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A creative cocktail: creative teaching in initial

teacher education

Article in Journal of Education for Teaching: International Research and Pedagogy · November 2004
DOI: 10.1080/0260747042000309475 · Source: OAI

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A creative cocktail: creative teaching in initial teacher

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Journal of Education and Teaching Vol. 38 (3)243-253.

A creative cocktail: creative teaching in Initial Teacher Education

Grainger, T. Barnes, J. and Scoffman, S. (2004)

Introduction

In recent years, UK governments have taken an increasingly active and prescriptive

approach to education, both through the introduction of the national curriculum for

schools and teacher training and the nationally imposed literacy and numeracy

strategies. As a result the UK and England in particular, now has one of the most

highly politicised and rigidly controlled education systems in the Western world.

Inspection and monitoring at all levels of education, the setting of national targets and

the publication of results all help to ensure accountability. Like the school teachers

they support, many tutors working in Initial Teacher Education (ITE) currently feel

dominated by external regulatory pressures. The Teacher Training Agency standards,

the Office for Standards in Education inspection regime, the requirements of Local

Education Authorities and the demands of partnership schools, themselves under

surveillance and pressured to reach imposed targets, have also acted as constraints on

creative and innovative approaches to teaching. Teachers have, it is argued, become

de-motivated and unable to halt the gradual erosion of their professional autonomy.

Concerns about the demise of creativity in both teaching and learning have been

widely voiced (Sedgwick, 2001; Prentice, 2000; Jeffrey and Woods, 2003). Even

some of the UK government’s own reports have expressed concern that constant

change and increased pressure has prevented the development of creative education

(DfEE, 1999). As one agency observes:

 The more prescriptive the curriculum, the greater the need to be explicit

about creativity and not leave it to chance

(Design Council cited in DfEE, 1999, p.83.)

In the current climate the three R’s dominate classroom time and creative tasks are

often perceived to be of less important than work in reading, writing and number. In

particular, work in early years education is in danger of becoming both limited and

limiting, preventing the achievement of the government’s long term aim: the

development of a creative society of lifelong learners. Children quickly learn how the

school system works and as they move through school their spontaneous creativity

diminishes. Sternberg (1997, p.203) observes that ‘it’s not that older individuals lack

creative intelligence, but rather that they have suppressed it,’. Today’s learners know

that to achieve the targets they have been set they must stay on the straight and narrow

paths of conditioned and measurable conformity, whilst today’s teachers are beset

with contradictory messages regarding the breadth and balance of the curriculum.

If teachers and lecturers are to adopt innovative ways forward, they need to recognise

the tension between the incessant drive for measurable standards on the one hand and

the development of creative teaching on the other. Finding the energy and enterprise

to respond flexibly to this working reality is a considerable challenge and teachers

need to be convinced that creativity is a critical component in a world dominated by

technological innovations. Human skills and people’s powers of creativity and

imagination are, Robinson (2001) argues, a key resource in a knowledge driven

economy and in order to move forward we need a fresh understanding of intelligence,

of human capacity and of the nature of creativity. Furthermore if creativity is,

‘imaginative activity which leads to new and meaningful outcomes’ (DfEE, 1999,

p.29) then it is inclusive of all curriculum subjects and all people. Making original

connections in thought, movement and language need to be recognised as creative

acts just as much as the production of a finished book or work of art. The small-scale

research project reported here was undertaken in this context, it sought to investigate

the nature of creative teaching in various ITE disciplines and to enhance its status

with the students involved. Planning and delivering teaching is in some ways like

planning and hosting a successful cocktail party, so this metaphor has been used as a

framing device for this paper.

1. Exploring creative teaching

Creative teaching has received considerably less attention than creativity itself, yet

without an understanding of both terms productive ways forward cannot be generated

(Jeffrey and Craft, 2003). In order for teacher education students to be able to adopt

genuinely creative approaches to their subject, they need to observe tutors teaching

creatively and take part in creative learning experiences. Explicit advice on creative

teaching is offered by the UK Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) in their

publication Creativity: Find it, Promote It, (QCA, 2003 website) but this document

conflates creative teaching with teaching for creativity. A clearer understanding of the

creative teacher or ITE tutor can be construed from the QCA description of the

creative pupil, whom they describe as:

 • Questioning and challenging

• Making connections and seeing relationships

• Envisaging what might be

• Playing with ideas, keeping options open

• Representing ideas in a variety of ways

• Evaluating effects of ideas and actions

(QCA, 2003.)

This description has many parallels with Prentice’s (2000,p.15) concept of the

creative teachers; those who display ‘cultural curiosity…[and]… continue to be self-

motivated learners, value the creative dimensions of their own lives and understand

how creative connections can be made between their personal responses to experience

and their teaching.’ The work of others has also highlighted how creative teachers

tend to place the learners above the curriculum and that the combination of a positive

disposition towards creativity and person-centred teaching actively promotes pupils

who learn and think for themselves( e.g. Craft, 2000; Beetlestone, 1998; Fryer,1996).

However recent research has tended to focus on teachers’ perceptions of creative

teaching rather than specific observations of and reflections upon the art of teaching

itself, it is also mostly based in the primary classroom. Such work is not directly

applicable to the ITE tutor, teaching on longer programmes with older students. So

this study was devised to explore elements of creative teaching through the careful

examination of taught ITE sessions in three different curriculum areas – geography,

music and English.

1. The study

The study was conducted with students who had enrolled on various ITE courses at

primary school level in a UK institution in the autumn term 2002. Three different

sessions were observed - a team-taught seminar, a workshop and a large lecture. The

sessions which were selected on the basis of convenience or ‘opportunity’ sampling,

involved around 240 students.

Geography: This session was taught by two tutors working as a team and was part of a

longer unit on environmental issues and international development. Seventy-seven

third year Bachelor of Arts with Qualified Teacher Status (BA QTS) students were

introduced to a variety of world map projections. They were invited to make visual

comparisons between the shape and area of the continents and to discuss hidden

messages and subtexts in the different maps This led to practical activities

comparing global living standards using both Gross National Product and the more

sophisticated ‘human development index’ pioneered by the United Nations over the

past decade.

Music: In this workshop, twenty-four non specialist students studying for the

Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) course were introduced to composition.

Simple clapping rhythms led to an African song that the students sung first as a group

and then as a round. The session was developed through the use of xylophones and

other instruments and paintings were used as a source of ideas for group interpretation

using the scales and notation introduced earlier. The emotive power of music was
illustrated by discussing the different the associations evoked by accompanying a

short video sequence with three contrasting musical backgrounds: silence, Gregorian

chant and modern rock music.

English: This session consisted of a lecture which considered the power of narrative

and the role of imagined experience in literacy learning, with one hundred and forty

final year BA QTS undergraduates. The tutor began by reading a picture book using

colour transparencies to magnify the illustrations and invited students to consider their

response. The significance of oral stories and the tradition of storytelling were also

explored and examples of classroom drama were described to illuminate the

argument. The lecture concluded with an improvised story about conflict resolution,

presented orally with full audience involvement.

Evidence about the teaching in all these sessions was collected through:

• Peer observation and field notes made by the other tutors in the study

• Peer discussion to ascertain the aims, content and value of the session as seen

through the eyes of the tutor

• Student questionnaires about creative teaching in the sessions

• Follow up interviews with a group of students from each of the sessions

In adopting this method of triangulation, the tutors sought to gain a more objective

understanding of their teaching and to identify common issues in creative teaching.

The themes that emerged from these multiple perspectives were categorised into three

main areas which were connected to the cocktail metaphor as follows:

(a) the session content represents the cocktail ingredients

(b) the teaching style parallels the act of mixing the ingredients in a cocktail shaker

(c) the learning experience stands for the party itself.

Within these categories, which overlap and interface, key themes were identified

through careful analysis of the data. In all cases, these themes were noted by at least

65% of the respondents, both students and tutors, and were connected to the research

literature. The session content included placing current trends in a wider context and

the extensive use of metaphor and analogy to make connections. In the category of

teaching style, multi modal pedagogic practices, pace, tutor’s confidence and the

ability to inspire and value students were identified as core themes. In relation to the

learning experience, the emerging themes included, involving the students affectively

and physically and challenging them to engage and reflect. Taken together, it is

argued these represent some of the critical features of creative teaching which

combine to support new thinking.

1. Session Content: the cocktail ingredients

2a) Placing current trends and practice in a wider context

Meaningful creativity only exists against a social or cultural background, which

implies that both teachers and students need to view their activities in terms of their
human, physical, spiritual setting and consider their impact on the community at

large. In all the sessions observed, the tutors emphasised the importance of

contextualising new knowledge and learning, however, the context for each session

varied. In the geography seminar, for example, case-study techniques were used to

take students from the particular to the general and one approach illustrated how

different areas and spaces in a classroom are replicated by land use patterns on a

national and international scale. Similarly, the human demand for food and water was

used to establish the notion of man’s ‘environmental footprint’ which raised far-

reaching ethical and political questions about access to resources. This session also

used a variety of world map projections to portray concepts of sustainability,

relativism and differences in world welfare. It was clear to the students that the

examples, illustrations and cited research were all held in a wider and value-laden

context. The two tutors argued, for example, that teachers of geography should work

towards the goal of ‘a just, sustainable and pleasant world for us all’ as advocated by

the International Geographical Union.

In the English session, students were made aware of the need to develop a critically

informed attitude towards literacy, literature and learning. As one student remarked

‘the tutor reminded us that requirements will change, therefore our ‘professional

knowledge and understanding’ is central.’ Others spoke of realizing they needed to re-

consider their principles, philosophy and values and profile critical literacy in the

classroom, enabling children to read both the word and the world (Freire, 1985).

Students in all sessions noted a number of other framing issues including; the child’s

developing sense of self, the lifelong learner, the global citizen, and the problematic

nature of knowledge in geography, literacy and music.

2. b)Using metaphor and analogy to make connections

The ability to use metaphor, analogy and mental models is claimed to be one of the

distinguishing features of homo sapiens (Mithin, 1996) and all languages and cultures

use both metaphor and metonym. Brain scans suggest that the metaphorical use of

language uses similar parts of the brain to imagination, emotion, the artistic, the

musical and the spatial, all of which are significant ingredients of creativity. Students

recognised such metaphors and commented upon them, for example in the music

session they remarked on the new meanings which were created from setting music

alongside art. Music itself was also used as a metaphor; standing as it did for certain

emotions provoked in the film/music sequences. Metaphors were seen to illuminate

less familiar topics in more familiar terms, for example the English tutor used a

metaphor of a dog’s body to illustrate structure in story writing. In this, the dog’s head

represents the seeing start of a story, its torso the strong middle and its wagging tail

the powerful last sentence, proffering coherence and connections.

Creativity has commonly been seen as making connections between two previously

unconnected frames of reference and there were several instances of this noted in the

sessions observed, when tutors illustrated a concept from one domain with an

example from another. The tutors also voiced creative insights and made use of

metaphor in their asides and in the spontaneous exemplification of their arguments.

Students frequently drew attention to these and commented in particular on the value

of tutor anecdotes, which were often used to illustrate analogous issues. The work of
other has also shown that mental models and analogies aid our understanding (e.g.

Jensen, 1995; Adey, 2001). In this study students went further and linked these aides

to understanding with creativity itself. Many specifically commented that their tutor’s

personal touch and use of metaphoric connections made a real difference to their

ability to grasp ideas and concepts.

1. Teaching Styles: mixing the cocktail

2. a)Switching between styles and varying pace

All three tutors employed multi-modal teaching approaches and frequently switched

between pedagogic styles, which was recognised by the students whom noted that this

felt play like and spontaneous .The diversity of styles encompassed: exposition,

including classroom examples and theoretical perspectives, discussion; questioning,

practical activities(even in the lecture) and student enquiry. In the team taught

geography session, cognitive conflict was evident when tutors deliberately

contradicted one another, prompting group discussion about whose values were being

used to make judgements. Such provocations may help promote creative responses in

students (Adey and Shayer,1994). In interview many again highlighted this issue and

commented on the importance of teachers giving both sides of an argument,

regardless of their own opinions and beliefs.

The diversity of pattern, rhythm and pace used in the sessions was particularly marked

and consciously noted by both tutors and students. This was seen to be linked to the

multi-modal engagement of the students as they cut and pasted versions of world
maps in geography, improvised music to evoke the sense of a painting in music and

joined in with the paralinguistic gestures and repetitive actions of a story in English.

The tutors were, it appears, consciously seeking to offer different entry points, in line

with Gardner’s (1999) view that aesthetic, practical and hands on experiences are just

as valid as those which are narrational, quantitative or logical.

The use of open questions was also identified as a particular feature of the tutors

teaching styles. Such framing questions were used extensively in music; for example

after a group’s brief improvisation, the tutor asked ‘What was distinctive about the

sound they made?’ On another occasion, groups were asked ‘Can you think of

different ways of accompanying this tune?’ Such questions demonstrate that the

formulation of a problem may be just as important as solving it. In the context of

creative teaching, it is argued that both tutors and students need to be involved in the

process of imaginative thinking, encompassing the generation of questions and

possible responses (Cremin, 2003).

The breadth of audio-visual and other resources that were employed to develop and

illustrate arguments were also mentioned as important aides to the tutors’ teaching

styles. These included video clips, maps, picture books, diagrams, children’s work

and oral stories. Students perceived that the variety of learning styles made a

noticeable difference to their engagement, even in the conventionally one-sided forum

of the lecture theatre, and as a result the sessions felt the sessions were more

inclusive. All three tutors actively re-created and transformed ideas spontaneously,

both in front of students and in collaboration with them. ‘Poetry is dead on the page

and alive on the tongue, so it’s our responsibility to bring it life,’ one tutor declared.
The same could perhaps be said about creative teaching itself, in so far as it is a

collaborative enterprise which variously involves engagement, reflection and

transformation, patterned at such a rate as to invite and encourage learning and the

transfer of understanding from one context to another.

2. b)Confidence and ability to inspire

Despite the varied nature of the sessions, the students were almost unanimous in

commenting upon their tutors’ self confidence and ability to inspire. Many described

their passion for their subject, the extent of their knowledge and their deep sense of

conviction. Several students perceived that such passion and commitment was

conveyed not only through the evidence of a secure knowledge base, but also through

their tutors’ ability to reflect upon this base critically and publicly. In doing so, tutors

demonstrated that they were still learners and therefore genuinely interested to

understand more fully. Other students felt that the tutors’ enthusiasm was

communicated through paralinguistic features, tone of voice and their often

experimental approach to their material, echoing Craft’s notion (2000) that creativity

can be viewed as ‘possibility thinking’. In the geography session, the tutor openly

expressed doubts and recognised the ambiguity of factual knowledge. The ability to

tolerate ambiguity is perhaps an example of the ‘confident uncertainty’ to which

Claxton (1998) refers when discussing creative teachers, who combine subject and

pedagogical knowledge, but also leave space for uncertainty and the unknown. Tutors

also demonstrated the flexibility that arises from confidence; this was particularly
evident in the music workshop, since the plan was constantly adapted in response to

the student’s emerging needs.

Perhaps the most telling responses in this sub theme were the remarks about

professionalism and interpersonal relationships. A representative sample of such

comments include: ‘He is himself, ‘Her personality shines through,’ ‘He doesn’t

put up professional barriers,’ ‘We were allowed to see his mistakes,’ ‘She lives it for

real and is honest and personal, modelling a kind of human professionalism’. Such

qualities depend on individual experience and reflection, extensive professional

understanding and a deep academic knowledge. Teachers who are insecure are not

likely to want to reveal their mistakes, will not have sufficient confidence to take risks

or be willing to tolerate ambiguity in action. By contrast, teachers who have a strong

knowledge base will adopt a more flexible and creative stance that is open to

children’s ideas, questions and responses.

2 .c )Making students feel valued

It was clear through tutor field notes, student response sheets and the follow up

interviews that students felt valued and were motivated during the sessions.

Opportunities were provided for them to participate and they were given both explicit

praise and evaluative feedback. The significance of regular feedback in quality

teaching is highlighted by Stones (1992) who demonstrates its power to involve and

motivate learners. In the music workshop for example, when students made tentative

forays forward, they were encouraged by comments such as ‘Some of you have got

beautiful voices,’ ‘I can hear some really playful pieces,’ or ‘You are taking risks with
the sounds- good’. These remarks were typical of the focused and supportive

responses offered. Such encouragement may help protect students from the pressure

to avoid risks and the possible ridicule of their peers when they are nurturing new and

unusual ideas and may feel vulnerable. Clear feedback was also noted in English

when the tutor reflected upon the students’ lively engagement in voice, action and

ideas, having earlier critiqued their initial forays into physical involvement with the

story. Being able and willing to have a go at expressing oneself and take a risk is an

integral element of creativity. But such risks need to be modelled and fostered in a

safe and affirmative environment, in which individuals feel supported and do not

expect to be judged.

Even when the students proffered ideas and answers which were factually inaccurate,

the tutors showed patience and openness and frequently reinforced their creative

behaviour, celebrating difference and diversity. The learner-centred orientation which

all three lecturers’ adopted, may have shaped the students’ sense of self as learners in

these subjects, and enhanced their intrinsic motivation, since as the interviews

indicated, many felt surprised at their own geographical competence and musical or

linguistic potential and were encouraged to take further steps forward in these

domains.

C. The Learning Experience: the cocktail party

Engaging students on an affective and emotional level

A key theme in this category, which relates to the learning experience itself, was the

extent to which the sessions engaged the students on an affective and emotional level.
Being creative is not purely an intellectual activity; feelings, intuitions and a playful

imagination are an equally important part of the process.

‘The sources of creativity are not always conscious or rational. The intuitive,

spiritual and emotional also feed creativity – fed themselves by the bedrock of

impulse’.

(Craft, 2000p.31)

Through humorous asides, personal anecdotes, the use of potent narratives,

provocative music and video footage, all three lecturers involved the students

aesthetically, emotionally and physically in their sessions. Recent findings in

neurology confirm that effective brain activity involves a combination of thought and

feeling and that intellectual learning and emotional involvement are linked together in

the fabric of the brain (Scoffham, 2003). The affective involvement of the learner is

central to creative learning, encouraging openness and fostering the ability to make

personal connections and insights. This was evident in the geography and music

sessions for example, where tutors established a sense of what Csikszentmihalyi

(2000) has called ’flow’, by ensuring students felt relaxed through considerable

humour, informality, differentiated questioning, collaboration and supportive

feedback.

2. b)Challenging students to engage and reflect

In all sessions, the students were aware that they were being challenged to engage and

reflect on their experience, to take part and then to reassess their ideas and attitudes.

They were frequently invited to participate physically in making meaning and make

use of their bodies in the process of learning. Examples include the use of body

percussion and corporate movements to accompany chanting in music, and their

gestural and bodily involvement in retelling personal tales in English. Through

inhabiting the imaginative world of literary and musical texts, the students were also

able to take part psychically and were given frequent opportunities to consider their

learning through: reflective pair discussions, written resumes of key learning points

and small group presentations. All tutors invited students to share their thinking at

regular intervals and to engage in discussion. It was clear from the student responses

that they appreciated the chances to consolidate their ideas through reflection. In

geography, they commented that the practical activities helped to deepen their

understanding and that the opportunities to explore their own opinions had

contributed to the development of their ideas. In English, students remarked on how

their involvement in the session and the reflective discussions had challenged their

thinking and pushed their boundaries and expectations. Several also commented that

they now had the confidence to ‘be themselves’ and give greater scope to their

individuality.

The constant oscillation between engagement and reflection that was so noticeable in

the sessions is also a central feature of drama teaching, which tends towards the

creative end of the teaching spectrum. This oscillation may have been partly

responsible for the transformation of understanding to which many of the students

referred. Other comments included ‘the session gave me a much wider perception of
the teaching of music and the possibilities available’ and ‘my perspective about

issues/countries and peoples in geography has changed.’ Such learning may have been

achieved in part by the dialogue between the ‘here and now’ of the session in which

the students were fully involved, and their own lived experience of life in and out of

the classroom. In exploring and developing various possibilities with the students, for

example when finding out how to use their feet as musical notation or innovate in

story creation, the tutors were both playful and artistically involved themselves.

Working alongside their students, they were both participants and spectators in the

process of meaning construction demonstrating their independence from more

traditional patterns of classroom discourse.

1. Conclusions

On the basis of this small-scale study, it is argued that if teachers are to be creative

practitioners they need much more than a working knowledge of prescribed

curriculum requirements They need a secure pedagogical understanding and strong

subject knowledge, supported by a passionate belief in the potential of creative

teaching to engage and inspire hearts and minds. Such teaching depends upon the

human interaction between teacher and student and cannot therefore be easily

replicated in a distance-learning package. While the playful, the multi-modal, the

metaphorical and the reflective would appear to be important markers of the creative

ITE teacher, the fundamental importance of the values dimension needs to be

recognised. The affective and emotional element in creativity is just as vital for adults

as it is for children. Fair-mindedness, openness to evidence, a desire for clarity,

respect for others and their opinions are among the attitudinal qualities embedded in
creative teaching. So too are a commitment to inclusion, a belief in human rights and

equality. Such attitudes and values have a critical role in creative teaching and are

perhaps best taught by example.

Greater creative assurance will enable teachers to offer their students stronger

scaffolds and spaces for emotional and intellectual growth. This work suggests that

the creative teacher makes use of their own creativity, not just to interest and engage

the learners, but also to promote new thinking and learning. Such a teacher however,

is not necessarily a flamboyant performer, but a professional who uses a range of

approaches to create the conditions in which the creativity of others can flourish. In

interaction with their students and each other, the three tutors in this study were

empowered to reflect in depth on different aspects of creative teaching. This work has

proved highly rewarding and has helped to affirm the value of personal anecdote,

humour and cognitive conflict in teaching creatively. As well as influencing their

own practice, the process has reminded those involved – both students and tutors -

that teaching is a complex art form, a veritable ‘cocktail party’. The host harnesses the

ingredients, (the session content) and mixes them playfully and skilfully, (the teaching

style), in order to run a creative party that is enjoyable and worthwhile, (the learning

experience). Whilst no formula was, or could be established for creative teaching,

some of the ingredients for personally mixing a creative cocktail have been identified,

albeit tentatively, from cross-curricular contexts. It is clear however, that the elements

identified are not in themselves necessarily creative, but that the action of creatively

shaking and stirring the ingredients is critical if the cocktail party is to be a success.

The challenge now is to explore the extent to which these dynamics can be usefully

applied to teaching in other subject areas and socio-cultural contexts, to document

‘creative moments’ in the process of teaching, and to examine how ITE courses can

enable students to plan and host their own affective and creative cocktail parties.

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