Architectural Engineering and Design Management

ISSN: 1745-2007 (Print) 1752-7589 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/taem20

Communication in construction: a management

perspective through case studies in Sri Lanka

Sepani Senaratne & Manori Ruwanpura

To cite this article: Sepani Senaratne & Manori Ruwanpura (2016) Communication in construction:
a management perspective through case studies in Sri Lanka, Architectural Engineering and
Design Management, 12:1, 3-18, DOI: 10.1080/17452007.2015.1056721

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Architectural Engineering and Design Management, 2016
Vol. 12, No. 1, 3–18, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17452007.2015.1056721

Communication in construction: a management perspective through case

studies in Sri Lanka
Sepani Senaratnea* and Manori Ruwanpurab
a
School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematics, University of Western Sydney, Penrith, Australia;
b
Department of Building Economics, University of Moratuwa, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
(Received 11 February 2015; accepted 27 May 2015)

Effective communication process is essential for the success of construction projects. Previous
research shows that construction project teams spend majority of their time communicating
with other parties and stakeholders. However, only few previous studies address project-
level communication process in construction, in particular, from a project management
perspective. This research aimed to explore how construction project teams manage different
stages of project communication process as identified in the project management bodies of
knowledge, namely stakeholder identification, communication planning, information
distribution, stakeholder management and performance reporting. The case study research
method was used to investigate the research problem. Three construction projects in Sri
Lanka were chosen for the study. Semi-structured interviews with top management who
represented each key party (client, consultant and contractor) were undertaken within the
selected cases. The findings revealed how project communication process was managed by
the project team by use of various project management tools and techniques during the five
key stages. This research offers useful implications for the construction industry, in
particular, on how construction project teams should engage formally in managing
communication process by use of appropriate project management tools and techniques.
Further case studies will help us to confirm the research findings in a wider context.
Keywords: communication; project management; construction projects; project teams; case
studies

1. Background
The construction industry is one of the most information-dependent industries (Xue, Wang, Shen,
& Yu, 2007). Hence, quality of communication is a key factor in the success of construction
projects (Nielsen & Erdogan, 2007). Poor communication is one of the most common project
risks in construction (Ceric, 2014). Poor communication in construction causes lower perform-
ance and a higher turnover of staff (Dainty, Moore, & Murray, 2006). Communication difficulties
during the projects can directly increase unnecessary expenditure, and affect the progress and
quality of the project (Anumba, Baron, & Duke, 1997). Ye, Jin, Xia, and Skitmore (2014) asserted
that contractors should not only consider filed management and project process management, but
also improved project communications to reduce rework. In Meyer’s (2014) research on compe-
tencies of a successful project leader, they found communication competency as the common

*Corresponding author: Email: [email protected]

© 2015 Taylor & Francis

4 S. Senaratne and M. Ruwanpura

competence mentioned by all their interviewees, highlighting its importance. Ruuska (1996,
p. 68) affirmed this, ‘as projects get larger and more complex, communication and coordination
become more and more difficult and yet more vital to the success of a project’. In collaborative
procurement arrangements, where parties are working closely, Azhar, Kang, and Ahmad (2014)
showed further importance of communication. Hence, the importance of communication in con-
struction and its adversarial effects when absent are highly evident in the literature.
Effective communication has the power to breakdown such barriers by bringing construction
team members together, thereby propagating improved collaboration and integrated working
within the construction team (Emmitt & Gorse, 2007). In essence, effective communication
creates a bridge between diverse stakeholders involved in a project, connecting various cultural
and organisational backgrounds, different levels of expertise and various perspectives and inter-
ests in the project execution or outcome (Project Management Institute [PMI], 2008).
This research aimed to explore how construction project teams manage different stages of
project communication process as identified in the project management bodies of knowledge
(PMBOK), namely stakeholder identification, communication planning, information distribution,
stakeholder management and performance reporting. As reported in the next section on key lit-
erature findings, most studies on construction communication take either a social or a technologi-
cal perspective and failed to link PMBOK. Identifying these research gaps, the research question
that this paper intends to answer is how the construction communication could be managed as a
management process through various tools and techniques. The key literature findings of this
research are presented next.

2. Literature synthesis
Communication usually involves the transfer of information (Cheng, Li, Love, & Irani, 2001).
Early communication models essentially show a linear one-way process between the sender
and the receiver. Later, researchers introduced non-linear models (e.g. see Baguley, 1994) and
context to these initial communication models (e.g. see Fisher, 1993). The construction literature
identifies that communication in construction projects is a complex phenomenon, which may
need further considerations.
The nature of the construction team is one such consideration. Baiden and Price (2010) found
that communication is central to the efficient performance of construction project teams, in par-
ticular, due to its unique nature. Senaratne and Hapuarrachchi (2009, p. 223) defined construction
team as

a collection of two or more people with complementary skills, who come from different disciplines
and organisations, to perform a common objective, but with individual objectives and, operating
from different locations with multiple reporting relationships, whose accountability and leadership
are significantly governed by the contractual arrangements.

This particular team setting shows how complex the communication process in construction would
be. Emmitt and Gorse (2007) too described the complexities of construction communication at the
project level, given that the project team comes with different values and interests to a construction
project. A majority of people within the construction project who communicate most often are the
distinct parties such as the contractor, the client and the consultant (Sommerville, Craig, & McCar-
ney, 2004). According to Emmitt and Gorse (2007), it is common grounds and shared understanding
that makes communication possible within these diverse parties in construction.
Other researchers mention the project-specific setting that makes construction communication
more complex. For example, Tai, Wang, and Anumba (2009) explained three other features in
 Architectural Engineering and Design Management 5

construction that make communication a complex issue: many fragmented parties; long life
cycles; and multiple organisation structures. Dainty et al. (2006) highlighted the complexities
of communication arising from the temporary nature; in particular, they mention that construction
project environment is project-based, its groups and networks are temporary in nature and the
relationships and interactions continually change to reflect the dynamic nature of the workplace.
Further, Jallow, Demian, Baldwin, and Anumba (2014) mentioned that geographically distributed
teams and the lack of common language act as major problems for construction project
communication.
The structure of an organisation should provide for communication in three distinct directions:
downward, upward and horizontal or lateral (Lunenburg, 2010). Upward communication channels
send information from subordinate to supervisor to provide feedback for management (Stoner,
Freeman, & Gilbert, 2001). Within construction teams, this type of communication includes
request for information, progress reports, explanations, request for a decision, method statement
of a work and performance reports (Gorse & Emmitt, 2007). Downward communication channels
include superiors’ advice, instructions, evaluations and directions on project goals and restrictions
(Stoner et al., 2001). Similarly, in construction projects memos, progress review meetings, display
boards, notices, policy manuals and staff regulations are used to flow instructions from superiors to
subordinates. In horizontal communication channels, information is shared among members on the
same hierarchical level in the same team, which is common at project-level communication in con-
struction. Dainty et al. (2006) mentioned that construction project managers and teams need to
communicate both up and down the supply chain, transcending team and organisational bound-
aries while overcoming barriers created by the project and team complexities.
In looking into how different researchers suggest managing this complex communication
process, two key perspectives can be observed. Some researchers offer a social perspective to con-
struction communication process and link project communication with effective team working.
For example, Dainty et al. (2006) suggested team development, team role theories and other
team working factors as techniques to improve team communication. Constructing Excellence
(2004) too identified communication among the six key elements for effective teamwork.
While this perspective is needed given the team complexities in construction, it may not be
sufficient.
Other researchers take a technological perspective by bringing in information communication
technologies (ICTs) to manage communication, in particular for virtual construction teams who
are widely geographically dispersed. For example, Peansupap and Walker (2006) discussed
ICT implementation requirements in construction. Wikforss and Lofgren (2007) argued that to
solve the practical communication problems in the construction industry, the perspective must
be widened from ICT to organisational and management viewpoints.
In taking further this management perspective, it is seen that general project management lit-
erature refers to communication as a management process with various tools to manage this
process. Among the PMBOK, the most widely adopted is the PMI’s PMBOK, which exerts a
strong influence on both how projects are conceptualised across a diverse range of disciplines
and project types (Crawford, Morris, Thomas, & Winter, 2006). According to PMI (2008),
project communication management includes the processes required to endure timely and appro-
priate generation, collection, distribution, storage, retrieval and ultimate disposition of project
information. Although various authors have commented on simplified communication models
as the one given in PMBOK (e.g. see McKay, Marshall, & Grainger, 2014), they still find that
the tools and techniques offered therein help project managers to plan the communication
process by breaking it down to manageable, predictable and orderly steps. Accordingly, five
steps are introduced, namely identify stakeholders; plan communication; distribution of infor-
mation; manage stakeholder expectations; and report performance as explained next.
6 S. Senaratne and M. Ruwanpura

Identification of stakeholders: Bourne and Walker (2005) recognised identification of stake-

holders as a critical step in a communication process, which is often neglected. Project stake-
holders can be classified as primary (those who have formal contractual relationship) and
secondary (Clarkson, 1995) or as internal or external stakeholders based on those within and
outside the organisation (Stoner et al., 2001). It is important to recognise these stakeholders for
each construction project through various tools, as described in Table 1.
Communication planning: It is vital to have a proper plan to communicate with project stake-
holders. According to PMI (2008), communication planning is the process of determining the
information needs at project stakeholder and defining a communication approach. Among
other frequently used project management tools and techniques, Patanakul, Iewwongcharoen,
and Milosevic (2010) found that the project managers should consider using communication
plan in particular, which would make meaningful contribution to project success. Malladi
(2007) suggested that all necessary roles and responsibilities should be clearly defined on who
should communicate what, when, how and where, prior to preparing a communication plan.
Table 1 shows tools that could be used for this step.
Distribution of information: Distribution of information helps the construction team and
external stakeholders to remain focused on delivery and to provide all the support required
while delivering the project successfully. Therefore, information should be clear and direct as
possible, limiting areas in which misinterpretation could arise. In project team context, mostly
information is distributed through hard copy documentations such as letters, memos, faxes and
meeting minutes (Den Otter & Emmitt, 2007). Even though IT-based technologies such as
emails, video conferences and project web site are used, due to legal requirements, paper-
based information is yet relied upon in construction. Mohamed and Stewart (2003) found that
the construction industry is heavily based upon traditional means of communication such as
face-to-face meetings, phone calls and the exchange of paper documents. Gorse and Emmitt
(2007) found that face-to-face communication is perceived to be the most effective form of com-
munication medium by construction managers. Tai et al.’s (2009) study into large construction
projects in China shows that 55% of information communication was by face-to-face while
26% through letters. Telephone and fax accounted to 10% and 5%, respectively, and email and
computer network were seldom used. Table 1 summarises these tools.
Managing stakeholder expectations: A study by Yang, Shen, and Ho (2009) pointed out, that
different stakeholders have different levels and type of investments and interests in the project in
which they are involved. Each stakeholder usually has their own interest in the project and this
may cause different priorities and conflicts (Karlsen, Graee, & Massaoud, 2008). Managing sta-
keholder expectations effectively diminishes the risk that the project will fail to meet its goals and
objectives due to unresolved stakeholder issues and limits disruptions during the project (PMI,
2008). Jallow et al. (2014) found key issues related to communication when managing stake-
holder expectations: (1) managing client requirements information is still manual and paper-inten-
sive and (2) there is no utilisation of an integrated and centralised storage of client requirements
information. They suggested that in order for requirements communication to be successful and to
avoid information overload, the right sets of requirements relevant to the individual project team
should be put together and packaged in an appropriate structure. This is further supported by
Bourne and Walker (2005), who mention that stakeholders’ needs should be identified and
their power and influence mapped, so that their potential impacts on projects can be better under-
stood. Table 1 explains these tools further.
Performance reporting: Performance reporting is the process of collecting and distribution
performance information, including status reports, progress measurements and forecasts (PMI,
2008). Kapuge and Smith (2007) discovered that performance reporting allows an organisation
to set sensible objectives, measure and monitor their degree of compliance. In the construction
 Architectural Engineering and Design Management 7

Table 1. Tools for each step of communication management process.

Step Tools and techniques Description
Stakeholder Stakeholder analysis This is a technique of systematically gathering and
identification analyzing quantitative and qualitative
information to determine whose interests
should be taken into account throughout the
project
Expert judgement To ensure comprehensive identification and listing
of stakeholders judgement and expertise should
be sought from groups or individuals with
specialised knowledge on the subject such as
senior management, units within organisation,
professional associations
Communication Communication requirement This determines the information needs of the
planning analysis project stakeholders. The number of potential
communication channels for a project is n (n
−11)/2 where ‘n’ represents the number of
stakeholders
Communication technology This is a method to transfer information among
project stakeholders
Communication models and This is demonstrated how information is sent and
methods received between two parties
Information Communication methods Broadly classified into three:
distribution Interactive communication: between two or
more, performing a multi-directional exchange
of information. For example, meetings, phone
calls, video conferencing.
Push communication: sent to a specific
recipient who need to know the information.
For example, letters, memos, reports, emails,
faxes.
Pull communication: used for very large
volumes of information or for very large
audience, that requires the recipients to access
the communication content at their own
discretion. For example, intranet sites, e-
learning.
Information distribution tools Hard copy document distribution, electronic
communication and conferencing tools and
electronic tools for project management
Managing stakeholder Communication methods Similar to above
expectation Interpersonal skills Project manager applies appropriate interpersonal
skills to manage stakeholder expectations. For
example, building trust, resolving conflicts,
active listening and overcoming resistance to
change
Management skills Management skills are the act of directing and
controlling a group of people for the purpose of
coordinating and harmonising the project team
towards accomplishing a goal beyond the scope
of individual effort. For example, Presentation
skills, negotiations, writing skills

(Continued)
8 S. Senaratne and M. Ruwanpura

Table 1. Continued.
Step Tools and techniques Description
Report performance Variance analysis This is an after-the-fact look at what caused a
difference between the baseline and the actual
performance
Forecasting methods This is the process of predicting future project
performance based on the actual performance to
date by using time series methods, casual /
electronic methods, judgemental methods and
simulation.
Communication methods Similar to above
Reporting systems This provides a standard tool for the project
manager to capture, store and distribute
information to stakeholders about the project
cost, schedule progress and performance. For
example, table reporting, spreadsheet analysis
and presentations
Source: PMI (2008).

industry, progress review meetings are important for project manager and the construction team to
examine quality of work before submitting project progress report to the consultant as well as to
the client. See Table 1 for tools proposed by PMI (2008) for each step in the communication man-
agement process.
Even though the extent literature has suggested various tools that could be used in communi-
cation management process, there is a lack of research on how they are applied in the construction
industry. Due to the fact that different values and interests are brought to the construction team by
the individuals and their organisations, the success of projects depends on communication prac-
tices employed at the project level (Emmitt & Gorse, 2007). When project managers and their
teams plan project communication management, it is very important for them to consider the
most preferred and convenient tools and techniques for communication (Meyer, 2014). Even
though there are discrete studies that focus on either one or more steps of the process, for
example, on stakeholder management, or studies that discusses communication of construction
project teams in general, they fail to look at construction project communication as a management
process and see how various tools and techniques are applied. For example, the focus of Emmitt
and Gorse (2007) was on examining the communication interactions between the team members
during progress meetings and they discussed little on how the communication process was
managed. On the other hand, Dainty et al. (2006) who discussed about tools for managing com-
munication mainly focused on team processes such as team role theories and team development.
A study that captures all the stages of the communication process and view from a project man-
agement perspective was deficient. Hence, this research aimed to explore how construction
project teams manage each communication step and how they use various tools in construction
projects.
This research was undertaken in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan construction industry, although
still behind in terms of technological innovations, could be seen similar to other construction
industries such as those in UK in terms of project managerial methods and approaches. The indus-
try culture is similar to that of other construction industries. In that, separate contractual arrange-
ments are dominant, which lead to a considerable communication gap between consultants and
contractors (Rameezdeen & Gunarathna, 2003). Such separation is found even in collaborating
arrangements as per the studies conducted by Moore and Dainty (2001) in UK. Hence, it is
 Architectural Engineering and Design Management 9

hoped that the findings from the selected case studies could be applicable to other counties that
practice separated arrangements.

3. Research method
When selecting a research approach, it is important to identify the research philosophy in which
the study is premised based on the ontological and epistemological positions. This study requires
an in-depth investigation into human behaviour in a real-life setting. Considering these facts, the
study is driven towards the interpretive paradigm that prefers qualitative approaches.
Hence, case study research method was selected for this research, which is generally placed in
interpretive paradigm by many researchers; for example, see Gummesson (2000). According to
Yin (2003), ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions are more explanatory and likely to lead to the use of
case studies as a preferred research strategy. Yin (2003) further defines case study research
method ‘as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-
life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident;
and in which multiple sources of evidence are used’. Therefore, case studies in their true
essence, explore and investigate contemporary real-life phenomena through a detailed contextual
analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships.
Random selection is neither necessary nor even preferable in the case study method as
opposed to quantitative approaches, which call for statistical sampling. Thus, cases should be
selected on theoretical sampling (Yin, 2003), which focuses on theoretically significant cases
such as representative, disconfirming and/or extreme instances. Therefore, to compare different
results on communication management process in construction projects, three cases that had sep-
arated procurement arrangement, but were different in terms of client, contractor and consultant
groups were selected. Case 1 comprised a courts complex where all parties were from public
sector, whereas Case 2 was a large apartment complex where all parties were from the private
sector. Case 3 is different to first two cases; in that, the client was government while consultants
and contractors were from the private sector. The nature of project was different too, which was a
fish market constructed in a large area (nearly 10 acres). Further details of the three cases in terms
of duration and costs are given in Table 2.
Data were mainly collected through semi-structured interviews while other tools such as
observations and participations were used where appropriately. The interviewees included three
key participants of the construction project teams: the client, the consultant and the contractor
(see interviewee details in Table 2). According to Yin (2003), human affairs should be reported
and interpreted through the eyes of specific interviewees, and well-informed respondents can
provide important insights into a situation. Hence, three interviewees to represent each party
were selected who were in very high managerial positions and were having long years of experi-
ence (in average 25 years) as given in Table 2. The interview questions mainly targeted to get
details on general background, interviewees’ perceptions on project communication and how
the identified five stages are practised using different tools and techniques. In addition to inter-
views, relevant project data were analysed to triangulate interview findings. Data were collected
from projects nearing completion at the construction stage. However, the interviewees were
requested to give details starting from stakeholder identification stage to performance reporting
stage based on their overall experience on the selected projects. Interviews lasted between 45
minutes and 1 hour. While interviewing, note taking and tape recording (with prior approval
from the interviewee) were done to maintain the accuracy of data collection. Eventually, sugges-
tions to improve each step of communication process by using different tools were discussed
through open-ended questions. Eventually, a code-based content analysis was carried out with
the support of NVivo Qualitative data analysis software, which helped to capture significant
10 S. Senaratne and M. Ruwanpura

Table 2. Case study details.

Project Project A Project B Project C
Type Courts complex Apartment complex Fish market
Project cost (Rs.) 800 Million 1500 Million 1050 Millions
(Excluding VAT)
Project duration 3 years 2 years 1 year
Procurement method Traditional method/ Traditional method/ Traditional method/
measurement contract measurement contract measurement contract
Nature of the client Public Private Public
Nature of the Public Private Private
contractor
Nature of the Public Private Private
consultant
Case study i DGM (Contractor) – i DGM (Contractor) – 18 i PM (Contractor) – 15
participants 30 years experience years experience in years experience in
(interviewees) in construction construction construction
ii DGM (Consultant) – ii Senior Project Manager ii Engineer (Consultant)
28 years experience (Consultant) – 16 years – 18 years experience
in construction experience from quantity in Construction
surveying
iii Client’s Rep – 31 iii Client’s Rep – 25 years iii Client’s Rep – 20
years experience in experience in construction years experience in
construction construction

findings from transcripts and organise data in temporary categories (codes) to enable interpret-
ations and data analysis. The data analysis was further supported by use of cognitive maps
where appropriate to enhance data-displaying capabilities. The next section presents and dis-
cusses key research findings.

4. Research findings
The cross-case analysis with regard to the empirical study was carried out in this section analysing
the similarities and differences across the three cases related to the project communication process.

4.1. Construction project communication

The interviewees of all cases identified that project communication has specific features in con-
struction due to nature of construction, project set-up and team set-up, as depicted in Figure 1.
Case A participants stated that construction project communication should be professional, sys-
tematic and should have a feedback and time value. The contractor of Case B described that:
‘communication in construction project is limited for a short time period and when next
project starts, another team joins to it and therefore, it is situational and can have a unique
model’. They further emphasised the need for trustworthiness, common purpose and legal
requirements in construction project communication.
Another key finding when exploring project-level communication in construction was
viewing it as a team process, as depicted it the cognitive map given in Figure 2. This map was
developed by identifying the interviewees’ views and experiences on the factors that enable
and inhibit project communication. According to the contractor of Case C, ‘all individuals in
the team with their skills and knowledge level should responsibly engage in effective communi-
cation. Project manager should provide clear guidance to the team members’. Effective
 Architectural Engineering and Design Management 11

Figure 1. Construction-specific features in project communication.

Figure 2. Mapping project communication as a team process.

communication was viewed by many participants as reducing waste and failure rates while
increasing productivity. Further, case study participants identified several communication barriers
that impede effective communication, as depicted in Figure 2.
While this section identified case study findings on construction-specific project communi-
cation, the next section identifies the case study findings related to each step of the project
communication process.

4.2. Construction project communication process

Overall, the interview participants mentioned that they do not practise all steps as one process, but
informally address each step at different extents. The interviews assisted to relate the purpose of
each step in the context of construction project and identify key participants involved in each step.
The results are given in Table 3.
12 S. Senaratne and M. Ruwanpura

Table 3. Stakeholders involved and the purpose of each step of Construction Communication Management
Process.
Construction
communication
management process Purpose of this step Stakeholders involved in each step
Identify stakeholders To prepare communication environment Client, contractor, consultant,
model (communication protocol) and subcontractors, public, media,
get approvals from relevant regulatory environmentalists, suppliers
bodies
Communication plan To exchange information efficiency and Client, contractor, consultant,
effectiveness to ultimate achieving subcontractors, suppliers
project goals and determine project
stakeholder information needs and
define communication approach
Distribution of To forward and obtain correct and Client, contractor, consultant,
information accurate information to right person at subcontractors, suppliers resident
right time with feedback at right engineer, architect
quality without any delay
Manage stakeholder For customer satisfaction and to identify Client, contractor, consultant,
expectation stakeholders perception regarding the subcontractors, public, media,
project which is positively or environmentalists, suppliers
negatively affected
Performance report To examine and review the actual Client, contractor, consultant,
progress subcontractors

Almost all case study participants in three cases pointed out that client, contractor and con-
sultant as stakeholders involved in all steps in communication management process, since
these three parties are key roles in a construction project. There were additional stakeholders high-
lighted by Case A (public) such as regulatory bodies for relevant approvals. Participants of Case B
(private) and Case C (mixed) repeatedly mentioned need for customer satisfaction through this
process.
Even though, some participants, in particular in the public sector, were not convinced with the
need for communication planning and managing stakeholder expectation in construction projects,
generally there was recognition of its need. The client of Case A was of a different view and said
that since there is less number of stakeholders, initially regulatory bodies to take approvals and in
implementation stage consultant, contractor and nominated subcontractors with the client, he feels
communication planning is not essential. In Case B, the private sector project, and also Case C
participants found a need for communication planning together with customer satisfaction and
feedback. The consultant party and the contractor party perceived client as their main customer
while client considered consultant and contractor in this respect. For example, client of the
Case B expressed that as a reputed client organisation, they have to maintain a good relationship
with both the contractor and consultant and treat them equally and impartially. Overall, Case B
participants showed that feedback of managing stakeholder expectation should be obtained.
Consultant of Case A agreed with the need for feedback; in particular, he said, ‘feedback of infor-
mation distribution should be included to the communication management process, because infor-
mation delay affects critical path activities, which ultimately cause to overall project delay’. The
Case C contractor also pointed out that the process should be seen more continuous than linear,
and explained that ‘if these steps fail, we have to re-plan and follow the steps again’. Figure 3
captures these viewpoints and suggest communication management process for construction by
adding the feedback loops and showing the iterative process.
 Architectural Engineering and Design Management 13

Figure 3. Communication management process for construction project.

4.3. Tools used in construction communication management process

Majority of case study participants in all cases stated that previous experience, previous projects’
evaluation reports, communication modes and communication channels are used as tools in plan-
ning communication. The findings are summarised in Table 4.
Further, interviewees expressed their views on applicability of the tools in construction pro-
jects, which were found through the literature review.
Stakeholder identification: Case A participants viewed that expert judgement is the most suit-
able tool in this step. They felt that stakeholder analysis is a time-consuming technique and they
are not familiar with it. However, Case B and Case C participants identified benefits of both tools.
For example, the contractor of Case B stated,

before we commenced this project as a contractor, we collected data on views, ideas and comments
through discussions, interviews and social events with external stakeholders, especially with the
inhabitants in this area regarding this forthcoming project. These helped us to manage unexpected
influences.

Even though client, contractor and consultant worked as a team for a particular project, their
parent organisations have different cultures and disciplines, which affect the communication
process. For example, consultants of Case C stated, ‘response for fax, email and letters from
the government sector client was very slow. Therefore, we communicated with them allowing
additional time for delays’. Hence, these case study findings suggest that identifying key stake-
holders and their needs and background help with communication planning.
Communication planning: All participants in three cases mentioned that communication
requirement analysis is not a practical tool in construction for communication planning.
However, participants in Case B stated, ‘the purpose of information is analysed before sending
and, communication mode is selected depending on the receiver. Hence, we use the concept of
communication requirement analysis in a practical sense’. The consultant of Case A was in the
view that there needs to be a communication manager to implement these types of tools.
The contractor of Case B expressed that communication protocols are generally established
when the construction work starts. The Case C project manager from contracting party identified
the need for a project organisation structure at communication planning stage and stated,
14 S. Senaratne and M. Ruwanpura

Table 4. Tools used in construction communication management process.

Construction project Type of documents and data Tools and techniques used by project
communication process exchanged in each step teams
Identify stakeholders Contract document, letters, memos, Organise social meetings (get-together
drawings, specifications, faxes, and parties), cultural social
BOQs, programme, finance responsibility works to enhance
documents, profit and loss accounts, livelihood facilities of inhabitants
safety plan, quality plan, resource
plan
Communication plan Letters, memos, faxes, telephone calls, Past experience, previous projects
meeting minutes, drawings, evaluation reports, communication
specifications, BOQs, programme, modes and communication channels
log notes
Distribution of Method statement, meeting minutes, Communication methods, hard copy
information letters, BOQs, emails, memos, and soft copy distribution of
circulars information
Manage stakeholder ERP, customer evaluation chart, Communication types, communication
expectation supplier evaluation form channels, management skills,
leadership qualities and negotiation
skills
Performance report Performance reports, progress reports, Communication methods, reporting
meeting minutes, request for tools, progress review meetings and
information, weather reports, labour face-to-face discussions at site
histogram, cash flow forecasts

holistic structure of the project with client, consultant and other parties of the project would clearly
show the communication links. But we did not have such a project structure. Therefore, communi-
cation links between project parties were not clear despite details in contractual agreements.

Information distribution: Almost all case study participants of the three cases mentioned that
interactive communication (excluding video conferencing) and push communication (excluding
voice mails) are generally used for communication in construction. It was observed that pull com-
munication methods are not needed since the teams studied were not widely geographically
dispersed.
The consultant of Case C stated, ‘we used meeting as a formal way to distribute information to
other members’. The contractors of Case C mentioned that verbal communication is preferred
when communicating with lower level employees of the site as it is possible to make sure that
they correctly received it. Furthermore, public sector consultant expressed ‘we maintain two sep-
arate manual files for “correspondence with clients” and “correspondence with contractor”’. The
need for both hard and soft copies was also mentioned. Especially, hard copy information distri-
bution tools are used to keep as evidence and soft copy for speedy distribution. The contractor of
Case B stated, ‘distribution of information should be properly managed. Information leaking is a
huge problem to a construction organisation, since jobs are secured through competition’.
According to them, the information that needed to be kept confidential are mainly rate break-
downs, rates, overhead and profit margins.
Managing stakeholder expectations: The consultant of Case A stated that they use tools such
as confirmation of verbal instructions, letters, progress review meetings and management skills
(negotiation, writing skills and leadership qualities) for this step. The contractor of Case B also
highlighted importance of interpersonal and management skills in managing stakeholders, in par-
ticular, customers. It was observed that they maintain customer evaluation forms.
 Architectural Engineering and Design Management 15

Performance reporting: The clients in three cases review project’s financial performance in
some form. For example, in Case A, public project, a report on how the funds were utilised is
sent to the Treasury of the government. In Case B and C, a review is done to see whether the
funds were optimally used. Contractor of Case A mentioned sometimes variance analysis is
done at the request of top management for variations within the project. In Case B, as per the con-
tractor, this is frequently done to analyse the effect of variations on the project cost and time. In Case
C, participants – in particular, the contractor – viewed that performance reporting is critical for
decision-making and as evident in case of disputes. Case C Contractor said, ‘we kept the records
on most project documents and correspondence. These records help to measure progress, identify
delays, monitor plans and assist in decision-making’. Participants mentioned that simulation and
time series methods are rarely used in construction for performance reporting. The most
common tools are progress reports and judgemental methods to forecast performance of the project.

4.4. Discussion of findings

When comparing above case study findings with the literature findings following were observed.
First, the complex and team-based nature of construction communication was identified
through the case studies, which is in consistent with the general construction communication litera-
ture (e.g. with Dainty et al., 2006; Emmitt & Gorse, 2007). The case study participants emphasised
the need for trustworthiness, common purpose and legal requirements in construction project com-
munication. This is consistent with Ceric’s (2014) research where they found that a well-designed
contract and trust are two essential ingredients to maintain a good level of communication between
construction parties and with Emmitt and Gorse (2007), who emphasised that it is common grounds
and shared understanding that makes communication in construction possible.
Next, the case study findings revealed the importance of seeing project-level communication
in construction as a cyclical process with feedback loops as opposed to the linear steps. Construc-
tion-specific findings that are similar to or different from the general literature on each step of the
project communication process are summarised below.

. Stakeholder identification: Even though literature found that the identification of stake-
holders is more concerned with their instrumentality, organisation’s capacity or being
vectors of influence, when concerning to construction industry practice, identification of
stakeholders is needed mainly to prepare communication protocol and to adjust communi-
cation procedure based on their cultural background. The most common tool used is expert
judgement and there was minimum acceptance for the time-consuming stakeholder analysis
at the early stage, owing to fluid nature of construction team. This is consistent with Senar-
atne and Hapuarachchi (2009), where they state that team composition varies in construc-
tion; while key participants may remain to the end of the project, several other members
may come and go as the project progresses.
. Communication planning: PMI (2008) defined communication planning as the process of
determining the information needs of project stakeholders and defining a communication
approach. A similar understanding was apparent in case study participants in construction.
However, there was less evidence of using particular tools such as communication require-
ment analysis, communication technology, models and methods for this; rather previous
experience was used to set up a communication protocol. The need for a project-level
organisation structure that clearly indicates communication links was also highlighted.
. Information distribution: When comparing literature and case study findings, similarities
were seen while both identifying that the purpose of information distribution is to deliver
correct and right information to the right person at the right time with feedback at right
16 S. Senaratne and M. Ruwanpura

quality. Use of hard copy, as was observed in the case studies, has been consistent with the
findings of Den Otter and Emmitt (2007).
. Managing stakeholder expectations: Bourne and Walker (2005) argued that the project’s
success or failure is strongly influenced by both the expectations and perceptions of its sta-
keholders. In the case studies, this was referred to as customer satisfaction by the partici-
pants. In the private sector, customer satisfaction was highly regarded by all key parties,
whereas in the public sector, it was taken for granted. Most tools mentioned in the literature
were seen practised at this step – mainly, management skills, leadership qualities and nego-
tiation skills.
. Performance reporting: Performance reporting was seen to be practised at different levels
by different parties in the case study projects, which was not detailed in the literature. The
clients were mainly reviewing cost performance. The contractors and consultants were
reviewing project performance through regular progress reports and face-to-face meetings.
Contractors also used variance analysis for reviewing variation items in view of analysing
profits gained through variation items.

The conclusions and recommendations of this research are given next.

5. Conclusions
The aim of the research was to explore how construction project teams manage each communi-
cation step and how they use various tools in construction projects in Sri Lanka. The empirical
phase included three case studies of a private sector, a public sector and a mixed one where
client was public and the consultant and contractor were private. The top or middle management
from the three key parties (consultants, contractor and client) was interviewed for each case based
on a semi-structured questionnaire.
Even though there were several construction literature on communication types, channels and
for virtual team, and literature on team communication, literature that looked into project com-
munication process from a management perspective was lacking. This research addressed this
gap and found how the construction project teams manage each step of the ‘project communi-
cation management process’ through the case studies. Overall, it was observed that in construc-
tion settings the tools that were recommended by PMI for project communication are not entirely
practised as it is. Further, the public sector and public sector project participants sometimes
showed different views and it was seen that more consideration for communication management
was given by the private sector compared to the public sector. Due to rigid rules/procedures and
the tall hierarchy public sector showed less interest in formally managing the process.
This research offers implications for construction project teams, mainly to recognise and prac-
tise each step of the communication process by use of appropriate communication tools. Further,
the need for a communication plan and a project structure that defines communication links is
identified. These findings would be useful in similar construction project settings in other
countries. Since this research is based on case study method, it is limited in statistical generalisa-
bility. However, it is hoped that the findings can be theoretically generalised to similar contexts.
Further case studies in different settings are required to contest and confirm the research findings
in a wider context.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
 Architectural Engineering and Design Management 17

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