses with same focal length can have different speeds. When both are used
under identical conditions, the speed of a lens is related to the maximum size of
its opening or aperture. Larger the aperture, faster will be the speed of lens.

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MODULE NO.34: Introduction to Forensic Photography- I