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C, C++, Java, Python, PHP, JavaScript and Linux For Beginners

An ideal addition to your personal elibrary. With the aid of this indispensable reference book, you may quickly gain a grasp of Python, Java, JavaScript, C, C++, CSS, Data Science, HTML, LINUX and PHP. It can be challenging to understand the programming language's distinctive advantages and charms. Many programmers who are familiar with a variety of languages frequently approach them from a constrained perspective rather than enjoying their full expressivity. Some programmers incorrectly use Programmatic features, which can later result in serious issues. The programmatic method of writing programs—the ideal approach to use programming languages—is explained in this book. This book is for all programmers, whether you are a novice or an experienced pro. Its numerous examples and well paced discussions will be especially beneficial for beginners. Those who are already familiar with programming will probably gain more from this book, of course. I want you to be prepared to use programming to make a big difference.

© Copyright 2019 Manjunath.R

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

4.0 International License.

(CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Under the terms of the cc-4.0-by license, you may:

 Share – copy and distribute the content in any form or media

 Remix, alter, and build upon the content for any non-commercial objective

As long as you comply by the conditions of the license, the licensor cannot revoke these rights.

You have to

 Provide proper recognition;

 Cite the license by including a link to it (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/);
and
 Specify whether (and if so, which) changes were made from the original.
Dedication

I dedicate this book to every individual, programmer, teacher, educational institutions and
enterprise corporations in every country of the world for their immense contributions towards the
process of creating, designing, deploying and supporting software…
Acknowledgements

Without the amazing work of some renowned programmers, their creativity, and their inventiveness in the
field of software programming, this book would not have been accomplished. I would like to use this
opportunity to thank my dearest friend and well-wisher "Lawrence" for his unwavering support during
the COVID crisis and for giving me access to all the resources I needed to finish this book. I want to
express my gratitude to my family for their support and encouragement as I wrote this book, especially to
my mother, who has been a tremendous source of inspiration in my life. I owe a lot of gratitude to my
mother for teaching me how to be perseverant and strong in life. Finally, I want to emphasize how crucial
patience is when writing a book or taking on any other project in life.
Foreword

I'm neither the proprietor of a well-known publishing house or a top IT firm with hundreds of in-
house programmers who could easily produce anything I needed. I am a self-employed software
engineer who is passionate about what I do, and believe me when I say that a lot of work and
effort went into compiling this comprehensive edition. I'll be overjoyed if it helps even a few
others reach their ideal positions in their professions.

Thank You
− Manjunath.R
An Enjoyable Introduction to Coding
Introduction

Today's devices are mostly powered by software: almost everyone uses Facebook,
WhatsApp and Twitter to communicate, many phones have internet-connected desktops, and the
majority of office work requires using a computer to do tasks. As a response, there is a huge
increase in demand for programmers. Numerous books, interactive websites, and programmer
training courses make the bold claim that they can turn ambitious novices into software
engineers earning six figures. This book is for all programmers, whether you are a novice or an
experienced pro. Its numerous examples and well paced discussions will be especially beneficial
for beginners. Those who are already experienced with programming will probably gain more
from this book, of course. You will be at a modest level of programming proficiency when you
have finished this book, from where you can take yourself to next levels so that you can
automate simple tasks such as:

 Making a file backup

 Get rid of the irritating emails
 Completing online forms

This book will make an amazing complement to any tutorial and serve as a source of information
to your specific inquiries if you are just learning what kind of animals C, C+ +, Java, PHP,
Python, and JavaScript are. Even if your career has nothing to do with computers, the skills you
learn from programming can be valuable at school and at work. Programming is a pleasant,
occasionally difficult and perhaps frustrating activity. Creativity, logic, and problem-solving are
all enhanced through programming.

 Educational institutions are teaching it

 Corporate societies are employing it
 Pupils need it
 (Pedagogues desire it... ;)
 (Coders perceive it... :)
Have Fun!

As you progress through this book, keep in mind that programming can be enjoyable. Do not
consider of this as work. Consider programming as a means to develop entertaining games or
software applications that you can show off to others or your friends. Programming is a
tremendous brain workout and is essential today because so much of our everyday world is
automated. But above all, you have access to the quick-paced, creative world that depends on
machine connections.

"The only way to learn a new programming language is by writing programs in it."

– Dennis Ritchie

Note:

 Linux version used: CentOS Linux release 7.3.1611 (Core)

 Python version used: 3.7.3
The Basic Programming Principles That Every Programmer Should Know:

1. Always be aware of the purpose of your software program before beginning to write it.
2. Programming is not the solution; it is merely a means to achieve a solution.
3. Consider the problem rather than just the solution.
4. Always try to make things simpler; anyone can come up with a complicated answer to a
problem. To make a solution simple while remaining consistent, it requires extra work
and consideration.
5. Reduce Deeply Nested Ifs or Loops: When your software program is deeply nested, your
program becomes complicated and disorganized.
6. Delete Unnecessary Code. Make sure your software program is safe, secure, reliable,
testable and clear to read.
7. Give code reviews some attention so you can spot bugs early, before they cause serious
problems in your software application.
8. Reduce complexity. Software programs must have clear explanations.
9. Generalize your software program. Make sure your software program is documented.
Understanding the function of a certain component of the software application is greatly
aided by the documentation and comments.
10. Fancy algorithms and data structures are more difficult to implement. Use simple,
efficient, appropriate algorithms and data structures.
11. Refractor your software program frequently to improve its internal software attributes in
terms of upkeep, testing and comprehension.
12. Each time you make a change to your software program: check it, build it and test it.
13. Before being released, all software codes must pass each and every unit test.
14. Always use caution when using someone else's code. Maintain a standardized, orderly
and generally consistent coding style.
15. Avoid implementing a code style that is too hard to understand.
16. Because it makes the code more difficult to maintain, duplication is seen adversely in
software programming.
17. Look for bugs and flaws and fix them. Divide your software program into Brief, Concise
Units.
18. Avoid overdesigning. Focus your software design on the requirements of the clients.
19. Program defensively. Functions should be simple and do a distinct, defined task.
20. Create reusable functions and Keep the functions as simple, immutable and manageable
as possible.
21. When naming your variables and functions, choose names that are meaningful and
descriptive.
22. Put your software program's structure on view by using indentation.
23. Delete any unused variables and functions; do not comment them.
24. If you feel that a part of the software program is excessively unorganized, regroup and
modify it, or even split it up into different portions.
25. Avoid using GOTO statements because they cause the software program to be
unstructured, which makes it harder to understand and makes debugging more complex.
26. Avoid using the same identifier more than once.
27. The length of functions shouldn't be excessively long.
28. Think Twice, Code Once: Encourage yourself to consider the problem more before
coming up with a solution.
29. The very first step in making a software program readable by humans is to add
comments. Comments should be detailed explanations of a software program.
30. White space should be utilized regularly to increase code readability even though it has
little significance to compilers.
31. Coding standards must be followed while formatting code.
32. Avoid security pitfalls and Keep your software code portable.
33. All software design is redesign. Take advice from others' experience.
34. The writing of software program should make it simple for a future software developer
to correct errors or modify its functionality.
35. Never compromise clarity for a false sense of efficiency.

"More computing sins are committed in the name of efficiency (without necessarily
achieving it) than for any other single reason − including blind stupidity."

− W.A. Wulf

36. Enhance the appearance of software program by avoiding excessively long names or
ambiguous acronyms
37. Look for a method that employs a loop rather than duplicating lines. Compared to 100
individual blocks of code, one loop that can handle 100 repetitions is simpler to debug.
You're not coding to amaze strangers. You're in this
profession to find ways to resolve problems.
"The computer programmer is a creator of universes for which he alone is the lawgiver. No playwright,

no stage director, no emperor, however powerful, has ever exercised such absolute authority to arrange a

stage or field of battle and to command such unswervingly dutiful actors or troops."

− Joseph Weizenbaum
Top 10 Programming Languages and Their Applications

Python Artificial Intelligence, Deep learning and Machine Learning

JavaScript Rich Interactive Web Development
Java Enterprise Application Development
R Data Analysis
C/C++ Operating Systems and System Tools
Golang Server-Side Programming
C# Application and Web Development Using .NET
PHP Web Development
SQL Database Management
Swift For Mobile Application Development on iOS
How much time does it take to become a good programmer?

A skilled coder can identify the best solution to any problem and solve even the most challenging
issues. Being a good programmer requires constant knowledge upkeep and the acquisition of
new skills. A PhD isn't always necessary to become a skilled programmer, but discipline and
determination are. Being a successful programmer demands you to be one step ahead, while
becoming a respectable coder takes years of hard effort.
Image Credit: Wikipedia.org
Contents

When you innovate, you've got to be prepared for everyone telling you you're nuts.

– Larry Ellison

C Programming 22
C++ Programming 222
Linux 381
Git Commands 545
Algorithm 549
The Most Significant Failures When Al Turned Rogue, Causing Disastrous Results 574
Is DevOps a good career? 585
Android 589
Docker Commands 614
Java Programming 618
Structured Query Language 737
Basic MongoDB Commands 761

Python Programming 763

JavaScript Programming 860

PHP Programming 921

C Exercises 962

HTML 1082
CSS 1202
30 Bash Scripts for Beginners 1274

30 Python Scripts for Beginners 1289

9 Interesting Python Facts 1328

C++ Exercises 1331
Java Exercises 1385
Python Exercises 1461

Whether you want to uncover the secrets of the universe, or you just

want to pursue a career in the 21st century, basic computer

programming is an essential skill to learn.

− Stephen Hawking
(One of the most brilliant theoretical physicists in human history)
Programming language

Low level language High level language

Machine level language Assembly language General purpose Specific purpose

High level language High level language

High level language Interpreter Machine level

language
Compiler

C Language Basic Syntax Rules

#include<stdio.h> Including header files

int main() main() function must be there

{
Single line comment
// Hello World Program

printf("Hello,world!"); Semicolon after each statement

return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */

} Program enclosed by curly braces

1
C Keywords

auto double int struct

break else long switch
case enum register typedef
char extern return union
continue for signed void
do if static while
default goto sizeof volatile
const float short unsigned

Special Characters in C Programming

, < > . _
( ) ; $ :
% [ ] # ?
' & { } "
^ ! * / |
- \ ~ +

Primary C Constants Secondary

Array, Pointer, Structure, Union etc.

Non-numeric
Numeric
Character String

Floating-point

Integer

 Integer : 246, 0, -3679, +35, 9777, -36026 etc.

 Floating-point : 246.23, 0000.23, -36.79, +35.56, 9.777, -360.216 etc.
 Character : 'b', '?', '@', '#' etc.
 String : "C", "Java", "Python", "JavaScript" etc.
 Boolean : True, False
 Nothing : Null

2
Data types:

Types Size in bytes Keyword

Integer 2 int
Floating-point 4 float
Double 8 double
Character 1 char

Input output functions:

Escape Sequences:
Input Output
Sequence Meaning
Formatted scanf() printf()
\a System alarm (bell)
Unformatted getchar() putchar()
\b Backspace gets() puts()
\f Form feed
\n Newline
#include <stdio.h> // This is a preprocessor directive
\r Carriage Return
int main() // This identifies the function main()
\t Horizontal Tab
\v Vertical Tab { // This marks the beginning of main()

\\ Backslash printf("Albert!!\n\a"); // This line outputs a quotation

\' Single quote return 0; // This returns control to the operating system
\" Double quote } // This marks the end of main()
\? Question mark
\0 End of string
# Output: Albert!!

// C Program to Find Square of a Number

Output:
#include<stdio.h> // preprocessor directive
Enter any number: 2 # entered number
/* function main begins program execution */
The square of the number = 4
int main() {
int x; /* number to be input by user */
int square; /* variable in which square will be stored */
printf("Enter
Input outputany number: "); /* prompt */
functions:
scanf("%d", &x); /* read an number */
square = x * x; /* assign product to square */
printf("The square of the number = %d", square); /* print square */
return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */
} /* end function main */

3
Format specifiers in C

Format Specifier Meaning

%c Read a Single Character

%d Read a Decimal integer

%e Read a Floating-point number

%f Read a Floating-point number

%g Read a Floating-point number

%h Read a short integer

%i Read a Decimal or hexadecimal or octal number

%o Read an octal number

%p Read a pointer

%s Read a string

%u Read an Unsigned integer

%x Read a hexadecimal number

%n Prints nothing

%% Prints % character

C Operators

Unary Ternary
Binary

Arithmetic Logical Relational Bitwise

4
• Arithmetic operators

Operations Operator
Addition +
Subtraction -
Multiplication *
Division /
Modulus %

• Relational operators

Operator Meaning
< Lesser than
<= Less than or equal to
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to
== Equal to
!= Not equal to

• Logical operators

Operator Meaning
&& Logical AND
|| Logical OR
! Logical NOT

• Bitwise operators

Operator Meaning
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Exclusive –OR (XOR)
~ 1's complement
<< Left shifting of bits
>> Right shifting of bits

5
Shorthand operators

Operator Example Equivalent construct

+ a=a+b a+=b
- a=a-b a-=b
* a=a*b a*=b
/ a=a/b a/=b
% a=a%b a%=b
& a=a&b a&=b
| a=a|b a|=b
^ a=a^b a^=b
<< a=a<<b a<<=b
>> a=a>>b a>>=b

Mathematical Functions

Function Description

sqrt(x) Return the square root of x

exp(x) Return exponential (ex)

log(x) Return natural logarithm of x (base e)

log10(x) Return logarithm of x (base 10)

fabs(x) Return absolute value of x

abs(x) Return absolute value of x

floor(x) Return a value rounded to the next lower integer

pow(x,y) Return x raised to power y (xy)

fmod(x,y) Return floating-point remainder of x/y (with same sign of x)

sin(x) Return the sine of x

cos(x) Return the cosine of x

tan(x) Return the tangent of x

acos(x) Return arc cosine of x [cos−1(x)]

asin(x) Return arc sine of x [sin−1(x)]

atan(x) Return arc tangent of x [tan−1(x)]

6
#include<stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main() {
// ceil() function rounds a number upwards to its nearest integer
printf("%f\n", ceil(2.6));
// Output: 3.000000

// floor() method rounds a number downwards to its nearest integer

printf("%f\n", floor(2.6));
// Output: 2.000000
return 0;
}

/*
* Multi-line
* Comment.
*/
Multi-line comments
/*******************************************
* Multi-line *
* Comment. *
*******************************************/

#include<stdio.h>
int main(void) {
printf("\"Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical \"\nphysicist\n");
return 0;
}

Output:
"Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical "

physicist

7
C Header files

Header file Description

stdio.h Input and Output functions

conio.h Console Input and Output functions
stdlib.h Some standard library functions
math.h Mathematical functions
string.h String manipulation functions
ctype.h Character handling functions
time.h Time computing functions

malloc.h Memory allocation and deallocation functions

graphics.h Graphical functions

dos.h Function linking DOS routines
wctype.h Functions to classify and transform individual wide characters
limits.h Functions define various symbolic names

float.h Functions define set of various platform-dependent constants related to

floating point values

Preprocessor Directives

Preprocessor directive Use

#define To define a macro
#include Inserts a particular header from another file
#if To test whether a compile–time condition is true
#undef To undefine a macro
#else To specify the alternative action if a test fails
#endif To end the preprocessor condition

#include<stdio.h>
stdio.h is a standard header file required to
#define NUMBER_OF_APPLES 24
use input/output functions such as printf()

int indicates that main()

returns an integer value

int main(void) {
printf("There are %d apples in a basket.\n", NUMBER_OF_APPLES);
return 0;
}

// Output: There are 24 apples in a basket.

8
#include<stdio.h>

#include<stdio.h>
// define a macro ab with the value 25
int main() {
#define ab 25 int x = 16;
int y = (x++, ++x);
int main() { printf("%d", y);
return 0;

/******************************************************* }

// Output: 18
When the #ifdef condition is encountered:
If ab macro is defined: #ifdef condition is executed
If ab macro is not defined: #else condition is executed

******************************************************/

#ifdef ab
printf("Your lucky number is: %d\n", ab);
#else Output:
printf("Error: printing lucky number!"); Your lucky number is: 25
#endif

return 0;
#include<stdio.h>
}
int main() {
#ifdef ab
Development of C Program: printf("Your lucky number is: %d\n", ab);
#else
Source Code
printf("Error: printing lucky number!");
#endif

Preprocessor
return 0;
}
Compiler Output:
Library Error: printing lucky number!

Linker

Executable program

9
ASCII Table

ASCII Char ASCII Char ASCII Char ASCII Char

--------- --------- --------- ----------
0 NUL (null) 32 SPACE 64 @ 96 `
1 SOH (start of heading) 33 ! 65 A 97 a
2 STX (start of text) 34 " 66 B 98 b
3 ETX (end of text) 35 # 67 C 99 c
4 EOT (end of transmission) 36 $ 68 D 100 d
5 ENQ (enquiry) 37 % 69 E 101 e
6 ACK (acknowledge) 38 & 70 F 102 f
7 BEL (bell) 39 ' 71 G 103 g
8 BS (backspace) 40 ( 72 H 104 h
9 TAB (horizontal tab) 41 ) 73 I 105 i
10 LF (NL line feed, new line) 42 * 74 J 106 j
11 VT (vertical tab) 43 + 75 K 107 k
12 FF (NP form feed, new page) 44 , 76 L 108 l
13 CR (carriage return) 45 - 77 M 109 m
14 SO (shift out) 46 . 78 N 110 n
15 SI (shift in) 47 / 79 O 111 o
16 DLE (data link escape) 48 0 80 P 112 p
17 DC1 (device control 1) 49 1 81 Q 113 q
18 DC2 (device control 2) 50 2 82 R 114 r
19 DC3 (device control 3) 51 3 83 S 115 s
20 DC4 (device control 4) 52 4 84 T 116 t
21 NAK (negative acknowledge) 53 5 85 U 117 u
22 SYN (synchronous idle) 54 6 86 V 118 v
23 ETB (end of trans. block) 55 7 87 W 119 w
24 CAN (cancel) 56 8 88 X 120 x
25 EM (end of medium) 57 9 89 Y 121 y
26 SUB (substitute) 58 : 90 Z 122 z
27 ESC (escape) 59 ; 91 [ 123 {
28 FS (file separator) 60 < 92 \ 124 |
29 GS (group separator) 61 = 93 ] 125 }
30 RS (record separator) 62 > 94 ^ 126 ~
31 US (unit separator) 63 ? 95 _ 127 DEL

10
Data Conversion Functions

12
Searching and Sorting Functions

Function Use

bsearch() Performs binary search

lfind() Performs linear search for a given value

qsort() Performs quick sort

File Handling Functions

Function Use
fopen() opens new or existing file
fprintf() write data into the file
fscanf() reads data from the file
fputc() writes a character into the file
fgetc() reads a character from file
fclose() closes the file
fseek() sets the file pointer to a given position
fputw() writes an integer to file
fgetw() reads an integer from file
ftell() returns current position
rewind() sets the file pointer to the beginning of the file

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int x = 3; /* loop 10 times */
while(x <= 10) {
x = 3 * x;
printf("%d", x);
} /* end while */ Output:
}
927

Memory allocation Functions

Function Use

malloc() allocates the specified number of bytes

13
realloc() increases or decreases the size of the specified block of memory,
moving it if necessary

calloc() allocates the specified number of bytes andinitializes them to zero

free() releases the specified block of memory back tothe system

Directory Control Functions

• chdir() = Changes current working directory

• getcwd() = Gets current working directory
• fnsplit() = Splits a full path name into its components
• findfirst() = Searches a disk directory
• findnext() = Continues findfirst search
• mkdir() = Makes a new directory
• rmdir()= Removes a directory

Algorithm Depending on what we

A step by step procedure to solve a
want to do, it might be
particular problem
either easy or difficult

Example: Algorithm to compute the area of a sphere

Step 1: Read radius

Step 2: Compute Area [Area = 4 × 3.142 × radius × radius]

Step 3: Print the Area

Performance:
Step 4: Stop [End of algorithm] The amount of time, memory, disc space, etc. utilized
when a program is executed

Flowchart
Complexity:

What happens when the size of the problem the

A diagrammatic representation of an algorithm software program is solving increases...

14
start #include <stdio.h> #include <stdio.h>
int main() { int main() {
int a = 10, b = 2; int a = 10, b = 2;
a /= b + 1; a = a/(b + 1);
Read radius printf("%d", a); printf("%d", a);
return 0; return 0;
} }

// Output: 3
Area = 4 × 3.142 × radius × radius

/* Calculate the product of 3 numbers */

Print Area #include <stdio.h>
int main( void ) {
int a, b, c, z; /* declare variables */
printf("Enter 3 numbers: \n"); /* prompt */
scanf("%d%d%d", &a, &b, &c); /* read 3 numbers */
stop
z = a * b * c; /* multiply values */
printf( "The product of 3 numbers is: %d\n", z); /* display result */
return 0;
} /* end function main */
C Program:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
float radius; /* radius to be input by user */
float area; /* variable in which area will be stored */
printf("Enter the radius: "); /* prompt */
scanf("%f", &radius); /* read an radius */
area = 4 * 3.14 * radius * radius; /* assign product to area */
printf("Area of a sphere = %f", area); /* print area */
return 0;
}

Output:
Enter the radius: 2.6 # entered radius

Area of a sphere = 84.905594

15
Logical statements:

> Greater than 7 > 3 is TRUE

< Less than 3 < 7 is TRUE
>= greater than or equal 9 >= 9 is TRUE
<= less than or equal 3 <= 7 is TRUE
== Equal to 14 == 14 is TRUE
!= not equal to 7 != 3 is TRUE

Value With an exponent Can also be written in C as

2.7 0.27 × 101 0.27E1

0.00002 0.2 × 10−4 0.2E−4

5496.788 0.5496788 × 104 0.5496788E4

200.0 2.0 × 102 2.0E2

BASIC SYNTAX:

if (condition) {
Execute all statements inside the body if the condition is true If syntax
}

if (condition) {
Execute all statements inside the body if the condition is true
} else { Else syntax

Execute all statements inside the body if the condition is false

}

if (condition1) {
Execute all statements inside the body if condition1 is true
} else if (condition2) {
Execute all statements inside the body if the condition1 is false and condition2 is true
} else {
Execute all statements inside the body if the condition1 is false and condition2 is false
}
Else if syntax

16
Break syntax

do {
while (condition) { // statements
// statements if (condition to break) {
if (condition to break) { break;
break; }
} // statements
// statements }
} while (condition);

for (variable initialization; condition; variable update) {

// statements
if (condition to break) {
break;
}
// statements
}

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int main() {
int y =10;
int y =10;
if(y > 6) {
int x = y > 6 ? 25 : 50;
int x = 25;
printf( "%d", x);
printf( "%d", x);
return 0;
} else {
}
int x = 50;
printf( "%d", x);
}
return 0; Output:
} 25

17
Continue syntax

while (condition) { do {
// statements // statements
if (condition to break) { if (condition to break) {

continue; continue;

} }
// statements // statements

} }
while (condition);

for (variable initialization; condition; variable update) {

// statements
if (condition to break) {
continue;
}
// statements
}

#include<stdio.h> Output:
Switch syntax
/* function main begins program execution */
1
int main() {
switch (expression) { 2
int i = 1; /* initialization */
case 1: 3
while(i<=10) { /* repetition condition */ 4
// statements
break; printf("%d\n", i); /* display counter */ 5
case 2: i++; /* increment */ 6
// statements 7
} /* end while */
break; 8
return 0; /* indicate program ended successfully */
default: 9
} /* end function main */ 10
// statements
}

18
For Loop syntax

for (variable initialization; condition; variable update) {

// statements
}

While Loop syntax

Do While Loop syntax

while (condition) {
do {
// statements
// statements
}
}
while (condition);

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main() {
int num = 1;
printf("We have seen %d cat%s.", num, num == 1 ? "" : "s");
return 0;
}

// Output: We have seen 1 cat.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main() {
int num = 2;
printf("We have seen %d cat%s.", num, num == 1 ? "" : "s");
return 0;
}

// Output: We have seen 2 cats.

19
Nested-if statement:
Goto statement:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h> int main() {
int main() { int a = 10;
int sum=0; if (a == 10) {
for(int i = 1; i<=9; i++) { if (a < 15)
sum = sum+i; printf("\n a is smaller than 15");
if(i==5) { if (a < 12)
goto addition; // Go to the statement labeled addition printf("\n a is smaller than 12");
} else
} printf("\n a is greater than 15");
addition: }
printf("%d", sum); return 0;
return 0; }
}
// Output:
// Output: 15 # 1+2+3+4+5 = 15 a is smaller than 15
a is smaller than 12

Nested else if Statement: #include <stdio.h>

int main(void) {
#include <stdio.h>
char ch = 0;
int main() {
printf("Enter A or J: ");
int a = 20;
scanf(" %c", &ch); // Get the choice input
if (a == 10)
switch(ch) {
printf("a is 10");
case 'a': case 'A':
else if (a == 15)
printf("Albert...\n");
printf("a is 15");
break; The switch provides
else if (a == 20)
case 'j': case 'J': for the possibility
printf("a is 20"); of the user entering
printf("John...\n");
else an uppercase or a
break;
printf("a is not present"); lowercase letter A
default:
return 0;
printf("Mary...\n");
}
break;
} Output:
// Output: a is 20
return 0;
Enter A or J: a # entered character
}
Albert...

20
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
#include <stdio.h>
for(int x = 1, y = 2 ; x <= 6 ; x++, y = y + 1) int main() {
printf(" %3d", x*y); printf("Albert \" 1905 Papers \\\".");
return 0; return 0;
} }

// Output: Albert " 1905 Papers \".

# Output:
2 6 12 20 30 42

#include<stdio.h> // For input and output functions Output:

#include<ctype.h> // For mapping characters x = 0.00
x = 0.30
int main() { x = 0.60
for(double i = 0.0 ; i <= 3.0 ; i+= 0.3) { x = 0.90
x = 1.20
printf("\nx = %.2lf", i); x = 1.50
} x = 1.80
x = 2.10
return 0;
x = 2.40
} x = 2.70
x = 3.00

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("\n **************");
This expression executes once when the loop starts.
It declares "i" and initializes it to 1.

This expression is executed at the end of

every loop cycle. It increments "i".
for(int i = 1; i <= 6; i++)
This expression is evaluated
at the beginning of each loop
printf("\n+ +"); cycle. If it is true, the
Output:
printf("\n **************\n"); loop continues, and if it is
false, the loop ends. **************
return 0; + +
+ +
} + +
+ +
+ +
+ +
**************

21
C Programming

Paradigm Imperative (procedural), structured

Designed by Dennis Ritchie

Developer Dennis Ritchie & Bell Labs (creators); ANSI X3J11 (ANSI C); ISO/IEC

JTC1/SC22/WG14 (ISO C)

First appeared 1972; 48 years ago

Stable release C18 / June 2018; 2 years ago

Typing discipline Static, weak, manifest, nominal

OS Cross-platform

Filename extensions .c, .h Dennis Ritchie

Creator of C language
Major implementations

K&R C, GCC, Clang, Intel C, C++Builder, Microsoft Visual C++, Watcom C

Dialects

Cyclone, Unified Parallel C, Split-C, Cilk, C*

Influenced by

B (BCPL, CPL), ALGOL 68, Assembly, PL/I, FORTRAN

Influenced

Numerous: AMPL, AWK, csh, C++, C--, C#, Objective-

22
C, D, Go, Java, JavaScript, Julia, Limbo, LPC, Perl, PHP, Pike, Processing, Python, Ring, Rust

, Seed7, Vala, Verilog (HDL), Nim

which uses alphabets, digits, punctuations and some special symbols

and cannot be executed directly without being converted into machine
level language [the language which uses only 0 and 1]

A general-purpose, procedural, High Level Programming most widely used computer Language developed by a
man named Dennis Ritchie in 1970s at Bell Telephone laboratories (now named AT & T Bell laboratories),
Murray Hill, New Jersey to develop system application that directly interacts with the hardware devices such as
drivers, kernels, etc. [UNIX operating system] using the two early programming languages − Basic Combined
Programming Language (BCPL) and BASIC (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) language.

Uses: used in the development of

• Operating systems like LINUX, UNIX.

• CAD/ CAM Applications and Word processors

• Embedded systems like ATMs, printers.

• RDBMS MySQL, Language Compilers and Interpreters, Print Spoolers, Loaders, Linkers,
Assemblers, Text Editors, Automation tools, Network Drivers.

Most of the state-of-the-art software has been developed using C. C has also greatly influenced many other popular
languages [considered as the base for other programming languages − mother language], especially C++, which
was originally designed as an enhancement to C. Most of the programming languages follow C syntax [For example:
C++, Java, C#, etc.]

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
Output:
int main() {
printf("Hello World"); Aborted
abort(); // abnormal termination of the program
return 0;
}

Advantages:

▪ Relatively simple language

▪ Reliable (able to be trusted)

23
▪ Easy to understand and supports a rich set of data types
▪ Easy to use, write, modify and debug and quick to learn
▪ can be compiled on a variety of computer platforms

▪ C supports a rich set of operators:

• The unary minus,!, ++, -- and ~ unary operators

• The +, − *, ? are arithmetic operators. % operator is another arithmetic operator

which results in the remainder after an integer division.

• The <, <=, >=, ==, != are relational operators.

▪ C supports bitwise operators – Bitwise AND, OR, XOR, bitwise complement, left and right shift
operators.
▪ C provides a variety of conditional control statements • if-statement

• if-else statement
The ALGOL-based language formalized in 1988
• nested-if statement
by the American National Standard Institute
• switch statement
(ANSI) and can handle low-level activities

C is called a structured programming language because it divides the problem into smaller modules called
functions or procedures each of which handles a particular responsibility. Hence it is simple and easy to understand
and well suited for small size implementation. However this is not restricted. A large size implementation is possible
but complex design and full object oriented design cannot be implemented (because complex design concepts like
Polymorphism and inheritance are not available in C). C is widely used in IOT applications.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h> Output:
int main() {
printf("Hello World"); Hello World
exit(EXIT_SUCCESS); // normal termination of the program
return 0;
} #include <stdio.h>
int main() {
Output:
char x[] = "Albert Einstein!";
puts(x);
Albert Einstein!
return 0;
}

24
Characters Set: #include <stdio.h>
int main() {

Upper case char x[] = {'A', 'l', 'b', 'e', 'r', 't', '\0'};
char y[] = "Albert";
Alphabets printf("%lu\n", sizeof(x)); // Output: 7
Lower case printf("%lu\n", sizeof(y)); // Output: 7
return 0;

Digits [0−9] }

The size of both arrays is the same

Special characters:

~ Tilde

! Exclamation mark

# Number sign

$ Dollar sign

% Percent sign

^ Caret

& Ampersand

* Asterisk

( Lest parenthesis

) Right parenthesis

_ Underscore

+ Plus sign

| Vertical bar

\ Backslash

` Apostrophe

- Minus sign

= Equal to sign

{ Left brace

25
} Right brace

[ Left bracket

] Right bracket

: Colon

" Quotation mark

; Semicolon

< Opening angle bracket

> Closing angle bracket

? Question mark

, Comma

. Period

/ Slash

• Blank space
Limitation: C can't be used for
• New line
White spaces internet programming like Java,
• Carriage return
.Net, PHP, etc.
• Horizontal tab

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a, b;
Output:
a = 2, 4, 6;
b = (2, 4, 6);
printf("a = %d, b = %d\n", a, b); a = 2, b = 6
return 0;
}
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
Features of C:
int x=30; // A local variable
• Simple static int y=30; // A static variable
x=x+1;
• Machine Independent or Portable
y=y+1;
• Mid-level programming language printf("%d, %d", x, y); // Output: 31, 31
return 0;
• structured programming language
}
• Rich Library

26
• Memory Management
#include <stdio.h>
• Fast Speed
int main() {
• Pointers
• Recursion int x = 20.397;

• Extensible double y = 20.397;

• Robust printf("%d\n", x); // Output: 20
• Highly portable
printf("%f\n", y); // Output: 20.397000

return 0;

TOKEN is the smallest unit in a 'C' program.

TOKEN

Strings Operators Constants Identifiers Special

Keywords
Characters

#include<stdio.h>

A Simple C program basically comprises of the following parts: int main() {

printf("Hi\n");
main();
• Preprocessor Commands
return 0;
• Functions }

• Variables
The above program give raise to
• Statements and Expressions
an infinite recursive calls to
• Comments main(). The console screen will
be flooded with Hi's

/* My First C Program */ Comment

#include<stdio.h> Preprocessor command

27
int main() main function. Execution of C program begins from main()

{ Beginning of the main function

printf("Hello,world!"); Output statement

return 0; Terminates the execution of the main function

} End of the main function

Source Code C preprocessor Compiler

#include<stdio.h>

int x = 17; // Global variable declaration

and initialization
int main() { Object
Program
printf("%d", x); // Output: 17

return 0;

} Stages in C Program compilation

#include <stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h> int main() {
int main() { int a = 18;
#include<stdio.h>
int x, y; int b = 5;
int x=17, y=18; // Global variables declaration
x = 6; printf("%ld", sizeof(a+b));
and initialization
int main() { y = x++ / 2; // Output: 4
printf("%d", y); return 0;
printf("x = %d and y = %d", x, y);
// Output: 3 }
// Output: x = 17 and y = 18
return 0;
The above program displays
return 0; }
the actual size of the
} given expression (a+b)

Process of C Program Execution: Every 'C' program follows a basic structure. A C program:

#include<stdio.h> //Pre-processor directive

int main() //main function declaration
{
printf("Hello,world!"); // Output the string on a display screen

28
return 0; //Terminating function

is written using Text Editor such as [Notepad (in case of Windows Operating System), vim or vi
(in case of Linux Operating System)] and saved with [.c] Extension − for example, hello.c.
File Saved with [.c] extension is called Source Program or Source Code. C Source code with
[.c] Extension is sent to preprocessor first.

The preprocessor generates an expanded source code. Expanded source code is given as input to compiler where the
expanded source program is compiled (i.e., the program is entirely read and translated to instructions the computer can
understand i.e., machine understandable and readable language i.e., to machine code sequence of 0s and 1s). If the C
compiler finds any error during compilation, it provides information about the error to the programmer.

The programmer has to review code and re-edit the program. After re-editing program, Compiler again check for
any error. If program is error-free then it is sent to assembler [where the code is assembled and converted into object
code. Now a simple.obj file is generated].

#include<stdio.h>
0100000000000000000
int main() 0111111111111111111
{ 0101010101010101010
0000000111111111111
printf("Hello,world!");
0000000000000001010
return 0;
1111000000000000000
}

C compilation process converts the source code taken as input into the object code or machine code.

The object code is sent to linker (where the object code is linked with appropriate libraries). Then it is converted into a

single executable code. A simple.exe file is generated. The executable code is sent to loader (where the executable code

is loaded into memory and then it is executed). After execution, output:

Hello,world!

is displayed on the console screen.

29
#include <stdio.h> // include the input/output related functions in C program
int main() { /* function main begins program execution */
int sum = 0; // Stores the sum of the integers
int i = 0; // The number of integers to be summed
printf("\n Enter a number: "); /* prompt */
scanf(" %d", &i); // Read the number of integers to be summed
// Sum integers from 1 to i
for(int x = 1; x<=i; sum += x++);
printf("\n The sum of the first %d integers is: %d\n", i, sum); /* print sum */
return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */
} /* end function main */

Output:
Enter a number: 10 # entered number

The sum of the first 10 integers is 55

#include <stdio.h> // include the input/output related functions in C program

int main() { /* function main begins program execution */
int sum = 0; // Stores the sum of the integers
int i = 0; // The number of integers to be summed
printf("\n Enter a number: "); /* prompt */
scanf(" %d", &i); // Read the number of integers to be summed
// Sum integers from i to 1
for(int x = i; x>=1 ; sum += x--);
printf("\n The sum of the first %d integers is: %d\n", i, sum); /* print sum */
return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */
} /* end function main */

Output:
Enter a number: 10 # entered number

The sum of the first 10 integers is 55

#include<stdio.h> → preprocessor statement

This statement begins with # symbol and is also called preprocessor directive. This statement directs the C
preprocessor to include header file [stdio.h] and also symbolic constants [standard input output functions] into a
C program. "stdio" means standard input output and stdio.h means standard input output header file.

printf() and scanf() are not part of the C language because there is no input or output defined in
C language itself − stdio.h comprises standard input output functions like scanf, printf etc.

30
stdio.h is a header file library that add functionality to C programs and allows standard input /output operations
and it is included into the C program by writing the statement #include<stdio.h>
• scanf is an input function and printf is an output function
• Letter "f " denote formatted

If a C program is written without the statement:

#include<stdio.h>

then the C compiler can't compile and a compilation error is displayed on the screen because C compiler
fails to recognize the functions such as printf() and scanf().

We can also write #include "stdio.h" [user define library header file] instead of #include
<stdio.h> [predefine library header file] but #include "stdio.h" is added by programmer and
#include<stdio.h> is already exist in compiler. So the statement #include<stdio.h> is
generally preferred and the statement #include "stdio.h" is generally ignored.

main()→ main function

As the name itself indicates this is the main function of every C Program. Parentheses () indicate a function
and the word main indicate the name of the function.

main() implies: main function.

Execution of C program begins from main(). No C program is executed without main(). It is case sensitive:
only lower case letters (or small letters) must be used and should not be enclosed by a semicolon. There must
be one and only one main() function in every C program.

We can represent the main function in various forms such as:

• main()
• int main()
• void main()
• main(void)
• void main(void)
• int main(void)

31
As we know C is a Platform dependent language. So the Operating system needs to know when the program
execution ends. So when there is value return from the main function, the Operating System gets to know that
the program execution is over.

int main() implies: main() should return integer value.

• If the main function returns 0 to the operating system, then the program has
completed execution successfully.
• If the main function returns 1 to the operating system, then the program
has not completed execution successfully.

int main() {

Body of the main function within which the sequence of instructions to the computer to
perform specific operations in the form of statements [input-output statements, arithmetic
statements, control statements and other statements] are written and executed

The left curly brace

{

implies: the beginning of the main function and the right curly brace

implies: the end of the main function. These braces can also be used to indicate the beginning and end of user-defined
functions and compound statements.

return 0; → implies the exit status of execution of the program i.e., at this point, main function returns back the

control of the computer to the operating system since the execution is terminated at this point and once a return

statement i.e., return 0; executed, no further instructions within the main function are executed.

For example:

32
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("Hello,world!");
return 0;
printf("Hello,world!");
}

Output on the screen:

Hello,world!

; → implies semicolon or statement terminator [a delimiter of the declaration] → In C language: each statement
must end with a semicolon. A program is a well-defined set of instructions and each well-defined instruction (in the
form of a statement) is ended by a semicolon

which is C language punctuation − like a period in English i.e., in an English

paragraph each sentence is ended by a full stop which tells that one sentence ends
and another begins, semicolon implies the end of one logical entity − that one
instruction (or statement) ends and another begins

/* My First C Program */ → Comment

A good programmer who writes codes understood by a human is better than a programmer who generates codes
understood only by the machine. So, it is highly recommended to insert comments. Comment is explanatory note
on some instruction. The statement to be commented on must be enclosed within /* and */. Comment statement is
not compiled and executed.

printf()→ the standard way of displaying output on the screen and output function of the C language which
makes provision to print the output:

Hello,world!

on the screen. Parentheses () indicate a function and the word printf indicate the name of the function. The text:

Hello, world! should be enclosed by the double quotation marks (" ") and should be written within the printf

function and this printf function should be ended with the semicolon i.e.,

33
printf("Hello,world!");

Some of the standard input-output functions in C are given below:

scanf() gets()

printf() puts()

getchar() getch()

putchar() getche()

Take a character in the form

#include<stdio.h> #include <stdio.h>
of input and store it in the
int main() { int main() {
variable "ch"
char ch; char a;
printf("Enter a character: "); char b[20];
Input function printf( "Enter a string: " );
ch = getchar(); scanf( "%c%s", &a, b );
putchar(ch); printf( "You entered: \n" );
printf( "the character: \"%c\" ", a );
Output function
printf( "and the string: \"%s\"\n", b );
return 0; return 0;
Display the character stored
} }
in the variable "ch"

# Output: Output:
Enter a character: A # entered character Enter a string: Albert # entered string
A # output You entered:
the character: "A" and the string: "lbert"
"

#include <stdio.h> /* For puts function */

#include <stdlib.h> /* For atexit function */
void myfunc () {
printf("Turing... \n");
Output:
}
Alan...
int main() {
atexit(myfunc); Mathison...
puts("Alan...\n");
puts("Mathison...\n"); Turing...
return(0); /* indicates successful termination */
} /* end main */

34
#include <stdio.h> /* For puts function */
#include <stdbool.h> /* For bool function */
int main(void) {
bool a = true; /* equivalent to bool a = 1; */
bool b = false; /* equivalent to bool b = 0; */
if ((a != 0) || (a != false)) { /* Functionally equivalent to if (a) */
puts("Albert");
}
if ((b == 0) || (b == false)) { /* Functionally equivalent to if (!b) */
puts("Einstein");
}
Output:
}
Albert
Einstein

Computer Language Purpose

FORTRAN Scientific and Engineering

ALGOL Scientific and Engineering
COBAL Business
BASIC Business, Scientific and Engineering
PI/1, PASCAL General purpose

Example Number of bytes

Single Character A, a, X, 5 1
Single Digit 1,3,8,0 1
Single Symbol ?, *, #,$ 1
Whole Number 22,-102,3610 2
Fractional number 0.1,1.25,0.56729 4
Instruction Add, Multiply (1 - 3)
Big Whole / Fractional number 922112580, 12550.126 (4 - 10)

Decimal Number Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

0 0 0
1 1 1
2 10 2
3 11 3
4 100 4
5 101 5
6 110 6
7 111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
10 1010 A
11 1011 B

35
12 1100 C
13 1101 D
14 1110 E
15 1111 F
16 10000 10
17 10001 11
18 10010 12
19 10011 13
20 10100 14
21 10101 15
22 10110 16
23 10111 17
24 11000 18
25 11001 19
26 11010 1A
27 11011 1B
28 11100 1C
29 11101 1D
30 11110 1E
31 11111 1F
32 100000 20
64 1000000 40
128 10000000 80
256 100000000 100

• Program 1.1
C program to print the word "Hello Bill Gates" on screen

#include <stdio.h> #include <stdio.h>

#include<stdio.h> #include <assert.h> #include <assert.h>
int main() int main() { int main() {
{ int i = -5; int i = 5;

printf("Hello Bill Gates"); assert(i >= 0); assert(i >= 0);

return 0; printf("i = %d\n", i); printf("i = %d\n", i);
} return 0; return 0;
} }
// Assertion 'i >= 0' failed // Output: i = 5

The output on the screen:

36
Hello Bill Gates

• The first line tells the compiler to include standard input output header file
#include <stdio.h> to perform reading and printing of data.
• The second line is the main function of a C program. The body of C program contains
only two statements i.e.,

printf("Hello Bill Gates");

When this statement is taken for execution, main() calls the printf()
and printf()is included in <stdio.h> . Then printf() prints:
Hello Bill Gates on the computer screen.

return 0;

In C program it is optional to include "return 0;"

at the end of the main function and the compiler
includes it automatically.

Macro substitution: Process of replacing an identifier of a C program by a symbolic constant.This can be achieved
by the directive #define.

#include<stdio.h>
#define PI 3.14 /* define a macro */
int main() /* function main begins program execution */
{
float r, area; /* declare variables */
r = 2.5;
area = PI * r * r; /* assign product to area */
printf("The area of the circle = %f", area); /* display result */
return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */
} /* end function main */

Output:
The area of the circle = 19.625000

#include<stdio.h>

#define CONDITION if(x>y)

37
#define PRINT printf("x is greater than y");
int main() {
int x, y;
x=16; Output:
y=2;
x is greater than y
CONDITION
PRINT
return 0;
}

• Blank, tab, and newline are collectively called whitespaces.

• C is case sensitive that means a variable named 'age' and 'AGE' are different.

#include <stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int main(){
int y;
double x = 56.3;
int x = 12;
int y = (int)x + 50; // data type casting
y = (x >= 16) ? 16 : x;
printf("%f\n", x); // Output: 56.300000
printf("y = %d", y);
printf("%d\n", y); // Output: 56 + 50 = 106
return 0;
return 0;
}
}
// Output: y = 12

• Program 1.2
C program to print

*****

*****
#include <stdio.h>
***** int main() {
int y;
***** int x = 12;
if (x >= 16) y = 16; else y = x;
on screen
printf("y = %d", y);
#include<stdio.h> return 0;
int main() }
{ // Output: y = 12

38
#include <stdio.h>
printf("\n * ");
int main(void) {
printf("\n ***** ");
enum x{physics= 65, math=95, biology=86};
printf("\n ***** ");
printf("Physics marks: %d\n", physics);
printf("\n ***** ");
printf("Biology marks: %d\n", biology);
printf("\n ***** ");
return 0;
return 0;
} Output:
}

Physics marks: 65
Biology marks: 86
The output on the screen:

*
*****
*****
*****
*****

If new line sequence (\n) is not included in the above program then the output on the screen is:

*********************

#include <stdio.h>
Write a program to print the following outputs:
int main() {

int i = 10;

char x = 'A';
(a)
int z = i + x;

printf("%d\n", z);
* return 0;

**** }

*******
// Output: 75
****
// 10 + 65
*
// ASCII value of A = 65

(b)

39
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
****************
typedef int physics;

** physics marks = 86;

printf("Physics marks: %d\n", marks);
* Hello World! * return 0;
}
**

**************** // Output:

Physics marks: 86

(c)
Braces come in pairs!
Comments come in pairs!
All statements end with a semicolon!
Spaces are optional!
Must have a main function!
C is done mostly in lowercase. It's a case-sensitive language

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int main() {
const int x = 8; // x is 8
x = 15 ; // generates an error
printf("x = %d", x);
return 0;
Because we are trying to
Answers: }
change the value of the
constant variable
(a)

#include<stdio.h>
#include <stdbool.h>
int main()
#include <stdio.h>
{
int main() {
printf("\n * ");
int x = 30, y = 24;
printf("\n **** ");
bool res = ((x != y) && printf("Albert"));
printf("\n ******* ");
return 0;
printf("\n **** ");
}
printf("\n * ");
return 0;
// Output: Albert
}

40
• If x is true, then: !x will be false.
(b)
• If x is false, then: !x will be true.
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("\n **************** ");
printf("\n * * ");
printf("\n * Hello World! * ");
printf("\n * * ");
printf("\n **************** ");
return 0;
} #include <stdbool.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {

(c) int x = 30, y = 24;

bool res = ((x == y) && printf("Albert"));
#include<stdio.h> return 0;
int main() }
{ // No Output
printf("\n Braces come in pairs!");
printf("\n Comments come in pairs!");
printf("\n All statements end with a semicolon!");
printf("\n Spaces are optional!");
printf("\n Must have a main function!");
printf("\n C is done mostly in lowercase. It's a case-sensitive language");
return 0;
}

The variables represent a particular memory location where the data can be stored.
Their value can be altered and they can be reused many times.

int x;
float y;
char z;
Here: x, y, z represent variables. The int, float, char represent the data types.

int x = 15;

Rules for writing variable names:

Create a variable called x of data type int and
assign the value 15 to it
• Keywords should not be used.

41
• Special characters should not be used as variables
• Representing the variable names in lowercase is a virtue programming practice.
• There is no limit on the number of characters in a variable name.

Valid variables Invalid variables

ab 8ab
total_mark total mark
gross_weight_2020 gross-weight-2020
area_of_sphere area_ _of_ _sphere

There are two methods of assigning values to variables

Method 1: int x = 1;

Method 2: int x;
x = 1;

• Program 1.3

C program to find the total surface area of a cube

#include<stdio.h>
/* function main begins program execution */
int main() {
int x, area; // create variables 'x' and 'area' of data type int
x = 2; // assign the value 2 to x
area = 6 * x * x; /* assign product to area */
printf("The total surface area of a cube = %d", area); // print area
return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */
} /* end function main */

The output on the screen:

42
The total surface area of a cube = 24

int
Keyword used to indicate an integer number. Any integer is a sequence of digits
without a decimal point.

Valid Invalid
-248 3,266
14028 -34.0
+1988 +5,456.3
0 999999999999
56780

An attribute that tells what kind of data that value can own

int means the data type is integer and the storage size of int data type is usually 2 bytes (consumes a total of 16 bits
in memory). And it can take 232 distinct states from -2147483648 to 2147483647. If your computer is an 8-bit
device, then the range of int is given by:

−28−1 <= integer number <= +28−1 − 1

−128 <= integer number <= +127

Note:

• A string, for example, is a data type that is used to categorize text and an
integer is a data type used to categorize whole numbers or non fractional values
[0,-5, 10].

• We can't store decimal values using int data type.

• If we use int data type to store decimal values, decimal values will be shortened
and we will get only whole number. In this case, float data type can be used to
store decimal values in a variable.

The statement

int x, area;

43
imply that we are declaring two integer variables:

• x

• area

and these variables represent some memory location where the data is stored. Each variable is associated with a
value. The processof giving values to variables is called assignment of values. The assignment operator or storage
operator (" = ") is used to assign a value to a variable.

The statements

x = 2;

area = 6 * x * x;

imply that we are assigning the values to the declared variables where:

• x → represents the memory location where the value '2' is stored

6 * x * x

6 * 2 * 2 = 24
• area → represents the memory location where the value '24' is stored.

Comma in the statement:

int x, area;

imply variable separator

tells to the compiler that the x and area
are 2 different variables

The statement

printf("The total surface area of a cube = %d", area);

make provision to print the output:

The total surface area of a cube = 24

on the screen.

44
In the statement:

printf("The total surface area of a cube = %d", area);

Format string or format specifier "%d" indicates that the integer value to be displayed
after the statement:

The total surface area of a cube =

enclosed by double quotes needs to be taken from the variable area.

If you want to supply the value for x through the key board, then the statement

int x, area;
x = 2;

should be replaced by the statements:

int x;
int area;
printf("Enter any number:");
scanf("%d", &x);

i.e., the program should be rewritten as:

#include<stdio.h>

/* function main begins program execution */

int main() {

int x; /* number to be input by user */

int area; /* variable in which area will be stored */

printf("Enter any number: "); /* prompt */

scanf("%d", &x); /* read an number */

area = 6 * x * x; /* assign product to area */

printf("The total surface area of a cube = %d", area); /* print area */

return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */

} /* end function main */

45
The output on the screen:

Enter any number: 2 # entered number

The total surface area of a cube = 24

We use print() to put up an output message and scanf() to read the user input into variable "x".

The statement

printf("Enter any number: ");

make provision to print the text

Enter any number:

on the screen.

scanf() → formatted input function

• To read the values for the variables in a C program from the keyboard, C provides a
function called scanf(). It is equivalent to the READ statement in FORTRAN or PASCAL.

• scanf()→ accepts numeric, character and string type of data. It is included in stdio.h.

• & symbol imply the address and "&x" imply the address of memory location where the
value of input variable "x" should be stored. " %d" specification is used to input
integer data through the keyboard.

The statement:

scanf("%d", &x);

make provision to enter a number for "x" through the keyboard and tells the input function
scanf to read the number entered through the keyboard for "x" (which is a integer) and store
it in the address of "x" in the computer memory (i.e., store the number in "&x").

46
Note:
As you enter an integer for "x" through the keyboard, this integer will be stored in the computer memory. If
you want to know the storage size of the integer in computer memory (i.e., space occupied by the
entered integer in the computer memory), you need to appeal to the following program:

#include<stdio.h>
/* function main begins program execution */
int main() {
int x; /* number to be input by user */
printf("Enter any number: "); /* prompt */
scanf("%d", &x); /* read an number */
printf("Size of x = %ld", sizeof(x)); /* print the size of a variable x */
return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */
} /* end function main */

The output on the screen:

Enter any number: 2 # entered number

Size of x = 4

i.e., integer entered for "x" i.e., 2 has occupied a space of 4 bytes in the computer memory.

Field width:

scanf("%3d", &x);

The digit 3 indicates field width of the input number.

• If input number = 3485 [4 digits]: only 3 digits [348] are stored in the memory location
of an input number. If the input number has more digits than the specified field width
then all extra digits are not stored.

a = 5, b = 6
Unary minus: c = a + (-b) = 5 + (-6) = -1

c = −1 because b was initially a positive integer variable when

operated by a unary minus gets its value changed to negative

47
▪ Format Specifiers in C

Data Type Specifier Example

int %d 14, -15, 780, +098

float %f or %e 12.03, +5.65, 32.56 E-03

char %c 'A', 'b', '\n', 'E'

double %lf or %le 3.141569

long int %ld -218000

Void data type: A void data type doesn't contain or return any value. It is mostly used for

defining functions in 'C'.

Example: void displayData()

• Decimal constant contains digits from 0-9.

Example: 111, 1234

• Octal constant contains digits from 0-7, and these types of constants are always preceded...by .0.

Example: 012, 065

• Hexadecimal constant contains a digit from 0-9 as well as characters from A-F..

Hexadecimal constants are always preceded by 0X.

Example: 0X2, 0Xbcd

Output:
#include<stdio.h>
/* function main begins program execution */ Enter any number: 5496 # entered number
int main() { You entered: 549
int x; /* number to be input by user */
printf("Enter any number: "); /* prompt */

scanf("%3d", &x);

printf("You entered: %d", x); /* print the entered number */

return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */
} /* end function main */

48
#include<stdio.h> #include<stdio.h>
int main() { int main() {
for(int i=1;i<=4;i++) { for(int j=1;j<=4;j++) {
printf("* "); for(int i=1;i<=4;i++) {
} printf("* ");
Nested loop
printf("\n"); }
printf("\n");
for(int i=1;i<=4;i++) { }
printf("* "); return 0;
} }
printf("\n");

for(int i=1;i<=4;i++) {
printf("* ");
}
printf("\n");

for(int i=1;i<=4;i++) {
Output:
printf("* ");
} * * * *
printf("\n");
* * * *
* * * *
return 0;
* * * *
}

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
float r, area;
printf("Enter the radius: "); A simple example of C language that
scanf("%f", &r); gets input from the user and prints
area = 3.14 * r * r; the area of the circle
printf("The area of the circle = %f", area);
return 0;
}

Output:
Enter the radius: 2.5 # entered radius

The area of the circle = 19.625000

49
float means the data type is float. This keyword is used to indicate a floating-point
number. They are termed floating-point because of the shifting of the decimal point
either to the left or the right of some digits during manipulation.

Mantissa-exponent notation:

0.000000000013 → 1.3 × 10−11 → 1.3 E−11

Valid Invalid
-263.269 0,0
2.3698 E+03 -3.3.3
0.0268963 E+06 -9999999999.9999999 (out of range)
3689.6 E-04 -+44.44

The statement:

float r, area;

imply that we are declaring the floating-point variables r, area.

Floating point variable means fractional variable or decimal number (for

example: 1.5, 2.5, 3.5, 4.7 … etc.) whereas integer means non-fractional
variable or whole number (for example: 1, 2, 3, 4 … etc.)

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
float length, breadth, area;
length = 2.5;
C program to print the area of
breadth = 3.2;
the rectangle (given length =
area = length*breadth;
2.5 and breadth = 3.2)
printf("The area of the rectangle = %f", area);
return 0;
}

// Output: The area of the rectangle = 8.000000

50
/* Print one line with three printf statements */ /* Print multiple lines with a single printf */

#include <stdio.h> #include <stdio.h>

/* function main begins program execution */

int main() {
int main() {
printf( "Alan\nMathison\nTuring\n" );
printf( "Alan " );
return 0;
printf( "Mathison " );
}
printf( "Turing.\n" );

return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */ // Output:

} /* end function main */ Alan

Mathison
// Output: Alan Mathison Turing.
Turing

/* Print the sum of 2 numbers */

#include <stdio.h>

/* function main begins program execution */

int main() {
Output:
int x; /* first number to be input by user */
Enter a number: 5 # entered number
int y; /* second number to be input by user */
Enter a number: 4 # entered number
int sum; /* variable in which sum will be stored */
Sum of 5 and 4 is: 9
printf( "Enter a number: " ); /* prompt */

scanf( "%d", &x ); /* read an first number */

printf( "Enter a number: " ); /* prompt */

scanf( "%d", &y ); /* read an second number */

sum = x + y; /* assign total to sum */

printf( "Sum of %d and %d is: %d\n", x, y, sum ); /* print sum */

return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */

} /* end function main */

51
#include <stdio.h>
Lazy initialization
int main() {

printf( "%.2f\n", 5.336 ); /* prints 5.34 */

printf( "%.1f\n", 5.336 ); /* prints 5.3 */

A Java programming paradigm that states
return 0; that a program doesn't create an object
unless it is actually needed
}

#include <stdio.h> If int x =13;

int main() { Output: ++++++++++

int x = 10; /* define and initialize x */

int i =1; /* define and initialize i */

while ( i <= 10 ) { /* loop 10 times */

// If the remainder after dividing x by 2 != 0 then "+" is printed 10 times

// otherwise "*" is printed 10 times

printf( "%s", x % 2 ? "+": "" ); / display result */

i++; /* increment i */

} /* end while */ Output:

return 0; /* indicate program ended successfully */ **********

} /* end function main */

Required Semicolon separator

Control variable name

for keyword Final value of control

variable for which the
for ( i = 1; i <= 5; i++ )
condition is true

Initial value of
control variable
Increment of
Loop-continuation control variable
condition

52
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

int a = 2, b = 4;

for(int i = a; i <= 2 * a * b; i += b / a) {
Output:
printf("Hi\n");
Hi

} Hi
#include <stdio.h>
return 0; Hi
int main() {
Hi
}
int a = 2, b = 4;
Hi
for(int i = 2; i <= 16; i += 2) {
Hi

printf("Hi\n"); Hi

} Hi

return 0;

If a = 2 and b = 4, the statement: for(int i = a; i <= 2 * a * b; i += b / a)

is equivalent to the statement: for(int i = 2; i <= 16; i += 2)

#include <stdio.h> Since 500 is greater than -1 we would expect the output:

int main() { x > y

unsigned int x = 500;
However this will not be the case. signed int y will get
signed int y = -5; converted to unsigned int y before the comparison.

if (x > y) puts("x > y");

When -5 is converted to an unsigned int the result
else puts("x < y"); obtained is the maximum possible unsigned int value

return 0;

}
which is greater than 500: implying that x > y is false.
// Output: x < y

53
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

_Bool b = 1;

_Bool c = 0;

if(b) { /* Functionally equivalent to if (b == 1) */

Output:
puts("Albert");
Albert
}
Einstein
if (!c) { /* Functionally equivalent to if (c == 0) */

puts("Einstein");

}
#include <stdio.h>

#define Square(b) b*b

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
#define Square(b) ((b)*(b))

printf("%d\n", Square(3+2));
int main() {

return 0;
printf("%d\n", Square(3+2));

}
return 0;

// Output: 11 # 3+2*3+2 = 3+6+2=11

// Output: 25 # (3+2)*(3+2) = 5*5=25

Separation of Concerns

A programatic approach to divide a software application into individual manageable units with minimal overlapping
between the functions of the individual units

54
#include <stdio.h>

// ((x+1) <= (20) ? (x+1) : (20))

#define MIN(a, b) ((a) <= (b) ? (a) : (b))

// ((2+1) <= (20) ? (2+1) : (20))

// Output: 22
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{

float a, b, sum;
a=1.5;
b=2.6;

sum = a + b;

printf("The sum of a and b = %f", sum);

return 0;
} #include <stdio.h>
int main() {
/* variable declaration */
int x[3] ; /* 3 element array of type integer */
The output on the screen:
char *fruit[3] = { "Apple", "Grapes" , "Orange" } ;
The sum of a and b = 4.1 for(int x = 0 ; x <= 2 ; x++ )
# Output:
printf("%s\n" , fruit[x] );
return 0; Apple

} Grapes
The statement:
Orange

printf("The sum of a and b = %f", sum);

#include <stdio.h>
make provision to print the output:
int main() {

The sum of a and b = 4.1 int

x
=
22
Even if the statement:
;
printf("%d\n" , x);
printf("The sum of a and b = %f", sum); return 0;
}
// Output: 22

57
is omitted from the C program, the program will be successfully executed but there
will be no display of the output on the screen.

If you want to supply the values for a and b through the key board, then the statements:

#include<stdio.h>
a=1.5; int main() {
b=2.6; /* string initialized at declaration character wise */
char x[4] = {'A', 'l', 'a', 'n'};
printf("%s\n", x); // Output: Alan

should be replaced by the statements: return 0;

}

printf("Enter any two numbers:");

scanf("%f %f", &a, &b); #include<stdio.h>

int main() {
/* string initialized at declaration: at once */
char x[4] = "Alan";
i.e., the program should be rewritten as: printf("%s\n", x); // Output: Alan
return 0;
}
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
float a, b, sum;
printf("Enter any two numbers:");
scanf("%f %f", &a, &b);
sum = a+ b;
printf("The sum of a and b = %f", sum);
return 0; #include<stdio.h>
} int main() {
/* string initialized at declaration: at once
but not length is mentioned */
The output on the screen: char x[] = "Alan";
printf("%s\n", x); // Output: Alan
return 0;
Enter any two numbers:
}

If you enter two numbers 2.9 and 3.6

58
#include <stdio.h>
The sum of a and b = 6.5
int main() {
int x =2, y=4;
will be outputted on the screen.
x+=y+1; // x = x + y + 1
printf("%d\n", x);
// Output: 7
return 0;

As Said Earlier: }

ampersand ("&") imply the address and [&a and &b] imply the addresses of the
declared floating-point variables a and b stored in the computer memory i.e.,
when we enter a number for a and b through the keyboard, these numbers are
read by scanf() function and they are stored in the computer memory (i.e., the
number entered for a is stored in the address of a (i.e., stored in &a) and
the number entered for b is stored in the address of b (i.e., stored in &b)).

There are 2 format strings in the statement:

scanf("%f %f", &a, &b);

One format string "%f" corresponds to "&a" i.e., %f tells the scanf()
function to read the number entered through the keyboard for "a" and store
it in the address of "a" in the computer memory.

and the other format string "%f" corresponds to "&b" i.e., %f tells the
scanf() function to read the number entered through the keyboard for "b" and
store it in the address of "b" in the computer memory.

~(1010) = 0101 : 10 changes to 5

If the 2 format strings are separated by a comma i.e.,
~(1111) = 0000 : 15 changes to 0
scanf("%f, %f", &a, &b);
~(10000) =01111 : 16 changes to 15

Then the compilation error will be displayed on the screen.

• Note:

59
The statement:

scanf("%f %f", &a, &b);

read the two numbers 2.9 and 3.6 entered through the keyboard and store them in the computer memory [i.e., the
number 2.9 is stored in the address of "a" (i.e., stored in &a) and the number 3.6 is stored in the address of
"b" (i.e., stored in &b)].

The statements:

printf("Enter any two numbers:");

scanf("%f %f", &a, &b);
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main() {

can also be replaced by the statements:

//declaring variable with datatype
printf("Enter any number:"); int salary ;
scanf("%f", &a); float bonus;
printf("Enter any number:"); char name[10];
scanf("%f", &b);
//assigning proper value
salary = 12000;
bonus = 125.596;
strcpy(name,"John");
i.e.,
//accessing with proper specifier
printf("Name: %s, Salary: %d, Bonus: %f", name , salary, bonus);
#include<stdio.h>
return 0;
int main()
}
{
float a, b, sum;
// Output:
printf("Enter any number:");
scanf("%f", &a);
Name: John, Salary: 12000, Bonus: 125.596001
printf("Enter any number:");

60
scanf("%f", &b);
sum = a+ b;
printf("The sum of a and b = %f", sum);
return 0;
}
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
char * x = ((13 % 2)==0) ? "TRUE" : "FALSE";

Then the output on the screen: printf("%s\n", x);

// Output: FALSE
return 0;
Enter any number:
If you enter a number 2.9 }

Enter any number:

If you enter a number 3.6

The sum of a and b = 6.5 will be outputted on the screen.

Paul E. Ceruzzi, a computer historian,

remarked when Ritchie passed away:
If the statement:
Ritchie remained unnoticed. Although his
printf("The sum of a and b = %f", sum); name was not well-known, if you had a
microscope and could look into a computer,
you would see all of his work there...

is replaced by the statement:

printf("The sum of %f and %f = %f", a, b, sum);

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
for(int x =0 ; x < 5; x++) { // outer loop
Then the output on the screen is:
for(int y=0; y < 5; y+=2) { // inner loop
printf("*");
}
The sum of 2.9 and 3.6 = 6.5
}
return 0;
} // Output: ***************

61
In the statement

printf("The sum of %f and %f = %f", a, b, sum);

There are three format strings:

• The format string %f after the statement (The sum of) indicates that the value to be

displayed needs to be taken from the variable a.

• The format string %f after the statement (The sum of %f and) indicates that the value

to be displayed needs to be taken from the variable b.

• The format string %f after the statement (The sum of %f and %f =) indicates that the

value to be displayed needs to be taken from the variable sum.

• Program 1.4
C program to convert the temperature in Celsius to Fahrenheit

C++ Program:
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
#include<iostream>
{
using namespace std;
float C, F;
int main() {
C=38.5;
F = 9*C/5 +32; int x = 20;

printf("Temperature in Fahrenheit= %f", F); if(x >= 0)

// %f is used because the data type for F is float if(x < 10)
return 0; cout << "x < 10\n";
} else
cout << "x > 10\n";
return 0;
The output on the screen:
}

Temperature in Fahrenheit= 101.3 // Output: x > 10

62
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int x = 3; This program demonstrates how the do...while
do {
printf("Albert"); structure runs its program at least once. Initially
x--; x=3, loop enters, printf() prints, x = 3−1=2, now
} while (x < 2);
condition is checked, 2<2 = False, so loop exits
return 0;
}
// Output: Albert

If you want to supply the number 16 digits after decimal point for C through the key board,
then the above program should take the form:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int main()
for(int x=1; x<=6; x++) {
{
if(x % 4 == 0)
double C, F;
printf("Enter any number:"); exit(0);
scanf("%lf", &C); else
F = 9*C/5 +32; printf ("%d ", x);
printf("Temperature in Fahrenheit= %lf", F); }
// %lf is used because the data type for F is double return 0;
return 0;
}
}

// Output: 1 2 3

▪ Note:

• double → keyword used to denote a double precision floating-point number.

• float usually stores a maximum of 6 digits after the decimal point. But double
stores 16 significant digits after the decimal point. For example:

234.0000000000000000

− 0.0000000099531510

63
The data type double and long double are used to store real numbers with precision up to 14
and …80 bits respectively.

Data type modifiers

signed unsigned short long

Type modifier Size in bytes

int 2
signed int 2
unsigned int 2
short int 2
long int 4
float 4
double 8
char 1
signed char 1
unsigned char 1
unsigned short int 2
unsigned long int 4
long double 10

Multiple assignment statement:

int x = y = 10;

float x = y = z = 6.76;

• Write a program to print the sum of three numbers

64
Answer:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h> int main() {
int main() int x = 64;
{ if(x > 68 && x < 54)
int a, b, c, sum; printf("x > 68 and < 54");
else
printf("Enter any three numbers:");
scanf("%d %d %d", &a, &b, &c); printf("%d", x);
sum = a + b + c; return 0;
}
printf("The sum of a, b and c = %d", sum);
return 0;
} // Output: 64

• Write a program to print the Equivalent hexadecimal value of an integer

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
Answer:
int main() {
// declaring & initializing variables
#include<stdio.h> int a = 20, b = 4, c;
int main()
// doing math operations
{
c = a / b;
int a = 45; //displaying result
printf("%x", a);
printf("%d / %d = %d \n", a, b, c);
return 0;
// asking user to press key
}
printf("Enter any character to exit: \n");
// holding program till key press
getchar();
// exit program with status 0, no error
Output on the screen:
exit(0);
2d } // end of main
20 / 4 = 5
Enter any character to exit:
K # entered character
...Program finished with exit code 0

65
• Write a program to print the area of a triangle when three sides are given.
The math.h file is added to the program to use sqrt() function

#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
#define PI 3.14159
Answer:
int main() {
float x, y, theta, area;
#include<stdio.h> printf("Enter any 2 sides of triangle: \n");
#include<math.h> scanf("%f %f", &x, &y);
int main() printf("Enter any one side angle in degrees: \n");
{ scanf("%f", &theta);

int a, b, c, s, area; area = x * y * sin(theta * PI / 180)/2;

a = 3; printf("Area of the triangle = %.4f ", area);

b= 4; return 0;

c=5; }

s = (a + b + c) / 2;
Finding area of triangle
area = sqrt((s * (s-a) * (s-b) * (s-c)));
when 2 sides and one
printf("The area of the triangle = %d", area);
angle are given
return 0;
}

▪ Note: since sqrt() is not part of C language or of standard input output file (i.e.,
stdio.h file), it is part of math file i.e., (math.h file which defines various
mathematical functions) the statement:

#include<math.h>

should be included in the C program otherwise the compilation error will be flagged on
the screen stating that sqrt() is not declared or defined.

▪ Note: If the statement

area = (s (s-a) (s-b) (s-c))^1/2

66
is written instead of

area = sqrt ((s * (s-a) * (s-b) * (s-c));

Then the compilation error will be displayed on the screen because C does not support

area = (s (s-a) (s-b) (s-c))^1/2

• Stuff you need to know about:

• 1 kilobyte = 210 = 1024 bytes

• 1 megabyte = 210 × 210 = 1024 × 1024 bytes
• 1 gigabyte = 210 × 210 × 210 = 1024 × 1024 × 1024 bytes
• 1 terabyte = 210 × 210 × 210 × 210 = 1024 × 1024 × 1024 × 1024 bytes

• Program 1.5
C++ Program:

C program to find the product of two numbers

#include<iostream>
#include<string>
#include<stdio.h>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int a, b, product; int main () {
a=1; string x;
b=2; cout << "Enter your name: \n";
product = a * b; getline(cin, x);
printf("The product of a and b = %d", product); cout << "Hi " << x << ".\n";
return 0;
return 0;
}
}

// Output:

The output on the screen: Enter your name:

John # entered name
Hi John.

67
The product of a and b = 2

If you want to insert a 10 digit number for a and b i.e.,

a=1000000000
#include <stdio.h>
b=3000000000
int main() {
printf("1 TO 5 MULTIPLICATION TABLE: \n\n");
, then the statement: for(int x=1; x<= 5; x++) {
for(int y=1; y<= 5; y++)

int a, b, product; printf("%6d " , x * y);

putchar('\n');
}
return 0;
should be replaced by the statement }

long int a, b, product; Output:

1 TO 5 MULTIPLICATION TABLE:
and %ld should be used instead of %d 1 2 3 4 5
2 4 6 8 10
i.e., the program should be rewritten as:
3 6 9 12 15
4 8 12 16 20
#include<stdio.h>
5 10 15 20 25
int main()
{

long int a, b, product; #include<stdio.h>

a=1000000000; int main() {
b=2000000000; int x = 4, y;
product = a * b;
y = (x < 0 ? 0 : x * x);
printf("The product of a and b = %ld", product); printf("%d", y);
return 0; return 0;
}
}

// Output: 16

The output on the screen:

68
The product of a and b = 3000000000000000000

If you want to supply the values for a and b through the key board, then the statements

a=1;
#include <stdio.h>
b=2;
#define begin {
#define end }
#define program int main()
should be replaced by the statements #define writeln printf

program Pascal program

printf("Enter any two numbers:");
begin syntax using C
scanf("%d %d", &a, &b);
writeln("Albert "); language

writeln("Einstein");
end
i.e.,
// Output: Albert Einstein
#include<stdio.h>

int main()

int a, b, product;

printf("Enter any two numbers:");

scanf("%d %d", &a, &b); Parkinson's law

product = a* b;

printf("The product of a and b = %d", product);

Work expands to fill the time
return 0;
available to complete it
}

The output on the screen:

Enter any two numbers:

69
If you enter two numbers 1 and 3

The product of a and b = 3 will be outputted on the screen.

If you replace the statements:

printf("Enter any two numbers:");

scanf("%d %d", &a, &b);

C++ Program:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

by the statements: int main() {

int x;
cout << "Enter any number: ";
printf("Enter any number:"); cin >> x;
scanf("%d", &a); (x % 2 == 0) ? cout << x << " is even." : cout << x << " is odd.";
printf("Enter any number:"); return 0;
scanf("%d", &b); }
Output:

Enter any number: 4 # entered number

4 is even.
Then the output on the screen will be:

Enter any number:

If you enter the number 3
Enter any number:
If you enter the number 3
The product of a and b = 9
will be outputted on the screen.
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
printf ("%c", "albert"[3]);
If the statement // Output: e
return 0;
printf("The product of a and b = %d"; product);
}

is written instead of the statement

70
printf("The product of a and b = %d", product);

i.e., instead of variable separator (i.e., comma) semicolon is used − Then the compilation

error will be displayed on the screen.

C++ Program:

#include<iostream>
▪ Note:
using namespace std;
#include <stdio.h> void func1(const string &i) {
int main() cout << i << endl;

{ }
void func2(string i) {
printf("Hello, World!");
cout << i << endl;
printf("Hello, World!\b"); }
printf("Hello, World!\b"); int main() {

printf("Hello, World!\b");
func1("Albert");
func2("Albert");
return 0; Output:
return 0;
}
} Albert
Albert

i.e., if back space "\b" is used then

Hello, World!Hello, World!Hello, World!Hello, World!

will be outputted on the screen.

If carriage return "\r" is used instead of "\b" i.e.,

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("Hello, World!");
printf("Hello, World!\r");

71
printf("Hello, World!\r");
#include<stdio.h>
printf("Hello, World!\r");
int main() {
return 0;
int x;
}
printf("Enter any number: \n");
scanf("%d", &x);
(x == 2 ? printf("Albert") : printf("Einstein"));
The output on the screen is: return 0;
}

Hello, World!Hello, World!

Hello, World! // Output:
Hello, World! Enter any number:
5 # entered number
Einstein

If Horizontal tab "\t" is used instead of "\r" i.e.,

C++ Program:
#include <stdio.h>
#include<iostream>
int main()
using namespace std;
{
int main() {
printf("Hello, World!\t");
printf("Hello, World!\t"); int x=2, y=3, z=0;

printf("Hello, World!\t"); if(x!=0) {

printf("Hello, World!\t"); z=x*y;
return 0; cout<<"z:"<<z;
} }
return 0;
}
// Output: z:6
The output on the screen is:

Hello, World! Hello, World! Hello, World! Hello, World!

If vertical tab "\v" is used instead of "\t" i.e.,

72
#include <stdio.h>

int main() C++ Program:

{

#include <iostream>
printf("Hello, World!\v");
using namespace std;
printf("Hello, World!\v");

printf("Hello, World!\v"); namespace X {

printf("Hello, World!\v"); int a = 25;

return 0; int b = 50;

}
}

namespace Y {
The output on the screen is: double a = 4.5496;
double b = 3.1988;
}
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World! int main () {
Hello, World! using X::a;
using Y::b;
cout << a << endl; // 25
cout << b << endl; // 3.1988
• Program 1.5 cout << X::b << endl; // 50
C program to find the square of a number cout << Y::a << endl; // 4.5496
return 0;

#include<stdio.h>
}

int main()
{
int a, b;
a=2; #include<stdio.h>
b = a * a;
int main() {
printf("The square of a = %d", b);
} printf("%f",16.0+17);

// Output: 33.000000

The output on the screen: return 0;

73
The square of a = 4 C++ Program:

#include<iostream>
If the statement: using namespace std;
int main() {
b = a * a;
int x, y, z, g;
cout<<"Enter any 3 numbers: \n";
cin>>x>>y>>z;
is replaced by (x > y ? (x > z ? g = x : g = z) : (y > z ? g = y : g = z));
cout<< g << " is the greatest of 3 numbers.";
b = pow((a), 2);
return 0;
}

i.e., if the above program is rewritten as:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<math.h>

int main()
Output:
{

Enter any 3 numbers:

int a, b;
25 # entered number
a=2; 36 # entered number
b = pow((a), 2); 102 # entered number
102 is the greatest of 3 numbers.
printf("The square of a = %d", b);

return 0;

Then there will be no display of compilation error on the screen or there will be no change in
the output on the screen i.e.,

The square of a = 4

will be outputted on the screen.

which means:

74
b = pow((a), 2); is the same as b = a*a;

Since b = pow((a), 2); is used instead of b = a*a;

#include<math.h> should be included in the C program as b = pow((a),2); is supported by

#include<math.h>

Otherwise compilation Error will be displayed on the screen.

If you want to supply the integer value for "a" through the key board, then the statement:

a=2;

is replaced by the statements:

C++ Program:
printf("Enter any number:");

scanf("%d", &a); #include<iostream>

using namespace std;
i.e., int main() {

#include<stdio.h> int x = 15;

int &y = x; // y is a reference variable
int main()
cout<<x<<endl; // will print 15
{
cout<<y<<endl; // will print 15
int a, b; x=x+10;
cout<<y<<endl; // will print 25
printf("Enter any number:");
return 0;
scanf("%d", &a); }
b = a * a;

printf("The square of a = %d", b);

return 0;

The output on the screen:

75
Enter any number:
If you enter a number 4
the square of a = 16 will be outputted on the screen.

• Note:
• If scanf(%d, &a); is written instead of scanf("%d", &a);
• If printf(The square of a = %d, b); is written instead of

printf("Thesquare of a = %d", b);

• If the main function is followed by a semicolon

i.e., int main(); is written instead of int main()

Then the compilation error will be displayed on the screen.

But if the body of the main function is followed by a semicolon i.e.,

int main()
#include <stdio.h>
{
int main() {
};
int a = 3, b, c;
b = a = 10;
c = a < 10;
is written instead of printf("\na: %d b: %d c: %d", a, b, c);
// Output: a: 10 b: 10 c: 0
int main()
return 0;
{
}
}

There will be no display of the compilation error on the screen.

int main(); → ERROR

int main()
{

76
}; → NO ERROR

#include <stdio.h>
• Write a program to print the cube of a number
int main() {

Answer: int x = 66;

char y = 'B';
if(x == y)
#include<stdio.h>
printf("Albert");
#include<math.h>
else
int main()
{
printf("Einstein");

int a, b; return 0;
a=2; }
b = pow((a), 3);
printf("The cube of a = %d", b); // Output: Albert
return 0; // ASCII value of 'B' is 66
}

• Write a program to print the energy of the substance using energy = mc2

Answer:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h> int main() {
#include<math.h>
int a = 25 ;
int main()
printf("%d %d %d", a != 25, a = 20, a < 35);
{
// Output: 1 20 1
int m;
return 0;
long int c, energy; }
m=2;
c = 300000000;

energy = m * pow((c), 2);

printf("The energy of the substance = %ld joules", energy);

return 0;
}

77
The syntax of if statement is:

if (this condition is true)

print this statement;

where condition → a logical expression that results in true or false.

C++ Program:
#include<stdio.h>

int main()
#include<iostream>
{
using namespace std;

int a; int main() {

char string[20];
printf("Enter any number: \n");
cout<<"Enter a string: "<<endl;
scanf("%d", &a); cin.get(string, 20);
if((a%2)!=0){ cout<<string<<endl;
return 0;
printf("%d is an odd number\n", a); Output:
}
} Enter a string:
Alan # entered string
return 0;
Alan
}
Statement

Simple Compound

• Simple statement → A single statement.

• Compound statement → A collection of two or more statements placed between the braces.

• Program 1.6
C program to find the greatest of two numbers using if - else statement

78
• The syntax of if – else statement (Conditional Statement):

if (this condition is true) #include<stdio.h>

#include<stdlib.h>
{
int main() {
print this statement;
printf("Press Enter to clear the screen: ");
} getchar();
system("cls"); /* Windows */
else
system("clear"); /* Mac - Unix */
{
puts("Albert Einstein");

?
print this statement; return(0);
}
}
Output

If-else statement → termed as branching as a program decides which statement

to execute based on the result of the evaluated condition.

#include<stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int main() {
{
int x = 10, y = 15;
int a, b;
if(x % 2 == y % 3)
a = 2;
printf("Albert");
b = 3;
else
if(a>b)
printf("Einstein");
{ return 0;
printf("a is greater than b"); }

}
// Output: Albert
else

printf("b is greater than a");

return 0;

The output on the screen:

79
b is greater than a

Since the condition

a>b

within the parentheses is not true, the statement a is greater than b is not executed; instead the
execution skips and pass to print the statement b is greater than a.

In simpler words, (a>b) is the condition (i.e., logical expression that results
in true or false) and if the condition (a>b) is true, then the statement:

#include<stdio.h>
printf("a is greater than b");
#include<stdlib.h>
int main() {
int x = 0;
x+1;
is executed to print the output:
if(x<=5) {
a is greater than b printf("Albert Einstein");
exit(0);
else the statement:
main();
}
}
printf("b is greater than a");

// Output: Albert Einstein

is executed to print the output:

b is greater than a

If you want to supply the integer values for a and b through the key board, then the statements

80
a=2;
b=3; should be replaced by the statements:

printf("Enter any number:");

scanf("%d", &a);
printf("Enter any number:");
scanf("%d", &b);

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
i.e., the program should be rewritten as:
int x, i = 75;
#include<stdio.h> x = (i > 18 ? (i <= 85 ? 500 : 1000) : 190);
int main() printf ("%d", x) ;
{
return 0;
int a, b; }
printf("Enter any number:");
scanf("%d", &a); // Output: 500
printf("Enter any number:");
scanf("%d", &b);
if(a>b)

printf("a is greater than b");

}
#include<stdio.h>
else
int main() {
{ int x = 0, y = 1;
printf("b is greater than a"); if(x == 0)

}
(y > 1 ? printf("Albert") : printf("Einstein"));
else
return 0;
printf("Albert Einstein");
}
return 0;
}

The output on the screen:

// Output: Einstein
Enter any number:
If you enter the number 6
Enter any number:
If you enter the number 3
a is greater than b

81
will be outputted on the screen.

Nested If-else Statement:

When a series of decision is required, nested if-else is used. Nesting means using one if-else
construct within another one. #include<stdio.h>
int main() {
#include<stdio.h> char x[10];
int main()
printf("Enter your name: \n");
{
fgets(x, 4, stdin);
int a =1;
if(a<10) printf("I'm delighted to have you, %s.\n", x);
{ return(0);
if(a==1) }
{
printf("The value is:%d\n", a);
}
else
{
printf("The value is greater than 1");
}
}
else
{
printf("The value is greater than 10");
}
return 0;
} Enter your name:

Albert # entered name

I'm delighted to have you, Alb.

The output on the screen:

The value is: 1

• Program 1.7

C program to find the greatest of three numbers using if - else if - else statement

▪ The syntax of if - else if - else statement:

82
if (this condition is true) #include<stdio.h>

{ int main() {

print this statement; static int x = 4;

} printf("%d\n", x--);

else if (this condition is true) if(x != 0)

{ main();

print this statement; return 0;

} }

else // Output:
4
{
3
print this statement;
2
}
1

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h> int main() {
int main() int x=12, y;
{
x >= 15 ? (y = 10) : (y = 15);
int a, b, c;
printf("%d %d", x, y);
printf("Enter any number:");
return 0;
scanf("%d", &a);
}
printf("Enter any number:");
scanf("%d", &b);
printf("Enter any number:"); // Output: 12 15
scanf("%d", &c);
if(a>b&&a>c)
{
printf("%d is greater than %d and %d", a, b, c);
}
else if (b>a&&b>c)
{
printf("%d is greater than %d and %d", b, a, c);
}
else
{
printf("%d is greater than %d and %d", c, b, a);

83
}
#include<stdio.h>
return 0;
int main() {
}
int x = 0;
while(x++ < 5)
printf("%d ", x);
The output on the screen: return 0;
}

Enter any number:

// Output: 1 2 3 4 5
If you enter the number 2
Enter any number:
If you enter the number 3
Enter any number:
If you enter the number 4
#include<stdio.h>
4 is greater than 3 and 2
will be outputted on the screen. int main() {

char x[2] = "B";

printf ("%c\n", x[0]);

double ampersand "&&" imply and.
// Output: B

(a>b&&a>c) printf ("%s", x);

(b>a&&b>c) // Output: B

denote conditions. return 0;

}
i.e., the condition

(a>b&&a>c) imply:

a is greater than b and a is greater than c

and if this condition is true, then the statement:

printf("a is greater than b and c");

84
is executed to print the output:

a is greater than b and c

#include<stdio.h>
and if the condition (a>b&&a>c) is not true int main() {
static int x[5];
the statement for(int i = 0; i <= 4; i++)
printf("%d ", x[i]);
// Output: 0 0 0 0 0
printf("a is greater than b and c"); return 0;
}

is not executed; instead the execution skips and passes to the condition (b>a&&b>c)

and if this condition is true, then the statement:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("b is greater than a and c");
char name[] = "Albert";
int x = 0;
while(name[x] != '\0') {
is executed to print the output: printf("%c", name[x]);
x++;
}
b is greater than a and c return 0;
}

// Output: Albert

and if the condition (b>a&&b>c) is not true, then the statement

printf("b is greater than a and c");

is not executed; instead the execution skips and the statement

85
printf("c is greater than b and a");

is executed to print the output:

c is greater than b and a

If the statements:

if(a>b&&a>c)
{
printf("%d is greater than %d and %d", a, b, c);
}
else if (b>a&&b>c)
{ #include<stdio.h>
printf("%d is greater than %d and %d", b, a, c); #include<stdlib.h>
}
else
int main() {
{
int x, y = 3;
printf("%d is greater than %d and %d", c, b, a);
switch(x = y + 1) {
}
case 4:
printf ("Albert");
break;
default:
are replaced by the statements: printf ("Elsa");
}
if(a>b&&a>c)
return 0;
printf("%d is greater than %d and %d", a, b, c); }
else if (b>a&&b>c)

printf("%d is greater than %d and %d", b, a, c); // Output: Albert

else

printf("%d is greater than %d and %d", c, b, a);

i.e., if the program is rewritten as:

#include<stdio.h>

86
int main()
#include<stdio.h>
{
int main() {
int a, b, c;
int x = 5;
printf("Enter any number:");
while(x == 5) {
scanf("%d", &a);
printf("Enter any number:"); x = x - 5;
scanf("%d", &b); printf("%d", x);
printf("Enter any number:"); }
scanf("%d", &c); return 0;
if(a>b&&a>c) }
printf("%d is greater than %d and %d", a, b, c);
else if (b>a&&b>c)
// Output: 0
printf("%d is greater than %d and %d", b, a, c);
else
printf("%d is greater than %d and %d", c, b, a);
return 0;
}

There will be no display of error on the screen

c is greater than b and a

will be successfully outputted on the screen

▪ What will be the output of the following program?

#include<stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h> int main() {
int main() do {
{ The loop's body is
printf("Albert");
int a, b; executed first and
} while(14 < 11);
a=2; only after that is
return 0;
b=2; the condition
} tested
if(a>b || a==b)
printf("a is greater than or equal to b");
// Output: Albert
else
printf("b is greater than a");
return 0;

87
} #include<stdio.h>
int main() {
for(int i=0;i<3;i=i+1,printf("%d ", i))
Answer: ;
return(0);

a is greater than or equal to b

} // Output: 1 2 3

Note:

symbol || denote OR i.e., a>b || a==b denote a is greater than or a is equal to b.

#include<stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main() {
• Program 1.8 char x[] = "Einstein";
C program to find the average of 10 numbers char y[15] = "Albert ";
strcat(y, x);
printf("%s", y);
#include<stdio.h> return 0;
int main() }
{
int N1, N2, N3, N4, N5, N6, N7, N8, N9, N10, X;
// Output: Albert Einstein
printf("Enter any 10 numbers:");

scanf("%d%d%d%d%d%d%d%d%d%d", &N1, &N2, &N3, &N4, &N5, &N6, &N7, &N8, &N9, &N10);
X = (N1 + N2 + N3 + N4 + N5 + N6 + N7 + N8 + N9 + N10) /10;
printf("The average of 10 numbers = %d", X);
return 0;
}

The output on the screen:

Enter any 10 numbers:

If you enter ten numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10
The average of 10 numbers = 5
will be outputted on the screen.

88
 Note: The average of 10 numbers is 5.5, the output on the screen is 5 because the data
type int is used instead of float.

 Any mathematical expression should be written in C equivalent expression to

prevent the display of compilation error on the screen because C language does not
accept the general mathematical expressions.

Mathematical expression C equivalent expression

y
x×
z x*y/z

(ax + 1) (by + 2) (a * x + 1) * (b * y + 2)

(a + b)2 (a+b) * (a+b) / (a-b) * (a-b)

(a − b)2 or
pow((a+b), 2) / pow((a - b), 2)

x
log 10 ( + c) log 10 (x/y + c)
y

ax2+bx+c a*x*x+b*x+c
lnx log(x)
x
e +b exp (x) + b
sinθ + cosθ sin (theta) + cos (theta)
α=β+γ alpha = beta + gamma

√x sqrt(x)

3
√x cbrt(x)

√p2 + q2 sqrt (pp + qq)

89
2a2 + 3b 2a *a + 3b + 2
x a = exp ( x / sqrt ( 1 + sin (theta)))
a=e√1+sinθ

• What will be the output of the following programs?

(a) #include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int i;
for(i=5; i<6; i=i+1) {
#include<stdio.h>
printf("%d\n", i);
#include<math.h>
int main()
}

{ return(0);
int a, b, x; }
x=2;
b=2; // Output: 5
a = exp(x) + b;
printf("The value of a = %d", a);
return 0;
}

Answer: #include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int i;
The value of a = 9
for(;i>=-5;i--)
printf("%d ",i);
return(0);
}
(b)
// Output: 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5

90
#include<stdio.h> #include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h> #define x 5
int main() int main() {
{ for(int i=1;i<=10;i++)
int alpha, beta, gamma; printf("%d %% %d = %d\n", i, x, i%x);
alpha =2;
return(0);
beta=2;
}
gamma= 2 * alpha + beta;
printf("The value of gamma = %d", gamma); Output:
return 0;
1 % 5 = 1
}
2 % 5 = 2
3 % 5 = 3
4 % 5 = 4
Answer:
5 % 5 = 0
6 % 5 = 1
7 % 5 = 2
The value of gamma = 6
8 % 5 = 3
9 % 5 = 4
10 % 5 = 0

(c)

#include <stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
int main()
#include<stdio.h>
{
double theta, result;
int main() {

theta = 90; char *x = "Albert\n";

result = sin(theta); while(putchar(*x++))
printf ("The sine 90 degrees is = %lf ", result); ;
return 0; return(0);
} }

// Output: Albert

Answer:

91
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
The sine 90 degrees is = 0.893997
char *names[] = {
"Albert",
"Alan",
"John",
𝐱
What is C equivalent expression of [ 𝐲 ] n −1 ? "James",
"Mary"
};
Answer: for(int i=0;i<5;i++) {
puts(names[i]);

pow((x/y), n-1) }
# Output:
return(0);
}
Albert
Alan
• Program 1.9 John

C program to find the square root of a number James

Mary

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h> int main() {
#include<math.h> printf("%%14s = %14s\n","Albert");
int main()
return(0);
{
}
int a, b;
printf("Enter any number:");
// Output: %14s = Albert
scanf("%d", & a);
b = sqrt(a);
printf("The square root of a number = %d", b); #include<stdio.h>
return 0; #include<stdlib.h>
} int main() {
int i;
int *pi;
pi=&i;
The output on the screen:
for(i=1;i<=5;i++)
printf("%d ",*pi);
Enter any number: return 0;
}
If you enter the number 4

// Output: 1 2 3 4 5

92
The square root of a number = 2

is outputted on the screen.

√2 = 1.41421356237

Suppose if you enter the number " 2", the square root of a number = 1 is outputted on the screen
because int is used instead of float.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<ctype.h>
int main() {
char x;
printf("Do you want to be like Albert Einstein?\n");
scanf("%c", &x);
x = toupper(x);
Output:
if(x=='Y')
puts("Albert"); Do you want to be like Albert Einstein?
else y # entered character
puts("Elsa"); Albert
return(0);
}

C++ Program:
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
char *names[] = { #include<iostream>

"Albert", using namespace std;

Output:
"Alan", int main() {

"John", int x = 15;

A
"James", int y = x;
A
"Mary" y += 50;
J
}; cout << y << endl;
J
for(int i=0;i<5;i++) { // Output: 65
M
putchar(**(names+i)); return 0;

putchar('\n'); }

}
return(0);
}

93
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
char x = 'B'; C++ Program:
switch(x) {
case 'A': #include<iostream>
case 'E': using namespace std;
case 'I':
case 'O': int main() {
case 'U': const char x = '2';
printf("Vowel"); const char y = x + 1;
break; const char z = '\n';
default: cout << y << z;
printf("Not a vowel"); return 0;
} }
return 0;
} // Output: 3

// Output: Not a vowel

▪ Note: The square root of a number = 2.000000

#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
int main()
{
printf("The square root of a number = %f", sqrt(4));

return 0;
}

|| imply or
> imply greater than
< imply less than
== imply equal to
! imply not
!= imply not equal to
&& imply and

94
& imply address
C++ Program:

#include<iostream>
▪ Program 2.0
using namespace std;
C program to find the simple interest int main() {
string x = "Albert Einstein";
for(auto i : x)
#include<stdio.h> cout << i;
int main() return 0;
{
}
int P,T, R, SI;
P = 1000;
// Output: Albert Einstein
T = 2;
R = 3;
SI = P*T*R/100;
#include<iostream>
printf("The simple interest = %d", SI);
using namespace std;
return 0;
int main() {
}
string x = "Albert ";
string y = "Einstein";
x += y;
The output on the screen:
cout<< x <<endl;
return 0;
The simple interest = 60
}
// Output: Albert Einstein

▪ Note:
If you write SI = PTR/100; instead of SI=P*T*R/100;
Then compilation error is displayed on the screen because C language does not accept the
general expressions.

If you want to supply the values for P, T and R through the key board, then the statements:

P = 1000;
T = 2;

95
R = 3; C++ Program:

#include<iostream>
should be replaced by the statements: using namespace std;
int main() {
printf("Enter principal amount:"); string x = "Alan";
scanf("%d", &P); string y = "Albert";
printf("Enter time:"); const char *z = ", ";
scanf("%d", &T); string w = x + z + y + " ...";
printf("Enter rate of interest:"); cout<< w <<endl;
scanf("%d", &R); return 0;
}

// Output: Alan, Albert ...

i.e., the above program should take the form:
#include<iostream>
#include<stdio.h> using namespace std;
int main() int main() {
{
string x = "Albert and Elsa";
int P,T, R, SI;
x.replace(6, 4, " nor");
printf("Enter principal amount:");
cout<< x <<endl;
scanf("%d", &P);
printf("Enter time:"); return 0;

scanf("%d", &T); }
printf("Enter rate of interest:");
scanf("%d", &R); // Output: Albert nor Elsa
SI = P*T*R/100;
printf("The simple interest = %d", SI);
#include<iostream>
return 0;
using namespace std;
}
int main() {
string x = "Albert and Elsa";
x.replace(x.begin() + 10, x.end(), " Alan");
cout<< x <<endl;
The output on the screen: return 0;
}
Enter principal amount:
// Output: Albert and Alan

96
If you enter the principal amount 1000
Enter time:
If you enter the time 2 Weekly Active Users:
Enter rate of interest:
If you enter the rate of interest 3 The number of unique users who have
interacted with a platform or web application
The simple interest = 60 over the course of a week

will be outputted on the screen.

goto statement: Like other languages, C supports an unconditional control statement [goto] to
transfer the control from one point to another in a C program. The goto is a branching
statement and requires a label. The syntax of goto statement is as follows:

goto label;

The label can be written anywhere in the C program either before or after the goto statement. For
example:

goto END; START:

………………… …………………
………………… …………………
………………… …………………
END: goto START;
…………………

The label END: The label START:

is written after the is written before the
goto END; statement. goto START; statement.

97
if statement
if-else statement
else-if statement

Control statements because it controls the flow of execution of a program.

• Program 2.1
C program to find whether the person is senior citizen or not

#include<iostream>
#include<stdio.h>
int main() #include<vector>
{ using namespace std;
int age; int main() {
age=20; vector<int> primes = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13};
if(age> = 60) for(auto x : primes) {
{
cout << x << endl;
printf("senior citizen");
} Output:
}
return 0; 2
if(age<60)
} 3
{
printf("not a senior citizen"); 5
} 7
return 0; 11
}
13

Zero-based numbering:
The output on the screen:

A method of numbering the elements in an array so that

not a senior citizen
the index of the first element is zero

▪ (age>= 60) means age greater than or equal to 60

98
If you want to supply the value for age through the key board, then the statement:

age=20;
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

should be replaced by the statements: int main() {

int x = 25;
auto mult = [x](int i) { return i * x; };
printf("Enter age:");
cout << mult(3);
scanf("%d", &age);
return 0;
// Output: 75
}
i.e., the above program should take the form:

#include<stdio.h> #include<iostream>
int main() using namespace std;
{ int main() {
int age; string x = "Alan Mathison Turing";
printf("Enter age:"); x.replace(x.begin() + 6, x.begin() + 9, 3, '*');
scanf("%d", &age);
cout<<x<<endl;
if(age>60)
return 0;
{
}
printf("senior citizen");
// Output: Alan M***ison Turing
}
if(age<60)
{ #include<iostream>

printf("not a senior citizen"); using namespace std;

} int main() {
return 0; enum names {Alan, John, James};
} enum class subjects {Biology, Chemistry, Maths};
cout << is_enum<names>::value << "\n";
// Prints 1 (True)
cout << is_enum<subjects>::value << "\n";
// Prints 1 (True)
The output on the screen: cout <<is_enum<int>::value << "\n";
// Prints 0 (False)
Enter age: return 0;
}

99
If you enter the value 60
#include<iostream>
senior citizen will be outputted on the screen.
using namespace std;
int main() {
Suppose if you enter the value 27
constexpr int x = 22 * 4;
not a senior citizen will be outputted on the screen.
cout << x << endl;
// Output: 88
return 0;
• Program 2.2 }

C program to get marks for 3 subjects and declare the result.

If the marks >= 35 in all the subjects the student passes else fails.

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int main()
int x = ((cout << "Albert"), 0);
{
int M1, M2,M3; return 0;
M1 = 38; }
M2= 45;
M3 = 67; // Output: Albert
if(M1>= 35 && M2>= 35 && M3>= 35)
{
#include<iostream>
printf("candidate is passed");
using namespace std;
}
int main() {
else
struct x {int a, b;};
{
class y {
printf("candidate is failed");
public:
}
int a, b;
return 0;
};
}
enum class names {Albert, Alan, John};
cout << is_class<x>::value << "\n";
// Prints 1 (True)
cout << is_class<y>::value << "\n";
// Prints 1 (True)
The output on the screen:
cout << is_class<names>::value << "\n";
// Prints 0 (False)
candidate is passed return 0;
}

100
>= imply greater than or equal to and double ampersand imply and
(M1>= 35 && M2>= 35 && M3>= 35) denote the condition and this condition imply M1 is greater
than or equal to 35 and M2 is greater than or equal to 35 and M3 is greater than or equal to 35.
And if this condition is TRUE, then the statement:
{ #include<iostream>
printf("candidate is passed"); using namespace std;
} int main() {
is executed to print the output:
for(int x = 1; x <= 2; ++x)
candidate is passed
for(int y = 1; y <= 2; ++y)
else the statement
cout << '[' << x << ',' << y << "]\n";
{
printf("candidate is failed");
return 0;

} }

// Output:

is executed to print the output: [1,1]

[1,2]

candidate is failed [2,1]

[2,2]

If you want to supply the integer values for marks M1, M2 and M3 through the key board, then..the
statements:
#include<iostream>

M1 = 38; using namespace std;

int main() {
M2= 45;
static int i = 0;
M3 = 67; cout << ++i << " medal won on the final day.\n";
return 0;
}
should be replaced by the statements:
// Output: 1 medal won on the final day
printf("Enter any three numbers:");

scanf("%d%d%d", &M1, &M2, &M3);

101
i.e.,
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
#include<stdio.h> int x=14; x++ & printf("%d\n", x);
int main()
// Output: 15
{
return 0;
int M1, M2, M3;
}
printf("Enter any three numbers:");
scanf("%d%d%d", &M1, &M2, &M3);
if(M1>= 35 && M2>= 35 && M3>= 35) #include<stdio.h>
{ int main() {
printf("candidate is passed"); int x=14; x++ && printf("%d\n", x);
} // Output: 15
else return 0;
{
}
printf("candidate is failed");
} #include<iostream>
return 0; struct C {
} int x;
char y;
float z;
};

The output on the screen: int main() {

std::cout << sizeof(C) << std::endl;
return 0;
Enter any three numbers:
}
If you enter three numbers 26, 28, 39 // Output: 12

candidate is failed will be outputted on the screen.

• Write a program to check whether a character is an alphabet or not using the

function isalpha()
Object oriented

#include<stdio.h>
#include<ctype.h>
int main() A method of programming that wraps data in functions
{

102
int a=2;
#include<iostream>
if(isalpha(a))
using namespace std;
{
int main() {
printf("The character a is an alphabet");
int x{50};
}
else cout << x << endl;
{ // Output: 50
printf("The character a is not an alphabet"); return 0;
} }
return 0;
} #include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {

The output on the screen: int x = 13;

int y = -24;
int z = 30;
The character a is not an alphabet
cout << -x << " " << -y << " " << -z << endl;
// Output: -13 24 -30
return 0;
#include<stdio.h> }
#include<ctype.h>
int main() #include<iostream>
{ using namespace std;
char a = 'b'; int main() {
if( isalpha(a) )
cout << -(14 - 15) << endl;
{
// Output: 1
printf("The character a is an alphabet");
return 0;
}
else }

{
printf("The character a is not an alphabet");
}
#include<iostream>
return 0;
}
using namespace std;
int main() {
cout << 10/3 << " " << 3/10 << endl;
// Output: 3 0
The output on the screen:
cout << 10.0/3.0 << " " << 3.0/10.0 << endl;
// Output: 3.33333 0.3
The character a is an alphabet return 0;
}

103
If the statement char a = b; is written instead of char a = 'b'; Then the compilation error will be
flagged on the display screen.
#include<iostream>

• Program 2.3 using namespace std;

int main() {
C program to find profit or loss
cout << -13 + 22 << endl;
// Output: 9
#include<stdio.h>
cout << -(13 + 22) << endl;
int main()
// Output: -35
{
int CP, SP, loss, profit; return 0;
printf("Enter cost price:"); }
scanf("%d", &CP);
printf("Enter selling price:");
scanf("%d", &SP);
#include<iostream>
if(SP>CP)
using namespace std;
{
int main() {
printf("profit=%d", SP-CP);
int a = 987654321; // Largest possible int value
}
else cout << a << " + 1 = " << a + 1 << endl;
{ cout << a << " + 2 = " << a + 2 << endl;
printf("loss =%d", CP-SP); cout << a << " + 3 = " << a + 3 << endl;
} return 0;
return 0; } Output:
}
987654321 + 1 = 987654322
987654321 + 2 = 987654323
The output on the screen: 987654321 + 3 = 987654324

Enter cost price:

Implicit
If you enter the cost price 25
Enter selling price:
If you enter the selling price 26
profit = 1 will be outputted on the screen.
A value whose data type has been
modified automatically
If the condition (SP>CP) is true, then the statement:

104
{
#include<iostream>
printf("profit=%d", SP-CP);
} using namespace std;
int main() {
int x;
cout<<"Enter any number: \n";
is executed to print the output:
cin.operator>>(x);
cout.operator<<(x);
profit = SP-CP (in this case profit = 26-25 =1)
return 0;
}

else the statement

// Output:

Enter any number:

{
printf("loss=%d", CP-SP); 25 # entered number
}
25

is executed to print the output:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
loss = CP-SP
int main() {
int x;
cout<<"Enter any number: \n";
cin >> x;
• Program 2.4 cout<< x;
C program to convert inches into centimeter return 0;
}

#include<stdio.h>
int main() // Output:
{
Enter any number:
float I, C;
25 # entered number
I=3.5;
25
C = 2.54*I;

printf("Length in centimeters= %f", C);

return 0;

105
}
Array function: A user-defined task function that is
specifically intended to process an array

The output on the screen:

Length in centimeters = 8.89

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
string x = "Albert";
cout << "\"" << x << "\" contains " << x.length() << " letters." << endl;
return 0;
} // Output: "Albert" contains 6 letters.

If you want to supply the floating-point variable for " I" through the key board, then the above
program should take the form: #include<iostream>
using namespace std;

#include<stdio.h> int main() {

int main() enum Names { Alan, John, Albert, Mary};
{ cout << John << " " << Mary << endl;
float I, C; // Output: 1 3
printf("Enter the length in inches:"); return 0;
scanf("%f", &I);
}
C = 2.54*I;
printf("Length in centimeters= %f", C);
return 0; Class member
}
An operator that is used to call

functions associated with a class

The output on the screen:

Enter the length in inches:

25.5 # entered number
Length in centimeters = 64.9

106
Increment operator: This operator is used to increment the value of an integer number by 1.
This is represented by '++' [double plus] symbol. This symbol can be placed after the integer
variable. For example, if int a = 4; then, a++ indicate a = a+1. Thus, the value of "a" is 5.

Decrement operator: This operator is used to reduce the value of an integer number by 1. This
is represented by '--' [double minus] symbol. This symbol can be placed after the integer
variable. For example, if int a = 4; then, a-- indicate a = a-1. Thus, the value of "a" is 3.

• Program 2.5

C program to find the incremented and decremented values of two numbers.

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
Machine dependent:
{
int a, b, c, d, e, f; A programming language feature that alters
a = 10;
based on the CPU of the computer
b=12;
c=a+1;
d=b+1;
Variable:
e=a-1;
f=b-1;
A piece of data whose value is
printf("The incremented value of a =%d", c);
printf("The incremented value of b =%d", d); subject to change while the
printf("The decremented value of a =%d", e);
programme is running
printf("The decremented value of b =%d", f);
return 0;
}
Array

The output on the screen: A grouping in order of similar data type elements that
share a single name for identification

107
The incremented value of a = 11 The incremented value of b = 13 The decremented value
of a = 9 The decremented value of b = 11

Parameter passing:
If the statements:
How data is passed into and

printf("The incremented value of a =%d", c);

out of a function
printf("The incremented value of b =%d", d);
printf("The decremented value of a =%d", e);
printf("The decremented value of b =%d", f);

Truncation:

are replaced by the statements:

The fractional component of
a floating-point data type
printf("The incremented value of a =%d\n", c);
that is eliminated during
printf("The incremented value of b =%d\n", d);
printf("The decremented value of a =%d\n", e); integer conversion
printf("The decremented value of b =%d\n", f);

OR sizeof

printf("\n The incremented value of a =%d", c);

printf("\n The incremented value of b =%d", d);
printf("\n The decremented value of a =%d", e); An operator that displays the
printf("\n The decremented value of b =%d", f);
number of bytes a particular data
type consumes up in memory

Then the output on the screen is:

Versatile:
The incremented value of a = 11
The incremented value of b = 13 Simple code modification to handle a
The decremented value of a = 9
The decremented value of b = 11
different data type

108
#include<iostream> Please type one line of content here:
#include<string> Albert Einstein # entered text
using namespace std; You entered: "Albert"
int main() {
string x;
cout <<"Please type one line of content here: \n";
cin >> x;
cout <<"You entered: \"" << x << "\"" << endl;
return 0;
}

Please type one line of content here:

Albert Einstein # entered text
#include<iostream> You entered: "Albert Einstein"
#include<string>
using namespace std;
int main() {
string x;
cout <<"Please type one line of content here: \n";
getline(cin, x);
cout <<"You entered: \"" << x << "\"" << endl;
return 0;
}

If you want to supply the values for a and b through the key board, then the above program
should take the form:
Branching:

A control structure that permits the flow of execution to

#include<stdio.h> jump to another section of the program
int main()
{
int a, b, c, d, e, f; Branching control structures
printf("Enter any number:");
scanf("%d", &a);
printf("Enter any number:"); Permit the flow of execution to change to another
scanf("%d", &b); section of the program
c=a+1;

109
d=b+1;
e=a-1;
f=b-1;
printf("The incremented value of a =%d\n", c);
printf("The incremented value of b =%d\n", d);
printf("The decremented value of a =%d\n", e);
printf("The decremented value of b =%d\n", f);
return 0;
} #include<iostream>
#include<vector>
using namespace std;

The output on the screen: int main() {

vector<int> num { 1, 2, 3, 4 };
int x;

Enter any number: cout << "Enter an index: \n";

If you enter the number 2 cin >> x;
Enter any number: if(0 <= x && x< num.size()) {
If you enter the number 3 cout << num.at(x) << endl;
}
The incremented value of a = 3
else {
The incremented value of b = 4
cout << "Vector out of bound exception" << endl;
The decremented value of a = 1
}
The decremented value of b = 2
}
Output:
will be outputted on the screen.
Enter an index:
2 # entered index
3

Bitwise complement:

During bitwise complement operation each zero gets changed to 1 and each one gets changed to 0.

a = 10 and its equivalent binary value is 1010

b = ~a = ~ (1010) = 0101 [which is 1's complement of a]

110
Consider the binary number 10000100. It is equivalent to 132 in decimal.

• Binary number: 10000100

• Multiplying each digit of the binary number [10000100] by the corresponding power of 2:
1×27 + 0×26 + 0×25 + 0×24 + 0×23 + 1×22 + 0×21 + 0×20

1×128 + 0×64 + 0×32 + 0×16 + 0×8 + 1×4 + 0×2 + 0×1

128 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 0 = 132

132 is the decimal equivalent of the binary number 10000100

Consider the decimal number 13. It is equivalent to 1101 in binary.

• Decimal number: 13
• Dividing the Decimal number [13] repeatedly by 2 until we get the quotient as 0:
13 / 2 = 6 (Remainder = 1)
6 / 2 = 3 (Remainder = 0)
3 / 2 = 1 (Remainder = 1)
1 / 2 = 0 (Remainder = 1)

1 1 0 1

1101 is the binary equivalent of the decimal number 13

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a, b;
a=128;
b=32;
a=a>>1;
printf("After right-shifting by 1, a =%d\n", a);
b=b<<2;
printf("After left-shifting by 2, b =%d\n", b);
return 0;

111
}
Little's Law

The output on the screen:

The average number of items in a system is

After right-shifting by 1, a = 64
determined by multiplying the average rate at which
After left-shifting by 2, b = 128
items enter and leave the system by the average period

of time each item spends in the system

• Program 2.6

The percentage marks are entered and the grades are allotted as follows:
percentage>= 60 First Class
#include<iostream>
percentage>=50 and per <= 60 Second Class using namespace std;
percentage>= 40 and per <= 50 Pass Class
percentage< 40 Fail int main() {
int x = 2;
cout << x << endl;
Write a C program for the above:
// Output: 2
cout.operator<<(x).operator<<(endl);
#include<stdio.h>
// Output: 2
int main()
return 0;
{
}
int P;
printf("Enter the percentage:");
scanf("%d", &P);
#include<iostream>
if(P >= 60)
using namespace std;
{
printf("first class");
int main() {

} string x = "Albert";
if(P>=50&&P <60) cout << x.operator[](3) << endl;
{ // Output: e
printf("second class"); cout << x[3] << endl;
} // Output: e
else if(P>=40&&P<=50 )
return 0;
{ The letter at index 3
}
printf("pass class");

112
}
#include<iostream>
else
using namespace std;
{
int main() {
printf("fail");
int x = 0;
}
return 0; while (x < 5) {
} cout << "*";
x++;
}
cout << endl;
return 0;
The output on the screen:
}

Enter the percentage:

// Output: *****
If you enter the percentage 65

first class will be outputted on the screen.

• Program 2.7
C program to calculate the discounted price and the total price after discount
Given:
▪ If purchase value is greater than 1000, 10% discount #include<iostream>
▪ If purchase value is greater than 5000, 20% discount using namespace std;
▪ If purchase value is greater than 10000, 30% discount int main() {
int x = 5;
while (x < 6) {
• Discounted price
if (x % 5 == 0)
cout << "*";
#include<stdio.h>
x++;
int main()
}
{
cout << endl;
double PV, dis;
printf("Enter purchased value:"); return 0;
scanf("%lf", &PV); }
if(PV>1000)
{ // Output: *
printf("dis=%lf", PV* 0.1);

113
}
Java Program:
else if(PV>5000)
{ public class MyClass {
printf("dis =%lf", PV* 0.2);
public static void main(String[] args) {
}
Boolean x = Boolean.TRUE;
else
if (x) {
{
printf("dis=%lf", PV* 0.3); System.out.println("Albert");

} }
return 0; }
} }

// Output: Albert

The output on the screen:

Enter purchased value:

If you enter the purchased value 6500

dis = 1300.000000 will be outputted on the screen.

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {

• Total price public static void main(String[] args) {

String x;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
#include<stdio.h>
do {
int main()
{ x = scan.nextLine();
double PV, total; } while (!x.equals("Mary"));
printf("Enter purchased value:"); System.out.println(x);
scanf("%lf", &PV); }
if(PV<1000) }
{
printf("total=%lf", PV - PV* 0.1); Output:
}
else if(PV<5000) John # entered string
{ James # entered string
printf("total =%lf", PV- PV* 0.2); Albert # entered string
Mary # entered string
Mary

114
}
public class MyClass {
else
{ public static void main(String[] args) {
printf("total=%lf", PV- PV* 0.3); String x = String.format("%.2f", 1.5496);
}
return 0; System.out.println(x);
} // Output: 1.55

The output on the screen:

Enter purchased value:

If you enter the purchased value 650
total = 585.000000 will be outputted on the screen.

▪ Now, Combing both the programs (above), we can write:

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{ public class MyClass {
double PV, dis, total;
printf("Enter purchased value:"); public static void main(String[] args) {
scanf("%lf", &PV); String x = String.format("%.3f", 1.5496);
if(PV>1000)
{ System.out.println(x);

printf("dis=%lf", PV* 0.1); // Output: 1.550

printf("total=%lf", PV - PV* 0.1);
}
}

else if(PV>5000) }
{
printf("dis =%lf", PV* 0.2);
printf("total=%lf", PV - PV* 0.2);
}
else
{

115
printf("dis=%lf", PV* 0.3);
printf("total=%lf", PV - PV* 0.3);
} import java.text.DecimalFormat;
return 0; public class MyClass {
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
String x = new
DecimalFormat("0.#").format(5.6400);
The output on the screen:
System.out.println(x);
// Output: 5.6
}
Enter purchased value:
}
If you enter the purchased value 850
dis = 85.000000
total = 765.000000
will be outputted on the screen.

import java.text.DecimalFormat;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String x = new DecimalFormat("0.##").format(1.6534000);
System.out.println(x);
// Output: 1.65
}
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String[] fruits = {"Apple", "Mango", "Grapes", "Orange"};
for (String x : fruits) {
// Grapes is not printed out
if (x.equals("Grapes"))
continue;
System.out.println(x); Output:
}
Apple
}
Mango
}
Orange

116
Jakob's law

Users expect that your website function similarly to all the other websites

they are already familiar with

What is a Loop?

A Loop executes the sequence of statements many times until the stated condition becomes false.

Types of Loops: Depending upon the position of a control statement in a program, a loop is
classified into two types:
• Entry controlled loop → a condition is checked before executing the body of a loop. It is
also called as a pre-checking loop.
• Exit controlled loop → a condition is checked after executing the body of a loop. It is
also called as a post-checking loop.

• Program 2.8
C program to print the first ten natural numbers using for loop statement

#include<stdio.h>
int main() import java.text.DecimalFormat;
{
int i;
public class MyClass {
for(i=1; i<=10; i++)
public static void main(String[] args) {
printf("value of i =%d", i);
String x = new DecimalFormat("0").format(987653421);
return 0;
}
System.out.println(x);
// Output: 987653421
}
}
The output on the screen is:

value of i = 1 value of i = 2 value of i= 3 value of i= 4 value of i= 5 value of i=

6 value of i = 7 value of i= 8 value of i = 9 value of i = 10

117
for(i=1; i<=10; i++) denote the for loop statement and the syntax of the
for loop statement is:

for(initialization; condition; increment)

Here:

i=1 denote initialization (i.e., from where to start)

i<=10 denote the condition (i.e., stop when 10 is reached)
i++ implies increment (which tells the value of i to increase by 1 each time the loop
is executed) and i++ is the same as i+1.

The number of iterations required to execute the body of for loop is computed using the formula:

(Final value − initial value + step increment)

Number of iteration =
step increment

▪ When a for loop executes, the following occurs:

i = 1
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=1
The statement printf("value of i =%d", i); is executed to print the output:
value of i = 1
Now, the value of i is:
i = 1+1 = 2
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=2
The statement printf("value of i =%d", i); is executed to print the output:
value of i = 2

118
Now, the value of i is:
i = 2+1 = 3
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=3
The statement printf("value of i =%d", i); is executed to print the output:
value of i = 3
Now, the value of i is:
i = 3+1 = 4
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=4
The statement printf("value of i =%d", i); is executed to print the output:
value of i = 4
Now, the value of i is:
i = 4+1 = 5
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=5
The statement printf("value of i =%d", i); is executed to print the output:
value of i = 5
Now, the value of i is:
i = 5+1 = 6
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=6
The statement printf("value of i =%d", i); is executed to print the output:
value of i = 6
Now, the value of i is:
i = 6+1 = 7
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=7
The statement printf("value of i =%d", i); is executed to print the output:
value of i = 7
Now, the value of i is:
i = 7+1 = 8
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=8
The statement printf("value of i =%d", i); is executed to print the output:
value of i = 8
Now, the value of i is:
i = 8+1 = 9
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=9
The statement printf("value of i =%d", i); is executed to print the output:

119
value of i = 9
Now, the value of i is:
i = 9+1 = 10
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?

Yes because i=10

The statement printf("value of i =%d", i); is executed to print the output:

value of i = 10

and stop because the condition i<=10 is achieved.

If the statement:

printf("value of i =%d", i);

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 654321;
is replaced by the statement: int y = 654_321;
System.out.println(x == y);
// Output: true
}
printf("value of i =%d\n", i); }
OR
printf("\n value of i =%d", i); public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(null + " is NULL");
// Output: null is NULL
}
}

Then the output on the screen is:

public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 3;
value of i = 1
System.out.println(7 * (x > 0 ? 4 : 8));
value of i = 2
// Output: 28
value of i = 3
value of i = 4 }
value of i = 5 }

120
value of i = 6 public class MyClass {
value of i = 7 public static void main(String[] args) {
value of i = 8 int x = 2147483647;
value of i = 9
System.out.println(x); // prints 2147483647
value of i = 10
x = x + 1;
System.out.println(x); // prints -2147483648
}
If the for loop statement:
}

for(i=2; i<=10; i++)

is written instead of the statement:

for(i=1; i<=10; i++), then the output on the screen is:

value of i = 2 value of i = 3 value of i= 4 value of i= 5 value of i= 6 value of i

= 7 value of i= 8 value of i = 9 value of i= 10

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
If the for loop statement: System.out.println(Integer.MAX_VALUE);
// Output: 2147483647 (maximum value of int)
for(i=1; i<10; i++) System.out.println(Integer.MIN_VALUE);
// Output: -2147483648 (minimum value of int)
}
is written instead of the statement: }

public class MyClass {

for(i=1; i<=10; i++) public static void main(String[] args) {
char x = '\u2764';
System.out.println(Character.toString(x));
// Output: ♥
then the output on the screen is:
}
}

value of i = 1 value of i = 2 value of i= 3 value of i= 4 value of i= 5 value of i=

6 value of i = 7 value of i= 8 value of i = 9

121
Note: the condition i<=10 tells to print till value of i =10 but the condition
i<10 tells to print till value of i=9.

If the statement:

for(i=1; i=10; i++)

is written instead of the statement:

for(i=1; i<=10; i++)

then the output on the screen is:

value of i = 10 value of i = 10 value of i = 10 value of i = 10 value of i= 10

value of i= 10 value of i = 10 value of i= 10 value of i = 10 value of i = 10
value of i = 10 value of i = 10 value of i = 10 value of i = 10 value of i = 10

continues ....
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h>
void myfunc(int* x, double* y) {
int main() {
*x = 64;
for(int i = 1; i != 5; i++) {
*y = 296.0;
printf( "%f\n", (float) i / 10 );
}
}
return 0;
int main() {
} Output:
int w = 0;
0.100000 double z = 0.0;
0.200000 myfunc(&w , &z);
0.300000 printf("w: %d, z: %f\n", w , z);
Note: 0.400000 return 0;
}
If the statement:

Output:
printf("value of i =%d", i);
w: 64, z: 296.000000

is replaced by the statement

122
printf("%d\n", i);

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
Then the output on the screen is:
for(int i = 2; i <= 10; i += 2) {
printf( "%d\n", i );
1
}
2 return 0;
3 }
4
5 # Output:
6
7 2
8 4

9 6

10 8
10

• What will be the output of the following program?

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{

int i; /* define i */

for(i=1; i<=5; i++) // i starts at 1 and finishes with 5

printf("Linux is not portable\n", i); #include<stdio.h>

return 0; #include<math.h>
} int main() {
float x = 13.0, y = 3.0, z = 4.0;
printf("%.2f", sqrt( x + y * z));

Answer: return 0;
}

Linux is not portable # Output:

5.00

123
Linux is not portable
Linux is not portable
Linux is not portable
Linux is not portable

• C program to print the first ten natural numbers using while

for while
loop loop statement
statement:

The syntax of while loop statement is:

while (this is the condition)

{
Execute this statement;
}

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
#include<stdio.h>
int a = 25;
int main()
int b = 92;
{
int i = 1; printf("%d, %d\n", 1 ? a : b, 0 ? a : b);
while (i<=10) return 0;
{ }
printf("%d\n", i++);
} // Output: 25, 92
return 0;
}

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a = 102, b = 102;
The output on the screen is: printf("%d\n", (a *= 3, b));
return 0;
}

1
2 // Output: 102
3

124
4
#include <stdio.h>
5
int main() {
6
int x[] = { 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 };
7
printf("x[3] = %d\n", x[3]);
8
9 printf("4[x] = %d\n", 4[x]);
10 return 0;
}
Output:

x[3] = 14
(i<=10) is the condition and 4[x] = 15

The statement:

printf("%d\n", i++);

is repeatedly executed as long as a given condition (i<=10) is true.

Ken Thompson (left) with Dennis Ritchie

If the statement:
int i=1;
Creator of 'B'
is replaced by the statement:
programming language
int i;

Then the compilation error will be displayed on the console screen because initialization is
notdefined i.e., from where to start is not declared. #include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
If the statement: int main() {
int i = 1; char x[] = "albert";
char y[8];
is replaced by
strcpy(y, x); // copying x to y

int i = 0; printf("%s\n", y);

/* "albert" will be printed */
return 0;
}

125
Then the output on the screen is:

0
1
#include <stdio.h>
2
int main() {
3
char *x = NULL;
4
5 printf("%s", x);

6 return 0;
7 }
8
9 // Output: (null)
10

Similarly if the statement int i = 0; is replaced by the int i = 7;

Then the output on the screen is:

7
8
9
10

• C program to print first 10 numbers using do while loop statement

#include <stdio.h>
The syntax of do while loop statement is: int main() {
int x = 63;
int y = -25;
do
/* 'y == -25' is not evaluated,
{ since 'x != 63' is false. */
Execute this statement; if (x != 63 && y == -25) {
} printf("Albert\n");
}
while(this is the condition);
else {
printf("Einstein\n");
}
return 0;
#include<stdio.h> }
int main()
// Output: Einstein

126
{
int i =1; #include <stdio.h>
do
#define max(a, b) ((a) > (b) ? (a) : (b))
{
printf("i= %d\n", i++); int main() {
} while (i<=10);
int x = max(22, 53); /* Output: 53 */
return 0;
} printf("%d\n", x);

int y = max(22 + 57, 75 - 16); /* Output: 79 */

printf("%d\n", y);

The output on the screen is: return 0;

}
i=1

i=2

i=3
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
i=4
int x = 5;
i=5
if ((x > 1) && (x > 2)) {
i=6
puts("x is larger than 1 and 2");
i=7
}
i=8
else {
i=9
puts("x is not larger than 1 and 2");
i=10
}
return 0;
The statement:
}

printf("i= %d\n", i++); // Output: x is larger than 1 and 2

is executed and then condition (i<=10) is checked. If condition (i<=10) is true then

The statement:

127
printf("i= %d\n", i++);

is executed again. This process repeats until the given condition (i<=10) becomes false.

• Why LOOP is USED?

If loop is not used then the C program to print first 10 numbers should be written as follows:

#include<stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h>

int main() #include <string.h>

{ int main() {

printf("\n i = 1");
const char *x = "Alan Turing"; /* initialize char pointer */
char i = 'a'; /* initialize 'i' */
printf("\n i = 2");
/* if 'i' is present in 'x' */
printf("\n i = 3");
if (strchr(x, i) != NULL) {
printf("\n i = 4"); printf( "\'%c\' is present in \"%s\".\n", i, x);
printf("\n i = 5"); } /* end if */

printf("\n i = 6");
else { /* if 'i' is not present in 'x' */
printf( "\'%c\' is not present in \"%s\".\n", i, x);
printf("\n i = 7");
} /* end else */
printf("\n i = 8");
return 0;
printf("\n i = 9"); } Output:
printf("\n i = 10");
return 0; 'a' is present in "Alan Turing".
}

It takes pretty long time to write the code and the execution time is pretty long i.e., because to
reduce the time taken to write the code and to reduce the execution time − loop statement is used.

• Write a program to print:

Never test for an error condition you don't know how to handle

5 times using for loop statement.

128
Answer:

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
for (i =1; i<=5; i ++)
printf("Never test for an error condition you don't know how to handle \n");
return 0;
#include <stdio.h>
}
#include <string.h>
int main() {
const char *x = "Alan Turing"; /* initialize char pointer */
▪ Note: char i = 'z'; /* initialize 'i' */
/* if 'i' is present in 'x' */

For the program: if (strchr(x, i) != NULL) {

printf( "\'%c\' is present in \"%s\".\n", i, x);
} /* end if */
else { /* if 'i' is not present in 'x' */
#include<stdio.h>
printf( "\'%c\' is not present in \"%s\".\n", i, x);
int main()
} /* end else */
{
return 0;

int i; }
Output:
for (i=1; i=5; i++)

printf("Linux is not portable"); 'z' is not present in "Alan Turing".

return 0;

The output on the screen is:

Linux is not portable Linux is not portable Linux is not portable Linux is not portable
Linux is not portable Linux is not portable Linux is not portable Linux is not portable
Linux is not portable Linux is not portable Linux is not portable Linux is not portable
Linux is not portable …. continues

129
• Program 2.9
C program to print the characters from A to Z using for loop, do while loop and while
loop statement.

▪ C program to print the characters from A to Z using for loop statement:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int main () {
int main()
const char x[] = "Users/Manju/1.txt";
{
const char i = '/';
char a;
char *y;
for(a='A'; a<='Z'; a++) Searches for the last occurrence of

printf("%c\n", a); the character i ('/') in the string x

return 0; ('Users/Manju/1.txt')

y = strrchr(x, i);

printf("String after '%c' is: '%s'\n", i, y);

The output on the screen: return(0);
}
Output:

A String after '/' is: '/1.txt'

B
C
D
E #include <stdio.h>
F int main() {
G const char *x = "Albert"; /* char pointer */
H
printf("%s\n", x);
I
return 0; /* indicates successful termination */
J
} /* end main */
K
L
M // Output: Albert
N

130
O
#include <stdio.h>
P
int main() {
Q
printf("%10s%10d%10c%10f\n\n", "Albert", 19, 'E', 1.05 );
R
return 0;
S
T }
W
Output:
X
Y Albert 19 E 1.050000
Z

char means the data type is character.

• char → Keyword used to denote the character type data and takes 8-bits for
storage.
• A character constant can be termed as any single character enclosed within a
pair of apostrophes ['a','c','2','$','?', etc.].
• A string constant is termed as a sequence of printable ASCII characters placed
between double quotes. Examples: "computer","keyboard","Hello","Ram", etc.

The statement
char a; imply that we are creating the character 'a'.

Since char a is used. Therefore: the format specifier %c should be used instead of %d or %f
otherwise error will be flagged on the screen. #include <stdio.h>
int main() {

If the statement printf( "%d\n%d\n", -549, 549 );

printf( "%+d\n%+d\n", 549, -549 );
return 0;
for(a=A; a<=Z; a++)
}
-549
549
Output
+549
-549
is written instead of the statement

131
for(a='A'; a<='Z'; a++)

Then the compilation error will be displayed on the console screen.

• Which loop to Select?

Selection of a loop is always a tough task for a programmer, to select a loop do the following steps:

• Analyze the problem and check whether it requires a pre-test or a post-test loop.

• If pre-test is required, use while or for loop.

• If post-test is required, use do-while loop.

• C program to print the characters from A to Z using while loop statement:

#include<stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int main() {
{
char a = 'A'; printf( "%+09d\n", 5496 );
while (a<='Z') // Output: +00005496
{ printf( "%09d\n", 5496 );
printf("%c\n", a++); // Output: 000005496
} return 0;
return 0;
}
}

• C program to print the characters from A to Z using do while loop statement:

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
char a = 'A';
do

132
{ for(i=3;i<=100;i=i+3)
printf(" %c\n", a++);
} while (a<='Z');
return 0; The loop starts at 3 because of the i=3 part of the for loop and
} increments up to 100 by using the i=i+3 formula. The for loop reads like
this: "Start with i equal to 3 − and while the value of i is less than
100 − repeat the following: adding 3 to variable i each time we loop. It
stops at 100 because of the i<=100 part of the loop."

• Program 3.0
C program to print the given number is even or odd.

#include <stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int main()
int a, b;
{
printf( "Enter a number: " );
int a;
scanf( "%2d%d", &a, &b );
printf("Enter any number:");
scanf ("%d", &a); printf( "%d and %d\n", a, b);
if(a%2 == 0) return 0;
{ }
printf("The number is even");
} // Output:
else
{ Enter a number: 54968 # entered number

printf("The number is odd"); 54 and 968

}
return 0;
} #include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int i = 2;
if(i > 1) {
int i;
i = 15;
The output on the screen: printf("i: %d\n", i);
}
}

// Output: i: 15
Enter any number:

If you enter the number 4

The number is even will be outputted on the screen.

133
• Mathematical symbol % denote modulus and (a%2 == 0) is the condition and this
condition imply: a divided by 2 yields reminder = 0.

#include <stdio.h>
For example: if you enter the number 4
int main() {
Then a = 4
for(int i=1; i<10; i++)
Then 4 divided by 2 yields the remainder = 0 putchar('.');
Then the statement: return 0;
}

printf("The number is even");

// Output: .........

is executed to print the output:

The number is even

#include <stdio.h>

(Note: in C language == implies equal to) int main() {

int i = 2;
if(i > 1) {
Suppose if you enter the number 3
int i;
Then a = 3 i = 15;
Then 3 divided by 2 yields the remainder = 1 printf("i: %d\n", i); // i: 15
Then the statement }
printf("i: %d\n", i); // i: 2
return 0;
printf("The number is odd"); }

is executed to print the output: #include <stdio.h>

int main() {
The number is odd
extern int x, y;
printf("%d : %d", x, y); // 91 : 92
Extended Backus-Naur Form:
return 0;
A convention used to formally describe a }
programming language's syntax (i.e., indicating int x = 91, y = 92;
which programs are grammatically sound)

134
• Program 3.1
C program to print the remainder of two numbers

#include <stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int main()
{ int i = 52;
int a, b, c;
printf("%d", i>25); // Output: 1 (True)
printf("Enter any number:");
scanf("%d", &a); return 0;
printf("Enter any number:");
}
scanf("%d", &b);
c = a%b;
printf("The remainder of a and b = %d", c);
return 0;
}
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

int i = 52;
The output on the screen:
printf("%d", i<25); // Output: 0 (False)

return 0;
Enter any number: }
If you enter the number 3
Enter any number:
If you enter the number 2
The remainder of a and b = 1 will be outputted on the screen.

Since (a=3 and b=2). Therefore:

3 divided by 2 (i.e., a divided by b) yields the remainder equal to 1

If the statement:
printf("The remainder of a and b = %d", c);

135
is replaced by the statement:
printf("The remainder of %d and %d = %d", a, b, c);

Then the output on the screen is: Abstract syntax tree:

Enter any number:

An intermediate depiction of the program's
structure during compilation by the compiler
If you enter the number 3
Enter any number:
If you enter the number 2

The remainder of 3 and 2 = 1 will be outputted on the screen.

• Program 3.2
C program to check the equivalence of two numbers.

#include<stdio.h> #include <stdio.h>

int main()
int main() {
{
int a = 50;
int x, y;

printf("Enter any number:"); int b = a>19 ? 450 : 150;

scanf ("%d", &x); printf("%d", b ); // Output: 450
printf("Enter any number:");
scanf ("%d", &y); return 0;

if(x-y==0) }
{

printf("The two numbers are equivalent"); #include <stdio.h>

} int main() {
else
int b, a = 50;
{
if(a>9) b = 450;
printf("The two numbers are not equivalent");
else b = 150;
}
printf("%d", b ); // Output: 450
return 0;
return 0;
}

136
The output on the screen:

Enter any number:

If you enter the number 2

Enter any number:
If you enter the number 2

The two numbers are equivalent will be outputted on the screen.

Access Modifier:
Since 2−2 is equal to 0 (i.e., x−y == 0).
Therefore: the statement: An expression in Java that specifies if or how a

{
class member can be accessed. Public, private,

printf("The two numbers are equivalent"); protected, static, and final are examples of

} common access modifiers

is executed to print the output:

The two numbers are equivalent

If you enter the integers 3 and 2:

The output on the screen:

The two numbers are not equivalent

Since 3−2 is not equal to 0 (i.e., x−y != 0). Therefore: the statement:

{ Dispatch
printf("The two numbers are not equivalent");
}

The method for determining which specific

version of code is really executed when
is executed to print the output: polymorphism is present

The two numbers are not equivalent

137
(As said earlier: in C language the symbol != implies not equal to)

▪ What is the mistake in the following program?

#include <stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int main() int main() {
{
float x, y;
int year;
year =1996; float *i;
if(year%4==0) y = 10.56;
printf("Leap year");
else i = &y;

printf("Not a leap year"); x = *i;

return 0;
printf("%f", x); // Output: 10.560000
}

return 0;

}
Answer:
There is no mistake in the above program. The output on the screen is:

Leap year

Since year=1996. Therefore:

1996 divided by 4 (i.e., year divided by 4) yields the remainder equal to 0.

The statement:
printf("Leap year");

is executed to print the output:

Leap year

If the year is = 1995. Then

1995 divided by 4 (i.e., year divided by 4) yields the remainder not equal to 0.

The statement:

138
printf("Not a leap year");

is executed to print the output:

Not a leap year

Note: for a year to be leap year, year divided by 4 should yield remainder = zero.

"An algorithm must be seen to be believed."

− Donald Knuth

Local variables:

Variable whose existence is known only to the main program or functions are called
local variables. Local variables are declared within the main program or a function.

Global variables:

Variables whose existence is known to the both main() as well as other functions are called
global variables. Global variables are declared outside the main() and other functions.

#include<stdio.h>
int x=1; → global variable
int main()
{
int y=3; → local variable
}

What will be the output of the following programs?

#include <stdio.h>
int main () {

139
char greeting[6] = {'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0'};
printf("Greeting message: %s\n", greeting );
return 0;
}

#include <stdio.h>
char x[50];
#include <stdio.h>
#define LENGTH 10 int main() {

#define WIDTH 5 x[2] = 'B';

#define NEWLINE '\n' printf("%c", x[2]); // Output: B
return 0;
int main() { }
int area;
area = LENGTH * WIDTH;
printf("Value of area : %d", area);
printf("%c", NEWLINE);
return 0;
}

• Program 3.3
C program to print whether the given number is positive or negative

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
#include<stdio.h>
puts("Enter a character: ");
int main()
puts("To stop, press # and then Enter.");
{
for(;;) {
int a;
a = -35; char x=getchar();
if(a>0) if(x=='#') {
{ break;
printf("Number is positive"); }
} }
else Output:
printf("......!\n");
{
return(0); Enter a character:
printf("Number is negative");
} To stop, press # and then Enter.
}
A # entered character
return 0;
B # entered character
}
# # entered character
......!

140
The output on the screen:

Number is negative

Since a = −35. Therefore: a is less than 0 i.e., a < 0 because any negative number is always
less than zero.
Language standard

The statement:
Rules governing what constitutes valid
printf("Number is negative"); code in a specific language and what a
compiler or interpreter must ensure for
how this is carried out
is executed to print the output:
Number is negative

• Program 3.4
C program to print the sum of the first 10 digits using for loop statement

#include <stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h> int main() {
int main()
int x, y;
{
printf("Enter a number: ");
int i, sum = 0;
scanf("%d", &x);
for( i=1; i<=10; i++)
sum = sum + i; printf("Enter a number: ");

printf("sum of the first 10 digits =%d", sum); scanf("%d", &y);

return 0; if(y != 0) printf("%f\n", (float)x/y);
} else printf("Cannot divide by zero.\n");
return 0;
}
The output on the screen: Output:
Enter a number: 2 # entered number
Enter a number: 0 # entered number
Cannot divide by zero.

141
sum of the first 10 digits = 55

▪ How the sum of the first 10 digits = 55 is outputted on the screen through the for
Loop statement?

i=1 (sum = 0 because the sum is initialized to 0 in the statement int i, sum = 0;)
Is i<=10 true?
Yes, do this
#include <stdio.h>

sum = sum + i = 0 +1 =1 int main() {

Now, for(int x=1; x<=5; x++)
i=2 (sum = 1) printf("%d / 2 is: %f\n", x, (double) x /2);
Is i<=10 true? return 0;
Yes, do this }
sum = sum + i = 1 +2 =3
Now,
// Output:
i=3 (sum = 3)
1 / 2 is: 0.500000
Is i<=10 true?
Yes, do this 2 / 2 is: 1.000000

sum = sum + i = 3 +3 = 6 3 / 2 is: 1.500000

Now, 4 / 2 is: 2.000000
i=4 (sum = 6) 5 / 2 is: 2.500000
Is i<=10 true?
Yes, do this
sum = sum + i = 6 + 4= 10
#include <stdio.h>
Now,
int main() {
i=5 (sum = 10)
int x, i;
Is i<=10 true?
printf("Enter a number: ");
Yes, do this
sum = sum + i = 10 + 5= 15 scanf("%d", &i);
Now, x = i>0 ? i*i : -(i*i);
i=6 (sum = 15) printf("%d × %d: %d", i, i, x);
Is i<=10 true? return 0;
Yes, do this }
sum = sum + i = 15 + 6 = 21 Output:
Now,
i=7 (sum = 21) Enter a number: -5 # entered number

Is i<=10 true? -5 × -5: -25

142
Yes, do this
sum = sum + i = 21 + 7 = 28
#include <stdio.h>
Now,
int main() {
i=8 (sum = 28)
Is i<=10 true? for(int i=90; i != 55; i -= 5) {

Yes, do this printf("\n%d × %d, %d", i, i, i*i);

sum = sum + i = 28 + 8 = 36 }
Now, return 0;
i=9 (sum = 36) }
Is i<=10 true?
Yes, do this
// Output:
sum = sum + i = 36 + 9 = 45
90 × 90, 8100
Now,
85 × 85, 7225
i=10 (sum = 45)
Is i<=10 true? 80 × 80, 6400

Yes, do this 75 × 75, 5625

sum = sum + i = 45 + 10 = 55 70 × 70, 4900
stops because the condition i<=10 is achieved 65 × 65, 4225
60 × 60, 3600

The statement: "i" is initialized to 90 and 5 is

subtracted from it each time the
loop repeats. The squaring of "i"
printf("sum of the first 10 digits =%d", sum); and the call to printf() are
executed until "i" equals 55

is executed to print the output:

sum of the first 10 digits = 55

If the statement:

int i, sum = 0; Anti-pattern:

is replaced by: Typical approaches to a problem that uses rigid, rigidly

structured, or inaccurate representations of coding

int i, sum = 1;

143
Then the output on the screen is:
sum of the first 10 digits = 56

▪ What will be the output if the for loop statement for(i =1; i<=10; i++) is replaced
bythe statement for(i =2; i<10; i++)?

#include <stdio.h>
Answer: sum of 10 digits = 44
int main() {
int a = 15;
If the statement: for(int b=10; b != a; b++) {
printf("%d\n", b);
int i, sum, sum = 0; } Output:
return 0;
10
}
11
is written instead of:
12
13
int i, sum = 0;
14

Then the compilation error message will be displayed on the screen (stating that sum is
twice declared).

If the for loop is ended with a semicolon i.e.,

for( i=1; i<=10; i++);

Then the compilation error will be displayed on the console screen.

• Program 3.5
C program to print the average of the first 10 numbers using for loop statement

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{

144
int i, avg, sum = 0;
for( i=1; i<=10; i++)
sum = sum + i;
avg = sum/10;
printf("sum of the first 10 numbers =%d", sum);
printf("average of the first 10 numbers =%d", avg);
return 0;
}

The output on the screen:

sum of the first 10 numbers = 55

average of the first 10 numbers = 5

The average of the first 10 numbers = 55/10 = 5.5 not 5. But the output on the screen is:

average of the first 10 numbers = 5 because int is used instead of float.

#include <stdio.h>
If the data type float is used i.e.,
int main() {
int x=1;
#include<stdio.h>
int main() while(x<3) {
{ printf("Hi..\n");
x++;
float i, avg, sum = 0;
for( i=1; i<=10; i++) sum }
= sum + i; return(0);
avg = sum/10; }

printf("sum of the first 10 numbers =%f", sum);

printf("average of the first 10 numbers = %f", avg); // Output:
return 0; Hi..
} Hi..

The output on the screen:

sum of the first 10 numbers = 55

average of the first 10 numbers = 5.5

145
• Program 3.6
C program to print the product of the first 10 digits using for loop statement
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{

int i, product = 1;
for( i=1; i<=10; i++)
product = product * i;
printf("The product of the first 10 digits =%d", product);
return 0;
}

The output on the screen:

The product of the first 10 digits = 3628800

▪ How the product of the first 10 digits = 3628800 is outputted on the screen through
the for Loop statement?

i=1 (product = 1 because the product is initialized to 1 in the statement int i,

product = 1;)
Is i<=10 true?
#include <stdio.h>
Yes, do this
int main() {
product = product * i = 1 * 1 =1
Now, for(int x = 1; x <= 3; x++)
i=2 (product = 1) printf("%2d %2d *\n", x, x * x);
Is i<=10 true? return 0;
Yes, do this }
product = product * i = 1 * 2 = 2
Now,
// Output:
i=3 (product = 2)
1 1 *
Is i<=10 true?
2 4 *
Yes, do this
product = product * i = 2 * 3 = 6
3 9 *

146
Now,
#include <stdio.h>
i=4 (product = 6)
int main() {
Is i<=10 true?
char x = '\0';
Yes, do this
printf("Enter a character: \n");
product = product * i = 6 * 4 = 24
Now, for( ; ; ) {
i=5 (product =24) x = getchar(); /* get a character */
Is i<=10 true? if(x == 'b')
Yes, do this break; /* exit the loop */
product = product * i = 24 * 5 =120 }
Now,
printf("You have entered 'b'");
i=6 (product =120)
return 0;
Is i<=10 true?
}
Yes, do this
product = product * i = 120 * 6 = 720
Now, // Output:
i=7 (product =720) Enter a character:
Is i<=10 true? a # entered character
Yes, do this c # entered character
product = product * i = 720 * 7 = 5040 b # entered character
Now,
You have entered 'b'
i=8 (product =5040)
Is i<=10 true?
Yes, do this
#include <stdio.h>
product = product * i = 5040 * 8 = 40320
Now, int main() {

i=9 (product = 40320) for(double i = -2; i <= 2; i++)

Is i<=10 true? printf("%e %+e %e\n", i, i, i);
Yes, do this return 0;
product = product * i = 40320 * 9 = 362880 }
Now,
i=10 (product = 362880)
Is i<=10 true?
Yes, do this
product = product * i = 362880 * 10 = 3628800
-2.000000e+00 -2.000000e+00 -2.000000e+00
stops because the condition i<=10 is achieved. -1.000000e+00 -1.000000e+00 -1.000000e+00
0.000000e+00 +0.000000e+00 0.000000e+00
1.000000e+00 +1.000000e+00 1.000000e+00
2.000000e+00 +2.000000e+00 2.000000e+00

147
The statement:

printf("The product of the first 10 digits =%d", product); is executed to display ….the output:
The product of the first 10 digits = 3628800

If the statement int i, product = 1; is replaced by:

int i, product = 0;

Then the output on the screen is:

The product of the first 10 digits = 0

If the statement: #include <stdio.h>

int main() {
for(i=1; i<=10; i++) int a=15, b=110;
printf("Maximum of %d and %d is: %d\n", a, b, (a>b ? a : b));
return 0;
is replaced by }

for(i=5; i<=8; i++) // Output: Maximum of 15 and 110 is: 110

Then the output on the screen is:

The product of the first 10 digits = 1680

• Program 3.7
C Program to print the table of a number using the for loop statement

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
Forwards compatibility:
int n, i;

printf("Enter any number:");

Hardware or software system that
scanf("%d", &n);
is compatible with the systems'
for( i=1; i<=5; i++)
later iterations
printf("%d * %d = %d\n", n, i, n*i);
return 0;
}

148
The output on the screen:

Enter any number:

If you enter the number 2 (i.e., n=2)
Backwards compatibility:
2 * 1 = 2
2 * 2 = 4
A hardware or software system that can
2 * 3 = 6
successfully utilize the interfaces and data
2 * 4 = 8
2 * 5 = 10 of previous system iterations
will be outputted on the screen.

▪ How the execution takes its Way through the for Loop statement

Since you entered the number 2, therefore: n=2.

i=1
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
2 * 1 = 2
using the statement printf("%d * %d = %d\n", n, i, n*i);

Now,
i=2
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
2 * 2 = 4
using the statement printf("%d * %d = %d\n", n, i, n*i);

Now,
i=3
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
2 * 3 = 6
using the statement printf("%d * %d = %d\n", n, i, n*i);

Now,

149
i=4
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
2 * 4 = 8
using the statement printf("%d * %d = %d\n", n, i, n*i);

Now,
i=5
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
2 * 5 = 10
using the statement printf("%d * %d = %d\n", n, i, n*i);

stop Now because the condition i <=5 is achieved.

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("%.4f\n", 549.9876545321);
If the symbol * is replaced by +
// Output: 549.9877
i.e.,
printf("%3.8d\n", 5000);
#include<stdio.h>
// Output: 00005000
int main()
printf("%10.15s\n", "Alan Mathison Turing");
{
// Output: Alan Mathison T
int n, a;
return 0;
printf("Enter any number:"); }
scanf("%d", &n);
for( i=1; i<=5; i++)

printf("%d + %d = %d\n", n, i, n+ i);

return 0;
}
Profiling:

Then the output on the screen is: Examining the time the code spends
to find performance problems and
Enter any number:
potential improvement areas
If you enter the number 2 (i.e., n=2)

2 + 1 = 3
2 + 2 = 4
2 + 3 = 5

150
2 + 4 = 6
2 + 5 = 7
Sideways compatibility:
will be outputted on the screen.
An assurance that code will remain to be
compatible with other code

• Program 3.8
C program:
#include <stdio.h>
If you enter a character M
#include <string.h>
Output must be: ch = M
int main() {
#include<stdio.h>
if(strchr("albert", 'l'))
int main()
{ printf("l is in 'albert'\n");
char M;
// Output: l is in 'albert'
printf("Enter any character:");
scanf("%c", &M); if(strstr("alan turing", "ring"))
printf("ch=%c", M);
printf("Found ring");
return 0;
} // Output: Found ring

return 0;

}
The output on the screen:
Enter any character:
If you enter the character M
ch = M will be outputted on the screen.

• Note:

getchar() function is simplified version of the scanf function

If we replace the statement:

scanf("%c", &M);

151
by the statement:
M = getchar();
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("%*.*f\n", 10, 2, 5496.85577);
i.e., printf("%*.*f\n", 20, 3, 5496.85577);
return 0;
#include<stdio.h> }
int main()
{
// Output:
char M;
printf("Enter any character:");
M = getchar(); 5496.86

printf("ch=%c", M); 5496.856

return 0;
}

There will be no change in the output on the screen i.e., the output on the screen is:
Enter any character:
If you enter the character K
ch = K will be outputted on the screen.

putchar() function is simplified version of the printf function

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {

If we replace the statement: int x = -5;

for(int x=0; x < 5; x++)

printf("ch=%c", M);
printf("%d ", x);
printf("\n");
printf("x : %d", x);
by the statement: return 0;
}
putchar (M);
// Output:
i.e., 0 1 2 3 4
#include<stdio.h> x : -5

152
int main()
{
char M;
printf("Enter any character:");
scanf("%c", &M);
putchar (M);
return 0;
}

Then there will be no change in the output on the screen i.e., the output on the screen is:
Enter any character:
If you enter the character M
M will be outputted on the screen. #include <stdio.h>
int main() {
If you replace the statement: int i = 100;
scanf("%c", &M); int *x, *y;
x = &i;
y = x;
by the statement: /* print the value of 'i' twice */
printf("%d %d\n", *x, *y);
M = getchar();
return 0;
}
and the statement

printf("ch=%c", M);
// Output: 100 100
by the statement:

putchar (M);

i.e.,

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
char M;
printf("Enter any character:");
M = getchar();

153
putchar (M);
return 0;
}

The output on the screen:

Enter any character:

If you enter the character S

S will be outputted on the screen.

• Program 3.9
C program to print the first 5 numbers starting from one together with their squares.

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
for( i=1; i<=5; i++)
printf("number=%d its square=%d\n", i , i*i);
return 0;
#include <ctype.h>
}
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("Enter a character: \n");
The output on the screen:
for(;;) {
char x = getchar();
number=1 its square=1
if(x == '#') break;
number=2 its square=4
if(isalnum(x)) printf("%c is alphanumeric\n", x);
number=3 its square=9
}
number=4 its square=16
Output:
number=5 its square=25 return 0;
Enter a character:
}
b # entered character
b is alphanumeric
▪ How the execution takes its way through the for loop statement 1 # entered number
1 is alphanumeric
i=1 # # entered character

154
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
number=1 its square=1
using the statement printf("number=%d its square=%d\n", i , i*i);

Now,
i=2
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
number=2 its square=4
using the statement printf("number=%d its square=%d\n", i , i*i);

Now,
i=3
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
number=3 its square=9
using the statement printf("number=%d its square=%d\n", i , i*i);

Now,
i=4
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
number=4 its square=16
using the statement printf("number=%d its square=%d\n", i , i*i);

Now,
i=5
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
number=5 its square=25
using the statement printf("number=%d its square=%d\n", i , i*i);

stop Now because the condition (i<=5) is achieved.

▪ Note:

If the statement

155
printf("number=%d its square=%d\n", i , i*i);

is replaced by the statement:

printf("\n number=%d/t its square=%d", i , i*i);

#include <stdio.h>
Then the output on the screen is:
#include <string.h>
int main() {
number=1 its square=1
char x[80];
number=2 its square=4
printf("Enter a string: \n");
number=3 its square=9
fgets(x, 10, stdin);
number=4 its square=16
printf("%s", x);
number=5 its square=25
return 0;
} Output:

Enter a string:
alan turing # entered string
alan turi # output
tab "/t" is included because to leave space between

number=1 and its square=1

Suppose
printf("number=%d its square=%d", a , a*a);

is replaced by the statement:

printf("number=%d\n its square=%d\n", a , a*a);

The output on the screen is:

156
number=1 #include <stdio.h>
its square=1 int main() {
number=2 int i, *x, **y;
its square=4 i = 55;
number=3
x = &i;
its square=9
y = &x;
number=4
/* print the value of i */
its square=16
printf("%d", **y);
number=5
its square=25 // Output: 10
return 0;
}

If you replace the printf statement:

printf("number=%d its square=%d", a , a*a);

by the statement:

printf("number=%d\n, its square=%d\n", a , a*a);

i.e., if you place variable separator (i.e., comma) between number=%d\n and its square=%d\n

Then the compilation error will be displayed on the screen.

• Write a program to print the first 10 numbers starting from one together with their
squares and cubes?

Answer:

#include<stdio.h>
int main()

157
{
int i;
for( i=1; i<=10; i++)
printf("number=%d its square=%d its cube=%d\n", i , i*i, i*i*i);
return 0;
}

Rules for switch statement:

• A switch is a decision making construct in 'C.'

• A switch is used in a program where multiple decisions are involved.

• A switch must contain an executable test-expression.

• Each case must include a break keyword.

• Case label must be constants and unique.

• The default is optional.

no-op:
Pointer Code that does nothing

A variable that can hold the address of other variables, arrays, structures, unions and functions that are used
in the C program. It contains only the memory location of the variable rather than its content. The purpose of
pointer is to save memory space and achieve faster execution time.

Breakpoint
Advantages:
(Break execution)

• Dynamic memory allocation.

• More compact and efficient coding.
A directive instructing the debugger to
• To return multiple values via functions.
halt and wait for user input
• To point to different data structures.

158
Operators used with pointers

There are 2 basic operators used with pointers:

• The address operator: & (ampersand)

• The indirection operator: * (asterisk)

The address operator gives the address of a variable while the indirection operator gives
the value of the variable that the pointer is pointing to.

Suppose x is a variable that holds data of type int. We can access the address of x
through an address operator [&]. This address can be stored in some variable [say y].
Thus we can relate x and y as:
"y = &x"
y is called a pointer variable because it holds the address of another variable [i.e.,
x] but not the actual value of x.

There are two integer variables 100 and 640 stored respectively at memory locations
1000 and 1003. Let us assign:
x = 100; y = 640;

In order to access the value of a variable 'x' via pointer, we must need a variable.

Assume that variable be px. The following statement assigns the address of 'x' to px:

px= &x = 1000

In order to access the value of a variable 'y' via pointer, we must need a variable.

Assume that variable be py. The following statement assigns the address of 'y' to py:

py= &y = 1003

x, y, px and py are declared in the program as:

int x, y, px, py;

x and y are integer variables. The asterisk that appears before px and py indicates

that the variables are pointer variables.

159
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h> int main() {
int main() { int x = 5;
struct {
int x; char names[][12]={
int y; "Albert",
} a, b; "Alan",
"John",
a.x = 56; "James",
b = a; /* assign one structure to another */ "Mary",
printf("%d", b.x); "David"
return 0; };
}

printf("%s", names[x]);
// Output: 56 // Output: David
return 0;
}

• Program 4.0
C program to print the sum of two numbers using pointers

If we create an integer variable x by declaring the statement:

int x;

within the body of the main function int main() − this variable is stored in the computer
memory i.e., this variable occupies a specific location in the space of computer memory. And
this integer variable x is assigned an address (i.e., &x) to locate its position in the computer
memory (like a house in the street is assigned an address to locate its position in
the street). Pointers are the variables that represent the address of x in the computer memory
i.e., p = &x, where &x imply the address of x in the computer memory and p is the pointer
variable (which is the variable that represent the address of x in the computer memory ).
And further if you assign a value to the variable x by declaring the statement:
x=1;

160
within the body of the main function — this value is stored in the address of x in the computer
memory. "*" denote pointer operator and *p denote the pointer (which represent the value
stored in the address of x in the computer memory).

• C program to print the address of x and the value assigned to x

C++ Program:

#include <stdio.h>
#include<iostream>
int main()
using namespace std;
{
int main() {
int x, *p;
int x, y, z, sum;
x = 1;
for ( ; ; ) {
p = &x;
cout << "Enter x, y and z: "<< endl;
printf("The address of the variable x =%d", p);
cin >> x >> y >> z;
printf("The value of the variable x =%d", *p);
if(!cin)
return 0;
break;
}
sum = x + y + z;
cout << "x + y + z = " << sum << endl;
}
cout <<".......\n";
The output on the screen: }

The address of the variable x = 0x7fffc60478a4 // Output:

The value of the variable x = 1 Enter x, y and z:

2 # entered number
4 # entered number
5 # entered number
x + y + z = 11
Since p = &x:
Enter x, y and z:
*p= *&x
! # entered character
.......

The value of the variable x = 1 because you have assigned a value to the variable x by
declaringthe statement:
x=1;

161
within the body of the main function. Minimum working example:

A code snippet that has no redundant

If the statements:
information and can be copied and pasted
printf("The address of the variable x =%d", p); into an empty Lean file while retaining
printf("The value of the variable x =%d", *p); all of its functionality (minimal)

are replaced by the statement:

printf("The address of the variable x =%d and its value =%d", p,*p);

i.e.,
Code path:

#include <stdio.h>
The path used by the program's
int main()
source code when it runs
{
int x, *p;
x=1;
p = &x;
printf("The address of the variable x =%d and its value =%d", p,*p);
return 0;
}

Then the output on the screen is:

The address of the variable x = 0x7fffc60478a4 and its value = 1

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int x, y, *p, *q, sum;
printf("Enter any number:");

162
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("Enter any number:");
#include <stdio.h>
scanf("%d", &y);
#define MAX 55
p = &x;
q = &y; int main() {

sum = p + q; #if MAX>85

printf("Sum of entered numbers = %d\n", sum); printf("55<85\n");
return 0; #else
} printf("85>55\n");
#endif
return 0;
The output on the screen: }

// Output:
Enter any number:
85>55
If you enter the number 2
Enter any number:
If you enter the number 3
Sum of entered numbers = 5 will be outputted on the screen.

Since pointer *p imply the value assigned to the variable x (i.e., 2) through the keyboard
and the….pointer *q imply the value assigned to the variable y (i.e., 3) through the keyboard.
Therefore: sum = *p + *q = 2 + 3 = 5 (which will be outputted on the screen).

• C program to print the product, subtraction and division of two numbers using
pointers
MoSCoW method:

#include <stdio.h>
A technique for prioritizing where
int main() criteria are categorized into elements that
{ frequently occur in a certain iteration of a
int x, y, *p, *q, product, subtract, div;
piece of code and are thus regarded as
printf("Enter any number:");
such include elements that Must, Should,
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("Enter any number:");
Could, and Won't be done
scanf("%d", &y);

163
p = &x;
#include <stdio.h>
q = &y;
int main() {
product = *p * *q;
int i, x = 1;
subtract = *p - *q;
for (i = 1; i <= 5; i++)
div= *p / *q;
printf("product of entered numbers = %d\n", product); printf("%d", i & x);
printf("subtract of entered numbers = %d\n", subtract); // Output: 10101
printf("division of entered numbers = %d\n", div); return 0;
return 0; }
}

The output on the screen:

#include <stdio.h>
Enter any number: int main() {
int i, x = 1;
If you enter the number 4
for (i = 1; i <= 5; i++)
Enter any number:
putchar(((i & x) == 0) ? '0': '1');
If you enter the number 2 // Output: 10101
product of entered numbers = 8 return 0;
}
subtract of entered numbers = 2

division of entered numbers = 2

will be outputted on the screen.

• C program to find the greatest of two numbers using pointers

#include <stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#define mkstr(x) # x
int main()
int main() {
{
printf(mkstr(Albert));
int x, y, *p, *q;
printf("Enter any integer:"); // Output: Albert
scanf("%d", &x); return 0;
printf("Enter any integer:"); }
scanf("%d", &y);
p = &x;
q = &y;

164
if(*p>*q)
#include <ctype.h>
{
#include <stdio.h>
printf("x is greater than y");
} int main() {
if(*q>*p) printf("Enter a character: \n");
{ for(;;) {
printf("y is greater than x"); char x = getchar();
} if(x == '#') break;
return 0;
if(isdigit(x)) printf("%c is a digit\n", x);
}
}
return 0;
} Output:
The output on the screen: Enter a character:
J # entered character
2 # entered number
Enter any integer:
2 is a digit
If you enter the integer 10
# # entered character
Enter any integer:
If you enter the integer 16

y is greater than x will be outputted on the screen.

• What is the output of the following programs?

#include <ctype.h>
i) #include <stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("Enter a character: \n");
for(;;) {
#include <stdio.h>
char x = getchar();
int main() {
if(x == '#') break;
printf("Alan %c %s", 'M', "Turing");
if(isupper(x)) printf("%c is uppercase\n", x);
return 0;
}
} Output:
return 0;
Enter a character:
}
j # entered character
A # entered character
A is uppercase
Answer:
# # entered character

165
Alan M Turing

ii)
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h> #include <string.h>
int main() int main() {
{ char *x;
int x, t, c;
x = strchr("This is my book.", ' ');
x =12;
printf("%s", x);
t = 2;
return 0;
c = x/t;
}
printf("velocity = %d m/s", c);
return 0;
} // Output: is my book.

Answer:
velocity = 6 m/s

• Program 4.1

C program to print the sum of two numbers using functions

#include<stdio.h>
int addition();
int main() Input sanitation
{
int answer;
answer = addition();
printf("The sum of two numbers is: %d\n", answer); Eliminate invalid characters from input
return 0;
}

int addition()
{
int x, y;
printf("Enter any integer:");

166
C Program:
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("Enter any integer:");
scanf("%d", &y);
#include <stdio.h>
return x+y;
} #include <stdlib.h>

int main()
{
The output on the screen: int a=6, b=2;
printf("%d", a+(~b)+1);
Enter any integer: return 0;
If you enter the integer 3 }
Enter any integer:
If you enter the integer 5
The sum of two numbers = 8 will be displayed on the screen.
Output:
4

Java Program:
public class HelloWorld {
public static void main(String[] args) {
public class HelloWorld {
while(true) {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("infinite while loop");
int x = 0;
}
while (true) {
}
System.out.println("\n " + x++);
}
if (x == 4)
break;
}
Output: Output:
}
} 0
infinite while loop
1 infinite while loop

2 infinite while loop

infinite while loop
3
infinite while loop ………

Cyber Analytics: An approach for identifying potential vulnerabilities and minimizing harm
from existing cyberthreats that combines concepts of cybersecurity and data science

167
int addition();

The statement implies function declaration

int means integer and int addition() implies: addition() should return integer value.

int addition()

The function to add the entered values (i.e., 3 and 5) and return the result (i.e., 3 +
5 i.e., 8) to the statement:
printf("The sum of two numbers = %d", answer); to
make provision to display the output:

The sum of two numbers = 8

{
int x, y;
printf("Enter any integer:");
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("Enter any integer:");
scanf("%d", &y);
return x+y;
}

The body of the function int addition()

answer = addition();

The function call i.e., this statement calls the function:

addition()

to add the entered values (i.e., 3 and 5) and return the result (i.e., 3 + 5 i.e., 8)
to the statement:

168
printf("The sum of two numbers = %d", answer);

to make provision to display the output:

The sum of two numbers = 8

on the screen.

In the statement:

printf("The sum of two numbers=%d", answer);

The format string " %d" indicates that the value to be displayed at that point in
thestring i.e., after the statement:

The sum of two numbers =

needs to be taken from the result returned by the function int addition().

• C program to print the product of two numbers using functions

#include<stdio.h>
int multiplication();
int main()
{
int answer;
answer = multiplication();
printf("The product of two numbers is: %d\n", answer);
return 0;
}

int multiplication()
{
int x, y;

169
printf("Enter any integer:");
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("Enter any integer:");
scanf("%d", &y); #include <math.h>
return x*y; #include <stdio.h>
}
int main() {
printf("%1.1f %1.1f", fabs(2.0), fabs(-2.0));
return 0;
}
The output on the screen:
// Output: 2.0 2.0
Enter any integer:
If you enter the integer 3
Enter any integer:
If you enter the integer 5
The product of two numbers = 15 will be outputted on the screen.

• C program to print the greatest of two numbers using functions

#include<stdio.h>
int largest();
int main()
{
int answer;
answer = largest();
printf("The largest of two numbers is: %d\n", answer);
return 0;
} #include <stdio.h>
#define PUT(x) printf("Albert\n");
int largest() int main() {
{
PUT(Hi from main());
int x, y;
return 0;
printf("Enter any integer:");
}
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("Enter any integer:");
scanf("%d", &y); // Output: Albert

170
if(x>y)
#include <stdio.h>
return x;
int main() {
if(y>x)
char x[] = "Ilbert";
return y;
char *z = x;
}
*z = 'A';
printf("%s\n", x);
}
The output on the screen:

// Output: Albert

Enter any integer:

If you enter the integer 3
Enter any integer:
If you enter the integer 5
The largest of two numbers= 5 will be outputted on the screen.

• C program to print the greatest of three numbers using functions

#include <stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h> #define NAMES(x, y, z) printf(#x ", " #y ", " #z " and Mary!\n")
int largest(); int main() {
int main() NAMES(Albert, John, James);
{ return 0;
} // Output: Albert, John, James and Mary!
int answer;
answer = largest();
printf("Largest of three numbers=%d", answer);
return 0;
}
#include <stdio.h>
int largest()
int main() {
{
int x, y, z; printf("Alan " "Mathison " "Turing");
printf("Enter any integer:"); // Output: Alan Mathison Turing
scanf("%d", &x); return 0;
printf("Enter any integer:"); }
scanf("%d", &y);
printf("Enter any integer:");
scanf("%d", &z);

171
if(x>y&& x>z)
return x;
#include <math.h> x = Mantissa × 2Exponent

if(y>x&& y > z) #include <stdio.h>

x = 0.625000 × 24
return y; int main() {
x = 10.0
if(z>x && z>y) int e;
return z; double x;
} x = frexp(10.0, &e);
printf("%f %d", x, e);
}
The output on the screen:
// Output: 0.625000 4

Enter any integer: Exponent

If you enter the integer 3
Enter any integer: Mantissa
If you enter the integer 5
Enter any integer:
If you enter the integer 10
Largest of three numbers = 10 will be outputted on the screen.

• C program to print the square of the number using functions

#include<stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int square();
int main() {
int main()
printf("Albert \"Einstein\"!\n");
{
// Output: Albert "Einstein"!

int answer; return 0;

answer = square(); }

printf("Square of the number=%d", answer);

}
int square()
{
int x;

172
#include <stdio.h>
printf("Enter any integer:");
int main() {
scanf("%d", &x);
char *x = "alan", *y = "alan";
return x*x;
if (x == y)
}
printf("The 2 strings have the same address\n");
else
printf("The 2 strings have the different address\n");
The output on the screen is: return 0;
}
// Output: The 2 strings have the same address
Enter any integer:
If you enter an integer 5
Square of the number = 25 will be outputted on the screen.

• What is the output of the following program?

#include<stdio.h>

int main() #include <stdio.h>

{ int main() {
double i;
int x=6;
for(i=2.0; i<1.0e+10; i=i*10)
printf("The address of x = %d", &x);
printf("%g ", i);
return 0; return 0;
} }

Answer:
The address of x = 343441332

# Output:

• Program 4.2 2 20 200 2000 20000 200000 2e+06 2e+07 2e+08 2e+09

If-else statement provides a way for selecting any one of the 2 possible alternatives. And,
nested- if allow us to select one of the many alternatives but it is time consuming. To overcome
this, the switch case statement is used. Switch (case) allows the user to make decision from the
number of choices i.e., from the number of cases.

173
For example:

#include<stdio.h> Python code:

int main()
{ import numpy as np
char ch; a = [15,16,17]
printf("Enter any character:"); b = np.array(a)
scanf("%c", &ch); print("1 Dimensional array: ", b)
switch(ch)
{ Output:
case 'R':
printf("Red"); 1 Dimensional array: [15 16 17]
break;
case 'W':
printf("White");
break; import numpy as np
case 'Y': a = [[15,16,17], [18,19,20]]
printf("Yellow"); b = np.array(a)
break; print("2 Dimensional array: ",b)
case 'G':
printf("Green");
break; Output:
default:
2 Dimensional array: [[15 16 17]
printf("Error");
break; [18 19 20]]
} End of switch
return 0;
} End of main()
import numpy as np
a = [[[15,16,17],[18,19,20],[21,22,23]]]
b = np.array(a)
The output on the screen: print("3 Dimensional array: ",b)

Enter any character: Output:

If you enter a character R
3 Dimensional array: [[[15 16 17]
Red will be outputted on the screen.
[18 19 20]
[21 22 23]]]

174
switch(ch) allow us to make decision from the number of choices i.e., from the number of
cases
case 'R':
case 'W':
case 'Y':
case 'G':

Since we have entered the character R (which corresponds to case 'R':)

The statement import numpy as np

a = np.array([11, 12, 13, 14], ndmin=5)

printf("Red"); print(a)
print('Dimensions of array:', a.ndim)

is executed to display the output: Output:

Red
[[[[[11 12 13 14]]]]]
on the screen. Dimensions of array: 5

Suppose you enter a character K

Then the output on the screen is:

Error

(Entered character K does not correspond to any of the cases:

case 'R':
Datadog
case 'W':
case 'Y':
An effective cloud monitoring service that uses a
case 'G':
SaaS based platform to examine activities in any
Therefore the statement:
infrastructure, database, or application at any
printf("Error"); scalability

175
is executed to display the output:
Error

on the screen).

The break statement denotes the end of a particular case and thereby the switch statement is
terminated. The case default is executed, when the value of an expression is not matched with
any of the cases.

If the statements:
case 'R':
printf("Red");
break; Coffman's conditions that cause a deadlock:
case 'W':
• Mutual Exclusion: A crucial resource can only be used by one
printf("White");
break; process at a time

case 'Y': • Hold and Wait: Some resources may be allocated to a process
printf("Yellow"); while others are being waited for
break; • No Pre-emption: No resource can be forcibly taken from a process
case 'G': that is holding it
printf("Green"); • Circular Wait: Each process in a closed chain of processes retains
break;
at least one resource required by another process in the chain
default:
printf("Error");
break;
#include <stdio.h> #include <stdio.h>
int main() { int main() {
are replaced by the statements:
float x=0.2d; float x=0.2d;
if(x>0.9) { if(x<0.9) {
case 'R':
printf("Albert"); printf("Albert");
printf("Red");
} }
case 'W':
else { else {
printf("White");
printf("Einstein"); printf("Einstein");
case 'Y':
} }
printf("Yellow");
return 0; return 0;
break;
} }
case 'G':
Output: Output:
printf("Green");
break;
Einstein Albert

176
Terraform
default:
printf("Error");
break;
An open source infrastructure orchestration
tool that automates the deployment and
management of infrastructure
Then the output on the screen is:
Red
White
Yellow

i.e., the output will be printed till yellow even though you have entered the character R.

from copy import copy

Arrays a = [1, 2, [3, 5], 4]
b = copy(a)
b[3] = 7
Output:
b[2].append(6)
print(a)
[1, 2, [3, 5, 6], 4]
Ordered list of homogeneous data elements print(b)
[1, 2, [3, 5, 6], 7]

• Elements may be of data type int, float, char or double.

• All the elements are stored in consecutive memory locations [on RAM].

In an array named odd, the individual items are as shown below:

odd[1] odd[2] odd[3] odd[4] odd[5]

from copy import deepcopy

where:
a = [1, 2, [3, 6], 5]
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are subscripts b = deepcopy(a)
odd[1] : the first element in an array odd.
b[3] = 9
odd[2] : the second element in an array odd.
b[2].append(7) Output:
odd[3] : the third element in an array odd.
print(a)
odd[4] : the fourth element in an array odd.
print(b) [1, 2, [3, 6], 5]
odd[5] : the fifth element in an array odd.
[1, 2, [3, 6, 7], 9]
In general, odd[i] denote the ith element of an odd array.

177
Arrays

One dimensional Multidimensional

• One dimensional array: Number of subscripts is 1

• Multidimensional array: Number of subscripts is more than 1

array1[] → one-dimensional array

array2[] [] → two-dimensional array

array3[] [] [] → three-dimensional array, and so on.

• Program 4.3 #include <math.h>

C program to print the output: #include <stdio.h>
int main() {

Element [0] = 16 printf("%f", ldexp(3,4));

Element [1] = 18 return 0;

}
Element [2] = 20
Element [3] = 25
// Output: 48.000000
Element [4] = 36

ldexp(3,4) = 3 × 24 = 3 × 16
using arrays:
ldexp(3,4) = 48.000000

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{

178
int i;
int num [5] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[i]);
return 0;
} #include <stdlib.h>

#include <stdio.h>
The output on the screen:
int main() {

for(int x=1; x<=5; x++)

Element [0] = 16
Element [1] = 18 // Display 5 random numbers
Element [2] = 20
printf("%d\n", rand());
Element [3] = 25
Element [4] = 36 return 0;

The statement:
int num [5] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};

imply that we are creating an integer array (and the name of array is num) consisting of 5
values(i.e., 16, 18, 20, 25, 36) of the same data type int.

The number of values between the braces { } cannot be larger than the number of values that
wedeclare for the array between square brackets [ ].

There are 5 integers i.e., 16, 18, 20, 25, 36 within the braces { }, so 5 is written within the
squarebrackets [ ].

If there were 6 integers i.e., 16, 18, 20, 25, 36, 42 within the braces { }, then 6 must be
written…within the square brackets [ ].

▪ Note: With the declaration int num [5], computer creates 5 memory cells with
name num[0], num[1], num[2], num[3], num[4].

179
And since:

int num [5] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};

the values 16, 18, 20, 25, 36 are stored in num[0], num[1], num[2], num[3], num[4] respectively.

▪ How the execution takes its way through the for loop statement?

i=0
Is i<5 true?
Yes, print this
Element [0] = 16
using the statement:
printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[i])
format string %d in the square brackets indicates that the value to be displayed at
that point in the string i.e., within the square brackets [ ] needs to be taken from a
variable (which is i i.e., i=0) and the format string %d after the statement (\n
Element [%d] = ) indicates that the value to be displayed at that point in the string
i.e., after the statement (\n Element [%d] = ) needs to be taken from a variable (which
is stored in num[i] i.e., num[0] i.e., 16).

Now,
i=1
Is i<5 true?
Yes, print this
Element [1] = 18
using the statement:
printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[i])
format string %d in the square brackets indicates that the value to be displayed at
that point in the string i.e., within the square brackets [ ] needs to be taken from a
variable (which is i i.e., i=1) and the format string %d after the statement (\n
Element [%d] = ) indicates that the value to be displayed at that point in the string
i.e., after the statement (\n Element [%d] = ) needs to be taken from a variable (which
is stored in num[i] i.e., num[1] i.e., 18).

Now,
i=2

180
Is i<5 true?
Yes, print this
Element [2] = 20
using the statement:
printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[i])
format string %d in the square brackets indicates that the value to be displayed at
that point in the string i.e., within the square brackets [ ] needs to be taken from a
variable (which is i i.e., i=2) and the format string %d after the statement (\n
Element [%d] = ) indicates that the value to be displayed at that point in the string
i.e., after the statement (\n Element [%d] = ) needs to be taken from a variable (which
is stored in num[i] i.e., num[2] i.e., 20).

Now,
i=3
Is i<5 true?
Yes, print this
Element [3] = 25
using the statement:
printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[i])
format string %d in the square brackets indicates that the value to be displayed at
that point in the string i.e., within the square brackets [ ] needs to be taken from a
variable (which is i i.e., i=3) and the format string %d after the statement (\n
Element [%d] = ) indicates that the value to be displayed at that point in the string
i.e., after the statement (\n Element [%d] = ) needs to be taken from a variable (which
is stored in num[i] i.e., num[3] i.e., 25).

Now,
i=4
Is i<5 true?
Yes, print this
Element [4] = 36
using the statement:
printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[i])
Stop because the condition i<5 is achieved.

Format string %d in the square brackets indicates that the value to be displayed at that point in
the string i.e., with the square brackets [ ] needs to be taken from a variable (which is i i.e., i=4)

181
and the format string %d after the statement (\n Element [%d] = ) indicates that the…value
to be displayed at that point in the string i.e., after the statement (\n Element [%d] =
) needs to be taken from a variable (which is stored in num[i] i.e., num[4] i.e., 36).

Suppose the statement: #include <stdio.h>

/* myfunc() function */
void myfunc() {
printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[i]);
printf("Bill\n");
}
/* Program starts here */
is replaced by the statement:
int main() {
printf("Albert\n");
printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[0]); printf("John\n");
myfunc();
printf("Mary\n");
Then the output on the screen: return(0);
Element [0] = 16 }
Element [1] = 16
Element [2] = 16 // Output:
Element [3] = 16 Albert
Element [4] = 16 John
Bill
Suppose the statement: Mary

printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[i]); #include<stdio.h>

int main() {
int x = 0, y = 0, z;

is replaced by the statement: z = 0 && (x = y = 555);

printf("%d %d %d\n", x, y, z);
// Output: 0 0 0
printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[1]);
z = 555 || (x = ++y);
printf("%d %d %d\n", x, y, z);
// Output: 0 0 1
The output on the screen:
return 0;
}
Element [0] = 18

182
Element [1] = 18
#include <stdio.h>
Element [2] = 18
int main() {
Element [3] = 18
printf("A%cl%ca%cn\n", '\0', '\0', '\0') ;
Element [4] = 18
return 0;
}

// Output: Alan
Suppose the statement:

printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[i]);

is replaced by the statement:

printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[2]);

The output on the screen:

Enter 0 after typing it. The
computer asks once more. Input 101
Element [0] = 20
and hit Enter. The computer asks
Element [1] = 20
once more. Any value outside of the
Element [2] = 20 range of 1 to 100 prompts the
Element [3] = 20 program to repeatedly prompt the
Element [4] = 20 user to enter the correct number.

#include <stdio.h>
Suppose the statement:
int main() {
int x;
printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[i]);
do {
printf("Enter a number: \n");
scanf("%d", &x);
is replaced by the statement: }
while(x<1 || x>100);
printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[3]); return 0;
}
Enter a number:
The output on the screen: 0 # entered number
Enter a number:
Element [0] = 25 101 # entered number
Enter a number:
2 # entered number

183
Element [1] = 25
Element [2] = 25
Element [3] = 25
Element [4] = 25

Suppose the statement:

printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[i]);

is replaced by the statement:

printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[4]);

The output on the screen: #include <stdio.h>

int main() {
Element [0] = 36 int x;

Element [1] = 36 for (x = 'a'; x <= 'z'; x++)

Element [2] = 36 /* a b c d ...z is printed */

Element [3] = 36 printf("%c ", x);

return 0;
Element [4] = 36
}

If the condition:
i<5

is replaced by the condition: #include <stdio.h>

i<=5 int main() {
char x;
Then the output on the screen is:
for (x = 65; x <= 90; x++)

Element [0] = 16 /* A B C D ...Z is printed */

Element [1] = 18 printf("%c ", x);
Element [2] = 20 return 0;
Element [3] = 25 }
Element [4] = 36
Element [5] = 3656

▪ 3656 is the number stored in the memory i.e., any number stored in the memory will be
displayed.

184
If the statement:
int num [5] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36}; is replaced by the statement:
int num [i] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};

Then the compilation error will be displayed on the screen because there are 5 elements within
the braces {} not i elements.

• Note:

▪ C program to print the sum of the elements in array.

#include <stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h> int main() {
int x=2, y=1, z=3;
int main() x += y += z;

{ printf("x = %d, y = %d, z = %d\n", x, y, z);

// Output: x = 6, y = 4, z = 3
int i, sum = 0;
return 0;
int num [5] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};
}
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
sum = sum + num[i];
printf("Sum of the Elements in the array = %d", sum);
return 0;
}

The output on the screen:

Sum of the Elements in the array = 115
i.e., 16 + 18 + 20 + 25 + 36 = 115

▪ How the Execution takes its way through the for loop statement?

i=0 (sum = 0)
Is i<5 true?
Yes, do this
sum = sum + num[i] = sum + num[0] = 0 +16 =16

185
Now,
#include <stdio.h>
i=1 (sum = 16)
int main() {
Is i<5 true?
int a, b, c;
Yes, do this
int x=0;
sum = sum + num[i] = sum + num[1] = 16 +18 =34
if(x==0) {
Now, a = 12;
i=2 (sum = 34) b = 13;
Is i<5 true? c = 15;
Yes, do this }
sum = sum + num[i] = sum + num[2] = 34 +20 =54
else {
a = -11;
Now,
b = -12;
i=3 (sum = 54)
c = -13;
Is i<5 true?
Yes, do this }
sum = sum + num[i] = sum + num[3] = 54 +25 =79 printf("%d", a + b + c);
return 0;
Now, }
i=5 (sum = 79)
Is i<5 true?
// Output: 40
Yes, do this
sum = sum + num[i] = sum + num[5] = 79 + 36 =115
stop because the condition i<5 is achieved

The statement:
printf("Sum of the Elements in the array = %d", sum); is executed to display the
output:
Sum of the Elements in the array = 115
on the screen.

If the statement:
int i, sum = 0;
is replaced by int i, sum = 1;
Then The output on the screen:
Sum of the Elements in the array = 116

• C program to print the average of the elements in array

186
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i, avg, sum = 0;
int num [5] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
sum = sum + num [i];
avg = sum/5;
printf("Sum of the Elements in the array = %d", sum);
printf("average of the elements in the array= %d", avg);
return 0;
}

The output on the screen:

Sum of the Elements in the array = 115

average of the elements in the array = 23

Write a program to print:

Element [0] = E
#include <stdio.h>
Element [1] = I
int main() {
Element [2] = N
int x = 20+/* add the 2 numbers */50;
Element [3] = S printf("%d", x);
Element [4] = T // Output: 70
Element [5] = E return 0;
Element [6] = I }
Element [7] = N

using arrays

187
Answer:

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
char name [8] = {' E' , ' I', ' N', ' S', ' T ', ' E', ' I', ' N'};
for(i=0; i<8; i++)
printf("\n Element [%d] = %c", i, name[i]);
return 0;
}

• Note:

If the format string %d is used instead of %c i.e., if the statement:

printf("\n Element [%d] = %c", name[i], name[i]);

is written instead of the statement:

printf("\n Element [%c] = %c", name[i], name[i]);

#include <stdio.h>
Then the output on the screen is:
int main() {
Element [69] = E int i = 0, x = 16;
Element [73] = I while ((x /= 2) > 0)
Element [78] = N printf("%-6d", x);
Element [83] = S return 0;
Element [84] = T }
Element [69] = E
Element [73] = I // Output:
Element [78] = N 8 4 2 1

• What will be the output of the following programs?

188
i)
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h> int main() {
#include <math.h> printf("\"Albert\"");
int main()
return 0;
{
}
printf("%f", cbrt(27));
return 0;
}
// Output: "Albert"

#include <stdio.h>
Answer:
int main() {
3.000
printf("%cAlbert%c", '\'', '\'');
return 0;
ii) }
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
// Output: 'Albert'
{
char i;
char body [4] = {'b', 'o', 'd', 'y'};
#include <stdio.h>
for(i=0; i<4; i++)
printf("\n body[%c] = %c", body[i] , body[i]); int main() {
return 0; printf("%cAlbert%c", '\"', '"');
} return 0;
}

// Output: "Albert"

Answer:
#include <stdio.h>
body [b] = b
body [o] = o int main() {
body [d] = d printf("\'Albert'");
body [y] = y return 0;
}

iii) // Output: 'Albert'

#include <stdio.h>

189
#include <malloc.h>
C++ program:
int main()
{
#include <iostream>
int x=2;
using namespace std;
printf("%d", malloc(200*sizeof(x)));
int main(int argc, char **argv) {
return 0;
cout << 16u - 2;
}
return 0;
}

Output:
Answer: 8183824
14
Law of Increasing Complexity:

An evolving software program will become more

complex as it is continuously altered. #include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main(int argc, const char * argv[]) {
 What is the mistake in the following program:
int x[] = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16};
cout << (1 + 2)[x] - x[0] + (x + 2)[3];
return 0;
#include<stdio.h> }
int main()
{ Output:
int i;
int num [] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36}; 19
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
printf("\n Element [%d] = %d", i, num[i]);
return 0;
}

Java Program:
Answer: There is no mistake in the above program. The output on the screen is:

public class MyClass {

Law of Continuing Change Element [0] = 16 public static void main(String[] args) {
Element [1] = 18 String x = "Albert";

Element [2] = 20 for(int i = x.length()-1; i >= 0; i--) {

Element [3] = 25 System.out.print(x.charAt(i));

Software programs are never truly
}
Element [4] = 36
finished. Programs must be updated as }
requirements change } // Output: treblA

190
• Program 4.3
C program to print the output: #include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main(){
Name of the book = B
extern int x;
Price of the book = 135.00
cout<< x <<endl;
Number of pages = 300
return 0;
Edition of the book = 8
} int x = 55; Output:

55
using structures

#include<stdio.h>
int main() #include <iostream>
{ using namespace std;
struct book { void myfunc(int& x, int& y, int& z) {
char name; x *=6;
float price; y *=4;
int pages; z *=3;
int edition; }
}; int main() {
int p = 11, q = 12, r = 15;
struct book b1; myfunc(p, q, r);
b1.name = 'B'; cout<<" "<<p<<"\n "<<q<<"\n "<<r;
b1.price = 135.00; return 0;
b1.pages = 300; } Output:
b1.edition = 8; 66
printf("\n Name of the book = %c", b1.name); 48
printf("\n Price of the book = %f", b1.price);
45
printf("\n Number of pages = %d", b1.pages);
printf("\n Edition of the book = %d", b1.edition);
return 0;
#include <iostream>
}
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x=11, y=13, z;
Output:
z=(x>y) ? x : y;
The output on the screen: cout<<z; 13
return 0;
}

191
Name of the book = B
Price of the book = 135.00 #include <iostream>
Number of pages = 300 using namespace std;
Edition of the book = 8 int myfunc(int x, int y=2) {
int z;
z = x * y; Output:
a statement: return z; 32
The
}
72
struct book {
int main() {
char name;
cout<<myfunc(16);
float price;
cout<<"\n"; cout<<myfunc(8,9);
int pages;
return 0;
int edition;
}
};

imply the structure definition i.e., we are defining a structure (and the data type name of the structure is book) and
it consists of elements:
▪ name (which is of data type char), price (which is of data type float), pages (which is of data type int),
edition (which is of data type int) – which are placed within the body of the structure.

Java program:
The statement: import java.util.Arrays;
Denote the structure variable import java.util.LinkedHashSet;
import java.util.Set;

public class MyClass {

struct book b1;
public static void main(String[] args) {
Set x = new LinkedHashSet();
for (int a = 1; a <= 5; a++) {
imply the structure variable declaration x.add(a + a);
System.out.println(Arrays.toString(x.toArray()));
Law of Invariant Work Rate: The overall activity }
rate in a programming project is statistically invariant }
// Output: [2]
for the duration of the program's active life }
[2, 4]
[2, 4, 6]
[2, 4, 6, 8]
▪ Why structure variable b1 is declared or defined? [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]

In order to assign the values to the elements within the body of the structure, each element must be linked with
structure variable with dot operator or period operator or member accessibility operator.

192
For example: name is the element which must be linked with structure variable b1
with dot operator to assign a value B to the element "name".

Format string %c (corresponding to the data type char) in the statement:

printf("\n Name of the book = %c", b1.name);

indicates that the value to be displayed at that point in the string i.e., after the statement "\n Name of the book = " needs
to be taken from b1.name.

The statement:
printf("\n Name of the book = %c", b1.name);

make provision to print the output: Name of the book = B on the screen

Format string %f (corresponding to the data type float) in the statement:

printf("\n Price of the book = %f", b1.price);

indicates that the value to be displayed at that point in the string i.e., after the statement "\n Price of the book = " needs
to be taken from b1.price.

The statement:

printf("\n Price of the book = %f", b1.price);

make provision to print the output: Price of the book = 135.00 on the screen

#include<bits/stdc++.h> # Output: Java Program: Einstein

5 Einstein
using namespace std; public class MyClass {
Einstein
int main() { 6 public static void main(String[] args) {
Einstein
5 String x = "Albert Einstein";
float x=5.22222; Einstein
5 for(int i=0; i<= x.length(); i++)
cout << floor(x) << endl; Einstein
5.2222 System.out.println(x.substring(6)); Einstein
cout << ceil(x) << endl;
} Einstein
cout << trunc(x) << endl; Einstein
}
cout << round(x) << endl; Einstein
Einstein
cout << setprecision(5) << x;
Einstein
return 0;
Einstein
Law of Perceived Complexity: The additions
} Einstein
and deletions of the subsequent releases of an
Einstein
evolving program are statistically invariant during Einstein
its active life

193
Format string %d (corresponding to the data type int) in the statement:
printf("\n Number of pages = %d", b1.pages);

indicates that the value to be displayed at that point in the string i.e., after the statement "\n Number of pages = " needs
to be taken from b1.pages.

The statement:

printf("\n Number of pages = %d", b1.pages);

make provision to print the output: Number of pages = 300 on the screen.

Format string %d (corresponding to the data type int) in the statement:

printf("\n Edition of the book = %d", b1.edition);

indicates that the value to be displayed at that point in the string i.e., after the statement "\n Edition of the book = " needs to
be taken from b1.edition.

The statement:

printf("\n Edition of the book = %d", b1.edition);

make provision to print the output: Edition of the book = 8 on the screen.

# Java program: #include <iostream>

public class MyClass { #include <cstdlib>
public static void main(String[] args) { using namespace std;
String[] names = {"Albert", "Mary", "John"}; int main() {
for(String i:names) { # Output: cout <<abs(55) <<endl;
System.out.println(i); Albert cout << labs(4567899L)<<endl;
} Mary cout<< llabs(45678991LL) <<endl;
} return 0;
John
} }

▪ What will be output of the following programs? Output:

55
4567899
A) 45678991
#include<stdio.h>

194
#include <iostream>
struct book { #include <random>
char name; using namespace std; Output:
float price; int main() { 3
int pages; int a=10, b=2,i; 9
int edition; int x = a - b + 1; 2
}; for (i=b; i<a; i++)
9
int main() {
int c = rand() % x + b;
7
{
struct book b1; cout<<c<<endl; 9
b1.name = 'B'; } 3
b1.price = 135.00; return 0; 5
b1.pages = 300; }
b1.edition = 8;
printf("\n Name of the book = %c", b1.name);
printf("\n Price of the book = %f", b1.price);
printf("\n Number of pages = %d", b1.pages);
printf("\n Edition of the book = %d", b1.edition);
}

#include<iostream>
#include<string>
using namespace std;

Answer: int main(){

int b = 15;
Name of the book = B
string x = to_string(b);
Price of the book = 135.000000
cout << x <<endl;
Number of pages = 300 return 0;
Edition of the book = 8 }

Output:

#include <stdio.h> Conway's law

int main(){

for( ; ; ) {
printf("This loop will run forever.\n"); An aphorism that claims companies build systems
}
that reflect their own communication framework
return 0;

195
}
Law of Continuing Growth:

Answer:
To keep users comfortable during a program's
This loop will run forever. lifetime, its functional content must be
This loop will run forever. continuously updated
This loop will run forever.
This loop will run forever.
This loop will run forever.
This loop will run forever ............ continues

C) #include<bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
int main()
{
{
char ch [5];
double PI = 3.14159;
printf("Enter the name: ");
cout << fixed << setprecision(3) << PI <<endl;
scanf("%s", &ch);
return 0;
printf( "The name you entered = %s", ch);
}
return 0;
} Output:

3.142

Answer:
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Enter the name: char[] x = {'A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'F',
Dennis # entered name 'G', 'H', 'I', 'J', 'K', 'L',
'M', 'N', 'O', 'P', 'Q', 'R', 'S', 'T',
The name you entered = Denni will be outputted on the screen. 'U', 'V', 'W', 'X', 'Y', 'Z'};
for(int i=0; i<x.length; i++) {
Fundamental Law of Program Evolution: System.out.print(x[i]);
}
System.out.println();
Software development is governed by a dynamics that produces
} Java Program
statistically definable patterns and invariances − enabling the }
software process and system to self-regulate
// Output: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

Instead of Dennis, only Denni will be displayed on the screen because of the statement

char ch [5];

196
The statement:
char ch [5];

make provision only for 5 lettered name to be displayed on the screen.

If the statement: #include <iostream>

using namespace std;

char ch [5];
int main ()
{
string x = "Albert Einstein was a ";
is replaced by the statement string y = "German-born theoretical physicist.";
string z = x + y;
cout<<" "<< z;
char ch [6];
return 0;
}

Then the output on the screen is: Output:

Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist.

Enter the name:
Dennis # entered name
The name you entered = Dennis will be outputted on the screen.

▪ Note: %s implies the format specifier for string. #include <iostream>

using namespace std;
int x = 5;
▪ Program 4.4 int main() {

Continue and break statements: static int a = 0;

if (cout << a << " " && a++ < x && main())
{ }
i) return 0;
}
Output:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() 012345
{
int i;

197
for (i=1; i<=5; i++)
{
if (i==3)
#include<iostream>
{
using namespace std;
continue;
int main() {
}
int x = 12, y = 12;
int z = -( -x-y );
printf("%d\n ", i);
cout << z << endl;
}
return 0;
return 0;
}
} Output:

Output on the screen:

1 #include<iostream>

2 using namespace std;

int main()
4
{
5 if (!(cout << "Albert "))
cout <<" Albert ";
else
▪ Note:
cout << "Einstein";
return 0;
} Output:

i = 1 Albert Einstein
Is the condition (i<=5) is true?
Yes because i=1
The statement printf("%d\n ", i); is executed to print the output:
1
Now, the value of i is:
i = 1+1 = 2
Is the condition (i<=5) is true?
Yes because i=2
The statement printf("%d\n ", i); is executed to print the output:
2
Now, the value of i is:
i = 2+1 = 3

198
Is the condition (i<=5) is true?
Yes because i=3
The statement printf("%d\n ", i); is not executed to print the output:
3
#include <iostream>
Because of the statement: using namespace std;
int a = 0;
if (i==3) int main() {
{ int a = 0;
continue; ::a = 11; Output:
} a = 12;
cout << ::a << ", " << a; 11, 12
// Execution skips // return 0;
}
Now, the value of i is:
i = 3 + 1 = 4
Is the condition (i<=5) is true?
Yes because i=4
The statement printf("%d\n ", i); is executed to print the output:
4
Now, the value of i is:
i = 4+1 = 5
Is the condition (i<=5) is true?
Yes because i=5
The statement printf("%d\n ", i); is executed to print the output:
5
and stop because the condition i<=5 is achieved.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
ii) namespace num { int a = 18; }
#include <stdio.h> int main() {
int main() cout << num::a << endl;
{ return 0;
Output:
int i; }
for (i=1; i<=5; i++) 18
{
if (i==3)
{
break;

199
#include<iostream>
}
using namespace std;
const char* name = "Albert";
printf("%d\n ", i);
int main() {
}
const char* name = "Einstein";
return 0;
cout << name;
}
return 0;
Output:
}

Einstein
Output on the screen:

1 #include <iostream>
2 using namespace std;
int main() {
int x=20; Output:
• Note: x=!x>54;
cout<<x; 0
i = 1 return 0;
Is the condition (i<=5) is true? }
Yes because i=1
The statement printf("%d\n ", i); is executed to print the output:
1
Now, the value of i is:
i = 1+1 = 2
Is the condition (i<=5) is true?
Yes because i=2
The statement printf("%d\n ", i); is executed to print the output:
2
Now, the value of i is:
i = 2+1 = 3
Is the condition (i<=5) is true?
Yes because i=3
The statement printf("%d\n ", i); is not executed to print the output:

Because of the statement: #include <iostream>

using namespace std;
if (i==3) int main() {
{ int a=12,b=13; Output:
break; a=b+++a++;
} cout<<a<<" "<<b; 25 14
return 0;
}

200
for loop: for (i=1; i<=5; i++)

is immediately terminated (even before the condition i<=5 is achieved) and program
execution stops.

▪ The goto statement:

#include <stdio.h> #include <stdio.h>
void num(void) { void num(void) {
#include <stdio.h> auto int x = 11; static int x = 11;
int main() x++; x++;

{ printf ("%d ", x); printf ("%d", x);

int i; } }

for(i=1; i<=5; i++)

int main() { int main() {
{
num(); num();
if(i==3)
num(); num();
{
num(); num();
goto HAI;
num(); num();
} return 0; return 0;
printf("\n %d",i); } }
}
HAI: printf("\n Linux");
}

Output on the screen: 12 12 12 12 12 13 14 15

1
2 Law of Declining Quality:
Linux

If a software system is not carefully managed and

updated to a changing operational environment, its
▪ Note:
quality will appear to be declining

i = 1
Is the condition (i<=5) is true?
Yes because i=1
The statement printf("\n %d ",i); is executed to print the output:

201
1
Now, the value of i is:
i = 1+1 = 2 Bookmark
Is the condition (i<=5) is true?
Yes because i=2
The statement printf("\n %d ",i); is executed to print the output:
A group of links to websites
2
Now, the value of i is: that are preserved in a web
i = 2+1 = 3 browser as shortcuts
Is the condition (i<=5) is true?
Yes because i=3
The statement printf("%d\n ", i); is not executed to print the output:
3

Rather
The statement printf("\n Linux"); is executed to print the output:
Linux

Because of the statement:

if(i==3)
{
goto HAI;
}
for loop: for(i=1; i<=5; i++) is immediately terminated (even before the condition i<=5 is achieved)
and program execution stops.
import java.util.*;
public class MyClass {
Law of Feedback System: public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] x = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17};
Feedback must be gathered from a variety int[] y = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17};

of sources during the complex process of if(Arrays.equals(x, y))

System.out.println("The 2 arrays are equal.");
software development in order to make
else
substantial advancements System.out.println("The 2 arrays are not equal.");
}
} // Output: The 2 arrays are equal.
• Program 4.5
C program to convert the upper case letter to lower case letter

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
char ch = 'A';

202
char b = tolower(ch);

printf("Upper case letter %c is converted to lower case letter %c", ch, b);
return 0;
}

Output on the screen:

Upper case letter A is converted to lower case letter a

If you want to enter the character through the keyboard, then the above program should take
the form:
Enter any character:
C # entered character
#include<stdio.h>
Upper case letter C is converted to lower case letter c will be
int main() { outputted on the screen.

char ch;

printf("Enter any character:");

scanf("%c", &ch);
char b = tolower(ch);

printf("Upper case letter %c is converted to lower case letter %c", ch, b);
return 0;
}

#include <cstring>
# Output:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std; The first time a number appears in marchFirst1988 is at position 10
int main() {
char x[] = "0123456789";
char y[] = "marchFirst1988";
size_t z = strcspn(y, x);
if (z < strlen(y))
cout << " The first time a number appears in " << y << " is at position " << z;
else
cout << y << " doesn't include any numbers";
C++ program
return 0;
}

• Program 4.6
C program to convert the lower case letter to upper case letter

203
Mainframe computer:

#include<stdio.h> A powerful computer used to handle big data

int main()
processing tasks
{
char ch = 'a';
char b = toupper(ch);
printf("Lower case letter %c is converted to upper case letter %c", ch, b);

return 0;
}

Output on the screen:

Lower case letter a is converted to upper case letter A

If you want to enter the character through the keyboard, then the above program should take the
form: import java.util.Scanner; Java program
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String args[]) {
#include<stdio.h>
Scanner keyboard = new Scanner(System.in);
int main()
System.out.println(keyboard.nextLine());
{
keyboard.close();
char ch;
Alan # entered string
}
printf("Enter any character:");
} Alan # Output
scanf("%c", &ch);
char b = toupper(ch);
printf("Lower case letter %c is converted to upper case letter %c", ch, b);
return 0;
} #include <stdio.h>
int main () {
int x = 55, y = 100;
printf("Maximum number: %d\n", ((x + y) + abs(x - y)) / 2);
printf("Minimum number: %d\n", ((x + y) - abs(x - y)) / 2);
Output on the screen: return 0;
}
Enter any character: Output:
h # entered character
Lower case letter h is converted to upper case letter H Maximum number: 100
will be outputted on the screen. Minimum number: 55

• Program 4.7

204
C program to test whether the entered character is upper case letter or not

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
#include<stdio.h>
int a= 5, b = 5;
int main()
if (!(a ^ b))
{
printf("a = b");
char ch = 'a';
else
if(isupper(ch))
printf("a ≠ b");
printf("you have entered the upper case letter");
return 0;
else Output:
}
printf("you have entered the lower case letter");
return 0;
a=b
}

#include<stdio.h>
Output on the screen:
#include<string.h>
you have entered the lower case letter
int main() {
char x[] = "Albert";
If the statement: char y[] = "Alan";
int z = strcmp(x, y);
char ch = 'a'; is replaced by the statement:
if (z==0)
char ch = 'A';
printf("2 strings are equal");
Then the output on the screen is: else
printf("2 strings are not equal");
return 0;
you have entered the upper case letter }

Output:

2 strings are not equal

• Program 4.8
C program to test whether the entered character is lower case letter or not

Motherboard
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
char ch = 'a';
if(islower(ch))
The computer's main circuit board
printf("you have entered the lower case letter");

205
Router
else
printf("you have entered the upper case letter"); A device that provides access to the
return 0; Internet by transferring data between
}
computer networks

Output on the screen:

you have entered the lower case letter

Java Program:
public class HelloWorld {
public static void main(String[] args) {
public class HelloWorld {
System.out.println('t' + 'a' + 'b');
public static void main(String[] args) {
}
boolean flag=false;
}
if(flag) {
System.out.println("true");
Output:
}
311
else {
System.out.println("false");
}
The ASCII values of 't', 'a', 'b' are:
} t 116
}
a 97
b 98
Output:
false 116 + 97 + 98 = 311

Hence 311 is printed

• Program 4.9
C program to print the value of tan inverse x (i.e., the value of tan−1x)

#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
int main()
{

206
int x = 20;

printf("The value of tan inverse x = %f", atan(x));

return 0;
Spyware:
}

A piece of software that surreptitiously

tracks a user's online activity and
Output on the screen:
gathers private data about a user
The value of tan inverse x = 1.520838
without the user's consent

• Program 5.0

C program to print the value of tan inverse x/y

#include<stdio.h> # Python program to convert all characters to lowercase

#include<math.h>
int main() x = "aLBert"
{ print(x.casefold())
int x,y; # Output: albert
x = 20;
y =20;
printf("The value of tan inverse x/y = %f", atan2(x, y));
return 0;
}

Output on the screen: Java Program:

The value of tan inverse x/y = 0.785398

public class MyClass {

static double x = 9.18;
public static void main(String args[]) {
• Program 5.1 x = x + 33.00;
C program to print the value of fmod(x, y) System.out.println(x);
}
#include<stdio.h> }
#include<math.h>
int main() // Output: 42.18

207
{

float x = 20.500000;
float y =20.799999;
printf("The remainder of %f divided by %f is %f", x, y, fmod(x, y));
return 0;
}

Output on the screen:

The remainder of 20.500000 divided by 20.799999 is 20.500000

C++ Program:

• Program 5.2
#include <iostream>
C program to print the value of ~x
using namespace std;
int main() {
#include<stdio.h> int a;
int main() for(a=1;a<=4;a++) {
{
switch(a) {
int x, y;
case 1: cout<<a<<endl;
x = 205;
break;
y=~x;
printf("The value of y is:%d", y);
case 2: cout<<a<<endl;

return 0; break;
} case 3: cout<<a<<endl;
break;
case 4: cout<<a<<endl;

Output on the screen: break;

return 0;
Output:
The value of y is:-206 }
} 1
} 2
3
4
If the statement: y=~x; is replaced by the statement:

y= -(~x);

208
Then the output on the screen is:
The value of y is: 206

• Program 5.3

C program to print the ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
value of the entered character
Python code:
#include<stdio.h>
int main() x = 'albert einstein'
{
char ch ='A';
# print the number of occurrence of 'e'
printf("The ASCII value of ch is: %d", ch);
print(x.count('e'))
return 0;
}
# Output: 3

Output on the screen:

The ASCII value of ch is: 65

x = 'albert\t1905\tpapers'
If the statement:
print(x.expandtabs())
printf("The ASCII value of ch is: %d", ch);
# Output: albert 1905 papers

is replaced by the statement:

x = 'Albert\n1905\nPapers'
print(x.splitlines())
printf("The ASCII value of ch is: %c", ch);
# Output: ['Albert', '1905', 'Papers']

Then the output on the screen is:

The ASCII value of ch is: A

209
x = "Alan"
• What will be the output of the following programs? print(x.zfill(4))
# Output: Alan

i) print(x.zfill(6))
# Output: 00Alan
print(x.zfill(8))
#include<stdio.h>
# Output: 0000Alan
int main()
{
int i;
int num [5] ={16,18,19,20,21};
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
printf("\n Element = %d", num[i] +1);
return 0;
}
// program to print the punctuation characters using ASCII value in C
#include <stdio.h>
Answer:
#include <ctype.h>
Element = 17
int main() {
Element = 19
int x;
Element = 20
printf("Punctuation Characters in C: \n");
Element = 21
Element = 22 for(x = 0; x <= 127; ++x) {
if(ispunct(x)!= 0)
printf("%c ", x); }
return 0;
ii)
}
#include<stdio.h> # Output:
int main()
All punctuations in C:
{
int i = 54; ! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , - . / : ; < = > ? @ [ \ ] ^ _ ` { | } ~
int y = i<<1;
printf("The value of y = %d", y);
return 0;
}

Answer:

The value of y = 108

210
If the statement: i<<1 is replaced by the statement: i<<2
Utility software:
Then the output on the screen is:
The value of y = 216 A kind of system software that assists
Note: • i<<1 implies 54 * 2 = 108 in the configuration, analysis,
reinforcement, maintenance of the
• i<<2 implies 54 * 4 = 216
appropriate and efficient operation of
• i<<3 implies 54 * 6 = 324
a computer system
• i<<4 implies 54 * 8 = 432

// program to print the graphic characters using ASCII value in C

#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main() {
int x;
printf("Graphic characters in C: \n");
for(x=0;x<=127;++x) {
if (isgraph(x)!=0)
iii)
printf("%c ",x);
#include<stdio.h>
}
int main()
{ return 0; # Output:
int i = 54; }
Graphic characters in C:
int y = i>>1;
printf("The value of y = %d", y); ! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , - . / 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 : ; < = > ? @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P
return 0; Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h
} i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z { | } ~

VoIP
Answer:
The value of y = 27

If the statement: i>>1 is replaced by the statement: i>>2 An Internet-based phone connection

Then the output on the screen is:

The value of y = 13

211
• Note: // Import the Scanner class
import java.util.Scanner;
• i>>1 implies 54/2 = 27
public class MyClass {
• i>>2 implies 54/4 = 13 public static void main(String[] args) {
• i>>3 implies 54/6 = 9 // Create a Scanner object
• i>>4 implies 54/8 = 6 Scanner x = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter a string: ");

<< implies: left shift operator // Read the user input

>> implies: right shift operator String y = x.nextLine();

// Output user input
System.out.println("Entered string is: " + y);
Python code:
}
}
# Get the documentation of math.pow
// Output:
help('math.pow')
Enter a string:
Alan # entered string
Entered string is: Alan
• Program 5.4
C program to print the length of the entered character (i.e., to print the length of the
string)
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
{
char ch[4];
printf("Enter any word: ");
import java.util.Scanner;
scanf("%c", &ch);
import static java.lang.System.in;
printf("The length of the string = %d", strlen(ch));
import static java.lang.System.out;
return 0;
public class MyClass {
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
Scanner x = new Scanner(in);
out.println("Enter a string: ");
Output on the screen: String y = x.nextLine();
out.println("Entered string is: " + y);
Enter any word:
}
dog # entered word
}

The length of the string = 3

will be displayed on the console screen because there are only 3 letters in the word "dog".

212
Suppose if you enter the word tech

The length of the string = 4

will be displayed on the console screen because there are only 4 letters in the word tech.

# import the module

• Program 5.5
import keyword
C program to print the factorial of the entered number # print the keywords
print("Python keywords:")
print(keyword.kwlist)

#include<stdio.h>
Python keywords are:
int main()
{ ['False', 'None', 'True', 'and', 'as', 'assert', 'async',

int i, n, fact=1 ; 'await', 'break', 'class', 'continue', 'def', 'del', 'elif',

'else', 'except', 'finally', 'for', 'from', 'global', 'if',
printf("Enter any number:");
'import', 'in', 'is', 'lambda', 'nonlocal', 'not', 'or', 'pass',
scanf("%d", &n);
'raise', 'return', 'try', 'while', 'with', 'yield']
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
fact = fact *i;
printf("\n Entered number is: %d", n);
printf("\n The factorial of the entered number %d is: %d", n, fact);
return 0;
}
public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Output on the screen: double x = 6.54;

double y = 50.00, z = 0.99;

Enter any number: x += y;

2 # entered number
System.out.println(x);
Entered number is: 2
// Output: 56.54
The factorial of the entered number 2 is: 2
x -= z * 2;
will be displayed on the screen.
System.out.println(x);

// Output: 54.56
Suppose if you enter the number 4
}

}
Entered number is: 4

213
The factorial of the entered number 4 is: 24

will be displayed on the screen.

Storage class Purpose
auto It is a default storage class

extern It is a global variable

static It is a local variable which is capable of returning a value even when

control is transferred to the function call
register It is a variable which is stored inside a Register

#include <cstring> class Math: Python code

#include <iostream>
using namespace std; def myfunc(x, y):
int main() { return x * y
char x[] = "Albert Einstein";
// Break the string when it encounters empty space # create myfunc static method using staticmethod()

char* i = strtok(x, " "); Math.myfunc = staticmethod(Math.myfunc)

cout << i; print('15*3=', Math.myfunc(15, 3))
return 0; # Output: 15*3= 45
} // Output: Albert

• What will be the output of the following program?

Java Program:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
public class MyClass {

{ public static void main(String[] args) {

printf("\nLinux \' linux ");
System.out.println("Hames".replace('H', 'J'));
printf("\nLinux \? linux ");
return0; // Output: James
}
}

Answer:
Linux ' linux
Linux ? linux

214
#include<stdio.h>
import java.lang.Math;
#include<stdlib.h>
public class MyClass {
int main () {
public static void main(String[] args) {
printf("linux\n");
int x = 100, y = 70;
exit (0);
printf("php\n"); System.out.println(Math.subtractExact(x, y));
return 0; }
} }
// Output: 30

import java.lang.Math;
Answer:
public class MyClass {
linux
public static void main(String[] args) {

int x = 100, y = 70;

Algorithm Animation:
System.out.println(Math.multiplyExact(x, y));
Computer program operations, data and
}
interpretations are abstracted − and then
animated graphical representations of }
these abstracts are produced.
// Output: 7000

▪ What will be the output of the following program?

#include<stdio.h>
import java.lang.Math;
int main() {
public class MyClass {
int a, b, c;
public static void main(String[] args) {
a=2;
int x = 100;
b=2;
System.out.println(Math.incrementExact(x));
c = a ^ b;
}
printf( "The value of c = %d", c);
}
}
// Output: 101

Answer:
The value of c = 0

215
Strategy or paradigm for implementing a process of computation
Algorithmic problem solving steps:

1. Understanding the problem

2. Deciding on computational means, exact versus approximate solving, data structures and algorithm design technique
3. Design an algorithm
4. Prove accuracy
Block-based coding
5. Analyze the algorithm
6. Code the algorithm

A type of programming language where instructions are mainly

Conditionals represented as blocks

Statements that only run under certain

conditions 4 Stages of Ethical AI

Real world bias

Function

Which impacts Reflected in

A piece of code that we can easily call

over and over again Business bias Data bias

Function call

A piece of code that we add to a program

Acted upon by Exposed by
to indicate that the program should run
the code inside a function at a certain
time.
Algorithmic bias

Function definition
Loop
Pattern matching
The action of doing something
A code inside a function that instructs over and over again The process of checking whether
the program on what to do when the a specific sequence of data exists

function is called among the given data

While loop: A loop that continues to repeat
while a condition is true

216
DNS (domain name service) Packets

The service that translates URLs to IP Small pieces of information that have been
addresses. carefully formed from larger pieces of information

Automated Reasoning: Applying reasoning in the form of logic to define, approach and solve problems

• Define the problem the program will be required to solve.

• Decide what programming language, rules of logic and functions the program will use.
• Specify the process and tools that the program will use to analyze data and reach a conclusion.
• Create a control flow process to perform all these procedures efficiently.

Data
Data

Theinformation
The informationthat
thatisissaved
savedon
onaa
computer
computer
To create a file in a 'C' program following syntax is used:

FILE *fp;
fp = fopen ("file_name", "mode");

Universal Resource Locator

#include <stdio.h>
int main() { (URL)

FILE *fp; A way of accessing an Information

fp = fopen ("data.txt", "w"); resource on the Internet
}

• WWW: World Wide Web

• WAN: Wide Area Network
What is a Function in C? • ZIP: Zone Information Protocol

Function in C programming is a reusable block of code that makes a program easier to understand, test and
can be easily modified without changing the calling program. Functions divide the code and modularize the
program for better and effective results. In short, a larger program is divided into various subprograms which
arecalled as functions.

217
Java Development Kit = Java Runtime Environment + Development tools

Java Runtime Environment = Java Virtual Machine + Libraries to execute the application

Java Virtual Machine = Runtime environment to execute Java byte code

Java Program:

public class HelloWorld extends Thread {

public void run(){
System.out.println("Albert Einstein ...");
Output:
}
public static void main(String args[]){ Albert Einstein ...
HelloWorld ab = new HelloWorld();
ab.start();
}
}
Implementing a thread by extending
the Thread class

public class HelloWorld implements Runnable {

public void run(){
System.out.println("Albert Einstein ...");
}
Output:
public static void main(String args[]){
Thread ab = new Thread(new HelloWorld ()); Albert Einstein ...
ab.start();
}
}
Implementing a thread using the method of
Runnable interface

218
Java Program: import java.lang.Math;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
import java.lang.Math;
int x = -16;
public class MyClass {
int y = 35;
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(Math.negateExact(x));
int x = 100;
// Output: 16
System.out.println(Math.decrementExact(x));
System.out.println(Math.negateExact(y));
}
// Output: -35
}
}
// Output: 99
}

import java.lang.Math;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Abstraction
// create long variable
long x = -54965L;
long y = 198876L; A simplified representation of
something more complex
// change long to int
int a = Math.toIntExact(x);
int b = Math.toIntExact(y);
Data centre rationalization

// print the int value

System.out.println(a);
// Output: -54965
The restructuring and upgrading of IT resources
System.out.println(b);
to fulfill the enterprise organizational needs in
// Output: 198876
terms of business, operations and technology

}
}

A bit is the single unit of information in a computer − typically

represented as a 0 or 1

219
Computational thinking: A set of techniques for solving complex problems

Decomposition: Break a problem into parts

Pattern recognition:

Interpreting patterns and models

(Looking for similarities and trends)

Abstraction:
• Focusing on what is important and ignoring what is unnecessary

• Organizing data logically

Algorithm design: step by step instructions for solving the problem

• Designing and implementing algorithms

Debugging: Fixing errors within the algorithm

Generalization: Extending a solution for a particular problem

to other kinds of problems

Python code:

print("{:,}".format(892887872878))

# Output: 892,887,872,878

220
C / C++ categorize statements into:

• Selection [if and switch]

• Iteration [while, for, do-while]
• Jump [break, continue, goto and return]
• Label [ case and default]
• Expression [ statements composed of a valid expression]
• Block [blocks of code. Each block begins with { and ends with } and referred to as
compound statements]
import java.lang.Math;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

double x = 8.68;

System.out.println(Math.nextDown(x));

Suppressing input: // Output: 8.679999999999998

scanf("%d %*d %d", &a, &b, &c); System.out.println(Math.nextUp(x));

// Output: 8.680000000000001

Input }

}
a=15, b=50, c=55

Here 15 is stored in a, 50 skipped and 55 is stored in the b, since no data is available for c so it
has garbage value. The character * is called the suppression character.

import java.lang.Math;
The infinite loop:
public class MyClass {

for( ; ; ) public static void main(String[] args) {

double x = 2.693;
printf("This Loop will run forever.\n";)
double y = -3.896;

System.out.println(Math.copySign(x, y));

// Output: -2.693

for( ; ; ) { }
ch = getchar(); Get a character }
if(ch=='B')

221
break; Exit the loop
}
printf("you entered B";)

// This loop will run until the user types a Letter B at the keyword.

C++ Programming

Paradigms Multi-paradigm: procedural, functional, object-oriented, generic

Family C

Designed by Bjarne Stroustrup

Developer ISO/IEC JTC1 (Joint Technical Committee 1) / SC22 (Subcommittee 22) / WG21 (Working Group
21)

First appeared 1985; 35 years ago

Stable release C++17 (ISO/IEC 14882:2017) / 1 December 2017; 2 years ago

Preview release C++20

Typing discipline Static, nominative, partially inferred

OS Most major

Filename extensions .C, .cc, .cpp, .cxx, .c++, .h, .hh, .hpp, .hxx, .h++
Bjarne Stroustrup
Creator of C++ language
Website isocpp.org

Major implementations

GCC, LLVM Clang, Microsoft Visual C++, Embarcadero C++Builder, Intel C++ Compiler, IBM XL C++, EDG

Influenced by

222
Ada, ALGOL 68, C, CLU, ML, Mesa, Modula-2, Simula, Smalltalk

Influenced

Ada 95, C#, C99, Chapel, Clojure, D, Java, JS++, Lua, Nim, Perl, PHP, Python, Rust, Seed7

#include <iostream>
#include <string>
using namespace std; Memory address of the
int main() { string "Albert"
string x = "Albert";
cout << &x; // Output: 0x7ffd8e332470
return 0;
}

Programming methodology that views a computer program as a combination of

variables, functions and data structures called objects

An Object-oriented high level cross-platform general-purpose case-sensitive language developed by a Danish

computer scientist Bjarne Stroustrup (at Bell Labs circa 1980) as an extension of the C language for a specific
purpose [C was developed for programming Operating Systems]. Initially named C with classes which later named
C ++ in 1983. As a successor of C language, C++ has been certified as a 99.9 percent pure standard and
possesses exceptional performance, efficiency and flexibility of use compared to C language. It well deserves the
widely acknowledged nickname "Swiss Pocket Knife of Languages."

Advantages: C++ is extremely fast and has the power and extensibility to write large-scale programs and runs on a
variety of platforms, such as Windows, Mac OS, and the various versions of UNIX. Most famous software has their
backbone in C++ and many programming languages depend on C++'s performance and reliability in their
implementation [Examples include: JVM, JavaScript interpreters and Web frameworks]. C++ [a superset of C] is
said to use static typing when type checking is performed during compile-time as opposed to run-time.

Limitation: Some tasks can be implemented in C++, though not very quickly. For example: designing GUI screens
for applications. Other programming languages like VB, Python have GUI design elements built into them.
Therefore, they are better suited for GUI type of task.

Uses: Used in the development of new programming languages [C#, Java, JavaScript, Perl, PHP, Python and
Verilog], Apple Macintosh, PC running Windows, operating systems and Adobe Systems (like Photoshop, Acrobat
etc), softwares for MRI machines, high-end CAD/CAM systems. C++ fully supports most important features of
object-oriented programmingincluding the four pillars of object-oriented development:

223
▪ Encapsulation
▪ Data hiding
▪ Inheritance
▪ Polymorphism

Inheritance: The ability of a class (sub class) to derive properties and characteristics from another class (super
class) is called Inheritance. Inheritance is one of the most important features of Object Oriented Programming.

• Sub Class: The class that inherits properties from another class is called Sub class or Derived Class.
• Super Class: The class whose properties are inherited by sub class is called Base Class or Super class.

// My First C++ Program Single line Comment

#include<iostream> Preprocessor command

int main() Main function. Execution of C++ program begins from main()

{ Beginning of the main function

std::cout<<"Hello, world!"; Output statement

return 0; Terminates the execution of the main function

} End of the main function

/* you can still use C style comment */

Process of C++ program execution:

Every 'C++' program follows a basic structure. A C++ program:

#include<iostream> //Pre-processor directive

int main() //main function declaration
{

std::cout<<"Hello, world!"; // output the string on a display screen

return 0; //terminating function

224
}

is written using Text Editor such as :

• Notepad (in case of Windows Operating System),

• vim or vi (in case of Linux Operating System)

and saved with [.cpp] Extension − For example, hello.cpp. File Saved with [.cpp] extension is called Source
Program or Source Code. C++ Source code with [.cpp] Extension is sent to preprocessor first. The preprocessor
generates an expanded source code.

Expanded source code is given as input to compiler where the expanded source program is compiled (i.e., the
program is entirely read and translated to instructions the computer can understand i.e., machine understandable or
readable language i.e., to machine code sequence of 0s and 1s). If the C++ compiler finds any error during
compilation, it provides information about the error to the programmer.

The programmer has to review code and re-edit the program. After re-editing program, Compiler again check for
any error. If program is error-free then it is sent to assembler − where the code is assembled and converted into
object code. Now a simple .obj file is generated.

The object code is sent to linker (where the object code is linked with appropriate libraries). Then it is converted
into a single executable code. A simple .exe file is generated.

The executable code is sent to loader (where the executable code is loaded into memory and then it is executed).
After execution, output:

Hello, world!

is displayed on the console screen.

Input Program Output

Source code Preprocessor Expanded code
Expanded code Compiler Assembly code
Assembly code Assembler Object code
Object code Linker Executable code
Executable code Loader Execution

225
#include<iostream> → preprocessor statement

This statement begins with # symbol and is also called preprocessor directive. This
statement directs the preprocessor to include a section of standard C++ code
[header iostream] that supports C++ style input output operations [<iostream> is to
C++ what stdio.h is to C, allows to perform standard input and output operations −
such as writing the output of this program "Hello, world!" to the console screen].
There is no .h extension to the name iostream. This is because that <iostream> is
one of the modern style headers defined by standard C++.

• iostream means input output screen

• i → input
• o → output

• stream → screen

iostream comprises input output functions like cout, cin etc.

• cin is a input function (cin means console input)

• cout is a output function (cout means console output)

and it is included into the C++ program by writing the statement #include<iostream>.
The statement #include tell the compiler to include the contents of the file iostream
before compilation.

If a program is written without the statement: #include<iostream> then the C++ compiler can't compile and a
compilation error is displayed on the screen (because C++ compiler fails to recognize the functions such as cin and cout).

• main()→ main function

The function named main is a special function in all C++ programs; it is the
function called when the C++ program is executed. As the name itself indicates
this is the main function of every C++ Program. Parentheses " () " indicate a
function and the word main indicate the name of the function.

226
main()implies: main function. Execution of C++ program begins from main(). No C++ program is executed without
main(). It is case sensitive language: only lower case letters (or small letters) must be used and should not be enclosed by a
semicolon. There must be one and only one main()function in every C++ program.

We can represent the main function in various forms, such as:

• main()
Classes and objects are
• int main()
supported by C++ but not by C
• void main()

• main(void)

• void main(void)

• int main(void)

As we know C++ is Platform dependent language. So the Operating system needs to know when the program
execution ends. So when there is value returns from the main function, the Operating System get to know that
the program execution is over. int main() implies: main()should return integer value.
▪ If the main function returns 0 to the operating system, then the program has completedexecution successfully.

▪ If the main function returns 1 to the operating system, then the program has notcompleted execution
successfully.

int main() {
Body of the main function within which the sequence of instructions to the computer to
perform specific operations in the form of statements [input-output statements, arithmetic
}
statements, control statements and other statements] are written and executed

#include <iostream>
string x = "Hi Alan"; #include <cstring>
using namespace std;

String x in memory: int main() {

'H' 'i' ' ' 'A' 'l' 'a' 'n' string x = "Hi Alan";
cout << x.length();
return 0;
Length: 7
}

// Output: 7

227
The left curly brace
{

implies: the beginning of the main function and the right curly brace
}

implies: the end of the main function

These braces can also be used to indicate the beginning and end of user-defined functions and
compound statements.

return 0; → implies the exit status of execution of the program i.e., at this point, main
function returns back the control of the computer to the operating system since the execution is
terminated at this point and once a return statement i.e., return 0; is executed, no further
instructions within the main function are executed.

For example:

#include<iostream> #include <iostream>

int main() { using namespace std;
std::cout<<"Hello, world!"; int main() {
return 0; cout<<"Hello, World!";

std::cout<<"Hello, world!"; return 0;

cout<<"Hello, World!";
}
}

Output on the screen:

Hello, world!

; → implies semicolon or statement terminator [a delimiter of the declaration] → All C++ statements must
end with a semicolon character. One of the most common syntax errors in C++ is forgetting to end a statement
with a semicolon. A program is a well-defined set of instructions and each well-defined instruction (in the form
of a statement) is ended by a semicolon (which is C++ language punctuation − like a period in English i.e., in
an English paragraph eachsentence is ended by a full stop which tells that one sentence ends and another begins,
semicolon implies the end of one logical entity − that one instruction (or statement) ends and another begins).

228
// My First C++ Program → Comment

A good programmer who writes codes understood by a human is better than a programmer who generates codes
understood only by the machine. So, it is highly recommended to insert comments. Comment is explanatory note on
some instruction. Two slash signs indicate that the rest of the line is a comment inserted by the programmer but
which has no effect on the behavior of the C++ program. Comment statement is not compiled and executed.

• "\n" is used in both C and C++ but "\n" occupies 1 byte memory
• endl is used in C++ but not in C
• endl doesn't occupy any memory

#include <iostream> #include <iostream>

using namespace std; using namespace std;

int main() { int main() {

cout << "Alan"<<"\n"; cout << "Alan"<<endl;
cout << "Albert"; cout << "Albert";
return 0; return 0;
} }

// Output: // Output:
Alan Alan
Albert Albert

cout→ implies the standard way of displaying output on the screen and output
function of the C++ language which makes provision to print the output:

Hello, world! // Output:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std; Hi
int main() { Alan Turing
on the console screen. The statement
// single insertion operator
std::cout<<"Hello, world!"; cout<<"Hi\n";
// multiple insertion operators
cout<<"Alan"<< " "<<"Turing"<<endl;
has three parts: return 0;
}

229
First, std::cout which a l l o w s u s t o s e n d d a t a t o t h e c o n s o l e s c r e e n t o b e
p r i n t e d a s t e x t . std::cout i s d e f i n e d i n t h e i o s t r e a m h e a d e r f i l e .
▪ std → standard
▪ :: → scope resolution operator
▪ cout → console output or character output

std::cout basically means: look in standard library and get cout function.

Second, the insertion operator (<<), which output the text:

Hello, world!

on the console screen using the cout function.

Finally, a string (Helloworld!) enclosed by the double quotation marks is the

content inserted into the standard output.

C program: C++ program:

#include <stdio.h> #include <iostream>
int main() { using namespace std;
printf("%lu\n", sizeof(22)); int main() {
// Output: 4 cout<<sizeof(22)<<endl;
printf("%lu\n", sizeof(int)); // Output: 4
// Output: 4 cout<<sizeof(int)<<endl;
return 0; // Output: 4
} return 0;
}
sizeof(22) and sizeof(int) are the
#include <stdio.h> same in C++ and in C
int main() {
printf("%lu\n", sizeof('v')); #include <iostream>
// Output: 4 using namespace std;
printf("%lu\n", sizeof(char)); int main() {
// Output: 1 cout<<sizeof('v')<<endl;
return 0; // Output: 1
} cout<<sizeof(char)<<endl;
// Output: 1
sizeof('v') and sizeof(char) are the
return 0;
same in C++ but not in C
}

If the statement:
using std::cout;

is added below the statement:

230
#include<iostream>

C Program:

then the program takes the form: #include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int x, y;
#include<iostream>
for (x=1; x<=3; x++) {
using std::cout;
for (y=0; y<=x; y++)
int main()
printf("%d", y);
{
printf("\n");
cout<<"Hello, crazy world!";
}
return 0;
return 0;
}
Output:
}

01
012
i.e., no need to include std:: in the statement: 0123

std::cout<<"Hello, crazy world!";

C++ does not have strict rules on indentation:

int main() { std::cout << " Hello World!\n"; } → No ERROR

C++ Keywords:

auto break case char const

double else enum extern float
int long register return short
struct switch typedef union unsigned

231
continue default do
for goto if
signed sizeof static
void volatile while

A list of 30 Keywords in C++ Language which are not available in C language:

asm dynamic_cast namespace

explicit new static_cast
operator template friend
this inline public
delete mutable protected
typeid typename using

reinterpret_cast bool
false catch
private class
throw const_cast
true try
virtual wchar_t

C Program:

int main()
#include<stdio.h>
{
enum names{Albert, Alan, John, David, Turing, Weinberg, Friedrich};
int i, j;
int main()
i=10;
{
j=i*2;
enum names scientist;
return j;
scientist = John;
} → NO ERROR
printf("%d", scientist);
Output:
return 0;
int main()
2
}
{
int i;
i=10;

232
int j;
j=i*2;
return j;

} → ERROR

C++ data types

Type Keyword

Boolean bool

Character char

Integer int

Floating point float

Double floating point double

Valueless void

Wide character wchar_t

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
cout << "Size of char: " << sizeof(char) << endl;
cout << "Size of int: " << sizeof(int) << endl;
cout << "Size of short int: " << sizeof(short int) << endl;
cout << "Size of long int: " << sizeof(long int) << endl;
cout << "Size of float: " << sizeof(float) << endl;
cout << "Size of double: " << sizeof(double) << endl;
cout << "Size of wchar_t: " << sizeof(wchar_t) << endl;

return 0;
}

The output on the screen:

233
#include <iostream>
Size of char: 1
using namespace std;
Size of int: 4
Size of short int: 2 int main() {

Size of long int: 4 int y;

Size of float: 4 unsigned char x=0x70;

Size of double: 8 y=x<<1;

cout<<y<<endl;
Size of wchar_t: 4 Output:
return 0;
} 224
• Program 1.1

C++ program to print the word "hello Bill Gates" on screen

#include<iostream> #include <iostream>

using std::cout; using namespace std;

int main() void myfunc (int x) {

{ cout << " " << x << endl;

cout<<"hello Bill Gates"; }

return 0; void myfunc (double y) {

} cout << " " << y << endl;

}
void myfunc (char* z) {
Output:
cout << " " << z << endl;

The output on the screen: }

13
int main() {
13.12
hello Bill Gates myfunc (13);
myfunc (13.12);
Thirteen
myfunc ("Thirteen");
return 0;
• Program 1.2 }

C++ program to print

*****

234
on screen #include <iostream>
using namespace std;
template <typename T>
#include<iostream>
using std::cout;
int mult (T x,T y) {
int main()
return (x*y);
{
}
cout<<"\n * ";
int main() {
cout<<"\n ***** ";
cout<<mult<int>(2,4);
cout<<"\n ***** ";
return 0;
cout<<"\n ***** ";
}
cout<<"\n ***** "; Output:
return 0;
} 8

The output on the screen:

*
*****
*****
*****
*****

If new line \n is not included in the above program then the output on the screen is:

********************* #include <iostream>

using namespace std;
class Name {
public:

▪ endl can be used instead of \n: Name() {

cout << "Albert Einstein";
}
#include<iostream>
};
using std::cout;
int main() Output:
int main() {
{
Name obj; Albert Einstein
cout<<" * "<< endl;
return 0;
cout<<" ***** "<< endl;
}
cout<<" ***** "<< endl;

235
cout<<" ***** "<< endl;
cout<<" ***** "<< endl;
return 0;
}

The output on the screen:

// Error → endl was not declared in this scope //

If the above program is rewritten:

#include<iostream>
Output:
using std::cout; #include <bits/stdc++.h>
using std::endl; using namespace std;
11
int main() int main(){
12
{ vector<int> num{
cout<<" * "<< endl; 11,19,14,13,12,18,15,17}; 13
cout<<" ***** "<< endl; sort(num.begin(), num.end()); 14
cout<<" ***** "<< endl; for (auto a : num) 15
cout<<" ***** "<< endl; cout << a << "" ""<< endl;
17
cout<<" ***** "<< endl; return 0;
18
return 0; }
} 19

#include<iostream>
The output on the screen: using namespace std;

*
int main() {
*****
int x= 20, y= 50;
*****
bool z, p;
*****
z= (x == y);
*****
p= (x < y);
cout << z <<endl;
cout << p << endl;
return 0;
The single statement: Output:
} 0
1

236
using namespace std;

can be used instead of the statements:

using std::cout;
using std::endl; #include<iostream>
#include<vector>
using namespace std;

i.e., int main() {

vector <string> a;
#include<iostream> a.push_back("Stephen ");
using namespace std; a.push_back("William Hawking");
int main() for(vector <string>::iterator x=a.begin();x!=a.end();++x)
{ cout<<*x;
cout<<" * "<< endl; return 0;
cout<<" ***** "<< endl; }
Output:
cout<<" ***** "<< endl;
cout<<" ***** "<< endl;
Stephen William Hawking
cout<<" ***** "<< endl;
return 0;
}

The output on the screen: #include<iostream>

using namespace std;
int main(){
for( unsigned int x = 1; x <= 10; x++) Print out all odd
*
if( x & 0x00000001 ) numbers from 1
*****
cout << x << " " <<endl; to 10
*****
return 0;
*****
}
*****

C++'s Predefined Streams

237
Stream Meaning Default device
cin Standard input Keyboard
cout Standard output Screen
cerr Standard error output Screen
clog Buffered version of cerr Screen

C Program:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() { Output:
if(printf("Albert Einstein")) {
Albert Einstein
}
return 0;
}

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
#include <stdio.h>
void abc(void) { int a=2;
void abx(void); if(a==0)
printf("\n Albert Einstein"); return;
abx(); printf("Value is not equal to Zero.");
}

}
int main() {
abc();
Output:
return 0;
} Value is not equal to Zero.

void abx(void) {
printf("\n Alan Turing");
}

Resource starvation
Output:
A situation in which a process does not receive the
Albert Einstein resources it requires to finish a task due to resource
Alan Turing allocation to other processes

238
Java Program:
public class HelloWorld {

public class HelloWorld { public static void main(String a[]){

static { System.out.println("Alan Turing");} String name = "Albert Einstein";

public static void main(String args[]){ name = name.replaceAll("Albert", "Lieserl");

System.out.println("Albert Einstein"); System.out.println(name);

} }

Output:
Output:
Alan Turing
Lieserl Einstein
Albert Einstein

import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.Collections;

public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Autonomous
ArrayList<String> names= new ArrayList<String>(2);
names.add("John");
names.add("Albert");
Does not require human
System.out.println("Old array list: " + names);
input to function
names.ensureCapacity(4);
names.add("Alan");
names.add("Robert");
System.out.println("New array list: " + names);
}
}

Output:

Old array list: [John, Albert]

New array list: [John, Albert, Alan, Robert]

239
public class HelloWorld {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Output:
System.out.println(1900 + 05 + "Papers"); 1905Papers
System.out.println("Office" + 36 + 05);
} Office365
}

#include <iostream>

int main () {

int n = -77;

std::cout.width(6); std::cout << std::internal << n << '\n';

std::cout.width(6); std::cout << std::left << n << '\n';

std::cout.width(6); std::cout << std::right << n << '\n';

return 0;

}
Java Program:

The output on the screen: public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(381* 05 + "Papers");
System.out.println("Office" + 73 * 05);
- 77
}
-77 }

-77
Output:
1905Papers

Office365

▪ Write a program to print the following outputs:

(a)

240
****
#include <iostream>
*******
using namespace std;

**** int main() {

double Pi = 3.141592653589;
* cout.precision(4);
cout << Pi << endl;
(b) // Output: 3.142
cout.precision(5);
cout << Pi << endl;
In-Place Algorithm
**************** // Output: 3.1416
return 0;
An algorithm for transforming the ** }
input without the use of
* Hello World! *
additional memory
**
#include <iostream>
**************** using namespace std;
int main() {
char x[] = "Albert";
char y = 'A';
(c)
cout.write(x, 3);
cout<<endl;
Braces come in pairs!
cout.put(y);
Comments come in pairs! return 0;
}
All statements end with a semicolon!
Output:
Spaces are optional! Alb
A
Must have a main function!

C++ is done mostly in lowercase. It's a case-sensitive language

Output:
C program:

Answers: The total number of characters in the string:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() Albert Einstein grew up in Munich is: 33.
(a) {
char a[50];
int b = sprintf(a, "Albert Einstein grew up in Munich");
printf("\nThe total number of characters in the string:\n %s is: %d.", a, b);
return 0;
}

241
Python code:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std; string = "Albert"
int main() list = ["Computer", "Mouse", "Keyboard", "Camera", "Disk"]
{ tuple = ("Car", "Flight", "Ship")
cout<<"\n * "; dictionary = {
cout<<"\n **** "; "Albert": "Einstein",
cout<<"\n ******* "; "John": "Turing",
cout<<"\n **** "; "David": "Hilbert",
cout<<"\n * "; "Alan": "Mary",
return 0; }
}
print("The minimum value of string is: ", min(string))
print("The minimum value of list is: ", min(list))
print("The minimum value of tuple is: ", min(tuple))
(b) print("The minimum value of dictionary is: ", min(dictionary))

Output:

The minimum value of string is: A

#include<iostream>
using namespace std; The minimum value of list is: Camera

int main() The minimum value of tuple is: Car

{ The minimum value of dictionary is: Alan
cout<<"\n **************** ";
cout<<"\n * * ";
cout<<"\n * Hello World! * ";
cout<<"\n * * ";
cout<<"\n **************** ";
return 0;
} x = [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]
y = iter(x)
print(next(y))

Output:
(c)
11

242
def myfunc(x, y):
#include<iostream> print (x/y)

using namespace std;

def awp_1(func):
int main() def awp (x, y):
if x < y: Output:
{
x, y = y, x
cout<<"\n Braces come in pairs!"; return func(x, y) 4.0
return awp
cout<<"\n Comments come in pairs!";
cout<<"\n All statements end with a semicolon!"; myfunc = awp_1(myfunc)
cout<<"\n Spaces are optional!"; myfunc(2, 8)

cout<<"\n Must have a main function!";

cout<<"\n C++ is done mostly in lowercase. It's a case-sensitive language";
return 0;
} def myfunc():
yield "a"
yield "b"
yield "c" Output:
An old-style C++ program: yield "d" a
b
for i in myfunc(): c
#include<iostream.h> print(i)
d
int main()
{
return 0;
}

// It includes the file iostream.h, not the header <iostream>.

// No namespace statement is present.

A modern-style C++ program that uses the new style headers and a namespace:

#include<iostream>
Using namespace std; Integer overflow
int main()
A kind of an arithmetic overflow error
{
return 0; results when an arithmetic operation
} outputs a numeric value that goes
outside allocated memory space or
// It includes C++ style header and specifies a namespace.
overflows the range of the specified
integer value

243
C Program:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
Output:
int i;
for(i=97; i<=122; i++) abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
{
printf("%c ", (char)i);
}
return 0;
}

 Program 1.3

C++ program to find the area of a circle

#include<iostream>
using namespace std; Informed Search Uninformed Search
main()
AI receives AI does not receives
{
recommendations on recommendations on
int r, area;
r = 2; how and where to find how and where to find
area = 3.14 * r * r; a solution to any issue a solution to any issue
cout<<"The area of the circle = "<< area;
return 0;
}

The output on the screen:

The area of the circle = 12

Duplex transmission
If the statement:

float r, area;
At the same time, data is transmitted
in both directions
is used instead of

int r, area;

244
Python code:
i.e.,
import pandas as pd
#include<iostream>
x={"col1":[1,2,3],"col2":['Albert','Mary','Alan']}
using namespace std; y=pd.DataFrame(x)
x={"col1":[4,5,6],"col2":['John','Hilbert','David']}
int main()
z=pd.DataFrame(x)
{
a=pd.concat([y,z],axis=0)
float r, area;
print(a)
r = 2;
col1 col2
area = 3.14 * r * r;
0 1 Albert
cout<<"The area of the circle = "<< area;
return 0;
1 2 Mary
} 2 3 Alan
0 4 John

Then the output on the screen: 1 5 Hilbert

2 6 David
The area of the circle = 12.56

If you want to supply the value for r through the key board, then the statement

float r = 2;

import pandas as pd
x={"col1":[1,2,3],"col2":['Albert','Mary','Alan']}
y=pd.DataFrame(x)
should be replaced by the statements x={"col1":[4,5,6],"col2":['John','Hilbert','David']}
z=pd.DataFrame(x)
cout<<"Enter any number:";
a=pd.concat([y,z],axis=1)
cin>>r;
print(a)

i.e., Output:

col1 col2 col1 col2

#include<iostream>
0 1 Albert 4 John
using namespace std;
1 2 Mary 5 Hilbert
int main()
{ 2 3 Alan 6 David
float r, area;
cout<<"Enter any number:";

245
cin>>r; x={"b1":11,"b2":12,"b3":13}
area = 3.14 * r * r; for a in x.keys():
cout<<"The area of the circle = "<< area; x[a]=x[a]+1
return 0; print(x[a])
}

# Output:
12
13
The output on the screen: 14

Enter any number:

If you the number 2
The area of the circle = 12.56 Desk check

will be outputted on the screen.

An informal manual technique for testing
the programming and logic of the algorithm
before a program is launched

▪ cout is an output function and cin is an input function.

# Check if each word start with an upper case letter

x = "Albert Einstein"
The statement:
print(x.istitle())

cout<<"Enter any number:";

# Output: True

make provision to print the text for x in range(5):

if x==2: break
Enter any number: print(x)

on the screen.
# Output:
0
1
• cin>> r; is to C++ what scanf("%d", &r); is to C
for x in range(5):
0
if x==2: continue
1
print(x)
If you write the statement: 3

area = 3.14 * r ^ 2; 4

246
instead of

area = 3.14 * r * r;

Then compilation error will be displayed on the console screen because like in C Language –
there is no operator for performing exponentiation operation − so the statement

area = 4 * 3.14 * r ^ 2; if 5>3: Output:

print("Alan")
print("Turing") Alan
Turing
is invalid.

▪ cout and cin are not part of C++ language but they are part of iostream
file. Hence the statement #include<iostream> should be included in the
C++ program otherwise cout and cin will not work and the compilation
error will be displayed on the console screen.
▪ Right shift operator >> denote stream extraction operator (extract data
entered through the keyboard).
▪ Left shift operator << denote stream insertion operator (insert data
into an output screen)
▪ << and >> are termed overloaded operators and the file iostream defines
these operators.

As told earlier: when you enter an integer for x through the keyboard, this integer will be stored
in the computer memory. If you yearn to know the storage size of the integer in computer
memory (i.e., space occupied by the entered integer in the computer memory), you need to
appeal to the following program:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

247
int main()
{
# returns the hash value of x
int x;
x=hash(6.7)
x=10;
print(x)
cout<<"size of r = "<< sizeof(r);
return 0;
names=['Albert','Alan','John','Mary','David']
}
x=' '.join(names)
print(x)

# Output: Albert Alan John Mary David

The output on the screen:

size of x = 4

i.e., integer entered for r i.e., 10 has occupied a space of 4 bytes in the computer memory.

C++ Type Qualifiers:

• const: Objects of type const cannot be changed by your program during execution.

• volatile: The modifier volatile tells the compiler that a variable's value may be changed in ways not

explicitly specified by the program.

• restrict: A pointer qualified by restrict is initially the only means by which the object it points to can be

accessed. Only C99 adds a new type qualifier called restrict.

• Write a program to print the circumference of the circle (given r = 2.5)

x=6.5%1.2 x={1,3,4,4}=={1,3,4}
Answer: print(x) print(x)
# Output: 0.5000000000000002 # Output: True
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
x=2.2+3.3>5.5
int main() x=3^2
print(x)
{ print(x)
# Output: False
float r, area; # Output: 1
r = 2.5;

248
circumference = 2* 3.14 * r;
cout<<"The circumference of the circle = "<< circumference;
return 0;
}

• Write a program to print the area of the rectangle (given l = 2.5 and b = 3)

x={11:11,12:14,13:19,14:18,15:28}

Answer: print(type(x))
# Output: <class 'dict'>
#include<iostream>
using namespace std; def myfunc():
int main() """ Albert """ Output:
{ print("Einstein")
float l, b, area; myfunc() Einstein
l = 2.5;
b = 3;
area = 1*b;
cout<<"The area of the rectangle = "<< area;
return 0;
}

• Program 4.6

C++ program to find the sum of two numbers

print('z' in {'x':11,'y':12,'z':13}.values())
#include<iostream> print(13 in {'x':11,'y':12,'z':13}.values())
using namespace std;
int main() # Output:
{ False
int a, b, sum; True
a=1;
b=2;
sum = a + b;
cout<<"the sum of a and b = "<< sum;
return 0;

249
}

The output on the screen:

the sum of a and b = 3

If you assign the floating point values 1.5 and 2.6 for a and b, then the statement:

int a, b, sum;

should be replaced by the statement

float a, b, sum;
print('albERt'.swapcase())
i.e., # Output: ALBerT

print(bytes([12,14,18]))
#include<iostream>
using namespace std; # Output: b'\x0c\x0e\x12'
int main()
{
float a, b, sum;
a=1.5;
b=2.6; # Infinite loop in python

sum = a + b;
cout<<"the sum of a and b = "<< sum; def myfunc(x):

return 0; while(x==7):print(x)

} myfunc(5) Press Ctrl + C to break

an infinite loop

The output on the screen:

the sum of a and b = 4.1

x="a"
y=5
The statement: print(x + "{0:.3f}".format(y))

cout<<"the sum of a and b = "<< sum;

# Output: a5.000

250
x="a"
make provision to print the output:
y=5
the sum of a and b = 4.1 print("x={0} but y={1}".format(x,y))

# Output: x=a but y=5

on the console screen. And if the statement: a={x**3 for x in range(4,0,-2)}

print(a)

cout<<"the sum of a and b = "<< sum;

# Output: {64, 8}

is omitted from the C ++ program, then the program will be successfully executed but there will
be no display of the output on the console screen.

If you want to supply the values for a and b through the key board, then the statements:

a=1.5;
b=2.6;
x ="John"
print (x * 2)

should be replaced by the statements: # Output: JohnJohn

cout<<"Enter any two numbers:";

x ="John"
cin>>a;
print (x + "Turing")
cin>>b;

# Output: JohnTuring
i.e.,

#include<iostream> x = [1905, 'Albert']

using namespace std;
print (x * 2)
int main()
{
# Output: [1905, 'Albert', 1905, 'Albert']
float a, b, sum;
cout<<"Enter any two numbers:";
cin>>a;

251
x = (1927, 'George')
cin>>b;
sum = a+ b; print (x * 2)
cout<<"the sum of a and b = "<< sum;
return 0; # Output: (1927, 'George', 1927, 'George')
}

print (3/ 2) # Output: 1.5

print (3 // 2) # Output: 1

The output on the screen:

import pandas as pd
Enter any two numbers: x = pd.Series([11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20])
If you enter two numbers 2.9 & 3.6 y = pd.Series([20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11])
the sum of a and b = 6.5
print (sum((x - y)**2)**0.5)
will be outputted on the screen.

# Output: 18.16590212458495
The statement:

cout<<"Enter any two numbers:";

make provision to print

Enter any two numbers:

on the screen and the statements:

cin>>a;
cin>>b;

make provision to read the two numbers 2.9 and 3.6 entered through the keyboard and store
them in the computer memory.
def main():
print('Albert Einstein')

If the statements: if name == 'main':

main()
cout<<"Enter any two numbers:";
cin>>a;
Output:
cin>>b;

Albert Einstein

252
x=15
are replaced by the statements: if x ==15:
print("Albert")
else:
cout<<"Enter any number:"; pass
cin>>a;
cout<<"Enter any number:"; # Output: Albert
cin>>b;

import json
x = json.dumps([11, 62,33, "albert", "beer"])
print(x)
Then the output on the screen is:

# Output: [11, 62, 33, "albert", "beer"]

Enter any number:
If you enter the number 2.9 import pickle
Enter any number:
x = pickle.dumps([11, 62,33, "albert", "beer"])
If you enter the number 3.6
print(pickle.loads(x))
the sum of a and b = 6.5
will be outputted on the screen.
# Output: [11, 62, 33, 'albert', 'beer']

# prints the length of each string

If the statement:
a = ['Jo', 'hn']
cout<<"the sum of a and b = "<< sum; print(len(list(map(list, a))))

Output:

is replaced by the statement: 2

cout<< a <<" + "<< b <<" = "<< sum;

def X(i):
Then the output: def Y():
print(i)
2.9 + 3.6 = 6.5
return Y

will be displayed on the console screen. Output:

X(1905)()
1905

253
• What will be the output of the following program:

print(6.0 <= 6)
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
# Output: True

int a = 5;
int main()
import numpy
{
print(numpy.array([]))
int a =2;
print(numpy.empty(shape=(0,0)))
cout<< a;
return 0;
} # Output:
[]
[]

Answer:

• 2 is a local variable (variable declared within the body of the main

function)

The statement:

int a = 2;

imply: local variable declaration.

• 5 is a global variable (variable declared outside the body of the main

function)
x = "Albert"
for i in x:
print(i)
The statement:

int a = 5; # Output:
A
imply: global variable declaration.
l
b
e

If the statement: r
t

254
cout<< a;

is replaced by the statement:

cout<< :: a; (where :: denote scope resolution operator)

def myfunc(n):
i.e.,
x=1
while(x<=n):
#include<iostream>
yield x**3
using namespace std;
int a = 5; x+=1
int main() for x in myfunc(3):
{ print(x) Output:
int a =2; 1
cout<< ::a;
8
return 0;
}
27

Then the output on the screen is:

5 x = [[11,12]] * 5
print(x)
i.e., global variable will be outputted on the screen.
# Output:
[[11, 12], [11, 12], [11, 12], [11, 12], [11, 12]]
If the same program is written in C language
x = [[11,12] for _ in range(3)]
i.e., print(x)

#include<stdio.h>
# Output:
int a = 5;
[[11, 12], [11, 12], [11, 12]]
int main()
{
int a =2;
print("%d", ::a);

255
return 0;
}

Then the compilation error will be outputted on the screen because scope
resolution operator is not defined in the C language (i.e., C does not hold
scope resolution operator).

x = open('1.txt')
for i in x:
i = i.strip('\n')
print(i)

Output:

Albert Einstein was a theoretical physicist who was born in Germany and is largely
regarded as one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all time.

Content of 1.txt

• Whether the following program will be successfully outputted or not:

x = [[11,12,13,14]]
x[0][3] = 59
#include<iostream>
print(x)
using namespace std;
int main()
# Output: [[11, 12, 13, 59]]
{
int a, b, c;
x = []
a=3;
for i in range(4):
b=2;
x.append(lambda: i)
c= a+b;
print ([y() for y in x])
cout<<" sum of two numbers = 6"<< c;
return 0;
# Output: [3, 3, 3, 3]
}

256
Answer:
Executable
Yes, the output on the screen is:
The binary file that is
sum of two numbers = 65
formed when the source

code is built

• Program 4.7

C ++ program to convert the temperature in Celsius to Fahrenheit

x = []
for i in range(4):
#include<iostream> x.append(lambda i = i : i)
using namespace std; print ([y() for y in x])
int main()
{
# Output: [0, 1, 2, 3]
float C, F;
C=38.5;
F = 9*C/5 +32;
cout<<"temperature in Fahrenheit= "<< F; print([ [ ] ] * 3)
return 0;
} # Output: [[], [], []]

The output on the screen:

temperature in Fahrenheit = 101.3

If you want to supply a value 16 digits after decimal point i.e., 36.5555555555555555 for C,
then the statement:

double C, F;

257
should be used instead of the statement:

float C, F;
x = ['a', 'l', 'a', 'n']
print (x[2:])
i.e.,
print (x[7:])
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
# Output:
int main()
['a', 'n']
{
[]
double C, F;
C=38.5555555555555555;
F = 9*C/5 +32;
cout<<"temperature in Fahrenheit= "<< F;
return 0;
}

If you want to supply the value for C through the key board, then the statement:

C=38.5;

should be replaced by the statements:

for x in '1905':
print ("albert",x,)

cout<<"Enter any number:";

# Output:
cin>>C;
albert 1
albert 9
i.e.,
albert 0
#include<iostream> albert 5
using namespace std;
int main()
x = {'Albert': 1905}
{
x.update({"Tesla":1927})
float C, F;
print(x)
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>>C;
F = 9*C/5 +32; # Output: {'Albert': 1905, 'Tesla': 1927}
cout<<"temperature in Fahrenheit= "<< F;
return 0;

258
}

import array

The output on the screen: x = array.array('i', [50,25,15])

print(x[1])

Enter any number:

Output:
25
If you enter the number 23.6
temperature in Fahrenheit = 74.48

will be outputted on the screen.

import array
x = open('1.txt') x = array.array('i', [50,25,15])
y = x.readlines() x.insert(3, 5)
type(y) print(x)
print(y)
# Output: array('i', [50, 25, 15, 5])
Output:

['Albert Einstein was a theoretical physicist who was born in Germany and is largely
regarded as one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all time.']

• Program 4.8 import array as myarray

x = myarray.array('i', [500, 300, 200])
C++ program to find the product of two numbers
x.remove(300)
print(x)

# Output: array('i', [500, 200])

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()

259
{
int a, b, product; import array as myarray
a=1; x = myarray.array('i', [12,22, 32])
b=2; x.reverse()
product = a * b; print(x)
cout<<"the product of a and b = "<< product;
return 0; # Output: array('i', [32, 22, 12])
}

The output on the screen:

the product of a and b = 2

x = "Albert Einstein"
y = "Alan Turing"
If you want to insert a 10 digit number for a and b i.e.,
print (x[1])
print (y[1:4])
a=1000000000
b=3000000000 # Output:
l
lan

, then the statement:

int a, b, product;

should be replaced by the statement:

long int a, b, product;

i.e.,
import numpy as np
x = np.array([[15, -50, 33], [51, -56, 65], [-42, 79, 82]])
#include<iostream>
print(x)
using namespace std;
int main()
[[ 15 -50 33]
{
[ 51 -56 65]
long int a, b, product;
a=1; [-42 79 82]]
b=2;

260
product = a * b;
cout<<"the product of a and b = "<< product; Package declaration
return 0;
}
A declaration that is used

to identify a package

The output on the screen:

the product of a and b = 3000000000000000000

If you want to supply the integer values for a and b through the key board, then the statements:

a=1;
import numpy as np
x = np.array([[13, 16, 19], [15, -20, 25], [-17, 24, 56]])
b=2; should be replaced by the statements:
y = np.array([[91, -15, 87], [10, 28, 53], [63, -18, 38]])
z = x - y
cout<<"Enter any two numbers:"; print(z)
cin >> a;
cin >> b; [[-78 31 -68]
[ 5 -48 -28]
[-80 42 18]]

i.e.,

#include<iostream>
using namespace std; import numpy as np
int main () x = np.array([[13, 16, 19], [15, -20, 25], [-17, 24, 56]])
{ y = np.array([[91, -15, 87], [10, 28, 53], [63, -18, 38]])
int a, b, product; z = x.dot(y)
cout<<"Enter any two numbers:"; print(z)
cin>>a;
[[ 2540 -89 2701]
cin>>b;
product = a* b; [ 2740 -1235 1195]
cout<<"the product of a and b = "<< product; [ 2221 -81 1921]]
return 0;
}

261
The output on the screen:
x = [12,13,14,13,20,13,15,16,13]
Enter any two numbers: y = x.count(13)
print(y)
If you enter two numbers 2 & 3
Output:
the product of a and b = 6
4
will be outputted on the screen

The numeric expressions are composed of the following terms:

• Numbers

• Operators +, −, /, *,^,%, =

• Parentheses

• Variables

• Program 4.9

C++ program to find the square of a number

for x in range(0, 5):

#include<iostream> print('*', end="")
using namespace std;
int main() # Output: *****
{
int a, b;
print(help('modules'))
a=2;
b = a * a;
cout<<"the square of a = "<< b;
Prints all available modules
return 0;
}

262
The output on the screen:

the square of a = 4

If you want to supply the integer value for a through the key board, then the statement:

a=2;
import math
should be replaced by the statements:
print(math.pi)

cout<<"Enter any number:"; math.pi = 15

print(math.pi)
cin>>a;

i.e., Output:

3.141592653589793
#include<iostream>
15
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int a, b;
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>>a; x = ['Car', 'House', 'Phone', 'Computer']
b = a * a; print(x[-1][-1])
cout<<"the square of a = "<< b;
return 0; # Output: r
}

y = [15, 20, 25, 30]

for i, x in enumerate(y, start=10):
print(i, x)

The output on the screen: # Output:

10 15
11 20

Enter any number: 12 25

If you enter a number 3 13 30

the square of a = 9
will be outputted on the screen.

263
• Write a program to print the cube of a number

Answer: print(sum([x * x for x in range(1, 10)]))

#include<iostream> # Output: 285
using namespace std;
int main()
{ y = {'age': 102, 'name': 'Mary', 'Car': 'Audi'}
int a, b; x = y.get('age')
cout<<"Enter any number:"; print(x)
cin>>a;
b = a * a*a; # Output: 102
cout<<"the cube of a = "<< b;
return 0;
}

• Write a program to print the force applied to the mass m.

Answer:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
y = {'age': 102, 'name': 'Mary', 'Car': 'Audi'}
int main()
x = y.setdefault('name')
{
int m, a, F; print(x)
cout<<"Enter the mass:";
cin>>m; # Output: Mary
cout<<"Enter acceleration:";
cin>>a;
F = m * a;
cout<<"the force applied to the mass = "<< F;
return 0;
}

def x(name, money):

print(f"{name} had a net worth equal to ${money / 10:.5f} thousand at the time of his death in 1955.")
x("Albert Einstein", 650)

Output: Albert Einstein had a net worth equal to $65.00000 thousand at the time of his death in 1955.

264
x = open('1.txt')
y = x.readline()
Output:
while y!= "":
print(y) Albert Einstein was a theoretical physicist who was born in Germany and is
y = x.readline()
largely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all time.

from collections import Counter

x = "Albert Einstein was born \
and raised in Munich".split()
y = Counter(x)
print(y)

Output:

Counter({'Albert': 1, 'Einstein': 1, 'was': 1, 'born': 1, 'and': 1, 'raised': 1, 'in': 1, 'Munich': 1})

• Program 5.0

C ++ program to find the greatest of two numbers using if - else statement

The syntax of if - else statement is: y = [16, 12, 13, 11]

{
int a, b, c; Output:
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>>a; [16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11]
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>>b;
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>>c;
if(a>b&&a>c)
{
cout<< a<<" is greater than"<< b<<" and "<<c;
}
else if (b>a&&b>c)
{
cout<< b<<" is greater than"<< a <<" and "<<c;
}
else
{
cout<< c<<" is greater than"<< b<<" and "<< a;
}

x = ["Haw", "w", "a", "physi"]

return 0; y= ["king", "as", "n", "cist"] Output:
} z = [a + b for a, b in zip(x, y)]
print(z) ['Hawking', 'was', 'an', 'physicist']

267
The output on the screen:

Enter any number:

If you enter the number 2
Enter any number:
If you enter the number 3
Enter any number:
If you enter the number 4
4 is greater than 3 and 2 will be outputted on the screen.

• What will be the output of the following program?

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int a, b; x = ["Haw", "w", "a", "physi"]
a=2; y= ["king", "as", "n", "cist"]
b=2;
z = [(a, b) for a in x for b in y]
if(a>b || a==b)
c = [a + ' ' + b for (a, b) in z]
cout<<"a is greater than or equal to b";
print(c)
else
cout<<"b is greater than a";
return 0;
Output:
}

['Haw king', 'Haw as', 'Haw n', 'Haw cist', 'w king', 'w as', 'w n', 'w cist', 'a king',
'a as', 'a n', 'a cist', 'physi king', 'physi as', 'physi n', 'physi cist']

Answer:

a is greater than or equal to b

▪ Symbol || denote OR i.e., a>b || a == b denote a is greater than or a

is equal to b.

268
• Program 5.2

C ++ program to find the average of 10 numbers

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int N1, N2, N3, N4, N5, N6, N7, N8, N9, N10, X;
cout<<"Enter any 10 numbers:";
cin>>N1;
cin>>N2; x = [-15, 57, 500, -41, -20, -810, 266, -97]

cin>>N3; y = [x for x in x if x >= 0]

cin>>N4; print(y)
cin>>N5; Output:
cin>>N6;
cin>>N7; [57, 500, 266]
cin>>N8;
cin>>N9;
cin>>N10;
X = (N1 + N2 + N3 + N4 + N5 + N6 + N7 + N8 + N9 + N10) /10;
cout<<"the average of 10 numbers = "<< X;
return 0;
}

The output on the screen:

Enter any 10 numbers:

If you enter ten numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10

the average of 10 numbers = 5

will be outputted on the screen.

C++ equivalent mathematical expression is same as C equivalent mathematical expression

269
For example:

Mathematical expression C equivalent expression C++ equivalent

expression
log10x + bx log10 (x) + b * x log10 (x) + b * x

• Program 5.3

C ++ program to find the square root of a number

x, y = 12, 20
print(x if x < y else y)

#include<iostream>
# Output: 12
#include<cmath>
using namespace std;
x=12
int main()
{ x,y=x+1,x+2

int a, b; print(x,y)
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>> a; # Output: 13 14
b = sqrt (a);
cout<<"the square root of a number = "<< b;
return 0;
}

The output on the screen:

x = []
for i in range(5):
Enter any number:
x.append(i*2)
If you enter the number 16 print (x)

the square root of a number = 4

# Output: [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
will be outputted on the screen.

Since b = sqrt(a) is written:

270
the statement: #include<cmath> must be included in the above program because
cmath file defines the mathematical functions like sqrt().

If the statement: #include<cmath> is not included in the above program:

def upto(x):
#include<iostream>
for a in range(x-1):
using namespace std;
yield a
int main()
{ for i in upto(5):
int a, b; print(i)
cout<<"Enter any number:";
Output:
cin>> a;
0
b = sqrt (a);
1
cout<<"the square root of a number = "<< b;
return 0; 2
} 3

Then the compilation error will be displayed on the console screen.

Note: x = {11:12, 13:14}

y = {**x}
#include<math.h> is used in C print(y)

whereas #include<cmath> is used in C ++

# Output: {11: 12, 13: 14}

• Write a program to print the cube root of a number:

x = {11:12, 13:14}
y = {13:15, 15:16}
Answer: z = {**x, **y}
print(z)
#include<iostream>
#include<cmath> # Output: {11: 12, 13: 15, 15: 16}

271
using namespace std;
int main()
{
cout<<"the cube root of a number = "<< cbrt (8);
return 0;
}

• Program 5.4

C++ program to find the simple interest

x = []
#include<iostream> y = []
using namespace std; z = x
int main() print(x == y) Output:
{ print(x is y)
int P,T, R, SI; True
print(x is z)
P = 1000;
False
T = 2;
True
R = 3;
SI = P*T*R/100;
cout<<"the simple interest = "<< SI;
return 0;
}

The output on the screen:

the simple interest = 60

If you want to supply the integer values for P, T and R through the key board, then the
statements:

P = 1000;

272
T = 2;
R = 3;

print(any([False, False, False]))

# Output: False

should be replaced by the statements:

print(any([True, False, False]))
# Output: True

cout<<"Enter principal amount:"; print(any([True, True, True]))

cin>>P; # Output: True
cout<<"Enter time:";
cin>>T;
cout<<"Enter rate of interest:";
cin>>R;

x= [15, 52, 53]

i.e., the above program should take the form: y = x
y[0] = 50
#include<iostream> print(y)
using namespace std;
int main() # Output: [50, 52, 53]
{
int P,T, R, SI;
cout<<"Enter principal amount:";
names = ["Alan", "Albert", "Mary"]
cin>>P;
for x in range(len(names)):
cout<<"Enter time:";
y = names[x]
cin>>T;
print("{} is at {}. place".format(y, x + 1))
cout<<"Enter rate of interest:";
cin>>R;
# Output:
SI = P*T*R/100;
Alan is at 1. place
cout<<"the simple interest = "<<SI;
Albert is at 2. place
return 0;
} Mary is at 3. place

The output on the screen:

Enter principal amount:

273
If you enter the principal amount 1000 try:

Enter time: x = 51 + "three"

If you enter the time 2 except:

Enter rate of interest: print("An exception has been discovered! The

If you enter the rate of interest 3 default value will be used.")

the simple interest = 60 x = 25

will be outputted on the screen. finally:

print("This is always the case.")
print(x)

• Program 5.5 An exception has been discovered! The

default value will be used.
C++ program to find the senior citizen This is always the case.
25

#include<iostream>
from itertools import permutations
using namespace std;
int main()
x = [11, 12, 13]

{ y = permutations(x)
int age; print(list(y))
age=20;
if(age > = 60)
{
cout<<"senior citizen";
}
[(11, 12, 13), (11, 13, 12), (12, 11, 13), (12, 13, 11), (13, 11, 12), (13, 12, 11)]
if(age<60)
{
cout<<"not a senior citizen"; x = {"John": 42, "Joseph": 20, "James": 10}
} print("James" in x)
return 0;
}
# Output: True

The output on the screen:

not a senior citizen

• (age > = 60) means: age greater than or equal to 60.

274
If you want to supply the value for age through the key board, then the statement:

age = 20;

should be replaced by the statements:

cout<<"Enter age:"; Python code:

cin>>age;
string = "John"

i.e., list = ["Albert", "John", "Mary", "David", "Joseph"]

tuple = ("Einstein", "Hilbert", "Newton")
dictionary = {
#include<iostream> "David": "Hilbert",
using namespace std; "Stephen": "Hawking",
int main() "Isaac": "Newton",
{ "Niels": "Bohr",
int age; }
cout<<"Enter age:";
cin>>age; print("The maximum value of string is: ", max(string))
if(age>60) print("The maximum value of list is: ", max(list))
{ print("The maximum value of tuple is: ", max(tuple))
cout<<"senior citizen"; print("The maximum value of dictionary is: ", max(dictionary))
}
if(age<60)
{
Output:
cout<<"not a senior citizen";
}
The maximum value of string is: o
return 0;
The maximum value of list is: Mary
}
The maximum value of tuple is: Newton
The maximum value of dictionary is: Stephen

The output on the screen:

Abstract method
Enter age:

If you enter the age 60

A method whose declaration does not need
senior citizen
implementation

275
will be outputted on the screen.
Default constructor

A constructor that can be invoked without

Suppose if you enter the age 31 specifying any parameters

not a senior citizen

Information hiding

will be outputted on the screen. The idea that development decisions should be
concealed by the modules in which they are used

• Program 5.6

C ++ program to get marks for 3 subjects and declare the result.

If the marks >= 35 in all the subjects the student passes else fails.

Python code:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std; import array as arr

int main() x=arr.array('i',[11,12,13,14,15])

{ print (x[::-1])

int M1, M2, M3;

M1 = 38; Output:
M2= 45;
M3 = 67; array('i', [15, 14, 13, 12, 11])
if(M1 >= 35 && M2>= 35 && M3>= 35)
{
cout<<"candidate is passed"; from random import shuffle

} a = ['Albert', 'Einstein', 'is', 'a', ' theoretical', 'physicist']

else shuffle(a)
{ print(a)

cout<<"candidate is failed";
} Output:
return 0;
[' theoretical', 'Einstein', 'is', 'a', 'Albert', 'physicist']
}

276
The output on the screen:

candidate is passed

If you want to supply the integer values for marks M1, M2 and M3 through the key board, then
the statements:
x='ALBERT'
print(x.lower())
M1 = 38; # Output: albert
M2= 45;
M3 = 67; x='ALBERT'
print(len(x))
# Output: 4

should be replaced by the statements: x="Albert Einstein"

print(x.split())
# Output: ['Albert', 'Einstein']
cout<<"Enter any three marks:";
cin>> M1;
def myfunc(x):
cin>> M2;
for i in range(x):
cin>> M3;
print(''*(x-i-1)+'*'*(2*i+1))
myfunc(6)

*
# Output:
i.e., ***
*****
#include<iostream> *******
using namespace std; *********
***********

int main()
x = 13
{
if x > 1:
int M1, M2, M3;
for a in range(2, int(x/2)+1):
cout<<"Enter any three marks:";
if (x % a) == 0:
cin>> M1;
print(x, "is not a prime number")
cin>> M2;
break
cin>> M3;
else:
if(M1 >= 35 && M2>= 35 && M3>= 35)
print(x, "is a prime number")
{
else:
cout<<"candidate is passed";
print(x, "is not a prime number")
}
else
# Output: 13 is a prime number
{

277
x='535'
cout<<"candidate is failed"; y=x[::-1]
} if x==y:
return 0; print("palindrome")
} else:
print("Not a Palindrome")

# Output: palindrome
The output on the screen:
x = ["12", "42", "50", "16", "19"]
Enter any three marks:
x = [int(a) for a in x]
26, 28, 39 # entered marks x.sort()
candidate is failed print (x)

will be outputted on the screen.

# Output: [12, 16, 19, 42, 50]

x = dict(zip(('a','b','c','d','e'),(11,12,13,14,15)))
print(x)
 Program 5.7 # Output: {'a': 11, 'b': 12, 'c': 13, 'd': 14, 'e': 15}

C ++ program to find profit or loss

x = range(3)
y = [[i, i*i] for i in x]
print(y)

#include<iostream> # Output: [[0, 0], [1, 1], [2, 4]]

using namespace std;
int main()
import numpy as np
{ x = np.array([1, 3, 2, 4, 5])
int CP, SP, loss, profit;
print(x.argsort()[-3:][::-1])
cout<<"Enter cost price:";
cin >> CP;
# Output: [4 3 1]
cout<<"Enter selling price:";
cin>>SP; x = 'Albert'
if ( SP > CP ) y = "Albert"
{ z = '''''Albert'''
cout<<"profit= "<< SP-CP; print(x)
} print(y)
else Output:
print(z)
{
Albert
cout<<"loss = "<< CP-SP; Albert
} ''Albert
return 0;

278
x = True + 5
}
y = False + 8
print(x)
print(y)

The output on the screen:

# Output:
6
8
Enter cost price:
If you enter the cost price 25
x = [ 6, 11, 8, 2, 10, 6 ]
Enter selling price:
print(x)
If you enter the selling price 26
x.remove(6)
profit = 1
print(x)
will be outputted on the screen.

# Output:
[6, 11, 8, 2, 10, 6]
[11, 8, 2, 10, 6]
• Program 5.8

C++ program to convert inches into centimeter

x = [ 3, 11, 8, 2, 10, 3 ]
print(x)
#include<iostream>
del x[3]
using namespace std;
print(x)
int main()
{
# Output:
float I, C;
[3, 11, 8, 2, 10, 3]
I=3.5;
[3, 11, 8, 10, 3]
C = 2.54*I;
cout<<"length in centimeters = "<< C;
x = "lber"
return 0;
y = "At"
}
print(x.join(y))

# Output: Albert

The output on the screen:

length in centimeters = 8.89

# Save an jpg image locally from an URL address

import urllib.request
urllib.request.urlretrieve("https://parade.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/albert-einstein-quotes.jpg", "img1.jpg")

279
▪ Note: float is used instead of int because I = 3.5 if int is used
instead of float then the result will not be clearly outputted i.e.,
instead of 8.89 the computer displays only 8.

If you want to supply the value for I through the key board, then the above program should take
the form:
x = 10
y = 14
z = x if x < y else y
#include<iostream>
print(z)
using namespace std;
int main()
# Output: 10
{
float I, C;
x, y = 15, 15
cout<<"Enter the length in inches:";
print(x==y)
cin >> I;
print(x<y)
C = 2.54*I;
print(x<=y)
cout<<"length in centimeters= "<< C;
print(x!=y)
return 0;
}
# Output:

True
False
The output on the screen:
True
Enter the length in inches: False

If you enter the value for I i.e., 25.5

length in centimeters = 64.9 will be outputted on the screen.

• Program 5.9

C++ program to find the incremented and decremented values of two numbers

Constructor
#include<iostream>
using namespace std; A class function that creates new objects
int main()
within the class

280
x=13
{
print(x)
int a, b, c, d, e, f;
Output:
x += 3
a = 10;
print(x) 13
b=12;
x -= 3
c=a+1; 16
print(x)
d=b+1; 13
x *= 3
e=a-1; 39
print(x)
f=b-1;
x **=3 59319
cout<<"the incremented value of a = "<< c;
print(x)
cout<<"the incremented value of b = "<< d;
cout<<"the decremented value of a = "<< e;
cout<<"the decremented value of b = "<< f;
x = True
return 0;
y = False
}
print(x and y)

# Output: False

The output on the screen:

the incremented value of a = 11 the incremented value of b = 13 the decremented value

of a = 9 the decremented value of b = 11

If the statements:
x = True
cout<<"the incremented value of a = "<< c; y = False
cout<<"the incremented value of b = "<< d; print(x or y)
cout<<"the decremented value of a = "<< e;
cout<<"the decremented value of b = "<< f; # Output: True

x = True
y = False
are replaced by the statements: print(not y)

cout<<"\n the incremented value of a = "<< c;

# Output: True
cout<<"\n the incremented value of b = "<< d;
cout<<"\n the decremented value of a = "<< e;
cout<<"\n the decremented value of b = "<< f;

281
Then the output on the screen is:
x = [22,24,26,27,33,34]

the incremented value of a = 11 print(35 in x)

the incremented value of b = 13

the decremented value of a = 9 # Output: False

the decremented value of b = 11

x = ("Alan","John")
print("Albert" not in x)

If the statements: # Output: True

cout<<"the incremented value of a = "<< c; x = 50

cout<<"the incremented value of b = "<< d; y = 24
cout<<"the decremented value of a = "<< e; print(x is y)
cout<<"the decremented value of b = "<< f;

# Output: False

x = 50
are replaced by the statements: y = 24
print(x is not y)

cout<<"the incremented value of a = "<< c << endl;

# Output: True
cout<<"the incremented value of b = "<< d << endl;
cout<<"the decremented value of a = "<< e << endl;
cout<<"the decremented value of b = "<< f << endl;
x = 60
y = 74
print(x & y) Output:

Then the output on the screen: print(x | y)

print(x ^ y)
8
the incremented value of a = 11 print(~x) 126
the incremented value of b = 13 118
the decremented value of a = 9
-61
the decremented value of b = 11

If you want to supply the values for a and b through the key board, then the above program
should take the form:

#include<iostream>

282
using namespace std; Data sink
int main()
{
A storage device that collects and stores data for an
int a, b, c, d, e, f; unlimited amount of time
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>> a;
cout<<"Enter any number:"; x = ("\u0123", "\u2665", "\U0001f638", "\u265E", "\u265F", "\u2168")

cin>> b; print (x)

c=a+1;
d=b+1; # Output: ('ģ', '♥', '😸', '♞', '♟', 'Ⅸ')
e=a-1;
f=b-1;
cout<<"\n the incremented value of a = "<< c;
cout<<"\n the incremented value of b = "<< d;
cout<<"\n the decremented value of a = "<< e;
cout<<"\n the decremented value of b = "<< f;
return 0;
}
x= "Albert Einstein profoundly changed physics"
print(x[3:15])

The output on the screen: # Output: ert Einstein

with open("1.txt", "r") as fp:

Enter any number: x = fp.read()
If you enter the number 2 # prints the contents of the 1.txt file
Enter any number: print(x)
If you enter the number 3

the incremented value of a = 3

x = ["A","L","B","E","R","T"]
the incremented value of b = 4
print (list(enumerate(x)))
the decremented value of a = 1
the decremented value of b = 2
# Output:

will be outputted on the screen.

[(0, 'A'), (1, 'L'), (2, 'B'), (3, 'E'), (4, 'R'), (5, 'T')]

• What will be the output of the following program:

283
#include<iostream> import array as arr
using namespace std; x = [2, 'pqr', 2.55]
int main() print (x)
{
float T1, T2, A; # Output: [2, 'pqr', 2.55]
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin >>T1;
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin >>T2;
A = (T1 + T2) / 2;
cout<<"the average temperature of the day = "<< A;
return 0;
}

import os
os.remove('hello.txt')

Answer: Python code to

delete a file
Enter any number: import os
If you enter the number: os.unlink('hello.txt')
2
Enter any number:
If you enter the number:
3
the average temperature of the day = 2.5
will be displayed on the console screen.

• Program 6.0

The percentage marks are entered and the grades are allotted as follows:

percentage >= 60 First Class x, y = 10, 30

print(x, y)
percentage >=50 and per <= 60 Second Class x, y = y, x
print(x, y)
percentage >= 40 and per <= 50 Pass Class
# Output:
percentage < 40 Fail
10 30
30 10

284
Mutator
Write a C++ program for the above:
A function that modifies the
state of an object

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
main()
{
import array as arr
int P;
x=arr.array('b',[11, 12, 13, 14, 15])
cout<<"Enter the percentage:";
print(x[::-1])
cin>>P;
if(P >= 60)
import array
{
x = array.array('b', [11, 12, 13, 14, 15])
cout<<"first class";
print(x[::-1])
}
if(P>=50&&P <60)
{
from array import *
cout<<"second class";
x =array('b',[11, 12, 13, 14, 15])
}
print(x[::-1])
if(P>=40&&P<=50 )
{
cout<<"pass class";
} Output:
if(P<40)
{ array('b', [15, 14, 13, 12, 11])
cout<<"fail";
}
return 0;
def myfunc():
}
return 14, 15, 16, 17
a, b, c, d = myfunc()
print(a, b, c, d)

The output on the screen:

# Output: 14 15 16 17
Enter the percentage:
i = 4
If you enter the percentage 35
z = "Albert "; Output:
fail print(z * i)
Albert Albert Albert Albert
will be outputted on the screen.

285
• Program 6.1

C++ program to calculate the discounted price and the total price after discount

Given:

▪ If purchase value is greater than 1000, 10% discount

▪ If purchase value is greater than 5000, 20% discount
▪ If purchase value is greater than 10000, 30% discount

# Check the memory usage of 'a'

▪ discounted price import sys

a = 200
print(sys.getsizeof(a))

# Output: 28
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
x = [11, 12, 13, 19, 12, 17, 13, 15, 19, 19, 19]
int main()
print(max(set(x), key = x.count))
{
double PV, dis;
# Output: 19
cout<<"Enter purchased value:";
cin>>PV;
from collections import Counter
if(PV>1000)
def myfunc(a, b):
{
return Counter(a) == Counter(b)
cout<<"dis= "<< PV* 0.1;
print(myfunc('Alan', 'Albert'))
}
print(myfunc('Alan', 'Alan'))
else if(PV>5000)
{
cout<<"dis= "<< PV* 0.2;
Output:
}
False
else
True
{
cout<<"dis= "<< PV* 0.3;
}
return 0;
}

286
The output on the screen: Accessor

A function that accesses

Enter purchased value:
information in an object without
If you enter the purchased value 6500
causing any observable changes
dis = 1300.000000
will be outputted on the screen. to the object

▪ total price import pandas as pd

names=["Alan","John","Albert","Joseph","Mary"]
jobs=["Chemist","Biologist","Physicist","Engineer","Teacher"]
y={"jobs":jobs,"names":names}
#include<iostream>
x=pd.DataFrame(y)
using namespace std;
print(x)
int main()
{
double PV, total; Output:
cout<<"Enter purchased value:";
scanf("%lf", &PV; jobs names
if(PV<1000) 0 Chemist Alan
{ 1 Biologist John
cout<<"total= "<< PV - PV* 0.1;
2 Physicist Albert
}
3 Engineer Joseph
else if(PV<5000)
{ 4 Teacher Mary
cout<<"total = "<< PV- PV* 0.2;
}
else
{ a=1
cout<<"total= "<< PV- PV* 0.3; x=2
} while a<=5:
return 0; print(x,"*", a, "=", x*a)
} a=a+1
2*1=2
2*2=4

The output on the screen: 2*3=6

2*4=8
Enter purchased value:
2 * 5 = 10
If you enter the purchased value 650

287
total = 585.000000
will be outputted on the screen.

▪ Now, Combing both the programs (above), we can write:

import pandas as pd
names=["Alan","John","Albert","Joseph","Mary"]
#include<iostream> jobs=["Chemist","Biologist","Physicist","Engineer","Teacher"]
using namespace std; y={"jobs":jobs,"names":names}
int main() x=pd.DataFrame(y)
{ q=[1,2,3,4,5]
double PV, dis, total; x.index=q
cout<<"Enter purchased value:"; print(x.loc[4])
cin>>PV;
if(PV>1000)
{ Output:
cout<<"dis= "<< PV* 0.1;
jobs Engineer
cout<<"total= "<< PV - PV* 0.1;
} names Joseph
else if(PV>5000) Name: 4, dtype: object
{
cout<<"dis = "<< PV* 0.2;
cout<<"total= "<< PV - PV* 0.2; import pandas as pd
} x=[11,12,13]
else y=[21,31,51]
{ a={"num1":x,"num2":y}
cout<<"dis= "<< PV* 0.3; z=pd.DataFrame(a)
cout<<"total= "<< PV - PV* 0.3; z["Sum"]=z["num1"]+z["num2"]
} z["Difference"]=z["num1"]-z["num2"]
return 0; print(z)
}
Output:

num1 num2 Sum Difference

0 11 21 32 -10
1 12 31 43 -19
The output on the screen: 2 13 51 64 -38

Enter purchased value:

288
import pandas as pd
If you enter the purchased value 850 x={"col1":[1,2,3],"col2":["John","Alan","Mary"]}
y=pd.DataFrame(x)
dis = 85.000000
print(y)
col1 col2
total = 765.000000
0 1 John
will be outputted on the screen. 1 2 Alan
2 3 Mary

• Program 6.2

C++ program to print the first ten natural numbers using for loop statement

import pandas as pd
x={"col1":[1,2,3],"col2":["John","Alan","Mary"]}
#include<iostream> y=pd.DataFrame(x)
using namespace std; y=y.drop(["col1"],axis=1)
int main() print(y)
{ col2
int i;
0 John
for (i=1; i<=10; i++)
1 Alan
cout<<"value of i = "<< i;
return 0;
2 Mary
}

The output on the screen is:

value of i = 1 value of i = 2 value of i = 3 value of i = 4 value of i= 5 value of

i= 6 value of i = 7 value of i= 8 value of i= 9 value of i= 10

for x in range(4):
for a in range(x): 1
print(x, end=" ")
• When for loop executes, the following occurs: print("\n") 22

333
i = 1
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=1
The statement cout<<"value of i = "<< i; is executed to print the output:

289
Data corruption
value of i = 1
Now, the value of i is:
A breach of data security
i = 1+1 = 2
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=2
The statement cout<<"value of i = "<< i; is executed to print the output:
value of i = 2
Now, the value of i is:
i = 2+1 = 3
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=3
The statement cout<<"value of i = "<< i; is executed to print the output:
value of i = 3
Now, the value of i is:
i = 3+1 = 4
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=4
The statement cout<<"value of i = "<< i; is executed to print the output:
value of i = 4
Now, the value of i is:
i = 4+1 = 5
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=5
The statement cout<<"value of i = "<< i; is executed to print the output:
value of i = 5
Now, the value of i is:
i = 5+1 = 6
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=6
The statement cout<<"value of i = "<< i; is executed to print the output:
value of i = 6
Now, the value of i is:
i = 6+1 = 7
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=7
The statement cout<<"value of i = "<< i; is executed to print the output:
value of i = 7
Now, the value of i is:
Concept phase:
i = 7+1 = 8
Is the condition (i<=10) is true? The first phase of a software development process during
Yes because i=8 which user requirements are documented and reviewed

290
The statement cout<<"value of i = "<< i; is executed to print the output:
value of i = 8
Now, the value of i is:
i = 8+1 = 9
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=9
The statement cout<<"value of i = "<< i; is executed to print the output:
value of i = 9
Now, the value of i is:
i = 9+1 = 10
Is the condition (i<=10) is true?
Yes because i=10
The statement cout<<"value of i = "<< i; is executed to print the output:
value of i = 10
and stop because the condition i<=10 is achieved.

If the statement: import pandas as pd

x={"col1":[1,2,3],"col2":["John","Alan","Mary"]}
y=pd.DataFrame(x)
cout<<"value of i = "<< i;
y.dropna(inplace=True)
y=y[y.col1!=1]
print(y)

is replaced by the statement:

Output:
cout<<"\n value of i = "<< i;
col1 col2
1 2 Alan
2 3 Mary

Then the output on the screen is:

from functools import reduce

value of i = 1 x = [2, 4, 8, 10, 12, 50]
value of i = 2 z = reduce (lambda a, b: a*b, x)
value of i = 3 print(z)
value of i = 4
value of i = 5 Output: 384000
value of i = 6
value of i = 7 # 2 × 4 × 8 × 10 × 12 × 50 = 384000
value of i = 8

291
value of i = 9
value of i = 10 from functools import reduce
x = [2, 4, 8, 10, 12, 50]
z = reduce (lambda a, b: a+b, x)
print(z)
If the for loop statement:

for (i=2; i<=10; i++) Output:

# 2 + 4 + 8 + 10 + 12 + 50 = 86
is written instead of the statement:

for (i=1; i<=10; i++)

then the output on the screen is:

value of i = 2 value of i = 3 value of i= 4 value of i= 5 value of i= 6 value of i = 7

value of i= 8 value of i = 9 value of i= 10

import random
x = random.randint(1,6)
print(x)

If the for loop statement:

# Output: 5
for(i=1; i<10; i++)

is written instead of the statement:

Complexity: The extent to which a system's
for (i=1; i<=10; i++), then the output on the screen is: design or implementation is difficult to
comprehend and validate

value of i = 1 value of i = 2 value of i= 3 value of i= 4 value of i= 5 value of i= 6

value of i = 7 value of i= 8 value of i = 9

▪ Note: the condition i<=10 tells to print till value of i=10 but the
condition i<10 tells to print till value of i=9.

292
import numpy as np

If the statement: x=np.array([1,2,3,4,5])

y=np.array([5,6,7,8,9])
for(i=1; i=10; i++) print(np.vstack((x,y)))

Output:

is written instead of the statement:

[[1 2 3 4 5]
[5 6 7 8 9]]

for(i=1; i<=10; i++)

then the output on the screen is:

value of i = 10 value of i = 10 value of i = 10 value of i = 10 value of i= 10

value of i= 10 value of i = 10 value of i= 10 value of i = 10 value of i = 10
value of i = 10 value of i = 10 value of i = 10 value of i = 10 value of i = 10

continues ....
x = ("S", "t", "e", "p", "h", "e", "n", "h", "a", "w", "k", "i", "n", "g")
y = slice(2,5)
print(x[y])

# Output: ('e', 'p', 'h')

▪ Note:

If the statement:
x = ("S", "t", "e", "p", "h", "e", "n", "h", "a", "w", "k", "i", "n", "g")
cout<<"value of i = "<< i;
y = slice(0, 14, 2)
print(x[y])

# Output: ('S', 'e', 'h', 'n', 'a', 'k', 'n')

is replaced by the statement:

cout<<"\n "<< i;

Computer system audit: An analysis of a computer system's

procedures in order to assess their efficacy and accuracy and
Then the output on the screen is:
make suggestions for improvements

293
1
C Program:

2
#include <stdio.h>
3 int main() {
printf("Albert Einstein\n");
4 printf("Line: %d\n",__LINE__);
printf("Line: %d\n",__LINE__);
5
printf("1905 Papers\n");
return 0;
6
}
7

Output:
8 Albert Einstein
Line: 4
9
Line: 5
10 1905 Papers

C Program: #include <stdio.h>

int a = 2;
int main(void) Output:
#include <stdio.h>
{
int main() { 2
printf("%d\n", a);
printf("Albert Einstein\n"); return 0;
printf("Line: %d\n",__LINE__); }
#line 21
printf("Line: %d\n",__LINE__);
printf("1905 Papers\n"); #include <stdio.h>

return 0; int a = 2; Output:

int main(void)
} 3
{
int a =3;
Output:
Albert Einstein printf("%d\n", a);
return 0;
Line: 4
}
Line: 21
1905 Papers

294
▪ What will be the output of the following program:

Java program:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std; public class HelloWorld {

int main() public static void main(String[] args) {

{ int[] array = new int[16];

int i; int x = array.length;

for (i =1; i<=5; i ++) // prints the Length of array

cout<<"\n Linux is not portable"; System.out.println(x);

return 0; }

} }

public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Answer: String a = "Albert";

char[] x = a.toCharArray();
for(int i=0; i< x.length; i++){
System.out.print(x[i]);
}
Linux is not portable
}
Linux is not portable
} Output:
Linux is not portable
Linux is not portable Albert
Linux is not portable

• C++ program to print the first ten natural numbers using while loop statement

The syntax of while loop statement is: public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {
while (this is the condition) String x = "Albert#Einstein%profoundly^changed*physics&.";
String y = x.replaceAll("[^a-zA-Z0-9]", " ");
{ System.out.println(y);
}
execute this statement;
}
Output:
}
Albert Einstein profoundly changed physics

295
public class HelloWorld {
#include<iostream>
public static void main(String[] args) {
using namespace std;
for (int x=1; x<=5; x++){
int main()
for (int y=1; y<=x; y++)
{
System.out.print("*");
int i = 1;
System.out.println(" ");
while (i<=10)
}
{
}
cout<<"\n "<< i++; Output:
}
}
return 0; *
} **
***
****
*****
The output on the screen is:

1 public class HelloWorld {

2 public static void main(String[] args) {

3 for (int x=5; x>=1; x--){

4 for (int y=1; y<=x; y++)

5 System.out.print("*");

6 System.out.println(" ");

7 }

8 }
} Output:
9
10
*****
****
***
**
(i<=10) is the condition and *

The statement

cout<<"\n "<< i++;

Inheritance

is repeatedly executed as long as a given condition (i<=10) is true. The technique of building a new
piece of code on a previously
written piece of code
If the statement:

296
Project-based Learning
int i=1;

is replaced by the statement: A method of learning that involves the

int i; creation of real-world projects

Then the compilation error will be displayed on the console screen because initialization is not
defined [i.e., from where to start is not declared].

public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {
If the statement: String x= "Albert Einstein profoundly changed physics.";
String y=x.replaceAll("[AEIOUaeiou]", "");
int i = 1;
System.out.println(y);
}
} Output:

is replaced by int i = 0;
lbrt nstn prfndly chngd physcs.

Then the output on the screen is:

0
1 public class HelloWorld {
2 public static void main(String[] args) {
3 System.out.println("Albert Einstein");
4 System.exit(0);
5 }
6 }
7
Output:
8
Albert Einstein
9
10

Similarly if the statement int i = 0; is replaced by the int i = 7; Blockly

Then the output on the screen is: Code.org's block

7 programming language for

teaching children to code

297
Angular.js
8

9 A website development framework

based on JavaScript
10

• C++ program to print first 10 numbers using do while loop statement

The syntax of do while loop statement is:

do
public class HelloWorld {
{
void mult(int a, int b) {
execute this statement; System.out.println(a*b);
}
} void mult(double a, double b) {
System.out.println(a*b);
while(this is the condition);
}
#include<iostream> void mult(double a, int b) {
using namespace std; System.out.println(a*b);
int main() }
{ public static void main(String args[]) {
int i =1; HelloWorld x = new HelloWorld ();
do x.mult(20,30);
{ x.mult(30.12,12.24); Output:
cout<<" \n i= "<< i++; x.mult(50.15,9);
} while (i<=10); } 600
return 0; } 368.66880000000003
}
451.34999999999997

public class HelloWorld {

The output on the screen is: public static void main(String[] args) {
String x = "005-065777";
i=1 String[] y = x.split("-");
String a = y[0];
i=2 String b = y[1];
i=3 System.out.println(a);
System.out.println(b);
i=4 }
i=5 }
Output:
i=6 005
065777

298
import java.time.LocalDateTime;
i=7
i=8 public class HelloWorld {
i=9 public static void main(String[] args) {
i=10 LocalDateTime x = LocalDateTime.now();
System.out.println(x);
}
}
Output:

The statement:
2022-06-15T07:41:26.512844
cout<<" \ni= "<< i++;

is executed and then condition (i<=10) is checked. If condition (i<=10) is true then

The statement:

cout<<" \ni= "<< i++;

is executed again. This process repeats until the given condition (i<=10) becomes false.

• Write a program to print

When in doubt use brute force

100 times using for loop statement.

import java.util.List;
import java.util.stream.Stream;
import java.util.stream.Collectors;
Answer:

public class HelloWorld {

#include<iostream> public static void main(String[] args) {
using namespace std; List<Integer> x = Stream.of(11, 12, 13).collect(Collectors.toList());
int main() System.out.println(x);
{ }
int i; } Output:
for(i=0; i<=99; i++)
cout<<"\n When in doubt use brute force";
[11, 12, 13]
return 0;

299
Django
}

Python-based web framework

• Program 6.3

C++ program to print the characters from A to Z using for loop, do while loop and while
loop statement.

▪ C ++ program to print the characters from A to Z using for loop statement:

public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {

#include<iostream> int x=20, y=60;

using namespace std; if((x < y) && (y+1 < 105)) {

int main() System.out.println("Albert Einstein");

{ } else {

char a; System.out.println(y);

for( a='A'; a<='Z'; a++) } }

cout<<" \n"<< a; }
Output:
return 0;
}
Albert Einstein

The output on the screen:

public class HelloWorld {
public static void main(String[] args) {
A
if(2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 == 10){
B
System.out.print("True");
C
} else {
D
System.out.print("False");
E
} }
F
} Output:
G
H True
I

300
J
K public class HelloWorld {
L public static void main(String[] args) {
M int x = 0;
N for (int i = 1; i <= 50; i++) {
O if (i % 2 == 1) {
P x = x + 1;
Q }
R }
S System.out.println("There are " + x + " odd numbers from 1 to 50");
T }
W }
Output:
X
Y There are 25 odd numbers from 1 to 50
Z

If the statement: for( a=A; a<=Z; a++) is written instead of the statement for( a='A';
a<='Z'; a++) i.e., A is used instead of 'A' and Z is used instead of 'Z', then the compilation
error will be displayed on the screen.

▪ C ++ program to print the characters from A to Z using while loop statement:

public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {
#include<iostream>
int x = 0;
using namespace std;
for (int i = 1; i <= 100; i++) {
int main()
if (i % 2 == 0) {
{
x = x + 1;
char a = 'A';
}
while (a<='Z')
}
{
System.out.println("There are " + x + " even numbers from 1 to 100");
cout<<" \n"<< a++;
}
}
} Output:
return 0;
}
There are 50 odd numbers from 1 to 100

301
▪ C ++ program to print the characters from A to Z using do while loop statement:

public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {
#include<iostream> String[] months = new String[] {
using namespace std; "January",
int main() "February",

{ "March",

Output:
"April",
char a = 'A';
"May",
do
"June",
{ January
"July",
cout<<" \n"<< a++; "August",
} while (a<='Z'); "September",
return 0; "October",

} "November",
"December"
}; System.out.println(months[0]);
}
}
• Program 6.4

C++ program to print the given number is even or odd.

public class HelloWorld {

#include<iostream> public static void main(String[] args) {
using namespace std; String[] months = new String[] {
"January", 0 : January
int main()
"February", 1 : February
{
"March", 2 : March
int a;
"April", 3 : April
cout<<"Enter any number:";
"May", 4 : May
cin>>a;
"June",
5 : June
if(a%2 = = 0) "July",
6 : July Output
{ "August",
7 : August
cout<<"the number is even"; "September",
8 : September
} "October",
"November", 9 : October
else
"December" 10 : November
{
}; 11 : December
cout<<"the number is odd";
}
for(int x = 0; x < months.length; x++){
return 0; System.out.println( x + " : " + months[x]);
} }
}
}

302
The output on the screen:

Enter any number:

If you enter the number 6
the number is even Express.js
will be outputted on the screen.
The back end web application
framework for Node.js

• Program 6.5

C++ program to print the remainder of two numbers

#include<iostream> public class HelloWorld {

using namespace std; public static void main(String[] args) {
int main() for (char x = 'a'; x <= 'c'; x++) {
{ for (char y = 'a'; y <= x; y++) {
int a, b, c; System.out.print(y +" ");
cout<<"Enter any number:"; }
cin>>a; System.out.println();
cout<<"Enter any number:"; }
cin>>b; }
c = a % b; } Output:
cout<<"the remainder of a and b = "<< c;
a
return 0;
ab
}
abc

The output on the screen:

Python code:

Enter any number: a = "Albert"

If you enter the number 3 print(type(a))

Enter any number: # Output: <class 'str'>

If you enter the number 2

a = True
the remainder of a and b = 1
b = False
print(type(a))
will be outputted on the screen. print(type(b))
# Output:
<class 'bool'>
<class 'bool'>

303
HAML
If the statement: (HTML Abstraction Markup Language)

cout<<"the remainder of a and b = "<< c;

A templating framework for making HTML

cleaner and simpler by avoiding writing
is replaced by the statement:
inline code in a web document

cout <<" the remainder of "<<a <<"and"<< b <<"= "<< c;

string = "Albert"
list = ["Albert", "John", "Mary", "David", "Ram"]
tuple = ("1", "9", "0", "5")
i.e., dictionary = {
"Albert": "Einstein",
#include<iostream>
"Alan": "Turing",
using namespace std;
"Stephen": "Hawking",
int main()
"John": "Calvin",
{ }
int a, b, c; print("The length of string is: ", len(string))
cout<<"Enter any number:"; print("The length of list is: ", len(list))

cin>>a; print("The length of tuple is: ", len(tuple))

cout<<"Enter any number:"; print("The length of dictionary is: ", len(dictionary))

cin>>b;
c = a % b;
cout <<" the remainder of "<<a <<"and"<< b <<"= "<< c;
return 0;
}
Output:

The length of string is: 6

The output on the screen: The length of list is: 5
The length of tuple is: 4
Enter any number:
The length of dictionary is: 4
If you enter the number 3

Enter any number: x = ["Car", "Book", "Pencil", "House", "Box"]

y = ["Old " + i for i in x]
If you enter the number 2
print(y)
the remainder of 3 and 2 = 1
Output:
will be outputted on the screen.
['Old Car', 'Old Book', 'Old Pencil', 'Old House', 'Old Box']

304
C Program: C Program:

#include <stdio.h> #include <stdio.h>

int main() int main()

{ {
int x = 0; int x = 0, flag=0;
while (1) { while (0) {
printf("%d\n", x++); printf("%d\n", x++);
if (x == 4) if (x == 4)
break; break;
} }
return 0; if (flag==0)
} printf ("while loop will never get executed");
return 0;

Output: }

0
1 Output:
2
while loop will never get executed
3

 Program 6.6

C++ program to check equivalence of two numbers

#include<iostream>
using namespace std; Checked Exception Unchecked Exception
int main() An exception thrown at An exception thrown at run-
{
compile time when the time when the executable code
int x, y;
source code is translated into starts running
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>>x;
an executable code
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>>y;

305
if(x-y==0)
Java program:
{
cout<<"The two numbers are equivalent"; public class HelloWorld {
} public static void main(String[] args) {
else String x = "115";
{ System.out.println( Integer.parseInt( x ));
cout<<"The two numbers are not equivalent"; }
} }
Output:
return 0;
} 115

The output on the screen:

public class HelloWorld {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Enter any number: char x = '5';
If you enter the number 2 int y = Integer.parseInt(String.valueOf(x));
Enter any number: System.out.println(y);
If you enter the number 2 }
The two numbers are equivalent }
will be outputted on the screen.
Output:

• Program 6.7

C ++ program to print whether the given number is positive or negative.

import java.util.*;

public class HelloWorld {

#include<iostream> public static void main(String[] args) {
List<Integer> x = new ArrayList<Integer>();
using namespace std; x.add(19);
int main() x.add(16);
x.add(15);
{ x.add(12);
int a; x.add(10);
System.out.println("Smallest element in the collection: "+Collections.min(x));
a = -35;
}
if(a>0) }
{ Output:
cout<<"Number is positive";
}
10
else

306
{
cout<<"Number is negative";
}
return 0; import java.util.*;

} public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {
List<Integer> x = new ArrayList<Integer>();
x.add(19);
x.add(16);
x.add(15);
The output on the screen: x.add(12);
x.add(10);
Number is negative System.out.println("Largest element in the collection: "+Collections.max(x));
}
}
Output:

Largest element in the collection: 19

• Program 6.8

C++ program to print the sum of the first 10 digits using for loop statement

import java.util.*;

#include<iostream> public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {
using namespace std;
List<Integer> x = new ArrayList<Integer>();
int main()
x.add(19);
{
x.add(16);
int i, sum = 0;
x.add(15);
for(i=1; i<=10; i++) x.add(12);
sum = sum + i; x.add(10);
System.out.println(x);
cout<<"sum of the first 10 digits = "<< sum;
}

Output:
}
return 0;
}
[19, 16, 15, 12, 10]

The output on the screen:

sum of the first 10 digits = 55

▪ How the sum of the first 10 digits = 55 is outputted on the screen through the for
Loop statement?

307
i=1 (sum = 0 because the sum is initialized to 0 in the statement int i, sum = 0;)
Is i<=10 true?
Yes, do this
public class HelloWorld {
sum = sum + i = 0 +1 =1
public static void main(String[] args) {
Now,
byte x =65;
i=2 (sum = 1)
char y = (char) x;
Is i<=10 true?
// prints 65
Yes, do this
System.out.println(x);
sum = sum + i = 1 +2 =3
// prints A (ASCII is 65 for A)
Now,
System.out.println(y);
i=3 (sum = 3)
}
Is i<=10 true?
}
Yes, do this
sum = sum + i = 3 +3 = 6
Now,
public class HelloWorld {
i=4 (sum = 6)
public static void main ( String args[]){
Is i<=10 true?
String x;
Yes, do this
int y = 6;
sum = sum + i = 6 + 4= 10
x = (y == 3) ? "Alan" : "Albert";
Now,
System.out. println(x);
i=5 (sum = 10)
}
Is i<=10 true? Output:
}
Yes, do this
sum = sum + i = 10 + 5= 15 Albert
Now,
i=6 (sum = 15)
Is i<=10 true? public class HelloWorld {
Yes, do this public static void main(String[] args) {
sum = sum + i = 15 + 6 = 21 int x;

Now, int[] num = new int[]{1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7};

x = 7;
i=7 (sum = 21)
int y = x * ((x + 1) / 2);
Is i<=10 true?
int z = 0;
Yes, do this
for (int i: num) {
sum = sum + i = 21 + 7 = 28 z += i; }
Now, System.out.print( "Missing Number: " + (y - z));
i=8 (sum = 28) }

Output:
Is i<=10 true? }

Yes, do this
sum = sum + i = 28 + 8 = 36 Missing Number: 2
Now,

308
public class HelloWorld {
i=9 (sum = 36) public static void main(String[] args) {
Is i<=10 true? int[] num = { 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 };
Yes, do this int sum = 0;
sum = sum + i = 36 + 9 = 45 for (int x : num)
Now, sum += x;
i=10 (sum = 45) System.out.println(sum);
Is i<=10 true? }
Yes, do this }
Output:
sum = sum + i = 45 + 10 = 55
stops because the condition i<=10 is achieved 65

The statement:
public class HelloWorld {

cout<<"sum of the first 10 digits = "<< sum; public static void main(String[] args) {
String x = "Albert";
int a = 1;
char b = 3;

is executed to print the output: System.out.println(a + b);

System.out.println(x.substring(a, b));
sum of the first 10 digits = 55 }
}
Output:

If the statement: 4
lb
int i, sum = 0;

is replaced by int i, sum = 1;

Then the output on the screen is:

sum of the first 10 digits = 56

▪ What will be the output if the for loop statement for(i=1; i<=10; i++) is replaced
by the statement for(i=2; i<10; i++)?
Knowledge engineering

Answer: sum of 10 digits = 44 A branch of AI that develops rules to apply to data in

order to mimic a human expert's thought process

309
If the statement int i, sum, sum = 0; is written instead of int i, sum = 0;

Then the compilation error message will be displayed on the screen (stating that sum is twice
declared). import java.text.SimpleDateFormat;
import java.util.Date;

public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {
If the for loop is ended with a semicolon i.e., String pattern = "MM-dd-yyyy";
SimpleDateFormat simpleDateFormat = new
for( i=1; i<=10; i++); SimpleDateFormat(pattern);
String x = simpleDateFormat.format(new Date());
Then the compilation error will be displayed on the console screen. System.out.println(x);
}
Output:
}

06-14-2022

• Program 6.9

C++ program to print the average of the first 10 numbers using for loop statement

public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {
#include<iostream>
int a = 20*20-20;
using namespace std;
System.out.println(a);
int main()
}
{
int i, avg, sum = 0;
} Output:
for( i=1; i<=10; i++)
380
sum = sum + i;
avg = sum/10;
cout<<"sum of the first 10 numbers = "<< sum;
cout<<"average of the first 10 numbers = "<< avg; public class HelloWorld {
return 0; public static void main(String[] args) {
} double x = 1.66666666;
String y = Double.toString(x);
System. out. println(y);
}
The output on the screen: } Output:

sum of the first 10 numbers = 55 1.66666666

average of the first 10 numbers = 5

310
The average of the first10 numbers = 55/10 = 5.5 not 5. But the output on the screen is:

average of the first 10 numbers = 5

import java.util.ArrayList;
because int is used instead of float. import java.util.Arrays;
import java.util.List;
import java.util.stream.Collectors;

If the data type float is used i.e., public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {
List<Integer> x = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(11, 20, 11, 12, 12, 13,
#include<iostream>
50, 13, 23, 14, 25, 25));
using namespace std; // print the list with duplicates
int main() System.out.println(x);
{ List<Integer> y = x.stream().distinct().collect(Collectors.toList());
float i, avg, sum = 0; // print the list with duplicates removed

for( i=1; i<=10; i++) System.out.println(y);

}
sum = sum + i;
} Output:
avg = sum/10;
cout<<"sum of the first 10 numbers = "<< sum;
[11, 20, 11, 12, 12, 13, 50, 13, 23, 14, 25, 25]
cout<<"average of the first 10 numbers = "<< avg;
[11, 20, 12, 13, 50, 23, 14, 25]
return 0;
}

10,000-year clock
The output on the screen:

sum of the first 10 numbers = 55

average of the first 10 numbers = 5.5 A precise, long-lasting

mechanical clock that ticks
once a year for 10,000 years
• Program 7.0

C++ program to print the product of the first 10 digits using for loop statement

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{

311
int i, product = 1; Algorithmic accountability
for( i=1; i<=10; i++)
product = product * i;
The idea that enterprise
cout<<"the product of the first 10 digits =%d", product; organizations should be held
return 0; answerable for the unfair outcomes
} of their pre-programmed
algorithms

The output on the screen:

the product of the first 10 digits = 3628800

▪ How the product of the first 10 digits = 3628800 is outputted on the screen through
the for Loop statement?

i=1 (product = 1 because the product is initialized to 1 in the statement int i,

product = 1;)
Is i<=10 true?
import java.util.*;
Yes, do this
public class HelloWorld {
product = product * i = 1 * 1 =1 public static void main(String[] args) {
Now, String x = "Alan";
i=2 (product = 1) String y = "Turing";
Is i<=10 true? // print String before swapping

Yes, do this System.out.println( x + " " + y);

product = product * i = 1 * 2 = 2
x = x + y;
Now,
y = x.substring(0, x.length() - y.length());
i=3 (product = 2)
x = x.substring(y.length());
Is i<=10 true? // print String after swapping
Yes, do this System.out.println(x + " " + y);
product = product * i = 2 * 3 = 6 }
Now, }

i=4 (product = 6) Output:

Is i<=10 true?
Yes, do this Alan Turing
product = product * i = 6 * 4 = 24 Turing Alan
Now,
i=5 (product =24)

312
Is i<=10 true?
Yes, do this
product = product * i = 24 * 5 =120
Now, public class HelloWorld {
i=6 (product =120) public static void main(String[] args) {
Is i<=10 true? String x = "alan turing";
Yes, do this x = x.replace("tu", "");
product = product * i = 120 * 6 = 720 System.out.println(x);
Now, }
i=7 (product =720) } Output:
Is i<=10 true?
Yes, do this alan ring
product = product * i = 720 * 7 = 5040
Now,
i=8 (product =5040)
Is i<=10 true?
Yes, do this
public class HelloWorld {
product = product * i = 5040 * 8 = 40320 public static void main(String[] args) {
Now, for(int x=4; x>=0; x--) {
i=9 (product = 40320) System.out.println();
Is i<=10 true? for(int y=x; y<4; y++) {

Yes, do this System.out.print(" a ");

} } System.out.println();
product = product * i = 40320 * 9 = 362880
}
Now,
i=10 (product = 362880)
}
Is i<=10 true? Output:
Yes, do this
product = product * i = 362880 * 10 = 3628800 a
a a
a a a
stops because the condition i<=10 is achieved. a a a a

The statement: Data point: A discrete unit of

information

cout<<"the product of the first 10 digits = "<< product;

313
public class HelloWorld {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double x = 85.78;
is executed to display the output: System.out.println(Math.round(x));
float y = 7777.658999f;
System.out.println(Math.round(y));
the product of the first 10 digits = 3628800
}
}
Output:

86
If the statement: 7778

int i, product = 1; is replaced by int i, product = 0;

Then the output on the screen is:

the product of the first 10 digits = 0 Cache algorithm

If the statement: An algorithm used to manage a

computer's cache of information
for(i=1; i<=10; i++) is replaced by

for(i=5; i<=8; i++)

Then the output on the screen is:

the product of the first 10 digits = 1680

• Program 7.1

C++ Program to print the table of a number using the for loop statement

Domain generation algorithm

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() A computer algorithm that produces a large
{ number of domain names

314
public class HelloWorld {
int n, i; public static void main(String args1[]) {
cout<<"Enter any number:"; char[] x= {'a', 'l', 'a', 'n', ' ', 't', 'u', 'r', 'i', 'n', 'g'};

cin>>n; String b = new String(x);

for( i=1; i<=5; i++) System.out.println(b);

}
cout<< n <<" * "<< i <<" = "<< n*i;
}
return 0; Output:
} alan turing

The output on the screen: public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String args1[]) {
Enter any number: char[] x= {'a', 'l', 'a', 'n', ' ', 't', 'u', 'r', 'i', 'n', 'g'};
If you enter the number 2 (i.e., n=2) String b = String.valueOf(x);
2 * 1 = 2 System.out.println(b);
2 * 2 = 4 }
}
2 * 3 = 6 Output:
2 * 4 = 8 alan turing
2 * 5 = 10
will be outputted on the screen.

▪ How the execution takes its Way through the for Loop statement

CRUSH
Since you entered the number 2, therefore: n=2.
i=1 (Controlled Replication Under Scalable Hashing)
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
2 * 1 = 2 A hash-based algorithm for
using the statement cout<< n <<" * "<< i <<" = "<< n*i; determining how and where
information should be stored and
Now,
retrieved in a distributed object-
i=2
Is i<=5 true? based storage cluster
Yes, print this
2 * 2 = 4
using the statement cout<< n <<" * "<< i <<" = "<< n*i;

Now,

315
i=3
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
2 * 3 = 6
using the statement cout<< n <<" * "<< i <<" = "<< n*i;

Algorithmic transparency
Now,
i=4
Is i<=5 true?
The idea that individuals should
Yes, print this
be able to see or understand the
2 * 4 = 8
using the statement cout<< n <<" * "<< i <<" = "<< n*i;
aspects that influence algorithmic
decisions
Now,
i=5
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
2 * 5 = 10
using the statement cout<< n <<" * "<< i <<" = "<< n*i;

stop Now because the condition i<=5 is achieved.

public class HelloWorld {

If the symbol * is replaced by + public static void main(String args1[]) {
String x = "550";
i.e., int b = Integer.decode(x);
System.out.println(" "+ b);
#include<iostream>
}
using namespace std;
} Output:
int main()
{
550
int n, a;
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>>n;
for( i=1; i<=5; i++)
cout<< n <<" + "<< i <<" = "<< n + i <<endl;
return 0;
}

316
Data Vault Modeling
Then the output on the screen is:

Enter any number:

If you enter the number 2 (i.e., n=2) A database modelling technique for storing

2 + 1 = 3 historical data from numerous operating

systems over a lengthy period of time
2 + 2 = 4

2 + 3 = 5
Data regarding physical things that are
2 + 4 = 6
tied to a geographical place is collected,
2 + 5 = 7 displayed and manipulated
Geospatial Analytics
will be outputted on the screen.

[manju@localhost ~]$ time perl -le '$n=0;foreach (1..10) {$n++}'

real 0m0.015s
user 0m0.000s
sys 0m0.004s
n++ executes

[manju@localhost ~]$ time perl -le '$n=0;foreach (1..10) {$n+1}' faster than n+1

real 0m0.016s
user 0m0.000s
sys 0m0.005s

ivar = 365 ;

L value R value

(Address of the storage location) (Content of the storage location)

Assignment
Operator

317
C Program:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

#include <string.h>

int main()

{
Output:

int b; 1905

char a[] = "1905Papers";

b = atoi(a);

printf("%d\n", b);

return (0);

• Program 7.2

C++ program: 1905Papers atoi() 1905

If you enter a character M

Output must be: ch = M

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
Flexible Deployment:
int main()
{
char M;
A deployment methodology that gives
cout<<"Enter any character:";
cin>>M;
you complete control over how and
cout<<"ch= "<< M; where your applications execute
return 0;
}

318
The output on the screen:
Python code:
Enter any character:
myfunc = lambda x,y : x/y
If you enter the character M
print(myfunc(16, 2))

ch = M
Output:
will be outputted on the screen.
8.0

▪ Note:

If we replace the statement: cin>>M; by the statement:

M = getchar();

i.e.,
def myfunction(x):
#include<iostream> return lambda y : y * x
using namespace std; a = myfunction(16)
int main() print(a(3))
{
char M;
cout<<"Enter any character:";
Output:
M = getchar();
48
cout<<"ch= "<< M;
return 0;
}

There will be no change in the output on the screen i.e., The output on the screen is:

Enter any character:

a = [[10,20,30],[40,50,60],[70,80,90]]
If you enter the character K b = [x for i in a for x in i]
print(b)
ch = K

will be outputted on the screen. Output:

[10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90]

319
If we replace the statement: cout<<"ch= "<< M; by the statement:

putchar(M);

i.e.,
for x in range(2):
#include<iostream> print (x)
Output:
using namespace std;
0
int main()
1
{
char M;
cout<<"Enter any character:"; for x in range(2,6):
cin>>M; print (x) Output:
2
putchar(M);
return 0; 3
} 4
5

There will be no change in the output on the screen i.e., The output on the screen is:

Enter any character:

If you enter the character M
M will be outputted on the console screen.

If we replace the statement: cin>>M; by the statement:

M = getchar();

and the statement:

cout<<"ch= "<< M; for x in range(2,6,3):

print (x)

Output:

by the statement: 2
5
putchar(M); i.e.,

320
#include<iostream> a = "Albert Einstein was born in Ulm"
using namespace std; b = a.split(' ')
int main() print(b)
{ print(' '.join(b))
char M;
cout<<"Enter any character:";
Output:
M = getchar();
putchar(M); ['Albert', 'Einstein', 'was', 'born', 'in', 'Ulm']
return 0;
Albert Einstein was born in Ulm
}

The output on the screen:

Enter any character:

If you enter the character S
S will be outputted on the screen.

▪ Write a program to print the absolute value of a number

Answer:
# Python Program to delete a file

import os
#include<iostream>
#include<cmath> os.remove("1.txt")
using namespace std; print("1.txt file does not exist")
int main()
{
int a, b;
a= - 2;
b= abs(a);
cout<<" absolute value of a = "<< b<< endl;
return 0;
}

321
Cluster
The output on the screen:

absolute value of a = 2
A group of interconnected virtual machines is viewed
as a single entity to facilitate load balancing, auto-
scaling, and high availability

• Program 7.2

C ++ program to print the first 5 numbers starting from one together with their squares

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int i;
for( i=1; i<=5; i++)
cout<<"\n number = "<< i <<"its square = "<< i*i;
return 0;
}
def myfunc(a):
a.append(15)
a = [12, 13, 14]
Output:
print(a)
The output on the screen:
myfunc(a)
[12, 13, 14]
number=1 its square=1 print(a)
[12, 13, 14, 15]
number=2 its square=4
number=3 its square=9
number=4 its square=16
number=5 its square=25

• How the execution takes its way through the for loop statement

i=1
Is i<=5 true?

322
Yes, print this
number=1 its square=1
using the statement cout<<"\n number = "<< i <<"its square = "<< i*i;

Now,
i=2
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
number=2 its square=4
using the statement cout<<"\n number = "<< i <<"its square = "<< i*i;

Now,
i=3
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
number=3 its square=9
using the statement cout<<"\n number = "<< i <<"its square = "<< i*i;

Now,
i=4
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
number=4 its square=16
using the statement cout<<"\n number = "<< i <<"its square = "<< i*i;

Now,
i=5
Is i<=5 true?
Yes, print this
number=5 its square=25
using the statement cout<<"\n number = "<< i <<"its square = "<< i*i;

stop Now because the condition (i<=5) is achieved.

Cron job
• Note:
A Linux command that allows us to schedule tasks to be
If the statement
executed at a later time in future

323
cout<<"\n number = "<< i <<"its square = "<< i*i;

is replaced by the statement:

cout<<"\n number = "<< i <<"\t its square = "<< i*i;

def myfunc(x, y, *argv):

z = x * y

Then the output on the screen is: for i in argv:

z *= i
number=1 its square=1 return z
number=2 its square=4 print(myfunc(4, 8, 12, 16, 20))
number=3 its square=9
number=4 its square=16
number=5 its square=25 Output:

122880

tab /t is included because to leave space between

number=1 and its square=1

Suppose cout<<"\n number = "<< i <<"\t its square = "<< i*i; is replaced by the
statement

cout<<"\n number = "<< i <<"\n its square = "<< i*i;

Bare-metal

Then the output on the screen is:

The hard disc of a computer
number=1
its square=1 {The storage media on which the operating system (OS) is installed}
number=2
its square=4

324
Bastion host
number=3
its square=9
number=4
its square=16 A specialized server that is intentionally accessible to the public
number=5
network and is configured to survive cyberattacks
its square=25

▪ Write a program to print the first 10 numbers starting from one together with their
squares and cubes?
def myfunc(**kwargs):
for i, x in kwargs.items():
print(i + ": " + x)
Answer: myfunc(physicist = "Stephen", cosmologist = "William", author = "Hawking")

#include<iostream>
Output:
using namespace std;
physicist: Stephen
int main()
cosmologist: William
{
author: Hawking
int i;
for( i=1; i<=10; i++)
cout<<"number = "<< i <<" its square = "<< i*i <<" its cube = "<< i*i*i<< endl;
return 0;
}

• Program 7.3

C ++ program to print the address of x and the value assigned to x

import pandas as pd
a = pd.Series([3, 4, 13, 30, 13])
#include<iostream> b = pd.Series([13, 13, 30, 27, 29])
using namespace std; a=a[~a.isin(b)]
int main() print(a) Output:
{
int x, *p;
0 3
cout<<"Enter any integer:";
1 4
cin>>x;
dtype: int64

325
# union of series
p = &x;
cout<<"The address of the variable x = "<< p;
import pandas as pd
cout<<"The value of the variable x = "<< *p;
import numpy as np
return 0;
a = pd.Series([3, 4, 13, 30, 13])
}
b = pd.Series([13, 13, 30, 27, 29])
c= pd.Series(np.union1d(a, b))
print(c)

The output on the screen:

Output:

Enter any integer: 0 3

If you enter the integer 1
1 4
The address of the variable x = 0x7fffc60478a4
The value of the variable x = 1
2 13
will be outputted on the screen. 3 27
4 29
5 30
dtype: int64
If the statements:

cout<<"The address of the variable x = "<< p;

cout<<"The value of the variable x = "<< *p;

are replaced by the statement:

cout<<"The address of the variable x = "<< p <<"its value = "<< *p;

# intersection of series

import pandas as pd
i.e.,
import numpy as np
#include<iostream> a = pd.Series([3, 4, 13, 30, 13])
using namespace std; b = pd.Series([13, 13, 30, 27, 29])
int main() c= pd.Series(np.intersect1d(a, b))
{ print(c)
int x, *p; Output:
cout<<"Enter any integer:";
cin >> x; 0 13
p = &x; 1 30
dtype: int64

326
cout<<"The address of the variable x = "<< p <<"its value = "<< *p;
return 0;
}

Then the output on the screen is:

The address of the variable x = 0x7fff78508cc4 its value = 2

C++ program to print the sum of two numbers using pointers

C program:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std; #include <stdio.h>
int main() int main() {
{ int x =25;
int x, y, *p, *q, sum; (x>=56)? (printf("Albert")) : (printf("Einstein"));
cout<<"Enter any number:"; return 0;
cin >> x; }
cout<<"Enter any number:"; Output:
cin >> y;
p = &x;
Einstein
q = &y;
sum = *p + *q;
cout<<"\n sum of entered numbers = "<< sum;
return 0;
}
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int x =151;

The output on the screen: (x>=56)? (printf("Albert")) : (printf("Einstein"));

return 0;
}

Output:
Enter any number:

If you enter the number 4 Albert

Enter any number:

If you enter the number 3

327
sum of entered numbers = 7

will be outputted on the screen.

• C++ program to print the product, subtraction and division of two numbers using
pointers

#include<iostream>
using namespace std; #include<stdio.h>
int main() #define solve(s,t,u,m,p,e,d) m##s##u##t
{ #define start solve(a,n,i,m,a,t,e)
int x, y, *p, *q, product, subtract, div;
cout<<"Enter any number:"; int start() {
cin>> x; printf("Albert Einstein");
cout<<"Enter any number:"; return 0;
cin>> y; }
p = &x; Output:
q = &y;
product = *p * *q; Albert Einstein
subtract = *p - *q;
div= *p / *q;
cout<<"\n product of entered numbers = "<< product;
cout<<"\n subtract of entered numbers = "<< subtract;
cout<<"\n division of entered numbers = "<< div;
return 0;
} #include <stdio.h>
int main() {
float x = 6.77;
int y = (int)x+1;
The output on the screen: printf("%d\n", y);
return 0;
}
Enter any number:
If you enter the number 4 Output:
Enter any number:
If you enter the number 2 7
product of entered numbers = 8

328
subtract of entered numbers = 2
division of entered numbers = 2

will be displayed on the screen.

• C++ program to find the greatest of two numbers using pointers

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
#include<stdio.h>
{
#include<string.h>
int x, y, *p, *q;
#include<ctype.h>
cout<<"Enter any integer:";
cin>> x;
int main() {
cout<<"Enter any integer:";
char a[]="Albert";
cin>> y;
char b[]=" Einstein";
p = &x;
printf("%s", strcat(a, b));
q = &y;
return 0;
if(*p>*q)
}
{
cout<<"x is greater than y";
Output:
}
else
Albert Einstein
{
cout<<"y is greater than x";
}
return 0;
}

The output on the screen:

Enter any integer:

If you enter the integer 10
Enter any integer:

329
If you enter the integer 16
y is greater than x
will be outputted on the screen.

▪ What is the output of the following programs?

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
A)
int x = 3;

#include <iostream> if(x == (2, 4)) {

using namespace std; printf("Albert");

int main() { } else {

string x[2][4] = { printf("Einstein");

{"a", "b", "c", "d"}, }

{"e", "f", "g", "h"} return 0;

}; }

cout << x[0][1];

Output:
return 0;
} Einstein

Answer:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() Cycle Stealing
{
int x, t, c;
x=12;
A technique for accessing RAM without
t=2;
c = x/t; disrupting the CPU
cout<<"velocity = "<< c <<"m/s";
return 0;

330
}

Answer:

velocity = 6 m/s

• Program 7.4

C++ program to print the sum of two numbers using functions

Single-bit error:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std; A single bit of a data is altered from 1 to 0 or 0 to 1
int addition();
Burst Error:
int main()
{ 2 or more bits of data are altered from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0
int answer;
answer = addition();
cout<<"The sum of two numbers is: "<<answer;
return 0;
}
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int addition()
int x = 7;
{
if(x = x - 7 > 3) {
int x, y;
printf("Albert");
cout<<"Enter any integer:";
}
cin>>x;
else {
cout<<"Enter any integer:";
printf("Einstein");
cin>>y;
}
return x+y;
return 0;
}
}

Output:

Einstein
The output on the screen:

331
Python code:
Enter any integer:
If you enter the integer 3
a = ('Albert', 1905, 'Papers')
Enter any integer:
b = ['Albert', 1905, 'Papers']
If you enter the integer 5
print(a[0])
sum of two numbers = 8
print(b[1])
will be displayed on the screen. Output:
Albert
1905

• C++ program to print the product of two numbers using functions

a = [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]

#include<iostream> print(a[1 : : 2])

using namespace std;

int multiplication(); Output:
int main()
{ [12, 14, 16, 18, 20]
int answer;
answer = multiplication();
cout<<"The product of two numbers is: "<<answer;
return 0;
}

a = 50 # Global-scope variable
int multiplication() def myfunc():
{ a = 100 # Local-scope variable
int x, y; print(a)
cout<<"Enter any integer:"; print(a)
cin>>x; myfunc()
cout<<"Enter any integer:"; print(a)
cin>>y; Output:
return x*y; 50
} 100
50

The output on the screen:

Enter any integer:

332
b = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
If you enter the integer 3
a = [i**2 for i in b]
Enter any integer: print(a)

If you enter the integer 5

Output:
product of two numbers = 15 [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
will be outputted on the screen.

• C++ program to print the greatest of two numbers using functions

• Bit rate: The number of bits transmitted in one second

#include<iostream>
• Baud rate: The number of signal units per second required to represent those bits
using namespace std;
int largest();
𝐁𝐢𝐭 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞
int main() Baud rate =
Number of bits represented by each signal shift
{
int answer;
answer = largest();
cout<<"The largest of two numbers is: "<<answer;
return 0;
}

int largest() b = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

{ a = [i%2 for i in b]

int x, y; print(a)

cout<<"Enter any integer:";

cin>>x;
cout<<"Enter any integer:";
Output:
[1, 0, 1, 0, 1]
cin>>y;
if(x>y)
return x;
if(y>x)
return y;
}

The output on the screen:

333
Enter any integer:
If you enter the integer 3
Enter any integer: Retransmission:
If you enter the integer 5
largest of two numbers= 5 A method in which the receiver identifies an error and
will be outputted on the screen. requests that the sender resend the message

• C++ program to print the greatest of three numbers using functions

#include<iostream>
Unicast transmission
using namespace std;
int largest();
int main()
{
int answer;
The data is sent from a single source to
answer = largest();
cout<<"largest of three numbers= "<< answer; a single recipient
return 0;
}
int largest()
{
b = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
int x, y, z;
a = {i:i**2 for i in b}
cout<<"Enter any integer:";
print(a)
cin>>x;
cout<<"Enter any integer:";
cin>>y; Output:
cout<<"Enter any integer:";
cin>>z; {1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25}

if(x>y&& x>z)
return x;
if(y>x&& y > z)
return y;
if(z>x && z>y)
return z;
}

334
p = [3, 5, 7]

The output on the screen: q = [9, 11, 13]

r = [(a + b) for (a,b) in zip(p,q)]
Enter any integer: print(r)

If you enter the integer 3 Output:

Enter any integer: [12, 16, 20]

If you enter the integer 5

p = [3, 5, 7]

Enter any integer: q = [9, 11, 13]

r = [(a * b) for (a,b) in zip(p,q)]
If you enter the integer 10 print(r)
Output:
largest of three numbers = 10

will be outputted on the screen. [27, 55, 91]

• C++ program to print the square of the number using functions

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int square(;
int main()
{
int answer;
answer = square();
cout<<"square of the number = "<< answer;
return 0;
} p = [3, 5]
int square() q = [9, 11]
{ r = [(a,b) for a in p for b in q]
int x; print(r)
cout<<"Enter any integer:";
Output:
cin>>x;
return x*x;
[(3, 9), (3, 11), (5, 9), (5, 11)]
}

335
The output on the screen:

Enter any integer:

If you enter an integer 5
square of the number = 25 Shift left testing
will be outputted on the screen.

A practice aimed at detecting and

▪ What is the output of the following program: correcting errors considerably earlier
in the software development lifecycle
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int x;
x=6;
cout<<"The address of x = "<<&x;
return 0;
}

Answer:

The address of x = 0x7ffd80d2c06c

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{ Output:
int a = 32;
int& b = a; a = 62
b = 62;
cout << "a = " << a << endl;
return 0;
}

336
• Program 7.5

C++ has an inbuilt multiple branch selection statement [called switch] which successively
tests the value of an expression against a list of integer or character constants. When a
match is found, the statement sequences associated with that constant are executed.
Switch(case)allows us to make decision from the number of choices i.e., from the
number of cases.

For example:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char ch;
cout<<"Enter any character:"; Self-Serving Data
cin>>ch;
switch(ch)
{
case 'R':
cout<<"Red";
break; Making data accessible to data users for statistical
case 'W': and research purposes, allowing them to generate
cout<<"White"; and build their own data analysis, as well as
break;
modify and adapt judgments based on it
case 'Y':
cout<<"Yellow";
break;
case 'G':
cout<<"Green";
break;
default:
cout<<"Error";
break;
}
return 0;

337
}

C program:

The output on the screen: #include <stdio.h>

#include <ctype.h>
Enter any character:
int main() {

If you enter a character R char a = 'k';

printf("%c", toupper(a));
Red char b = 'K';
printf("\n %c", tolower(b));
will be outputted on the screen.
char x = '2';
printf("\n %c", toupper(x));
return 0;
If the statements: }

Output:
case 'R':
cout<<"Red";
K
break;
k
case 'W':
cout<<"White"; 2
break;
case 'Y':
cout<<"Yellow";
break; #include<stdio.h>

case 'G': int main() {

cout<<"Green"; int a; Output:

break; a=printf("Albert");

default: printf("%d", a); Albert6

cout<<"Error"; return 0;

break;
}

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
are replaced by the statements: Output:
int a;
a=printf("Alan"); Alan4
case 'R': printf("%d", a);
cout<<"Red"; return 0;
case 'W':
cout<<"White"; }

338
case 'Y': #include <stdlib.h>
cout<<"Yellow"; #include <stdio.h>
break;
case 'G': int main() {
cout<<"Green"; char a = 'K';
break; if(a =='A') { Output:
default: exit(0); K
cout<<"Error"; } else {
break; printf("K");
}
return 0;
}
Then the output on the screen is:

Red

White

Yellow

i.e., the output will be printed till yellow even though you have entered the character R.

• In C, a switch can have at least 257 case statements. C++ recommends that at least 16,384 case statements
be supported.

Why do we need arrays?

Arrays provide a more convenient way of storing variables of a similar data type together instead of storing them
separately. Each value of the array will be accessed separately.

#include<stdio.h>
int main(){

• Program 7.6 int const x = 12;

printf("%d", x+1);
C++ program to print the output: return 0;
}
Element [0] = 16
Output:
Element [1] = 18 13

339
Element [2] = 20 #include<stdio.h>
int main() {
Element [3] = 25 int a = 20;
printf("%d\n%d\n%d\n", a++,a,++a);
Element [4] = 36
return 0;
using arrays: } Output:
21
22
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
22
main()
{
int i;
int num [5] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
cout<<"Element ["<< i <<" ] = "<< num[i] << endl;
return 0;
}
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int a;
The output on the screen:
int b= 1;
Element [0] = 16 int m[3] = { 1, 2, 3};
Element [1] = 18 a = 5 * 6 + m[b+1] - (6 / b);
Element [2] = 20 printf("%d", a);
Element [3] = 25 return 0; Output:
Element [4] = 36 }
27

Suppose the statement:

cout<<"Element ["<< i <<" ] = "<< num[i] << endl;

is replaced by the statement:

cout<<"Element ["<< i <<" ] = "<< num[0] << endl;

340
#include<stdio.h>
Then the output on the screen:

Element [0] = 16 int main() {

char c = 'x';
Element [1] = 16 int n = 0, y;
y = c + n;
Element [2] = 16
printf("The ASCII value of x is: %d\n", y);
Element [3] = 16 return 0;

Element [4] = 16 Output:

}
The ASCII value of x is: 120

Suppose the statement:

cout<<"Element ["<< i <<" ] = "<< num[i] << endl;

is replaced by the statement:

cout<<"Element ["<< i <<" ] = "<< num[1] << endl;

#include <stdio.h>
The output on the screen: int main(void) {
Output:
printf("Ala\bn");
Ala•n
return 0;
}

Element [0] = 18
Element [1] = 18
Element [2] = 18 #include <stdio.h>

Element [3] = 18 int main()

Element [4] = 18 {
while (printf("Albert Einstein"))
return 0;
} Output:

Suppose the statement: Albert Einstein

cout<<"Element ["<< i <<" ] = "<< num[i] << endl;

is replaced by the statement:

341
cout<<"Element ["<< i <<" ] = "<< num[2] << endl;

#include <stdio.h>
The output on the screen: int main(){
extern int x;
printf("%d", x);
Element [0] = 20
return 0;
Element [1] = 20
}
Element [2] = 20
int x = 52;
Element [3] = 20 Output:
Element [4] = 20
52

Suppose the statement:

cout<<"Element ["<< i <<" ] = "<< num[i] << endl;

is replaced by the statement:

cout<<"Element ["<< i <<" ] = "<< num[3] << endl;

The output on the screen: #include <stdio.h>

#define SQUARE(y) (y)*(y)
Element [0] = 25
int main() {
Element [1] = 25
printf("%d\n", SQUARE(2));
Element [2] = 25 int z = 6;
printf("%d\n", SQUARE(z+1));
Element [3] = 25
return 0;

Element [4] = 25 } Output:

4
49

Suppose the statement:

cout<<"Element ["<< i <<" ] = "<< num[i] << endl; is replaced by the statement:

cout<<"Element ["<< i <<" ] = "<< num[4] << endl;

342
The output on the screen: Data Culture

Element [0] = 36
Element [1] = 36
The collective behaviors, views, attitudes and convections of
Element [2] = 36
individuals in an enterprise organization who respect, value,
Element [3] = 36
Element [4] = 36
practice and support the use of data to improve data-driven
decision-making and solve data-related issues

If the condition:

i<5
Parallel Programming
is replaced by the condition:
(The programming paradigm)
i<=5

Then the output on the screen is:

Divides a task into subtasks and focuses on
completing them all at once

Element [0] = 16
Element [1] = 18
Element [2] = 20
Element [3] = 25
Element [4] = 36
Element [5] = 3656

3656 is the number stored in the memory i.e., any number stored in the memory will be
displayed.

If the statement:

int num [5] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36}; is replaced by the statement:

343
int num [i] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};

Then the compilation error will be displayed on the screen because there are 5 elements within
the braces {} not i elements.

C Program:

#include <stdio.h>

Output:
int main() {
int a =13;
Odd
(a&1)?printf("Odd"):printf("Even");
return 0;

C++ Program:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int mult(int x, int y){

return x*y;
}
Output:

int mult(int x, int y, int z) 20

{
12
return x*y*z;
}

int main() {
cout<<mult(4,5)<<endl;
cout<<mult(2,6,1)<<endl;
return 0;

344
Java Program:
public class HelloWorld {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Albert Einstein"); Output:

} Albert Einstein
public static void main(String args) {
System.out.println("Alan Turing");
}
}

▪ C++ program to print the sum of the elements in array.

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
Management Information Systems
int main()
{
int i, sum = 0;
int num [5] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};
The method of delivering appropriate data to
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
sum = sum + num[i]; conduct day-to-day business operations and
cout<<"Sum of the Elements in the array = "<< sum; track an enterprise organization's growth
return 0;
}

The output on the screen:

Sum of the Elements in the array = 115 Collective intelligence

i.e., 16 + 18 + 20 + 25 + 36 = 115

The act of a large group of individuals gathering and

If the statement: sharing their ideas, opinions, knowledge, experiences,

int i, sum = 0; information and abilities in order to solve diverse

problems in society

is replaced by int i, sum = 1;

345
Then The output on the screen:

Sum of the Elements in the array = 116

▪ C++ program to print the average of the elements in array

Python code:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std; x = [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]
int main() print(x[-1])
{ print(x[-2])
int i, avg, sum = 0; Output:
int num [5] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36}; 16
for(i=0; i<5; i++) 15
sum = sum + num [i];
avg = sum/5;
cout<<"Sum of the Elements in the array = "<< sum;
cout<<"average of the elements in the array= "<< avg;
return 0;
}

The output on the screen:

Sum of the Elements in the array = 115

average of the elements in the array = 23

import pandas as pd
a = {'Albert' : 1879, 'Turing' : 1912, 'Newton' : 1643}
▪ Write a program to print: b = pd.Series(a) Albert 1879
print (b) Turing 1912
Newton 1643
Einstein [0] = E dtype: int64

import pandas as pd
Einstein [1] = I
a = {'Albert' : 18.79, 'Turing' : 19.12, 'Newton' : 16.43}

Einstein [2] = N b = pd.Series(a) Albert 18.79

print (b) Turing 19.12
Einstein [3] = S Newton 16.43
dtype: float64

346
Einstein [4] = T C program:

Einstein [5] = E #include <stdio.h>

Einstein [6] = I
int main() {
Einstein [7] = N
int x=0;
while (10 - x++)
printf ("\n %d", x);
using arrays
return 0;
}

Output:
Answer: 1
2
3
#include<iostream>
4
using namespace std;
5
int main()
{
6
int i; 7
char name [8] = {'E' , 'I', 'N', 'S', 'T', 'E', 'I', 'N'}; 8
for(i=0; i<8; i++)
9
cout<<"Einstein ["<< i <<" ] = "<< name[i] << endl;
10
return 0;
}

▪ What will be the output of the following programs?

#include <iostream>
#include <math.h>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
cout<<""<< cbrt(27);
return 0;

347
}

Answer:

3
C program:
ii)
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a = 19, b = 2;
#include <iostream> double c;
using namespace std; c = (double) a / b;
int main() printf("%f\n", c );
{ return 0;
char i; }
char body [4] = {'b', 'o', 'd', 'y'}; Output:
for(i=0; i<4; i++)
cout<<"\n body ["<<body[i] <<" ] = "<< body[i] << endl;
9.500000
return 0;
}

Answer: #include <stdlib.h>

#include <stdio.h>
enum {false, true};

body [b] = b int main() {

int x = 10;
body [o] = o do {
printf("%d\n", x); x+1;
body [d] = d
if (x <= 12)

body [y] = y continue;

} while (false);
getchar(); Output:
return 0;
10

iii) }

348
#include <iostream>
#include <malloc.h>
using namespace std; #include <stdio.h>
int main() int main() {
{ for (int a=1; a<=3; a++)
int x=2; printf ("%d", a*a);
cout<<""<< malloc (200*sizeof(x)); return 0;
return 0; }
}

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a=1;
while (a<=3) {
Answer:
printf ("%d", a * a);
8183824 a++;
}
return 0;
}
 Program 7.7

C++ program to print the output:

Name of the book = B

Output:
Price of the book = 135.00

Number of pages = 300 149

Edition of the book = 8

using structures
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main () {
#include<iostream>
int x, y;
using namespace std;
x=strlen("Albert");
int main()
y=sizeof("Albert"); Output:
{
printf("%d %d", x, y);
struct book {
return 0; 67
char name;
}
float price;
int pages;

349
int edition;
};
struct book b1= {'B', 135.00, 300, 8};
cout<<"Name of the book = "<< b1.name<< endl;
cout<<"Price of the book = "<< b1.price<<endl;
cout<<"Number of pages = "<< b1.pages<<endl;
cout<<"Edition of the book = "<< b1.edition<< endl;
return 0;
#include <stdio.h>
}
void num(int, int);
int main() { Calling a function by
int x=56, y=106; passing the values of
num(x,y); variables
The output on the screen:
printf("%d \n", x);

Name of the book = B printf("%d \n", y);

return 0;
Price of the book = 135.00 }
void num(int p, int q) {
Number of pages = 300
p=25;
Edition of the book = 8 q=36; Output:
}
56
106
 What will be output of the following programs?

#include <stdio.h>
A) void num(int*,int*);
Calling a function by
int main() {
#include<iostream>
passing references of
int x=56,y=106;
using namespace std;
variables
num(&x, &y);
struct book {
char name; printf("%d \n", x);
printf("%d \n", y);
float price;
return 0;
int pages;
}
int edition;
void num(int *p, int *q) {
};
*p=25;
int main()
{
*q=36;
Output:
}
struct book b1;
b1.name = 'C'; 25
b1.price = 135.00; 36
b1.pages = 300;

350
b1.edition = 8;
cout<<"Name of the book = bulgarian "<< b1.name << endl;
cout<<"\n Price of the book = "<< b1.price;
cout<<"\n Number of pages = "<< b1.pages<<endl;
cout<<"\n Edition of the book = "<< b1.edition;
}
C program:

#include <stdio.h>
Answer: #define m(a, b) a##b

Name of the book = B

int main() {
Price of the book = 135.000000
int ab = 560;
Number of pages = 300 printf("%d", m(a, b));
return 0;
Edition of the book = 8
}
Output:

B) 560

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {

C program:
for( ; ; ) {
#include <stdio.h>
cout<<"This loop will run forever.\n";
} int main() {
int a = 32;
return 0; if (a && ((a & a-1) == 0)) {

} printf ("%d is a power of 2", a);

}
else {
printf ("%d is not a power of 2", a);

}
return 0;
Answer:
}

This loop will run forever. Output:

This loop will run forever.
32 is a power of 2
This loop will run forever.

351
This loop will run forever.
This loop will run forever.
This loop will run forever.

......... continues

• Program 7.8

Continue and break statements:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() C Program:
{
int i; #include <stdio.h>
for (i=1; i<=5; i++) #define xyz main
{
if (i==3) int xyz ()
{ {
continue; printf("Albert Einstein");
} return 0;

cout<<"\n "<< i; } Output:

}
return 0; Albert Einstein

Output on the screen:

352
5

ii)

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
C program:
{
int i; #include <stdio.h>
for (i=1; i<=5; i++) int main() {
{ int num[3]={11,12,13};
if (i==3) for(int x=0;x<3;x++) {
{ printf("%d", num[x]);
break; }
} return 0;
cout<<"\n "<< i; }
}
return 0; Output:
}
11 12 13

Output on the screen:

1
2

Access Public Protected Private

Same class yes yes yes

Derived classes yes yes no

Outside classes yes no no

• Program 7.9

C++ program to convert the upper case letter to lower case letter

353
#include<iostream>
Python code:
Output:
using namespace std;
a = "manjunath5496".isalnum()
int main()
print(a) True
{
char ch = 'A';
char b = tolower(ch);
cout<<" upper case letter "<< ch <<" is converted to lower case letter "<< b;
return 0;
}

Output on the screen:

upper case letter A is converted to lower case letter a

If you want to enter the character through the keyboard, then the above program should take the
form:

Python code:
#include<iostream>
a = "$manju@123".isalnum()
Output:
using namespace std;
print(a)
int main() False
{
char ch;
cout<<"Enter any character:";
cin>>ch;
char b = tolower(ch);
cout<<" upper case letter "<< ch <<" is converted to lower case letter "<< b;
return 0;
}
import re

a = bool(re.match('[A-Za-z0-9]+$','manju1988'))
print(a)

Output on the screen:

b = bool(re.match('[A-Za-z0-9]+$','$manju@1988'))
print(b)
Enter any character: Output:
If you enter the character C True
False

354
upper case letter C is converted to lower case letter c will be outputted on the
screen.

• Program 8.0

C++ program to convert the lower case letter to upper case letter
import re
def m(date):

#include<iostream> return re.sub(r'(\d{4})-(\d{1,2})-(\d{1,2})', '\\3-\\2-\\1', date)

using namespace std; d = "1988-03-01"

int main() print(m(d)) Output:

{
char ch = 'a'; 01-03-1988
char b = toupper(ch);
cout<<" lower case letter "<<ch<<" is converted to upper case letter "<<b;
return 0;
}

Output on the screen:

lower case letter a is converted to upper case letter A

If you want to enter the character through the keyboard, then the above program should take
the form: from datetime import datetime

#include<iostream>
a = datetime.strptime("1988-03-01", "%Y-%m-%d").strftime("%d:%m:%Y")
using namespace std;
print(a)
int main()
{ Output:
char ch;
cout<<"Enter any character:";
01:03:1988
cin>>ch;
char b = toupper(ch);
cout<<" lower case letter "<<ch<<" is converted to upper case letter "<<b;

355
return 0; from collections import Counter
}
a ={'Albert': 25, 'John': 50, 'Alan': 75}
b = {'Newton': 100, 'Einstein': 125, 'Turing': 150}
c = Counter(a) + Counter(b)
Output on the screen:
print(c)
Enter any character:

If you enter the character h

lower case letter h is converted to upper case letter H

will be outputted on the screen.

Counter({'Turing': 150, 'Einstein': 125, 'Newton': 100, 'Alan': 75, 'John': 50, 'Albert': 25})

Following is the list of operators which can be overloaded:

+ - * / % ^

& | ~ ! , =

< > <= >= ++ --

<< >> == != && ||

+= −= /= %= ^= &=

|= *= <<= >>= [] ()

−> −>* new new [ ] delete delete [ ]

Following is the list of operators which cannot be overloaded:

:: .* . ?:

• Program 8.1

356
C++ program to test whether the entered character is upper case letter or not

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char ch = 'a';
if(isupper(ch))
cout<<"you have entered the upper case letter";
else
cout<<"you have entered the lower case letter";
return 0;
} C program:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
Output on the screen: int x = 4, y = 4;
printf("!(x == y) is %d \n", !(x == y));
you have entered the lower case letter
return 0;
}

If the statement: Output:

char ch = 'a'; !(x = = y) is 0

is replaced by the statement:

char ch = 'A';

Then the output on the screen is:

you have entered the upper case letter

• Program 8.2

C++ program to test whether the entered character is lower case letter or not

357
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
#include<iostream>
int x = 4, y = 4, z = 5;
using namespace std;
printf("(x != y) || (z < y) is %d \n", (x != y) || (z < y));
int main()
return 0;
{
char ch = 'a'; }
if(islower(ch))
cout<<"you have entered the lower case letter";
else
cout<<"you have entered the upper case letter";
return 0;
} Output:

(x != y) || (z < y) is 0

Output on the screen:

you have entered the lower case letter

• Program 8.3

C++ program to print the value of tan inverse x (i.e., the value of tan−1 x)

#include <stdio.h>
#include<iostream> int main() {
#include<math.h> int x = 4, y = 4, z = 5;
using namespace std; printf("(x == y) || (z < y) is %d \n", (x == y) || (z < y));
int main() return 0;
{ }
int x = 20;
cout<<"the value of tan inverse x = "<< atan(x);
return 0;
}
Output:

(x = = y) || (z < y) is 1
Output on the screen:

the value of tan inverse x = 1.520838

358
• Program 8.4
x x
C++ program to print the value of tan inverse (i.e., the value of tan−1 y )
y

C program:
#include<iostream>
#include <stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
int main() {
using namespace std;
int x = 4, y = 4, z = 5;
int main()
printf("(x == y) && (z > y) is %d \n", (x == y) && (z > y));
{
return 0;
int x, y;
}
x = 20; Output:
y =20;
cout<<"the value of tan inverse x/y = "<< atan2(x,y); (x = = y) && (z > y) is 1
return 0;
}

Output on the screen:

the value of tan inverse x/y = 0.785398

C program:

• Program 8.5 #include <stdio.h>

int main() {
C++ program to print the value of fmod(x, y) int x = 4, y = 4, z = 5;
printf("%d <= %d is %d \n", x, y, x <= y);
#include<iostream>
printf("%d <= %d is %d \n", x, z, x <= z);
#include<math.h>
return 0;
using namespace std; Output:
}
int main()
{ 4 <= 4 is 1
float x = 20.500000; 4 <= 5 is 1
float y =20.799999;
cout<<" the remainder of "<<x <<" divided by "<<y <<" is: "<< fmod(x,y);
return 0;
}

359
Output on the screen:

the remainder of 20.500000 divided by 20.799999 is 20.500000

C program:
• Program 8.6
#include <stdio.h>
C++ program to print the value of ~x
int main() {
#include<iostream> int x = 4, y = 4, z = 5;
using namespace std; printf("%d >= %d is %d \n", x, y, x >= y);
int main() printf("%d >= %d is %d \n", x, z, x >= z);
{
return 0;
int x, y;
}
x = 205; Output:
y=~x;
cout<<"the value of y is: "<< y; 4 >= 4 is 1
return 0; 4 >= 5 is 0
}

Output on the screen:

C program:
the value of y is:-206
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int x = 4, y = 4, z = 5;
printf("(x == y) && (z < y) is %d \n", (x == y) && (z < y));

If the statement: return 0;

}
y=~x; is replaced by the statement:

y= −(~x);

Then the output on the screen is:

Output:

(x == y) && (z < y) is 0

360
the value of y is: 206

What will be the output of the following programs:

i)
C program:
#include<iostream>
#include <stdio.h>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int main()
int x = 4, y = 4, z = 5;
{
printf("%d == %d is %d \n", x, y, x == y);
int i = 54;
printf("%d == %d is %d \n", x, z, x == z);
int y = i<<1;
return 0;
cout<<"The value of y = "<< y;
}
return 0;
} Output:

4 = = 4 is 1
4 = = 5 is 0
Answer:

The value of y = 108

If the statement:

i<<1 is replaced by the statement: i<<2

Then the output on the screen is: C program:

#include <stdio.h>
The value of y = 216
int main() {
int x = 4, y = 4, z = 5;
printf("%d > %d is %d \n", x, y, x > y);
printf("%d > %d is %d \n", x, z, x > z);
ii)
return 0;
}

#include<iostream> Output:
using namespace std; 4 > 4 is 0
int main() 4 > 5 is 0

361
C program:
{
int i = 54; #include <stdio.h>
int y = i>>1; int main() {
cout<<"The value of y = "<< y; int x = 4, y = 4, z = 5;
return 0; printf("%d < %d is %d \n", x, y, x < y);
} printf("%d < %d is %d \n", x, z, x < z);
return 0;
}

Output:

Answer:
4 < 4 is 0

The value of y = 27 4 < 5 is 1

If the statement:

i>>1 is replaced by the statement: i>>2

C program:

Then the output on the screen is: #include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int x = 4, y = 4, z = 5;
printf("%d != %d is %d \n", x, y, x != y);
printf("%d != %d is %d \n", x, z, x != z);
The value of y = 13
return 0;
} Output:

4 != 4 is 0
4 != 5 is 1

• Program 8.7

C++ program to print the length of the entered character (i.e., to print the length of the
string)

#include<iostream>
#include<string.h>
using namespace std;
int main()
{

362
char ch[4];
cout<<"Enter any word: ";
cin>>ch;
cout<<"The length of the string = "<< strlen(ch);
return 0;
}
Dogpile effect
(A sort of cascading failure)

Output on the screen: occur

When a cache expires and a website receives a large

Enter any word:
number of requests at the same time
If you enter the word dog

The length of the string = 3

will be displayed on the console screen because there are three letters in the word
dog.

Suppose if you enter the word tech

The length of the string = 4

will be displayed on the console screen because there are four letters in the word tech.

Resilience testing Database Sharding

The method of dividing huge

A technique of software testing that focuses on how well an tables into smaller bits known as
software application performs under pressure or in shards and distributing them
uncontrolled chaotic situations across several servers

363
Binary tree

The maximum number of nodes in a binary

tree of height h is 2h+1 −1 where h ≥ 1
A tree data structure in which each
P
node has either zero children or one
child or two children

Node with two children Q

R Node with one child

S T X Node with zero children

Garbage Collection

Z A memory management feature incorporated into programming

languages such as Java that automatically frees up memory space
assigned to objects that the program no longer requires
Unlabeled Binary Tree → nodes are unlabeled

Number of unlabeled binary trees possible with 'x' unlabeled nodes = 2xCx / x +1

For x = 3:
2x! 6! 6×5×4×3×2×1
2x
Cx = = = = 20
x! (2x−x)! 3! (6−3)! (3×2×1) ×(3×2×1)

20
Number of unlabeled binary trees possible with '3' unlabeled nodes = =5
(3 + 1)

Labeled Binary Tree → nodes are labeled

Number of labeled binary trees possible with 'x' labeled nodes = (2xCx / x +1) × x!

For x = 3:

Number of labeled binary trees possible with '3' labeled nodes = 5 × 3! = 5 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 30

364
• Program 8.8

C++ program to print the factorial of the entered number

C program:
#include<iostream> Output:
using namespace std;
#include <stdio.h>
int main () { 14.000000
int main()
{ int p = 14;
int i, n, fact=1 ; float q = p;
cout<<"Enter any number:"; printf("%f", q);
cin>>n; return 0;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
}
fact = fact *i;
cout<<"\n Entered number is: "<< n;
cout<<"\n The factorial of the entered number"<<n<<"is:"<< fact;
return 0;
}

Output on the screen:

C program:
Enter any number:
If you enter the number 2 #include <stdio.h>
Entered number is: 2 int main () {
The factorial of the entered number 2 is: 2 float p = 14.11;
will be displayed on the screen.
int q = (int) p;
printf("%d", q);
return 0;

Suppose if you enter the number 4 }

Output:
Entered number is: 4
14
The factorial of the entered number 4 is: 24

will be displayed on the screen.

365
The Single Responsibility Principle
Each 1 or 0 in a binary number is called a bit

1 nibble = 4 bits Each module or class should do one

thing and one thing only
1 byte = 2 nibbles = 8 bits

1 kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes

The Dilbert Principle:
1 megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB
Ineffective employees are frequently
promoted to managerial positions in order 1 gigabyte (GB) = 1024 MB Chesterton's Fence:
to remove them from the workforce
Even if it appears redundant or inaccurate at
first look, one should try to thoroughly
understand the meaning of the code before
altering or deleting it

Take the value of x, add 1, and store

Set x = x + 1 the result back in the same variable.

Syntax Errors – The program will not run at all

• Include: Forgetting punctuation, misspelling keyword

Errors

Logic Errors − The program runs, but does not produce the expected results
• Include: Using an incorrect formula, incorrect sequence of statements

If we emailed a marketing survey link to 520 The Interface Segregation Principle

people and only 250 responded, then 520 is the
sample survey and 250 is the sample
Clients should not be forced to use interfaces that
they are unfamiliar with

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• Comprehend the issue
• Devise a plan
Problem solving steps
• Carry out the plan
• Audit the outcomes

The Scout Rule:

Always try to leave the code in a better

state than when you found it

• Analyze the problem

• Plan the program
Program development steps
• Code the program
• Test the program

System Software − Programs written for computer systems

(Operating System, Interpreters, Compilers)

Software

Application Software − Programs written for computer users

(Word processors, IDEs, Spreadsheets)

George Box's Law The Spotify Model:

All systems models have flaws, but as long as they don't have too Rather than being organized on technologies,

many flaws, they can be useful teams are organized around features

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Kernighan's Law: Debugging is twice
Source Code Compiler
as difficult as writing the code itself

Translator

Assembly language Assembler

Intermediate program
Program Execution

Machine language

Virtual Machine (VM)

Java Compiler

Machine language Interpreter

Byte code
Output

Data abstraction Control abstraction

The concealment of The concealment of
data details implementation details
Interpreter

The Law of Conservation of Complexity

(Tesler's Law):
Premature Optimization
Output
Each application has a certain level of inherent
complexity that cannot be eliminated or concealed
We start optimizing before we
even realise we need to

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Data type that stores two types of values (0 and 1).
Boolean
• 0 represents false value and 1 represents true value

Dunbar's number

150

The maximum number of people we can

keep track of and include in our ongoing
#include <stdio.h>
social network
#include <stdbool.h>

int main() {
bool x = false;
if(x){
printf("x is true."); If you don't include this
} header file, the program will
else{ not compile
printf("x is false.");
}
}

Output on the screen:

x is false

Input Process Output

• Sequence control structure

Control structure
• Selection control structure

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Sequence control structure Selection control structure

• Go to the Contacts Open your wallet

IF you have enough money,
• Dial the Burger number
THEN
• Order the Burger
• Go to the Contacts
• Hang up
• Dial the Burger number.

• Order the Burger

• Hang up
Or ELSE Forget the whole thing

• Source Code → Read by People

• Object Code → Read by the Computer

The instruction
mov al, 061h
implies:
Assembly Level Language

Move the hexadecimal value 61 (97 decimal) into the processor register named "al"

Amara's Law

We tend to overestimate the technology's short-term impact and underestimate its long-term impact

Postel's Law
Sarnoff's Law: The utility of a broadcast network
rises in direct proportion to the number of viewers (Robustness Principle)

Protocol developers should be conservative in what

they do and liberal in what they accept from others
Flow Chart to find largest of two numbers:

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Start The Liskov Substitution Principle:

Without creating any errors, a child class must

be replaceable for its parent class
Read

Yes No

If A > B

Print A Print B

End

Limitations of Flowchart

• If the program logic is quite complicated, then flowchart becomes complex and clumsy.

• In the event that modifications are required the flowchart may require re-drawing totally.As the flowchart
symbols can't be typed, reproduction of flowchart turns into an issue.

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String x = "32";
int y = Integer.parseInt(s1); // y now holds 32

String x = "32";
double y = Double.parseDouble(s1); // y now holds 32

Parkinson's Law:

The amount of work grows in proportion to

the amount of time available to complete it

a <<= b → a × 2b

#include<stdio.h>

main() Beckstrom's Laws of Cyber Security:

{
• Everything connected to the Internet is vulnerable to attack.
int a, b, c;
• Everything is connected to the Internet.
a=2;

b=2; • Everything else is dependent on the first two laws.

c = a <<= b;
V = B – C – SI – L
printf("The value of c = %d", c);

}
• V = The utility of a network
• B = The benefit a network offers
• C = The expense of providing the network
• SI = Security investment that a enterprise organization spends in order
Output on the screen:
to minimize losses

The value of c = 8 • L = Actual losses as a consequence of poor security

a >>= b → a × 2−b
Gall's Law: A complicated system
that works is developed from a
simpler system that worked

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#include<stdio.h>

main()
{
The Broken Windows Theory: Poor
int a, b, c; quality code can give the impression that
a=2; efforts to improve it are being neglected or
b=2; devalued, leading to even worse code

c = a <<= b;

printf("The value of c = %%", c);

Output on the screen:

The value of c = %

90−9−1 Principle

Java Simplifications of C++ (1% Rule)

• no pointers — just references

• no functions — declare static methods Ninety percent of people just consume content,
while nine percent alter or modify it, and one
• no global variables — public static variables
percent adds it
• no destructors — garbage collection and finalize

• no linking — dynamic class loading

• no header files — define interface Law of Leaky Abstraction

• no operator overloading — only method overloading

Details of the abstracted lower level
• no member initialization lists — call super constructor
concept are leaking up through the higher
• no preprocessor — static final constants and automatic inlining level concept

• no multiple inheritance — implement multiple interfaces

• no structures, unions, Enums — typically not needed

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Heap: Dynamically allocated global memory

Stack: Local memory for function calls

Kerckhoff's principle:

C++ does not support garbage collection

Java does not support multiple inheritance In cryptography, a system should be secure even if
everything about it is widely known except for a
little piece of information called the key

Conway's Law:
Hoare's Law of Large Programs:
Any piece of software is a representation of the organizational structure
Every huge problem contains a little
that created it
problem that is attempting to escape

Unbounded (indefinite) loop − while and do-while statement

Loops
Bounded (definite) loop – for statement

Hofstadter's Law: A project will always

take longer than expected

• Internal Sort: The data to be sorted is stored in the computer's main memory

• External Sort: The data to be sorted is stored in some external device

• In Place Sort: The amount of extra space required to sort the data is constant with the input size

Ninety–ninety rule:

The first 90% of the code consumes 10% of the time to complete

The remaining 10% of the code consumes the remaining 90% of the time to complete

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• Problem definition

• Problem analysis

• Design the problem

• Coding
Problem solving methodology
• Program testing and Debugging

• Documentation

• Program maintenance

Hick-Hyman Law:

How does Machine learning Work? The higher the number of options presented to users, the longer it
will take them to make a selection

Learn from data

Input data Analyze Data

Find patterns
Prediction
Build
Logical
models Metcalfe's Law:
Evaluation

If N is the number of network users, then

Store the result the network's utility is proportional to N2

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7 Steps of Machine Learning: Linus's Law:

Almost any problem will be promptly identified and

• Gather the Data
the solution will be evident to someone if you have a
• Prepare that data large enough beta-tester and co-developer team

• Choose a model

• Train the model

• Evaluation
Brooks' Law
• Hyperparameter Tuning

• Prediction
Adding workforce to a late software
project only delays it
3 Main techniques of Machine Learning:

• Supervised Learning

ML
Known Data Processing
Algorithm

Trained model
Production Verification

Unknown Data

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• Unsupervised Learning Gilder's Law: Every twelve months, the total
bandwidth of communication systems triples

Unknown ML
Processing
Data Algorithm

Production Trained model

Wirth's Law: Software slows down more

Reinforcement Learning (Learn from mistakes): quickly than hardware speeds up

It's a mango Wrong! It's an apple Noted!

Apple
? Response Feedback Learns
Input

Bell's Law:

Every ten years: a set of new, lower-cost computers

emerges, based on a new programming platform,
Reinforced response It's an apple
network, and interface, resulting in new applications
and the birth of a new industry

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Hypponen's Law: Every time a device Fitt's Law:
is described as "smart," it is vulnerable
The time it takes for a pointer to move from its present position to a
target is proportional to the target's distance and size

Cunningham's Law

Kryder's Law:

Every thirteen months, the amount of data a disc can hold doubles

Storage will become less expensive as the amount of

The best approach to acquire the right
data a disc can hold increases
answer on the Internet is to publish the
wrong answer, not to ask a question

Machine Learning
Pre-categorized data Unlabeled data

Supervised Unsupervised

Predict a category Predict a number

Classification
Regression
(Divide the items by color)
(Divide the items by length)

Divide by similarity Find hidden dependencies Identify sequences

Clustering Dimension reduction Association

(Split up similar items into stacks) (Make the best outfits from given items) (Find what items I often
use together)

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Location where all the
configuration files are uploaded
Chef client is the key
component of Chef node − which helps
Chef server
Knife (command-line tool) is used in setting up the communication
(Centralized store of
to upload configuration file to the between the Chef server and Chef node
Infrastructure configuration)
Chef server

Knife is used to communicate

with chef node using SSH
Chef workstation
Chef node

Location where all the configuration

Location where chef client is installed to
files are developed
pull configurations from chef server
Chef Architecture Components

Chef is a powerful automation tool that transforms infrastructure into code

Deploying applications on host Deploying applications on container

App App App App

Libraries Libraries
App App

App App
Libraries
Libraries Libraries

Kernel
Kernel

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• Deploying applications on host: All the applications will share the same libraries present in the
operating system.
• Deploying applications on container: All the applications have the necessary libraries isolated
from the rest of the operating system and cannot be intervened by any other application. If one
application crashes, other application will keep running flawlessly and won't experience any
technical issues. This isolation also decreases security risks: If one application is hacked or
breached by malware (including viruses, ransomware and spyware), any resulting negative
outcomes won't spread to the other applications.

Docker allows you to create containers

Kubernetes assists you to manage containers

Benefits of infrastructure as code:

Reed's Law:
Speed

Consistency Murphy's Law

The utility of large networks
Accountability
grows exponentially as the
network grows in size Something will go wrong if it
Increased Efficiency
can go wrong
Lower Cost

Traditional Application Development Process:

Development → Testing → Quality Assurance → Testing → Production

Security applied
DevOps Development Process:

Development → Testing → Quality Assurance → Testing → Production

Security applied

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Linux

Developer Community

Linus Torvalds

If Microsoft ever does

Written in C, Assembly language
applications for Linux it

means I've won.

OS family Unix-like

Linus Torvalds
Working state Current

Source model Open source

Initial release September 17, 1991; 29 years ago

Marketing target Cloud computing, embedded devices, mainframe computers, mobile devices, personal

computers, servers, supercomputers

Available in Multilingual

Platforms Alpha, ARC, ARM, C6x, AMD64, H8/300, Hexagon, Itanium, m68k, Microblaze, MIPS, ND

S32, Nios II, OpenRISC, PA-RISC, PowerPC, RISC-

V, s390, SuperH, SPARC, Unicore32, x86, XBurst, Xtensa

Kernel type Monolithic

Userland GNU

Default user Unix shell

interface

Linus Torvalds
License GPLv2 and others (the name "Linux" is a trademark)
Creator of Linux

Official website www.linuxfoundation.org

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What is Linux and why is it so popular?

Whether you know it or not you are already using Linux (the best-known and most-used open
source operating system) every day. From supercomputers to smartphones, the Linux operating
system is everywhere. As an operating system, Linux is a family of open source Unix-like
software based on the Linux kernel - that sits underneath all of the other software on a computer,
receiving requests from those programs and relaying these requests to the computer's hardware.
With regard to careers, it is becoming increasingly valuable to have Linux skills rather than just
knowing how to use Windows. In general, Linux is harder to manage than Windows, but offers
more flexibility and configuration options.

Every desktop computer uses an operating system. The most popular operating systems in use
today are: Windows, Mac OS, and LINUX. Linux is the best-known notoriously reliable and
highly secure open source portable operating system -- very much like UNIX -- that has become
very popular over the last several years -- created as a task done for pleasure by Linus Torvalds -
- computer science student at the University of Helsinki in Finland -- in the early 1990s and
later developed by more than a thousand people around the world.

Linux is fast, free and easy to use, that sits underneath all the other software on a computer −
runs your computer -- handling all interactions between you and the hardware i.e., whether
you're typing a letter, calculating a money budget, or managing your food recipes on your
computer, the Linux operating system (similar to other Operating Systems, such as Windows XP,
Windows 7, Windows 8, and Mac OS X) provides the essential air that your computer breathes.

Linux is the most important technology advancement of the twenty-first century and Licensed
under the General Public License (GPL) that Linux uses ensures that the software will always be
open to anyone and whose source code is open and available for any user to check, which makes
it easier to find and repair vulnerabilities and it power the laptops, development machines and

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servers at Google, Facebook, Twitter, NASA, and New York Stock Exchange, just to name a
few. Linux has many more features to amaze its users such as: Live CD/USB, Graphical user
interface (X Window System) etc.

Build-to-plan: A manufacturing methodology

Build-to-order: A manufacturing methodology
in which a product is manufactured without
in which a product is manufactured only when a
Why LINUX?
regard to consumer orders
confirmed customer order has been received

Although Microsoft Windows (which is the most likely the victim of viruses and malware) has
made great improvements in reliability in recent years, it considered less reliable than Linux.
Linux is notoriously reliable and secure and it is free from constant battling viruses and malware
(which may affect your desktops, laptops, and servers by corrupting files, causing slow downs,
crashes, costly repairs and taking over basic functions of your operating system) – and it keep
yourself free from licensing fees i.e., zero cost of entry ... as in free. You can install Linux on as
many reliable computer ecosystems on the planet as you like without paying a cent for software
or server licensing. While Microsoft Windows usually costs between $99.00 and $199.00 USD
for each licensed copy and fear of losing data.
CD-ROM
(Compact disc read-only memory)
Below are some examples of where Linux is being used today:

High-capacity optically read-only

• Android phones and tablets memory in the form of a compact disc
• Servers
• TV, Cameras, DVD players, etc.
• Amazon Checkpoint: The status of a data transfer is recorded in order to
• Google allow the data transfer to be restarted if it is ever interrupted.
• U.S. Postal service
• New York Stock Exchange Clipboard
(Pasteboard)

Linux Operating System has primarily three components:

A temporary storage area provided by
the system to hold data

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Collaborative management: A working partnership between Internet
commerce partners and Internet service providers to ensure that commercial
transactions are completed successfully
• Kernel

Kernel is the core part of Linux Operating System and interacts directly with hardware. It is
responsible for all major activities of the Linux operating system.

• System Library

System libraries are special programs using which application programs accesses Kernel's
features.
Closedown
• System Utility

System Utility programs are responsible to do specialized tasks.

The process of turning off a device

Important features of Linux Operating System:

The number of bits used to

• Portable
represent one character of data
• Open Source
• Multi-User
Clocking: A method of managing the number of data bits
• Multiprogramming
transferred over a telecommunication line in a particular
• Hierarchical File System
amount of time
• Security

Now Linux (successfully being used by several millions of users worldwide) has grown passed
the stage where it was almost exclusively an academic system, useful only to a handful of people
with a technical background. It provides more than the operating system: there is an entire
infrastructure supporting the chain of effort of creating an operating system, of making and
testing programs for it, of bringing everything to the users, of supplying maintenance, updates
and support and customizations, runs on different platforms including the Intel and Alpha
platform. Today, Linux is ready to accept the challenge of a fast-changing world to do various

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types of operations, call application programs etc. Since the hiring focus is shifting more and
more toward DevOps type skills, a Linux skill set will be the types of things that will make you
very deployable.

The command-line interface is one of the nearly all well built trademarks of Linux. There exists
an ocean of Linux commands, permitting you to do nearly everything you can be under the
impression of doing on your Linux operating system. Although, this to the end of time creates a
problem: by all of so copious commands accessible to manage, you don't comprehend where and
at which point to fly learning them, especially when you are learner. If you are facing this
problem, and are peering for a painless method to begin your command line journey in Linux,
you've come to the right place, we will launch you to a hold of well liked and helpful Linux
commands.
Breakpoint: A point in a software program at
which the code stops execution

cal 8 2016

Description:

Used to clear the terminal window.

Command:

clear

Database mirroring

Description: The idea of developing and keeping

numerous copies of a single database for
Exit from the terminal window.
backup, restoration, and performance
improvement purposes
Command:

exit

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Cross-compiler: A compiler that runs on one platform
but produces executable code for another platform
Description:

Display free and used system memory.

Command:

free

Description:

Command:

shutdown

Grouped Lock Request: A single

operation that simultaneously requests

Description: locks on multiple tables or rows

Power-off the machine immediately.

Command:

shutdown -h now

Eviction: A methodology of
removing a piece of data
Description:
from a cache
Power-off the machine after 10 minutes.

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Command:

shutdown -h +10

Cache invalidation

Description:
The process of replacing or
Print current working directory. eliminating entries from a cache
in a computer system
Command:

echo $PWD

Description:

Print previous working directory.

Command:

Database replication: The act of

creating a distributed database by moving

Description: data from one server's database to another

server's database so that all users have
Display the IP address of the host. access to the same amount of data

Command:

ip address

Description:

List the size of files and directories.

Command:

ls -s

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Read-only Transaction
Description:

View mounted file systems. A transaction that makes no

changes to the data
Command:

mount

Description:

Display the information of disk usage of files and directories.

Command:

Description:

Tells you how long the system has been running.

Command:

uptime

Dynamic Link Library (DLL):

Description:

Set current date as 02 Nov 1988.

A collection of small programs and

Command: data that can be used by multiple

applications at the same time to
finish a given task

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date --set 1998-11-02

Description:

Set current time as 12:11:02 IST.

Command:

date --set 12:11:02

Ephemerality: A piece of data or

Description: scenario lasting for a very short time

View Specific Disk Partition in Linux.

Command:

fdisk -l /dev/sda

Description:

Lists all files and directories in the present working directory.

Command:

Deadlock: A circumstance in which 2

computer applications that share the
Description:
same resource effectively block each
Report the process information. other from using it, causing both
applications to stop working

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Command:

Description:

Terminate processes without having to log out or reboot.

Command:

kill

Description:

Change the current working directory.

Command:

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[manju@localhost ~]$ ((b=2+2)); echo $b
4

Description:

Create a new session on the system.

Command:

Description:

List open files.

Command:

lsof

Description:

List USB devices.

Command:

lsusb

Description:

Check the status of the network services.

[manju@localhost ~]$ read number;

Command:
If you enter a number: 26
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "Your age is $number years."
Your age is 26 years.

Description:
List every file and directory
Display the current directory. inside the /var/ directory

Command:

pwd

Description:

Displays CPU architecture information (such as number of CPUs, threads, cores, sockets, and
more).

Command:

lscpu

Description:

Displays the number of processing units available to the current process.

Command:

nproc

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo -e "\nHello \t World \t Program\n"

Hello World Program

[manju@localhost ~]$

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Description:

The system performs an immediate reboot.

last -1 username

Description:

Sort files and directories by extension name.

Command:

ls -X

Description:

Display the manual for the pwd command.

[manju@localhost ~]$ x=(h f e); echo $x; echo ${x[@]}; echo ${x[*]}
h
h f e
h f e

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Command:

man pwd

Description:

Displays information about running processes in the form of a tree.

Command:

pstree

Description:

Resets your terminal.

Command:

reset

Description:

Displays What date is it this Friday.

Command:

date -d fri

[manju@localhost ~]$ a="Albert Einstein."; echo ${a/Einstein/Alan}

Albert Alan.
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo ${s-xyz}; echo ${s:-xyz}
xyz
xyz

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[manju@localhost ~]$ echo ${a+26}
26
Description:

Displays the size of each individual file.

Command:

du -a

Description:

Display information about the Advanced configuration and power Interface.

Command:

acpi

Description:

Takes you two folders back.

Command:

cd ../..

Description:

Takes you to the previous directory.

Command:

cd -

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Servlet

Description:
A little computer application that
Displays a list of shell built-in commands. extends the functionality of a
larger piece of server software

Command:

help

ISDN
(Integrated Services Digital Network)
Description:
A technique to send more data over
Lists your last logins.
current telephone lines

Command:

last yourusername

Throughput: The maximum

amount of data that can be sent
Description:
over a given connection
Create a new directory called myfiles.

Command:

mkdir myfiles

FDDI
Description:
(Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
Remove the directory myfiles.

A reference for transferring data at a rate

Command:
of roughly 100,000,000 bits per second
through optical fiber connections

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rmdir myfiles

Description:

Disable password for a specific user "root1".

Command:

passwd -d root1

DHCP
(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
Description:
A protocol that allows a machine to receive
Switch to user "root1".
an IP address from a local network server

Command:

sudo su root1

Packet Switching: The method of

transferring data through the
Description:
Internet
Exit from the terminal window.

Command:

logout

Intranet Internet
A more secure private A less secure
Description: network public network

Creates a user "root1".

Only the users of the Anyone can access
organization can access the information
the information

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Command:

useradd "root1"

Description:

Assign password to user "root1".

Command:

passwd "root1"

Description:

Repeats the last command.

Command:

Description:

Display Who you are logged in as.

Command:

whoami

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Description:

Reveal all the information about the user "root1" (user id, username, group id, group name etc.).

Python code:
Command:
x = 'a bowman'
id root1 print('{0:>{1}s}'.format(x, len(x)+4))
print('{0:_^{1}s}'.format(x, len(x)+4))

a bowman
Output
Description: __a bowman__

Print the machine's architecture.

Command:

arch

Description:

Display the list of available fonts.

# Output:
Command:
0
yum remove httpd 2
4

Description:

uninstall apache (Ubuntu).

Command: x = "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"

apt remove httpd print(x.split('/'))

# Output: ['https:', '', 'en.wikipedia.org', 'wiki', 'Isaac_Newton']

Description:

Display usage summary for the command (date).

Command:

date --help

print("1988".isnumeric())
# Output: True

Description:

List active connections to/from system.

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Command: print('''{name} laid the foundations of {subject} and put forward the {law} in
1687.'''.format(subject='Calculus', law='law of gravitation', name='Sir Isaac
ss -tup Newton'))
# Output:
Sir Isaac Newton laid the foundations of Calculus and put forward the law of
gravitation in 1687.

Description:

List internet services on a system.

Command:

ss -tupl

name = 'Albert'
Description: if 'b' in name:
print("Found 'b' in name")
Display all active UNIX listening ports.
if name == 'Albert':
print("Albert Einstein")

Command: else:
print("Some other name")
netstat -lx else:
print("A name without 'b'")

# Output:
Found 'b' in name
Description:
Albert Einstein
Display all the active interfaces details.

Command:

ifconfig def myfunc(x, y=14):

print(x, y)

myfunc(11) # Output: 11 14

myfunc(11, 12) # Output: 11 12

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Description:

Compare the contents of two files (1.txt, 2.txt).

Command:

diff 1.txt 2.txt

Description:

Tells you how many lines, words, and characters there are in a file (1.txt).

Command:
# prints the widely used UNIX timestamp

wc 1.txt import time

print(int(time.time()))

# Output: 1658163944

Description:

Compresses file (1.txt), so that it take up much less space.

Command:

gzip 1.txt

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Description:

Uncompresses file (1.txt) compressed by gzip.

Command:
# prints the path of os module
gunzip 1.txt import os
print(os)
# Output:
<module 'os' from 'C:\\Users\\Manju\\Anaconda3\\lib\\os.py'>
Description:

Examine the contents of the file (1.txt).

import json

Command: b = {'x': None,

'y': 'Alan',
cat 1.txt 'z': 'Albert'}
print(json.dumps(b))
# Output: {"x": null, "y": "Alan", "z": "Albert"}

Description:

Display calendar.

Command:
import logging
ncal
x = logging.getLogger('alan')

y = logging.getLogger('mary')

print(x is y) # Output: False

Description: z = logging.getLogger('alan')

print(x is z) # Output: True

Removes the file (1.txt).

Command:

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a = 'x y'
rm 1.txt print(a.split())
# Output: ['x', 'y']
print(a.split(' '))
# Output: ['x', '', 'y']
Description:

Rename a file named 1.txt to 0.txt.

Command:

mv 1.txt 0.txt

Command: return dividend // divisor

print(divide(14, 986))
tail 1.txt # Output: 70
print(divide(dividend=986, divisor=14))
# Output: 70

Description:

Print N number of lines from the file (1.txt).

Command:
from pprint import pprint
tail -n N 1.txt pprint('hi')
# Output: hi

Description:

Prints the number of words in a file (1.txt).

Command: x = ['a', 'am', 'bell', 'david', 'johnson', 'language']

print([i.upper() for i in x if len(i) > 3])
wc -w 1.txt
# Output:
True
['BELL', 'DAVID', 'JOHNSON', 'LANGUAGE']

Description:

Prints the number of characters from a file (1.txt).

Command:

wc -m 1.txt

print({21, 22, 23} == {23, 22, 21})

# Output: True

417
402
Description:

Prints the length of the longest line in a file (1.txt).

Command: print(u'john'.translate({ord('j'):None,ord('n'):u'cv'}))

wc -L 1.txt # Output: ohcv

print(u'albert'.translate({ord('a'):None,ord('r'):u'cv'}))

# Output: lbecvt

Description:

Print information about usb ports, graphics cards, network adapters etc.

Command:
import ast
lspci print(ast.literal_eval('54')) # prints 54
print(ast.literal_eval('[54,96]')) # prints [54, 96]

Description:
for i in range(5):

View contents of a file (1.txt). print('{:>+9,.2f}'.format(i))

# Output:
Command:
+0.00
less 1.txt +1.00
+2.00
+3.00
+4.00

Description:

Display calendar (last month, current month, and next month).

Command:

cal -3

418
402
Description:

Compare the contents of three files (1.txt, 2.txt, 3.txt) line by line.

Command: # prints the byte order of current architecture

diff3 1.txt 2.txt 3.txt import sys

print(sys.byteorder)

# Output: little

Description:

Compare two files (1.txt, 2.txt) line-by-line.

Command:

comm 1.txt 2.txt

Description:

Perform byte-by-byte comparison of two files (1.txt, 2.txt).

Command: class M16: pass

c = M16()
cmp 1.txt 2.txt
c.b = 54
print(c.b)
# Output: 54

Description:

Prints the CRC checksum and byte count for the file "myfiles.txt".

Command:

419
402
cksum myfiles.txt

Description:

Append contents of files (1.txt, 2.txt) into one file (0.txt).

x =[2,4,-6,-9,10,11,12]
Command: if all(i>0 for i in x):

cat 1.txt 2.txt > 0.txt print('All are positive')

else:
print('Some are negative')
# Output: Some are negative

Description:

Append contents of files (1.txt, 2.txt, 3.txt) into one file (0.txt).

x =[2,4,6,9,10,11,12]
Command:
if any(i<0 for i in x):
sed r 1.txt 2.txt 3.txt > 0.txt print('Some are negative')
else:
print('None are negative')
# Output: None are negative

Description:

Append contents of files (1.txt, 2.txt, 3.txt) into one file (0.txt).

Command:

sudo lshw

Description:

Gather information about file system partitions.

Command:

sudo fdisk -l

Description:

Displays the line (good morning) in which the string (good) is found in the file (1.txt).

Command:

grep good 1.txt

Description:

Append contents of files (1.txt, 2.txt, 3.txt) into one file (0.txt) using for loop.

422
407
Command:

for i in {1..3}; do cat "$i.txt" >> 0.txt; done

Description:

Search for files (test.txt, test1.txt, test2.txt, test.php, test.html) in a directory as well as its sub-
directories.

Command:

find test*

Description:

Displays status related to a file (1.txt).

Command:

stat 1.txt

Description:

423
408
Download the file (file.txt) from url "http: //website.com/files/file.txt".

Command:

wget http://website.com/files/file.txt

Description:

Display host's numeric ID in hexadecimal format.

Command:

hostid

Description:

Display file type of the file (myfiles.txt).

Command:

file myfiles.txt

echo "this is 2nd line text" >> 1.txt
echo "last line!" >> 1.txt

Description:

Displays a single line description about a command (cal).

425
410
Command:

whatis cal

###
| Command | Description |
|: | : |
| vi | Open vi editor |
| i | Go to Insert mode |
| Type some text. | |
| Hit Escape to return to Normal mode. |
| :w test.txt | Save text |
| :q | Quit |
| :q! |Quit without saving |

Description:

Check the network connectivity between host (your connection) and server (Google server).

426
411
The first ever Linux kernel just occupied only 65 KB.
Command:

ping google.com

90% of the public cloud workload is run on Linux distros.

Description:

Find the location of source/binary file of a command (cal).

Command:

whereis cal

[manju@localhost ~]$ test 15 -gt 12 && echo "True" || echo "False"

True
Because 15 is greater than 12, this command prints the text "True"

[manju@localhost ~]$ test 5 -lt 12 && echo "True" || echo "False"

True
Because 5 is lesser than 12, this command prints the text "True"

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "William Hawking" | sed 's/William/Stephen/'

Stephen Hawking
Replaces the string 'William' with 'Stephen'

[manju@localhost ~]$ test 12 == 12 && echo "True" || echo "False"

True

[manju@localhost ~]$ test 5 == 12 && echo "True" || echo "False"

False

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo 'Hello World' > file.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat file.txt
Hello World

427
[manju@localhost ~]$ awk '{print $0}' file.txt
Hello World All of the 500 fastest
[manju@localhost ~]$ awk '{print $1}' file.txt supercomputers run
Hello
Linux
[manju@localhost ~]$ awk '{print $2}' file.txt
World

echo $$ echo $!

Display the process id of the Display the process id of the

current process background process that recently
went away

[manju@localhost ~]$ grep "Hello" file.txt

Hello World
[manju@localhost ~]$ grep "Hello" file.txt myfile.txt
file.txt: Hello World Display all the lines with the word "Hello" in
myfile.txt: Hello Linux
the file.txt and myfile.txt

import os
Execution of the linux
find -type f os.system('ls')
command "ls" using the python
# Find all the files program to list all the files and
import subprocess
directories in the current
subprocess.call ('ls')
find -type d directory
# Find all the directories

find . -name file.txt

# Find file.txt in the current directory

428
Command:

last reboot

Description:

Show system reboot history

Command:

dmesg

Description:

Displays the messages from the kernel ring buffer (a data structure that records
messages related to the operation of the kernel)

[manju@localhost ~]$ for a in Albert Alan John; do echo $a; done

Albert
Alan
Command: John

cat /proc/cpuinfo

Description:

Display CPU information

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "scale=2;22/7" | bc

3.14
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "scale=3;22/7" | bc
3.142

429
i=1; while [[ $i -le 5 ]] ; do echo "$i";(( i = i+1 )); done

Command: Output:

1
2
cat /proc/meminfo
3
4
5

Description:

Display memory information

[manju@localhost ~]$ let b=14/2; echo "14 / 2 =" $b

14 / 2 = 7
Command:

lspci -tv

Description:

Display PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) devices

[manju@localhost ~]$ let a=52; echo "52 =" $a

5*2 = 10
Command:

lsusb -tv

Ephemeral storage: Any

Description:
storage medium lasting for a
Display USB devices very short time

430
[manju@localhost ~]$ let c=8-6; echo "8 - 6 =" $c
8 - 6 = 2
Command:

free -h

Description:

Display free and used memory (-h for human readable, -m for MB, -g for GB)

[manju@localhost ~]$ let a=15+20; echo "15 + 20 =" $a

15 + 20 = 35
Command:

mpstat 1

Description:

Display processor related statistics

[manju@localhost ~]$ touch 1.txt 2.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls 1.txt 2.txt > STDERR
Command: [manju@localhost ~]$ cat STDERR
1.txt
2.txt
vmstat 1

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo 14 + 15 = $((14 + 15))

Display listening Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) ports and corresponding programs

Command:

rpm -qa

Description:

List all installed packages

Command:

yum list installed

Display total disk usage off the current directory

Description:

Compile the Java program saved in MyClass.java file using javac compiler

Command:

od -b myfiles.txt

Description:

Displays the contents of myfiles.txt file in octal format

Command:

od -c myfiles.txt

438
Description:

Displays the contents of myfiles.txt file in character format

Record of change: Recording of

modifications made to the system
Command:

od -An -c myfiles.txt

Description:

Displays the contents of myfiles.txt file in character format but with no offset
information

Command:

csplit myfiles.txt 13 62 101

Description:

If the file myfiles.txt has 123 lines, the csplit command would create four files: the xx00 file

would contain lines 1−12, the xx01 file would contain lines 13−61, the xx02 file would contain

lines 62−100, the xx03 file would contain lines 101−123

Error guessing: A software testing

Command:
methodology that involves guessing the type
of error that might occur in the code

439
md5sum myfiles.txt

Description:

Prints a 32-character (128-bit) checksum of myfiles.txt file using the MD5 algorithm

Command:

more myfiles.txt

Description:

Displays the content of myfiles.txt file

Command:

sha1sum myfiles.txt

Description:

Prints SHA1 (160-bit) checksum of myfiles.txt file

SHA 1 → Secure Hash Algorithm 1

Command:

440
shred myfiles.txt

Description:

Overwrites the myfiles.txt file repeatedly − in order to make it harder for even very
expensive hardware probing to recover the data

Command:

cat myfile.txt

01. Einstein
02. Newton
03. Maxwell
04. Tesla
05. Edison

tac myfile.txt

05. Edison
04. Tesla
03. Maxwell
02. Newton
01. Einstein

Description:

Print the lines of myfile.txt in reverse (from last line to first)

441
Command:

uniq myfiles.txt

Description:

Delete repeated lines in the file (myfiles.txt).

Command:

chkconfig --list

Description:

Displays a list of system services and whether they are started (on) or stopped
(off) in run levels 0−6

Command:

halt -p

Command:
Description:
xdg-open myfiles.txt

Power-off the system

Description:

Open a file (myfiles.txt).

442
Command:

lastlog

Description:

Prints the details of the last login (login-name, port and last login time)

[manju@localhost ~]$ x=eat.read.write.txt; echo ${x%.*}

eat.read.write
Command: [manju@localhost ~]$ x=eat.read.write.txt; echo ${x%%.*}
eat
lastlog -t 1 [manju@localhost ~]$ x=eat.read.write.txt; echo ${x#*.}
read.write.txt
[manju@localhost ~]$ x=eat.read.write.txt; echo ${x##*.}
txt

Description:

Displays the login information (1 day ago)

[manju@localhost ~]$ pgrep bash

4504 # Display process ID of bash
Command:

cat /proc/4504/environ
lastlog -u manju

Display the environment variables associated with the process ID 4504

Description:

Display lastlog information for a particular user (manju)

443
Command:

cat /etc/passwd
# Print all the files that were accessed within the last 8 days
find . -type f -atime -8 -print

# Print all the files that are having access time exactly 8-days old
find . -type f -atime 8 -print
more /etc/passwd

# Print all the files that have an access time older than 8 days
find . -type f -atime +8 -print

# Print all the files that have an access time older than 8 minutes
less /etc/passwd
find . -type f -amin +8 -print

find . -type f -newer 1.txt -print

getent passwd Print all the files that have a

modification time greater than that
of the modification time of a given
1.txt file

Description:

List all users on Linux

Command:

tail -5 /etc/passwd

head -5 /etc/passwd

444
Description:

List last 5 users on Linux

List first 5 users on Linux

Command:

wall "The system will be shutdown in 10 minutes."

Description:

The message (The system will be shutdown in 10 minutes.) will be broadcasted to

all users that are currently logged in

find . -type f -size +5k

Command:
# Find all files having size > 5 kilobytes
find . -type f -size -5k
chage -l manju # Find all files having size < 5 kilobytes
find . -type f -size 5k
# Find all files having size = 5 kilobytes

Description:

List the password and its related details for a user (manju)

445
Command:

chage -M 10 manju

Description:

Set Password Expiry Date for an user (manju)

Command:

chage -E "2020-07-30" manju

Description:

Set the Account Expiry Date for an User (manju)

Command:

chage -I 10 manju

Description:

Force the user (manju) account to be locked after 10 inactivity days

446
Command:

ftp 192.168.42.77

Description:

Connect to an FTP server at remote server IP address "192.168.42.77"

ODBC
(Open Database Connectivity)
Command:

A common API for interacting with

arp -a database management systems

Description:

Lists all the peers connected at various interfaces along with their MAC

Addresses and IP addresses

Java Database Connectivity (JDBC):

Command: A Java API that allows you to connect to a database

dnsdomainname

Recordset: The collection of records and fields that are

Description:
returned when a query is executed

447
Display the system's DNS domain name

Command:

domainname

Description:

Display the name of the domain your machine belongs to

Command:

echo 'Hello World!' | base64

Output: SGVsbG8gV29ybGQhCg==

Description:

Encode text (Hello World!) to base64

Command:

echo 'SGVsbG8gV29ybGQhCg==' | base64 -d

Output: Hello World!

Description:

448
Decode (SGVsbG8gV29ybGQhCg==) to text (Hello World!)

Command:

fc-cache -f -v

Description:

Build font information cache files

[manju@localhost ~]$ cal

May 2022

Command: Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14

cat 1.txt 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31
Einstein
Newton [manju@localhost ~]$ if grep -q 'cal' ~/.bash_history; then echo "You seem to
Albert have typed 'cal' before."; fi

You seem to have typed 'cal' before.

fmt 1.txt

Einstein Newton Albert

Description:

Formats text in a single line

449
cat phy.txt

Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged to

be one of the greatest physicists of all time. Einstein is known for developing
the theory of relativity, but he also made important contributions to the
development of the theory of quantum mechanics.

fmt -w 1 phy.txt

Albert
Einstein
was
a
German-born
theoretical
physicist,
widely
acknowledged
to
be
one
of
the
greatest
physicists
of
all
time.
Einstein
is
known
for
developing

450
the
theory
of [manju@localhost ~]$ echo Albert
relativity, Albert
but
he [manju@localhost ~]$ !e
also echo Albert

made Albert

important
[manju@localhost ~]$ !echo
contributions
echo Albert
to
Albert
the
development
[manju@localhost ~]$ !echo Einstein
of echo Albert Einstein
the Albert Einstein
theory
of
quantum
mechanics.

cat phy.txt

Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged to

fold -w 20 phy.txt

Albert Einstein was

451
a German-born theor
etical physicist, wi
dely acknowledged to find . -type f -size +10k
# Display files having size > 10 kilobytes
be one of the great
est physicists of al
find . -type f -size -10k
l time. Einstein is # Display files having size < 10 kilobytes
known for developing
the theory of relat find . -type f -size 10k
# Display files having size = 10 kilobytes
ivity, but he also m
ade important contri
butions to the devel
opment of the theory
of quantum mechanic
s.

Command:

traceroute google.com

Description:

Prints the route that a packet takes to reach the Google (172.217.26.206) host
from the local machine

Command:

cat 1.txt

452
Einstein
Newton
Albert [manju@localhost ~]$ echo {2,4}
2 4
gzip 1.txt [manju@localhost ~]$ echo {2,4}{2,4}
22 24 42 44
zcat 1.txt.gz [manju@localhost ~]$ echo {2,4}{2,4}{2,4}
222 224 242 244 422 424 442 444

Einstein
Newton
Albert

Filter out TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) connections

[manju@localhost ~]$ x=abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz; echo ${x:4}

efghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Command:
[manju@localhost ~]$ x=abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz; echo ${x:4:8}
efghijkl

ss -aA udp
[manju@localhost ~]$ x=abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz; echo ${x:(-1)}
z
[manju@localhost ~]$ x=abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz; echo ${x:(-2):2}
yz

Description:

Filter out UDP (User Datagram Protocol) connections

454
Command:

ss -lnt

Description:

Display only listening sockets

Command: [manju@localhost ~]$ du -ak /home/manju | sort -nrk 1 | head -n 4

8664 /home/manju
8088 /home/manju/.cache
7100 /home/manju/.cache/tracker
ss -ltp
5120 /home/manju/.cache/tracker/meta.db-wal

# Find the largest size files from a given directory

Description:

Display information about the editing programs that are available on a system

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "<a href=\"$img\" ><img src=\"thumbs/$img\" title=\"$img\" /></a>" >> 1.html
[manju@localhost ~]$ cat 1.html
<a href="" ><img src="thumbs/" title="" /></a>

457
Command:

apropos pstree

Description:

Provide information about the pstree command (which displays the names of the
processes currently on the system in the form of a tree diagram)

chmod 744 file.txt

# Changes the permission of the file.txt and assigns the permission: rwxr--r--

head -10 myfile1.txt The apropos command is useful when you know what you want to do,
# Display the first 10 lines of the file myfile1.txt but you have no idea what command you should be using to do it. If you
were wondering how to locate files, for example, the commands
 apropos find
tail -10 myfile1.txt
 apropos locate
# Display the last 10 lines of the file myfile1.txt would have a lot of suggestions to offer.

ls; who
# Execute ls command first and then who command

[manju@localhost ~]$ du -s /home/manju Display the total disk space used

33840 /home/manju by the user "manju"

 = :Used for assigning value to the variable

basename /etc/passwd
 = = :Used for string comparison

Output: passwd

basename /usr/local/apache2/conf/httpd.conf

458
Output: httpd.conf

echo a b c d e f| xargs

Output: a b c d e f

echo a b c d e f| xargs -n 3

Output: display only 3 items per line

a b c
d e f

Command:

env

Description:

Print out a list of all environment variables

Command:

459
printenv HOME

Description:

Print HOME variable value

cat score.txt

Albert-30
[manju@localhost ~]$ printf "2 + 2 = %d" 4
John-50
2 + 2 = 4
William-80
Stephen-20
[manju@localhost ~]$ printf "William %f" 2
Justin-40
William 2.000000

cut -d- -f2 score.txt

30
50
80
20
40

cut -d- -f1 score.txt

Albert [manju@localhost ~]$ printf "Hi %s, I am %s" Alan Albert

Hi Alan, I am Albert
John
William
Stephen
Justin

460
cat 1.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ a="Einstein"; echo "Albert $a";

Hello World Albert Einstein
[manju@localhost ~]$ a="Einstein"; echo 'Albert $a'
Albert $a

cat 2.txt

Computer Program

paste 1.txt 2.txt

Hello World Computer Program

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo $(cal) $(date) >> 12.txt

cat 1.txt [manju@localhost ~]$ cat 12.txt
May 2022 Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Hello World 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Fri May 27 00:14:13 PDT 2022

cat 2.txt

Computer Program

join 1.txt 2.txt

Hello World Computer Program

461
Command:

rev 1.txt

Description:

Reverse lines of a file (1.txt)

cat 3.txt [manju@localhost ~]$ path="/user/documents/1.pdf"; echo ${path%.pdf}

/user/documents/1

22 [manju@localhost ~]$ path="/user/documents/1.pdf"; echo ${path%.pdf}.txt

/user/documents/1.txt
33
[manju@localhost ~]$ path="/user/documents/1.pdf"; echo ${path%/*}
11
/user/documents
77
55

sort 3.txt

11
22 sorts numeric values in 3.txt file and displays sorted output
33
55
77

[manju@localhost ~]$ path="/user/documents/1.pdf";echo ${path##*.}

pdf
[manju@localhost ~]$ path="/user/documents/1.pdf"; echo ${path##*/}
1.pdf
[manju@localhost ~]$ path="/user/documents/1.pdf"; echo ${path#*/}
user/documents/1.pdf

462
[manju@localhost ~]$ if ping -c 1 google.com; then echo " It
looks that your internet connection is operational"; fi

PING google.com (172.217.163.174) 56(84) bytes of data.

64 bytes from maa05s05-in-f14.1e100.net (172.217.163.174): icmp_seq=1
cat 1.txt ttl=128 time=11.8 ms

--- google.com ping statistics ---

Hello World 1 packets transmitted, 1 received, 0% packet loss, time 0ms
rtt min/avg/max/mdev = 11.815/11.815/11.815/0.000 ms
It looks that your internet connection is operational

cat 1.txt | tr "[a-z]" "[A-Z]"

convert from lower case to upper case
HELLO WORLD

cat 5.txt
[manju@localhost ~]$ name="Albert Einstein"; echo ${name:7:9}
Einstein
zz
zz
yy
yy
yy
xx

uniq 5.txt

zz removes duplicate lines and displays unique lines

yy
xx

463
cat 6.txt awk -F ':' '{print $1}' /etc/shadow|uniq -u

# Print the login names of all users on a system

Einstein
Newton
Tesla

nl 6.txt

1 Einstein numbers the lines in a file (6.txt)

2 Newton
3 Tesla

Command:

ls -l *.txt

Description:

Lists the files with .txt extension

The thing with Linux is that the developers themselves are actually customers too: that has
always been an important part of Linux.

Linus Torvalds

464
Linux Unix

Free to use (open source) Licensed Operating System (closed source)

Linux is just the kernel Unix is a complete package of Operating System
Bash (Bourne Again SHell) is default shell for Linux Bourne Shell is default shell for Unix
Portable and is booted from a USB Stick Unportable

Source code is accessible to the general public Source code is not accessible to anyone
Uses Graphical User Interface with an optional Uses Command Line Interface
Command Line Interface

Command:

echo $SHELL

Description:

Print the Default shell of user

Command:

echo $0

Description:

Display the name of the currently running process ($0 is the name of the running
process). If you use it inside of a shell then it will return the name of the shell. If you
use it inside of a script, it will return the name of the script

465
Command:

echo *

Description:

Print all files and folders − similar to ls command

[manju@localhost ~]$ grep -c "Hello" file.txt

sed -n '10p' file.txt 1
Count the number of lines containing the
# Print the 10th line in the file.txt word "Hello" in the file.txt

Command:

ps -p $$ sed '50i\HELLO' file.txt

# Inserts a line "HELLO" at every 50th line of a file.txt
Output:

PID TTY TIME CMD

3352 pts/0 00:00:00 bash

Description:

Print the process ID of the current shell ($$ is the process ID of the current shell)

Command:

466
cat /etc/shells

Description:

List shells

Command:

echo m*

Description:

Display the files in the current folder that start with the letter "m".

Command:

last

Description:

List last logins of users and what happened such as "shutdown" or "crash" etc.

Command:
echo ~
Command:
Description:

Print your home folder path

467
bzip2 -k phy.txt

Description:

Compresses but does not deletes the original file

phy.txt → phy.txt.bz2

Command:

bzip2 -d phy.txt.bz2

Description:

Decompresses the compressed file (phy.txt.bz2)

phy.txt.bz2 → phy.txt

Command:

bzcat phy.txt.bz2

468
Description:

Display the contents of compressed file (phy.txt.bz2)

Command:

bunzip2 phy.txt.bz2

Description:

Decompresses the compressed file (phy.txt.bz2)

Command:

crontab -l

Description:

Display current logged-in user's crontab entries

cat /dev/null > phy.txt

469
cp /dev/null phy.txt

echo "" > phy.txt

echo > phy.txt

Description:

Empty the content of a file (phy.txt)

Independent software vendor: An enterprise

Command: organization that develops and distributes software

for one or more computer hardware platforms

nohup ping google.com &

Description:

Ping google.com and send the process to the background

• Recode: Modifications to implementation features

•
Command: Redesign: Modifications to design features
• Respecify: Modifications to requirements features

470
nohup ping google.com > log.txt &

Description:

Save the ping logs to log.txt

pgrep -a ping

Output:

3858 ping google.com

4200 ping google.com
4236 ping google.com

kill 3858

pgrep -a ping

Output:

4200 ping google.com

4236 ping google.com

Command:

ls -la /home

471
Description:

Display the contents of /home

Command:

sudo shutdown 2

Description:

Power-off the machine after 2 minutes

Command:

shutdown -c

Description:

Cancel the shutdown process

Command:

pr 36.txt

472
Description:

Display the contents of the file (36.txt) one page after the other

Command:

stty -a

Description:
Data in Use
Display all current terminal settings
Data that is currently being
processed by a computer

Command:

ls -1

Description:
Heterogeneous Network: A network
consisting of systems with different
List files one per line
architectures

Homogeneous Network: A network

Command:
consisting of systems with the same
architecture

473
yes John

Description:

Outputs a string (John) repeatedly until killed

Command:

vdir

Description:

List files and directories in the current directory (one per line) with details

Command:

who -b

Description:

Print when the system was booted

# Open phy.txt with nano

474
nano phy.txt

# Open phy.txt with vim

vim phy.txt

Memory
Software
The internal storage
location where data and

Manages the entire communication between information is stored on a

Linux Kernel
the applications and the hardware computer

Hardware Network

A group of computers connected to each

Linux kernel is a piece of code that is stored somewhere on other in order to send and receive data
the file-system − such that every time the system reboots, the
kernel is loaded in the memory. In Ubuntu systems, the
Protocol
Linux kernel is found within the /boot directory
A set of rules that are followed by two devices
while interacting with each other

Communication Port (USB)

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) protocols used to A hardware connecting component
 Internet Protocol (IP) connect host computers that enables two computers to allow
data sharing physically
on the Internet

w --ip-addr
# Displays information regarding the users currently on the machine, login time, IDLE time,
TTY and CPU time

Output:

11:12:10 up 1:29, 2 users, load average: 0.02, 0.04, 0.10

USER TTY FROM LOGIN@ IDLE JCPU PCPU WHAT
manju :0 :0 02:43 ?xdm? 3:30 0.65s gdm-session-worker [pa
manju pts/0 :0 11:01 2.00s 0.10s 0.01s w --ip-addr

w –short
# Omits CPU time and login information
Output:

11:11:46 up 1:28, 2 users, load average: 0.02, 0.04, 0.11

USER TTY FROM IDLE WHAT
manju :0 :0 ?xdm? gdm-session-worker [pam/gdm-password]
manju pts/0 :0 2.00s w --short

Command:

findmnt

Description:

Display a list of currently mounted file systems

Command:

476
ip addr show

Description:

List IP addresses and network interfaces

Command:

netstat -pnltu

Durability:
Description:
Regardless of whether the database fails
List active (listening) ports
or not, each database transaction will be
preserved by backups or other methods

Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) is a security architecture for Linux systems that allows
administrators to have more control over who can access the system

setenforce 0

479
getenforce

Output:

Permissive

setenforce 1

getenforce

Output:

Enforcing

 Enforcing - SELinux security policy is enforced.

 Permissive - SELinux prints warnings instead of enforcing.
 Disabled - No SELinux policy is loaded.

480
Intent-based networking (IBN): An emerging technological
approach that improves network operations and uptime by
combining intelligence, analytics and automation
Command:

sestatus

Description:

Display the current status of the SELinux that is running on your system

Command:

ps -aef
Industrial internet of things (IIoT):

In the industrial sector, smart sensors, instruments and

autonomous robots are being used to improve
production and industrial processes
Description:

Display full listing of processes on your system

Command:

sar

Data Deduplication:

Description: Duplicate blocks within a dataset are identified and removed,

lowering the amount of traffic that would flow over wide-area
network connections

481
Display System Activity Report

Fail-safe

Command:
In the case of a failure, a system that automatically switches to a safer
operational mode
ulimit

Audit log: A record that contains information

Command: about the users who accessed the system and
the operations that users performed during a
specific time period
ulimit -e

Description:

Check out the max scheduling priority of the current user

Autonomous Database: A cloud-based solution that employs machine learning to automate

many of the everyday database management activities

483
Crash recovery
Command:

Database recovery from a failure

ulimit -u

Description:

Display the maximum number of user processes

Command:

ulimit -v

Description: Change Data Capture (CDC):

Check out the size of virtual memory

A method of keeping track of
data changes in a database

Command:

ulimit -n

Description:

Check out how many file descriptors a process can have

484
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "alanBalbertBjohnBmary" | xargs -d B
alan albert john mary
Command:
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "alanBalbertBjohnBmary" | xargs -d B -n 2
alan albert
man limits.conf
john mary

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "ALAN TURING" | tr 'A-Z' 'a-z'

alan turing

Description:

Display the in-depth information on the limits.conf configuration file

Command:

1905

turing.ai.pdf
[manju@localhost ~]$ n=alan.turing.ai.pdf; echo ${n##*.}
pdf

487
firewalld is a firewall management tool for Linux operating systems

ls ??[rgi]*

# List all files in the 3rd place an r, g or i

Command:

firewall-config

Description:

Start the graphical firewall configuration tool

firewall-cmd

Command:

firewall-cmd --list-all-zones

Description:

List all zones

Interpreter Compiler
Translates the program line Scans the whole program and
Command: by line into machine code converts it into machine code

488
firewall-cmd --get-default-zone

Description:

Check the currently set default zone

Command:

firewall-cmd --list-services

Description:

Display currently allowed service on your system

Command:

firewall-cmd --list-ports

Description:

Create a zip file (q.zip)

Design of experiments:

An approach for designing experiments in order to

Command: obtain data suitable for Statistical analysis

491
unzip q.zip

Description:

Unzip a zip file (q.zip)

zipcloak q.zip

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

# zipcloak prompts you for a password, and then ask you to confirm it:

Enter password:
Verify password:

...if the passwords match, it encrypts q.zip file

----------------------------------------------------------------------------

unzip q.zip

# When you try to unzip the q.zip file, it prompts you for the password before
allowing you to extract the file (q.txt) it contains

492
Command:

zgrep -l "Einstein" *

Description:

Display the names of the files with the word (Einstein) present in it

Command:

zipsplit -n 1048576 q.zip

Description:

Split q.zip file to create a sequence of zipfiles (q1.zip, q2.zip…..) − each no larger
than 1048576 bytes (one megabyte)

You could concatenate (q1.zip, q2.zip…..) into a new file, w.zip, with the
command:

cat q*.zip > w.zip

493
Command:

mtr google.com

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo alan turing | sed 's/\w\+/[&]/g'

[alan] [turing]
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo Albert Einstein 1905 Papers | sed 's/Einstein $[0-9]$/\1/'
Albert 1905 Papers

Description:

Test the route and connection quality of traffic to the destination host google.com

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo alanalanalanalan | sed 's/alan/ALAN/2g'

Command: alanALANALANALAN
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo alanalanalanalan | sed 's/alan/ALAN/3g'
alanalanALANALAN
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo alanalanalanalan | sed 's/alan/ALAN/4g'
alanalanalanALAN

route

Description:

Display IP routing table of a Linux system

Command:

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo einstein ALBERT | sed 's/$[a-z]\+$ $[A-Z]\+$/\2 \1/'

ALBERT einstein

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo user: $(whoami);

nmcli dev status user: manju
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo OS: $(uname);
OS: Linux

494
Description:

View all your network devices

Ergonomics: The science of fine-tuning

Command: product design to make it more user-

friendly

nmcli con show

Description:

Check network connections on your system Elegant solution: A solution

that achieves the highest
desired result with the least
Command: amount of effort

ss -ta

Description:

List all TCP ports (sockets) that are open on a server

Amelioration pattern:
Command:
A design pattern that explains how to get from
a poor to a good solution

495
ss -to

Description:

Display all active TCP connections together with their timers

Command:

type -a alias

Description:

Check Bash Aliases in Linux

# Difference between %Y and %y is %Y will print 4 digits while %y will print the last 2 digits of the year.

echo "We are in the year = $(date +%Y)"

echo "We are in the year = $(date +%y)"

# Difference between %B and %b is, %B will print full month name while %b will print abbreviated month
name.

echo "We are in the month = $(date +%b)"

496
echo "We are in the month = $(date +%B)"

# Difference between %A and %a is, %A will print full Weekday name while %a will print abbreviated weekday
name.

echo "Current Day of the week = $(date +%A)"

echo "Current Day of the week = $(date +%a)"

echo "Date using %D = $(date +%D)"

echo "Date using %F = $(date +%F)"

Date using %D = 08/15/21

Date using %F = 2021-08-15

echo "current time in 24 hour format = $(date +%T)"

current time in 24 hour format = 01:27:46

echo "current time in 12 hour format = $(date +%r)"

current time in 12 hour format = 01:27:47 AM

# Print yesterday's date and time.

echo "Yesterday = $(date -d "Yesterday")"

# Print Tomorrow date and time.

497
echo "tomorrow = $(date -d "tomorrow")"

# Find what is the date and time before 10 days from now.
echo "Before 10 days = $(date -d "tomorrow -10 days")"

# Find last month and next month

echo "Last month = $(date -d "last month" "%B")"
echo "Next month = $(date -d "next month" "%B")"

# Find last year and next year

echo "Last Year = $(date -d "last year" "+%Y")"
echo "Next Year = $(date -d "next year" "+%Y")"

Command:

ls -lai /

Description:

Get the number of inodes of files in a directory (root directory)

Command:

sudo du --inode /

Description:

498
Get the total number of inodes in the root directory

Command:

ss -o state established '( sport = :http or sport = :https )'

Description:

Get the list of all clients connected to HTTP (Port 80) or HTTPS (Port 443)

Watch TCP and UDP Open Ports in Real-Time

Command:

sudo watch ss -tulpn

Description:

Watch TCP and UDP Open Ports in Real-Time

• Front End → The representation part, what user sees

Command:
• Back End → Controlling of all the requests, made by users

timeout 5s ping google.com

500
Capability Maturity Model:

Description:
An approach for improving and

Timeout a ping command after 5 seconds refining a company's software

development process

Command:

yum install curl

Synchronize-and-stabilize

Description:

Install curl on CentOS

A strategy to design and handle large-
scale software systems on a broad scale

Command:

ss -ua

Description:
Shotgun debugging: The methodology
of detecting and eliminating errors from a
List all UDP Connections computer software, hardware, or software
problem by attempting multiple different
solutions at the same time in the hopes of
Command: finding one that works

501
ss -lu

Description:

List all Listening UDP Connections

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls ab*

Command: abc.cpp abc.txt ab.pdf ab.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls ab?(.)pdf

ab.pdf
ss -p

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls ab?(.pdf|.cpp)

ab.pdf

Description:

Display the Process IDs related to socket connections

Command:

ss -4

Description:

Display IPv4 and IPv6 Socket Connections

502
wc -l /home/fi*
# List the files in '/home' directory that start with 'fi' and then display the number of lines in each file
Command:

ss -6

"The only way to learn a new

Description: programming language is by writing

programs in it."
Display IPv6 connections

− Dennis Ritchie

Command:

ss -at '( dport = :22 or sport = :22 )'

Description:

Filter Connections by Port Number

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls -l | grep '^-'| awk 'BEGIN {sum=0} {sum = sum + $5} END {print sum}'
26591723
Print the sum of bytes (size of the file) of all files in a directory

grep -w Hello file.txt

# Display the lines containing the word "Hello" in file.txt

sed 'p' < file.txt

# Duplicate each line in file.txt

504
# count number of lines in each .txt file

ls *.txt | xargs wc -l

# count number of words in each .txt file

ls *.txt | xargs wc -w

# count number of characters in each .txt file

ls *.txt | xargs wc -c

# count lines, words and characters in each .txt file

ls *.txt | xargs wc

Command:

lslogins –u

Description:

Displays user accounts

505
Command:

systemctl list-units --type=service

Description:

List all loaded services on your system (whether active; running, exited or failed)

Command:

systemctl --type=service

[manju@localhost ~]$ tel="002-006-369"; echo ${tel%-*}
002-006
nc -v -w 2 z 192.168.56.1 20-25
[manju@localhost ~]$ tel="002-006-369"; echo ${tel%%-*}
002

Command:

cat /etc/resolv.conf

Description:

Find out your DNS Server IP address

508
[manju@localhost ~]$ a="Albert"; echo ${#a}
Command:
6

less /etc/resolv.conf

Description:

Find out your DNS Server IP address

[manju@localhost ~]$ a=Albert; echo ${a?Alan}

Command: Albert

Command:

factor 10

Description:

Decompose an integer (10) into prime factors

512
Command:

ps -e

Description:

Display every active process on a Linux system

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo alan | sed 's/a/A/' | sed 's/n/N/'

Command:
AlaN
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo alan | sed 's/a/A/;s/n/N/'
AlaN
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo alan | sed -e 's/a/A/' -e 's/n/N/'
AlaN
ps -x

Description:

Display User Running Processes

Command: [manju@localhost ~]$ echo -e "a\nl\nb\ne\nr\nt" | grep a -A 1

a
l

ps -fU manju
ifconfig | cut -c-10 | tr -d ' ' | tr -s '\n'

Print the list of network interfaces

available on a system
Description:

513
Display a user's processes by user name (manju)

Command:

ps -fu 1000

Description:

Display a user's processes by real user ID (RUID)

Command:

ps -U root -u root

Description:

Display every process running with root user privileges (real and effective ID)

echo -e "The following users are logged on the system:\n\n $(who)"

manju :0 Aug 15 03:31 (:0)

manju pts/1 Aug 15 03:32 (:0)

514
Command:

sh <(curl https://nixos.org/nix/install) --daemon

Description: Software psychology: The scientific

study of behavior and mental processes
Install Nix Package Manager in Linux
aimed at identifying and describing
human limits while dealing with
computing machines
Command:

locale

Description:

View System Locale in Linux

Command:

locale -a
System Modeling: A methodology for
describing, displaying, evaluating and
changing a system's architecture

Description:

515
Display a list of all available locales

cat score.txt

Justin-40

cat score.txt | tr [:lower:] [:upper:]

JUSTIN-40

cat score.txt | tr [a-z] [A-Z] >output.txt

cat output.txt

JUSTIN-40

cat domainnames.txt

www. google. com

www. fb. com
www. mactech. com
Remove the
cat domainnames.txt | tr -d '' spaces in the
www.google.com domain names
www.fb.com
www.mactech.com

516
cat domainnames.txt

www.google.....com
www.fb.com
www.mactech.Com

cat domainnames.txt | tr -s ''

www.google.com
www.fb.com
www.mactech.Com

echo "My UID is $UID"

My UID is 0

echo "My UID is $UID" | tr " " "\n"

My
UID
is
0

A space into a " : " character

echo "myw3schools.com =>Linux-Books,Src,Tutorials" | tr " " ":"

myw3schools.com:=>Linux-Books,Src,Tutorials

Command:

517
!sud

NAME LINE TIME COMMENT
manju :0 2022-06-08 09:34 (:0)
Command: manju pts/2 2022-06-08 09:48 (:0)

[manju@localhost ~]$ who

manju :0 2022-06-08 09:34 (:0)
manju pts/2 2022-06-08 09:48 (:0)

zcat phy.txt.gz myfiles.txt.gz

Description:

View multiple compressed files (phy.txt.gz and myfiles.txt.gz)

Command:

find . -type f -name "*.php"

Description:

Find all php files in a directory

[manju@localhost ~]$ x=0; until [ $x -gt 2 ]; do echo $x; x=`expr $x + 1`; done
0
1
2

Command:

519
find . -type f -perm 0777 -print

Computer Supported Collaborative

Description: Work (CSCW):

Find all Read-Only files

Computing tools and advanced technology
that assist a team of individuals involved

Command: in the project from multiple locations

find / -perm /a=x

Description:

Find all Executable files

[manju@localhost ~]$ ps auxw | grep nginx (# Check if Nginx is running or not)

manju 7859 0.0 0.0 112648 960 pts/0 R+ 05:32 0:00 grep --color=auto nginx

[manju@localhost ~]$ ps auxw | grep apache (# Check if Apache is running or not)

manju 7864 0.0 0.0 112648 956 pts/0 S+ 05:33 0:00 grep --color=auto apache

Upsert: When no existing entry is found, a database

Command:
operation that either changes an existing entry or inserts a
new entry is performed

521
find . -type f -name "phy.txt" -exec rm -f {} \;

Description:

Find and remove phy.txt File

Application Transformation: The process of bringing enterprise existing

Command: applications to modern technological stacks in order to reform outdated
applications to satisfy customers' demands

find . -type f -name "*.txt" -exec rm -f {} \;

Description:

To find and remove multiple .txt files

ps -eo pcpu,pid,user,args | sort -r | head -10

Command: # Check CPU utilization

find . -type f -name "*.mp3" -exec rm -f {} \;

Application Refactoring: The act of modifying software's source code without

changing its functionality in order to enhance understandability, richness,
Description: manageability, and expandability − among other nonfunctional aspects of the code

522
To find and remove multiple .mp3 files

Command:

[manju@localhost ~]$ x=alan; echo alan turing | sed "s/$x/ALAN/";

ALAN turing

find /tmp -type d -empty

Description:

Find all Empty Directories

Command:

[manju@localhost ~]$ x="alan"; echo ${x}

Alan
[manju@localhost ~]$ x=5496; echo ${#x}
find /tmp -type f -name ".*"
4 # length of the value of x

Description:

File all Hidden Files

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo -e "\e[1;31m Alan \e[0m"

Alan
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo -e "\e[1;42m Alan \e[0m"
Alan

Command:

523
find / -mtime 50

Command:

type cat

Description:

Command: Identifies whether the "cat" command is a shell built-in command, subroutine, alias, or keyword.

525
find / -size 50M

Description:

Find all 50MB files

Command:

find / -type f -size +100M -exec rm -f {} \;

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "$BASH_VERSION"

4.2.46(1)-release
Description:

Find and Delete 100MB Files

Command:

find / -type f -name *.mp3 -size +10M -exec rm {} \;

Description:

Find all .mp3 files with more than 10MB and delete them

[manju@localhost ~]$ for x in `seq 5 -2 1`; do echo -en "${x} ..."; done; echo "Albert"
5 ...3 ...1 ...Albert

526
Command:

cat /proc/sys/fs/file-max

Description:

Find Linux Open File Limit

Command:
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo *
1.txt 1.zip ab.txt AB.txt bc.txt BC.txt cd.txt CD.txt Desktop Documents
Downloads io.txt IO.txt log Music Pictures Public Templates test.txt Videos
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo '*'
*
ulimit -Hn

Description:

Check Hard Limit in Linux

Command:

ulimit -Sn

Description:

Check Soft Limits in Linux

527
Command:

[manju@localhost ~]$ mkdir -p /home/users/{1,2,3}.txt/documents

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls -ld /home/users/*/documents
drwxr-xr-x. 2 root root 6 May 29 19:27 /home/users/1.txt/documents
drwxr-xr-x. 2 root root 6 May 29 19:27 /home/users/2.txt/documents
timedatectl status
drwxr-xr-x. 2 root root 6 May 29 19:27 /home/users/3.txt/documents

Description:

Display the current time and date on your system

[manju@localhost ~]$ touch ab.txt bc.txt cd.txt io.txt

Command: [manju@localhost ~]$ ls [coibd]*
bc.txt cd.txt io.txt

timedatectl list-timezones

Description:

View all available timezones

Command:

timedatectl list-timezones | egrep -o "Asia/B.*"

timedatectl list-timezones | egrep -o "Europe/L.*"
timedatectl list-timezones | egrep -o "America/N.*"

528
[manju@localhost ~]$ ps -eaf | grep -w apache
manju 4033 3913 0 01:15 pts/1 00:00:00 grep --color=auto -w apache
Description:

Find the local timezone according to your location List all of the Apache
web server processes

Command:

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo Alan

Alan
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo !echo
echo echo Alan
timedatectl set-timezone "Asia/Kolkata"
echo Alan
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo \!echo
!echo

Description:

Set your local timezone in Linux

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo Albert Einstein was a Jewish\; German-born theoretical physicist.

Command: Albert Einstein was a Jewish; German-born theoretical physicist.

swapon --summary

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo Albert, Alan \& John

Description: Albert, Alan & John

View a summary of swap space usage by device

Command:

529
[manju@localhost ~]$ ls -ld /etc/rc{0,1,2,3,4,5,6}.d
lrwxrwxrwx. 1 root root 10 May 18 20:54 /etc/rc0.d -> rc.d/rc0.d
lrwxrwxrwx. 1 root root 10 May 18 20:54 /etc/rc1.d -> rc.d/rc1.d
lrwxrwxrwx. 1 root root 10 May 18 20:54 /etc/rc2.d -> rc.d/rc2.d
lrwxrwxrwx. 1 root root 10 May 18 20:54 /etc/rc3.d -> rc.d/rc3.d
cat /proc/swaps
lrwxrwxrwx. 1 root root 10 May 18 20:54 /etc/rc4.d -> rc.d/rc4.d
lrwxrwxrwx. 1 root root 10 May 18 20:54 /etc/rc5.d -> rc.d/rc5.d
lrwxrwxrwx. 1 root root 10 May 18 20:54 /etc/rc6.d -> rc.d/rc6.d

Description:
Listing of /etc/rc*.d

Check swap usage information

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "Albert Einstein, \"was a German-born theoretical physicist.\""

Albert Einstein, "was a German-born theoretical physicist."

# start recording of Linux terminal

script history_log.txt

Script started, file is history_log.txt

exit

Script done, file is history_log.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo 'Albert "Einstein"'

Command:
Albert "Einstein"
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "Albert 'Einstein'"
Albert 'Einstein'

dir -shl

Description:

530
"Don't write better error
messages, write code that

List files and their allocated sizes in blocks doesn't need them."

– Jason C. McDonald

Command:

less /proc/sys/dev/cdrom/info

Description:

Display information about CD-ROM

while true; do date >> date.txt ; sleep 5 ; done &

cat date.txt

Mon Aug 16 03:05:36 PDT 2021

Mon Aug 16 03:05:41 PDT 2021
Mon Aug 16 03:05:46 PDT 2021
Mon Aug 16 03:05:51 PDT 2021

chmod u+x 256.txt

# Makes the file "256.txt" executable for the user (owner) only

chmod a+x 256.txt

# Makes the file "256.txt" executable for all (everyone)

531
a=$(pwd)
echo "Current working directory is : $a"

/home/manju

Command:

echo *.jpeg

Description: [ -z "" ] && echo 0 || echo 1

Print all .jpeg files

Output:
0
Command:

echo 'linux' | fold -w1

Description:

Break down a word (linux) into individual

532
l
i
n
u
x

Command:

echo ${variable:a:b}
 a → Start position
 b → Length

[manju@localhost ~]$ variable="My name is Albert and I am a Physicist.";

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo ${variable:11:6}

Albert
ls -d ?[ab]*
# List files where second letter is a or b

egrep "^ma|^jo" /etc/passwd|cut -d: -f1

# List the usernames which starts with ma or jo

[manju@localhost ~]$ array=("Albert" "is" "a" "Physicist"); echo ${array[0]}

Albert
[manju@localhost ~]$ array=("Albert" "is" "a" "Physicist"); echo ${array[1]}
is

534
Command: Workflow management

A methodology that defines workflows for quick

uname -or re-design and re-implementation of processes as
business organization demands change

Description:
Datasheet
Find Out Linux Kernel Version

A data presentation format

Command: consisting of columns and rows

uname -a

Description: Process Model: A paradigm for a

collection of more or less ordered
Print linux system information
steps that must be completed in order
to achieve a goal

Command:

cat /proc/version

Description:

Display some of your system information including the Linux kernel version

535
Command:

Database proxy: A database connector responsible

for managing connections between database users and
database servers
cat /etc/centos-release

Description:

Find Out Linux Distribution Name and Release Version

Functional Dependency

The value of Y is determined by the value of X

Command:
Y is functionally dependent on X

fuser . Coding by Convention

(Convention over configuration):

A programming architecture approach that asserts that configuration

should only be needed if we're doing anything new − thereby decreasing
or removing the requirement for extra software configuration files
Description:

Displays the PIDs of processes currently accessing your current working directory

Dirty read:

Suppose transaction A modifies a row. Before transaction A

Command:
commits the modification, transaction B reads the updated row

536
fuser -v -m .bashrc

Description:

Determine which processes are accessing your ~.bashrc file

Command:

sudo fuser --list-signals

Description:

Displays all the possible signals that can be used with the fuser tool

Command:

sudo fuser -k -HUP /boot

Description:

Sends the HUP signal to all processes that have your /boot directory open

537
Command:

ls -al

Description:

List all the files with the file permissions, the number of links to that file, the owner of the file, the group of the
file, the file size in bytes, the file's last modified datetime and the file name

Command:

# Everyone can now read the file

echo "shutdown -h now" | at -m 23:55

chmod a+r myfiles.txt

Description: # Everyone can now read and write the file

chmod a+rw myfiles.txt

Shutdown the system at 23:55 today

# Others (not the owner, not in the same group of the
file) cannot read, write or execute the file

Command: chmod o-rwx myfiles.txt

echo "updatedb" | at -m 23.55

Editors for document files Editors for non-document files

Notepad Turbo C
WordPad Turbo C++
MS-WORD Borland C/C++
vi editor
vim editor
pico
Emacs

LAN WAN
Small computer network that covers a building or a campus Wider computer network that covers a city or the entire globe

High bandwidth Low bandwidth

Lower delays as they cover smaller distances Greater delays as they cover far distances
Security is very high Security is high

Generally, programmers commit three types of errors. They are:

 Syntax errors [manju@localhost ~]$ for (( i=0; i<=2; i=i+1 )); do echo "Welcome $i times"; done
Welcome 0 times
 Logical errors
Welcome 1 times
 Run-time errors Welcome 2 times

[manju@localhost ~]$ array=("Albert" "is" "a" "Physicist"); echo ${!array[@]}

0 1 2 3
Print all array indexes

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[manju@localhost ~]$ a=1; b=2; echo $((a+b))
Syntax errors:
3

The syntax of assignment statement in C is:

c = a+b;

If the above statement is typed without the semicolon at the end, then there will be a syntax error because of
a missing semicolon.

Logical errors: A Mistake in a program's source code that result in incorrect or unexpected behavior. It is a
type of runtime error that may simply produce the wrong output or may cause a program to crash while
running.

Run-time errors → Device errors, improper sequencing of constructs, errors in system software, Keypunch
errors, incorrect data input.
cat /etc/passwd|wc -l
# Count local accounts
Software

Application System Utility

Software Software
Software

Operating System Language Processors System Utilities

[manju@localhost ~]$ wc -l /etc/passwd|cut -d" " -f1

43 Count local accounts

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414
Recursion is the technique that defines a function in terms of itself. That is, a function which
performs a particular task is repeatedly calling itself. The best example of recursively defined
function is computing the factorial of a given number.

[manju@localhost ~]$ Url="www.wikipedia.org"; echo ${Url%.*}

www.wikipedia
#include<iostream> [manju@localhost ~]$ Url="www.wikipedia.org"; echo ${Url%%.*}
using namespace std; www
[manju@localhost ~]$ Url="www.wikipedia.org"; echo ${Url#*.}
int factorial(int n); wikipedia.org
[manju@localhost ~]$ Url="www.wikipedia.org"; echo ${Url##*.}
int main() org
{
int n;

cout << "Enter a positive integer: ";

cin >> n;

cout << "Factorial of " << n << " = " << factorial(n);

return 0;
} [manju@localhost ~]$ echo "5 * 2.77" | bc
13.85

int factorial(int n) [manju@localhost ~]$ x=16; echo "$x * 1.5" | bc

{ 24.0

if(n > 1) [manju@localhost ~]$ echo "sqrt(16)" | bc

return n * factorial(n - 1); 4

else [manju@localhost ~]$ echo "4^2" | bc

return 1; 16

Suppose the user enters the number 6.

main() function calls factorial(int n) with 6 as an passed argument

Since: 6 > 1

6 × factorial (6−1) = 6 × factorial 5 = 720

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720 is returned to main() function by factorial(int n) to print

Factorial of 6 = 720

on the console screen using printf statement.

Description:

List the files in the bin directory.

Command:
ls /bin

Description:

List the files in the bin directory and the etc directory.

Command:

ls /bin /etc

Description:

Moves the file test.txt to the folder newrepo.

Command:
mv test.txt ./newrepo

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Description:

Deletes all the lines in the test.txt containing tue word.

Command:

sed -i "/tue/d" test.txt

Git Commands

Description:

Display information about previous commits.

Command:

git log

Description:

Display information about previous commits (detailed).

Command:

git log --summary

Description:

Display information about previous commits (briefly).

Command:

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git log --oneline

git config -–global user.name "myw3schools"

git config -–global user.email [email protected]

Description:

Check status.

Command:

git status

Description:

List all branches (local and remote).

Command:

git branch -a

Description:

Display Git configurations.

Command:

git config --list

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Description:

Add an empty file "test.txt" to an existing repo "colors".

Command:

touch test.txt
git init
git add test.txt
git commit -m "first commit"
git remote add origin [email protected]:myw3schools/colors.git
git push -u origin main

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo ${new:-einstein}

Einstein

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo $BASHPID

11066
The process ID of bash

[manju@localhost ~]$ find . -type f -mmin -10

./.cache/abrt/lastnotification
./.bash_history Files that are modified in last 10 minutes

[manju@localhost ~]$ find . -type f -mmin -10 | wc -l

2
Number of files that are modified in last 10 minutes

 The term computer "bug" was, in fact, inspired by a real insect.

 Computer Programming was instrumental in helping end World War II

 The first programming language was called FORTRAN

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Introduction

You might have an algorithm for getting from office to home, for making a chunk of code that calculates
the terms of the Fibonacci sequence, or for finding what you're looking for in a retail store. Algorithms
are the building blocks of computer programs or sequence of unambiguous instructions (the term
'unambiguous' indicates that there is no room for subjective interpretation) that tells how the problem
could be addressed and solved − which is definitely overblown in their importance like road maps for
accomplishing a given, well-defined automated reasoning task − which always have a clear stopping
point.

Long division and column addition are examples that everyone is familiar with − even a simple function
for adding two numbers is implementation of a particular algorithm. Online grammar checking uses
algorithms. Financial computations use algorithms. Robotic field uses algorithms for controlling their
robot using algorithms. An encryption algorithm transforms data according to specified actions to
protect it. A search engine like Google uses search engine algorithms (such as, takes search strings of
keywords as input, searches its associated database for relevant web pages, and returns results). In fact, it
is difficult to think of a task performed by your computer that does not use computer rules that are a lot
like a recipes (called algorithms).

The use of computer algorithms (step-by-step techniques used for Problem-solving) plays an essential
role in space search programs. Scientists have to use enormous calculations, and they are managed by
high-end supercomputers, which are enriched with detailed sets of instructions that computers follow to
arrive at an answer. Algorithms have applications in many different disciplines from science to math to
physics and, of course, computing − and provide us the most ideal option of accomplishing a task. Here
is some importance of algorithms in computer programming.

• To improve the effectiveness of a computer program: An algorithm (procedure or formula for solving a
problem, based on conducting a sequence of specified actions) can be used to improve the speed at which a
program executes a problem and has the potential of reducing the time that a program takes to solve a
problem.
• Proper usage of resources: The right selection of an algorithm will ensure that a program
consumes the least amount of memory. Apart from memory, the algorithm can determine the
amount of processing power that is needed by a program.

549
The algorithm for a child's morning routine could be the following:
Smet's Rule: A methodology for
generating joint belief functions
Step 1: Wake up and turn off alarm from conditional belief functions

Step 2: Get dressed

Pattern mining: The process of identifying
Step 3: Brush teeth
specific patterns within the data
Step 4: Eat breakfast

Step 5: Go to school

The algorithm to add two numbers entered by user would look something like this:

Step 1: Start
Unique Name Assumption
Step 2: Declare variables num1, num2 and sum
Step 3: Read values num1 and num2
Step 4: Add num1 and num2 and assign the result to sum
Different names will always
sum ← num1 + num2
imply different elements in the
model
Step 5: Display sum
Step 6: Stop

Two of these algorithms accomplish exactly the same goal, but each algorithm does it in completely
different way to achieve the required output or to accomplish our task. In computer programming, there are
often many different ways – algorithms (any well-defined computational procedure that takes some value,
or set of values, as input and produces some value, or set of values as output) − to accomplish any given
task. Each algorithm has credits and demerits in different situations. If you have a million integer values
between -2147483648 and +2147483647 and you need to sort them, the bin sort is the accurate algorithm
to use. If you have a million book titles, the quick sort algorithm might be the best choice. By knowing the
toughness and weaknesses of the different algorithms, you pick the best one to accomplish a specific task
or to solve a specific problem.

One of the most important aspects of an algorithm is how fast it can manipulate data in various ways,
such as inserting a new data item, searching for a particular item or sorting an item. It is often easy to come
up with a list of rules to follow in order to solve a problem, but if the algorithm is too slow, it's back to the

550
drawing board. Efficiency of an algorithm depends on its design and implementation. Since every
procedure or formula for solving a problem based on conducting a sequence of specified actions − uses
computer resources to run − execution time and internal memory usage are important considerations to
analyze an algorithm.

Why Study Algorithms?

Algorithms are the heart of computer science (usually means a procedure or basically instance of logic
written in software that solves a recurrent problem of finding an item with specific properties among
collection of items or transforming data according to specified actions to protect it), and the subject has
countless practical applications as well as intellectual depth that is widely used throughout all areas of
information technology including solving a mathematical problem (as of finding the greatest common
divisor ) in a finite number of steps that often involves repetition of an operation. The word algorithm − a
mathematical concept whose roots date back to 600 AD with invention of the decimal system − derives
from the name of the ninth century Persian mathematician and geographer, Mohammed ibn-Musa al-
Khwarizmi, who was part of the royal court in Baghdad and who lived from about 780 to 850. On the
other hand, it turns out algorithms (widely recognized as the foundation of modern computer coding) have
a long and distinguished history stretching back as far as the Babylonians.

Although there is some available body of facts or information about early multiplication algorithms in
Egypt (around 1700-2000 BC) the oldest algorithm is widely recognized to be valid or correct to have
been found on a set of Babylonian clay tablets that date to around 1600 - 1800 BC. Their exact
significance only came to be revealed or exposed around 1972 when an American computer scientist,
mathematician, and professor emeritus at Stanford University Donald E. Knuth published the first
English translations of various Babylonian cuneiform mathematicaltablets.

Here are some short extracts from his 1972 manuscript that explain these early algorithms:-

"The calculations described in Babylonian tablets are not merely the solutions to specific
individualproblems; they are actually general procedures for solving a whole class of
problems." - Pages 672 to 673 of "Ancient Babylonian Algorithms".

The wedge-shaped marks on clay tablets also seem to have been an early form of instruction manual:-

551
"Note also the stereotyped ending, 'This is the procedure,' which is commonly found at the end of
each section on a table. Thus the Babylonian procedures are genuine algorithms, and we can
commend the Babylonians for developing a nice way to explain an algorithm by example as the
algorithm itself was being defined...." - Pages 672 to 673 of "Ancient Babylonian Algorithms".

The use of computers, however, has raised the use of algorithms in daily transactions (like accessing an
automated teller machine (ATM ), booking an air or train or buying something online) to unprecedented
levels of real-world problems with solutions requiring advanced algorithms abounds. From Google
search to morning routines, algorithms are ubiquitous in our everyday life − and their use is only likely to
grow to break down tasks into chunks that can be solved through specific implementations. Many of the
problems, though they may not seem realistic, need the set of well-defined algorithmic knowledge that
comes up every day in the real world. By developing a good understanding of a series of logical steps in
an algorithmic language, you will be able to choose the right one for a problem and apply it properly.
Different algorithms play different roles in programming – and algorithms are used by computer
programs where a program –
• Get input data.
• Process it using the complex logics.
• Stop when it finds an answer or some conditions are met.
• Produce the desired output.

To give you a better picture, here is the most common type of algorithms:

• Searching Algorithms
When a software agent is
• Sorting Algorithms
unsure how its activities will
• Path finding Algorithms
impact the environment, or
• Tree and graph based algorithms
when the environment is
• Approximate Algorithms
changing unexpectedly, it is
• Compression Algorithms
faced with strategic
• Random Algorithms
uncertainty.
• Pattern Matching
• Sequence Finding and a lot more

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You only need to define your problem then select the right algorithm to use. The word algorithm may
not appear closely connected to kids, but the truth is that − for kids − understanding the process of
building a step by step method of solving a problem helps them build a strong foundation in logical
thinking and problem solving. Here are some problems you can ask your kid to discuss algorithmic
solutions with you:
Rescaling:
• How do we know if a number is odd or even?
• How do we calculate all of the factors of a number?
Multiplying or dividing a
• How can we tell if a number is prime?
variable by some constant
• Given a list of ten numbers in random order, how can we put them order?

Algorithms has shown it can yield results in all industries — from predicting insurance sales opportunities
and generating the millions of search inquiries every day to automating medicine research, optimizing
transportation routes, and much more. While algorithms help companies like Master Card and Visa to
keep their users' information, such as card number, password, and bank statement safely − algorithms
aren't perfect. They fail and some fail spectacularly. Over the past few years, there have been some
serious fails with algorithms, which are the formulas or sets of rules used in digital decision-making
processes. Now people are questioning whether we're putting too much trust in the algorithms. When
algorithms go bad: Online failures show humans are still needed. Disturbing events at Facebook,
Instagram and Amazon reveal the importance of context.

5
• Dependent events: Events that influence the probability of occurrence of other events

• Independent events: Events that does not influence the probability of occurrence of other events

Knowledge Query and Manipulation Language (KQML): Saddle Point:

A language and interface used for transmitting knowledge and information between
virtual personal assistants and information sources. In game theory, a scenario in
which the minimum of one
that continuously and autonomously conducts numerous
player's maximum losses is the
operations on behalf of an enterprise organisation
same as the maximum of another
player's minimum losses

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Scripting language Programming language
Platform-specific Platform-agnostic (cross-platform)
Interpreted Compiled
Faster at runtime Slower at runtime
More code-intensive Less code-intensive
Creates standalone applications Creates applications as part of a stack

A step-by-step
procedure to get
Input Output
expected output from
the given input

Algorithm

Priori Analysis Posterior Analysis

checking the algorithm before its implementation checking the algorithm after its implementation

Design

Analyze Algorithms Experiment

Implement

Algorithms Design Cycle

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6
Problem
Algorithms are not arbiters
of objective truth and
fairness simply because
they're math.

Algorithm + Data structure = Program ― Zoe Quinn

Input Computer System Output

Characteristics of an Algorithm Data structure

Set of rules to get the desired output from

The way in which various program data
the given input
elements are organized and stored into the
 Well-defined input memory so that the data can be used efficiently

 Desired output
[manju@localhost ~]$ grep -r 'Hello world' ./*
 Finiteness (not end up in an infinite loops) ./myfile.txt:Hello world

 Effectiveness (executed in finite time)

Search for the string "Hello world" in files of a

 Definiteness (precisely defined) directory recursively

Linear Data Structure Non-Linear Data Structure

Data elements are arranged in a linear sequence Data elements are not arranged in a sequence
Implementation is easy Implementation is difficult
Inefficient memory utilization Efficient memory utilization

[manju@localhost ~]$ find ./* -type f -exec grep -H 'Hello world' {} \;

./myfile.txt:Hello world

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Performance analysis of an algorithm depends on 2 factors:

 Space Complexity: The amount of memory space required by an algorithm to complete its
task
 Time Complexity: The amount of time required by an algorithm complete its task

The number of operations an algorithm performs to complete its task (considering that
each operation takes the same amount of time)

Linear Data Structure Non-linear Data Structure

Data items are arranged in sequential order Data items are arranged in non-sequential order
(one after the other) (hierarchical manner)
Memory is not utilized in an efficient way Memory is utilized in an efficient way

Time complexity increase with the data Time complexity remains the same
size

The algorithm to find the largest number among 3 numbers:

Step 1: Start

Step 2: Declare variables a, b and c.

Step 3: Read variables a, b and c.

Step 4: If a > b

If a > c

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8
Display a is the largest number.

Else

Display c is the largest number.

Else

If b > c

Display b is the largest number.

Else

Display c is the greatest number.

Step 5: Stop

The time taken by the computer to run code = number of instructions × time to execute each instruction

Factors that affect run time of an algorithm:  Worst Case Complexity: The maximum time

taken by an algorithm to complete its task.

 The hardware platform used
 Representation of abstract data types
 Best Case Complexity: The minimum time
 Efficiency of compiler
taken by an algorithm to complete its task.
 Implementer programming skill
 Complexity of underlying algorithm  Average Case Complexity: The average time
 Size of the input taken by an algorithm to complete its task.

Run time
 Polynomial time

 Superpolynomial time

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9
Polynomial time → run time that does not increase faster than nk, which includes:

 constant time (n0)

n → input size
 logarithmic time (log n)
 linear time (n1)
 quadratic time (n2) and other higher degree polynomials (like n3)

Superpolynomial time → run time that does increase faster than nk, which includes:

 exponential time (2n)

 factorial time (n!) and anything else faster.

An algorithm is said to take constant time (n0), if

 The run time of an algorithm → constant (doesn't increase) − no matter how large the
input size increases

An algorithm is said to take logarithmic time (log n), if

 The run time of an algorithm increases in direct proportion to the logarithm of the input
size

An algorithm is said to take linear time (n1), if

 The run time of an algorithm increases in direct proportion to the input size

Whenever input size doubles, the running time increases twofold

An algorithm is said to take quadratic time (n2), if

 The run time of an algorithm increases in direct proportion to the input size squared

Whenever input size doubles, the running time increases fourfold

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10
An algorithm is said to take cubic time (n3), if

 The run time of an algorithm increases in direct proportion to the cube of the input size

Whenever input size doubles, the running time increases eightfold

An algorithm is said to take factorial time (!n), if

 The run time of an algorithm increases in direct proportion to the factorial of the input size

Whenever input size increases by 1, the running time increases by a factor of input size

The better the time complexity of an algorithm is, the faster the

algorithm will complete its task

An algorithm is said to take linearithmic time (n log n), if

 The run time of an algorithm increases in direct proportion to the input size times the logarithm
of the input size

The total amount of memory space used by the algorithm to

execute and produce the result

Space Complexity = Auxiliary space + Memory space used by input values

The extra memory space used by the algorithm

during its execution

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11
For any program, memory space is required for the following purposes:

 To store compiled version of instructions (Instruction Space)

 To store information of partially executed functions at the time of function call (Environmental
Stack)
 To store all the variables and constants (Data Space)

Constant space complexity takes the same amount of memory space regardless of the input size (n)

Logarithmic space complexity takes memory space proportional to log n

Linear space complexity takes memory space directly proportional to n

Linearithmic space complexity takes memory space directly proportional to n log n

Quadratic space complexity takes memory space directly proportional to n2

Cubic space complexity takes memory space directly proportional to n3

Exponential space complexity takes memory space directly proportional to 2n

Factorial space complexity takes memory space directly proportional to !n

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int x = 4, y = 6, z;
z = x + y;
printf("%d", z);
return 0;
}

 In the above program, 3 integer variables are used, hence they will take up 4 bytes
each, so the total space occupied by the above-given program is 4 × 3 = 12 bytes.

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12
 In this program, we have three integer variables. Therefore, this program always takes
12 bytes of memory space to complete its execution. And because this memory space
requirement is fixed for the above program, hence space complexity is said to be
constant space complexity or O(1) space complexity.

public int sumArray(int[] array) {

int size = 0;
int sum = 0;

for (int iterator = 0; iterator < size; iterator++) {

sum += array[iterator];
}

return sum;
}

In the above program:

 array – the function's only argument – the space taken by the array is equal to 4n bytes
(where n is the length of the array)
 size – a 4-byte integer
 sum – a 4-byte integer
 iterator – a 4-byte integer

The total memory space needed for this program to execute is 4n + 4 + 4 + 4 = 4n + 12 bytes − which
will increasing linearly with the increase in the input value n, hence it is called as linear space
complexity or O(n) space complexity.

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13
To search an element in a given array, it can be done in two ways:

• Linear search
KLOC (thousands of lines of code):
• Binary search
A conventional metric for determining the size of a
software program, as well as how long or how many
people it will take to create it
Linear Search:

Linear search is a very basic and simple search algorithm. In this type of search, a sequential
search is made over all elements one by one. Every element is checked and if a match is found
then that particular element is returned, otherwise the search continues till the end of the data
collection.

For Example:

To search the element 17 it will go step by step in a sequence order:

8 10 12 15 17 20 25
Verifiability: The fact that
17
anything can be proven to
be accurate or right

Match not found

8 10 12 15 17 20 25
17 Code walkthrough:

A methodology for detecting

Match not found
algorithmic and logical problems
in programming code
8 10 12 15 17 20 25
17

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14
Match not found
8 10 12 15 17 20 25
17

Match not found

8 10 12 15 17 20 25
17

Match found

Element 17 is returned.

Linear search (whose running time increases linearly with the number of elements in the array.
For example if number of elements is doubled then, on average, the search would take twice as
long) is rarely used practically because other search algorithms such as the binary search
algorithm and hash tables allow significantly faster searching comparison to linear search.

Binary Search:

Binary Search is applied on the sorted array or list. In binary search, we first compare the value
with the elements in the middle position of the array. If the value is matched, then we return the
value. If the value is less than the middle element, then it must lie in the lower half of the array
and if it's greater than the element then it must lie in the upper half of the array. We repeat this
procedure on the lower (or upper) half of the array. Binary Search is useful when there are large
numbers of elements in an array.

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15
We shall learn the process of binary search with a pictorial example. The following is our sorted
array and let us assume that we need to search the location of value 31 using binary search.

10 14 19 26 27 31 33 35 42 44

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

(low) (high)

First, we shall determine mid of the array by using this formula − (high−low)
mid = low +
2

Here it is, 0 + (9 − 0) = 4 (integer value of 4.5). So, 4 is the mid of the array.
2

10 14 19 26 27 31 33 35 42 44

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

(low) (mid) (high)

Now we compare the value stored at location 4, with the value being searched, i.e. 31. We find
that the value at location 4 is 27, which is not a match. As the value is greater than 27 and we
have a sorted array, so we also know that the target value must be in the upper portion of the
array. We change our low to mid + 1 and find the new mid value again.

low = mid + 1 = 4 +1= 5

(high−low) (9−5)
mid = low + =5+ =7
2 2

Our new mid is 7 now. We compare the value stored at location 7 with our target value 31.

10 14 19 26 27 31 33 35 42 44

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

The value stored at location 7 is not a match; rather it is more than what we are looking for. So, the value
must be in the lower part from this location.

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We change our high to mid − 1 and find the 16
new mid value again.
high = mid − 1 = 7−1= 6

10 14 19 26 27 31 33 35 42 44

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

(low) (high)

(high−low) (6−4)
mid = low + =4+ =5
2 2

Our new mid is 5 now.

10 14 19 26 27 31 33 35 42 44

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

(low) (mid) (high)

We compare the value stored at location 5 with our target value. We find that it is a match.

10 14 19 26 27 31
31 33 35 42 44

0 1 2 3 4 55 6 7 8 9

Most significant value

We conclude that the target value 31 is stored at location 5.
Data: 4579B536
Least significant value

Big-endian Little-endian

The sequence's most significant value is placed first The sequence's least significant value is placed first
at the lowest storage address at the lowest storage address
value 45 79 B5 36 value 36 B5 79 46
Address 0 1 2 3 Address 0 1 2 3

Increasing memory address Increasing memory address

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2 phases of Computer Programming Task

Implementation phase
Problem solving phase

Pseudocode Algorithm
A method of developing an algorithm A finite sequence of well-defined, computer-
implementable instructions, typically help to
simplify and understand the problem
Easy to understand, interpret and easier ease of Quite hard to understand and complex ease of
construction construction

Debugging
Debugging

Moderate
Simpler

Pseudocode to calculate the area of a circle Algorithm to calculate the area of a circle
AreaofCircle() 1. Start.
{ 2. Read the radius value r as the input given by
BEGIN the user.
Read: Number radius, Area; 3. Calculate the area as Area: 3.14 * r * r.
Input r; 4. Display the Area.
Area = 3.14 * r * r; 5. End.
Output Area;
END
}

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18
Dempster's Rule of Combination Object-oriented programming aficionados think
that everything is an object….this [isn't]
so. There are things that are objects. Things that
have state and change their state are objects. And
Combining evidence from multiple sources to arrive at a then there are things that are notobjects. A binary
degree of belief that takes into account all available evidence
search is not an object. It isan algorithm.
expressed by a mathematical
entity called the belief function (Alexander Stepanov)

Dempster-Shafer Theory: A belief function and Anyone, from the most clueless amateur to the

plausible reasoning-based mathematical theory of best cryptographer, can create an algorithm

evidence that determines the probability of an that he himself can't break.
event occurring by combining separate pieces of
(Bruce Schneier)
evidence

Extension of a Concept: The group of DENDRAL: A rule-based expert system that

things in an application domain to which a identifies compounds based on spectrum and
concept refers nuclear magnetic resonance data

Demodulation Mathematics is as much an aspect of culture as

it is a collection of algorithms.

(Carl Benjamin Boyer)

The rule that 0+ (0 + b) = b can be rewritten as

0 + b = b, effectively eliminating the need for the
Random World Model: A reasoning
extra terms
approach based on the assumption that all
basic events are equally probable

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19
Jittering
[The Euclidean algorithm is] the granddaddy
of all algorithms, because it is the oldest
To avoid overplotting in statistical graphs, random
nontrivial algorithm that has survived to the
noise is introduced to data
present day.
Knowledge compilation: A group of
strategies for dealing with the persistent nature of
a variety of artificial intelligence challenges
(Donald Knuth)

Mimic the cognitive process of a You cannot invent an algorithm that is as good
human expert on a specific topic at recommending books as a good bookseller,
and that's the secret weapon of the bookstore -is
that no algorithm will ever understand readers
Knowledge Engineering: the way that other readers can understand
The use of tools and techniques to develop AI readers.
expert systems
(John Green)

Meta-Knowledge: Knowledge about a

preselected knowledge
The emphasis on mathematical methods seems
to be shifted more towards combinatorics and
Meta-Reasoning: Reasoning about the set theory - and away from the algorithm of
process of reasoning differential equations which dominates
mathematical physics.

Meta-rule: A rule that explains

how to apply other rules
(John von Neumann)

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20
Subjective probability: A kind of
Data dominates. If you've chosen the right data
probability obtained from a person's personal
structures and organized things well, the
assessment of the probability of a given result
algorithms will almost always be self-evident.
Data structures, not algorithms, are central to
Phenomenology programming.

The study of phenomena

(Rob Pike)

Retrospective study
More data beats clever algorithms, but better
data beats more data.
Uses previously collected data for purposes
other than research

(Peter Norvig)

Real Time Operation System The Google algorithm was a significant

development. I've had thank-you emails from
people whose lives have been saved by
information on a medical website or who have
respond to data at a rate that is similar to the found the love of their life on a dating website.
rate at which it arrives

(Tim Berners-Lee)

Many programming languages share the same structure.

Computers use binary code to store data.

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find /* -type f -atime -20

# Find all files which have been accessed less than 20 days ago

find /* -type f -atime +20

# Find all files which have been accessed more than 20 days ago

Synchronous Asynchronous
One request at a time Multiple requests at a time

The first programmer in the entire world was a woman. Her name was Ada Lovelace and she
was born in 1815. It is believed by some people that Lovelace published the first algorithm
intended to be carried out by a machine.

find ./mydir -type f -name "*.py" -ls -delete

# Remove all "*.py" files from mydir recursively Action statement

find -size 100c

A command given to the computer that
# Find files equal to 100 characters instructs the computer to perform actions
such as opening a file and saving a file

more +3 file.txt

# Display the contents of file.txt starting from the line 3

mv * ../

# Move all files in the current folder to the upper directory

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Concurrency Parallelism

(Dealing with lots of things at once) (Doing lots of things at once)

More than one task is processed at the same Two tasks are executed at the same time on a
time on a single-core processor − but no two multi-core processor
tasks are executed at the same time

Software reuse
whereis -m locate
combined
# Find help files for the command "locate" Existing + new modules → Software program

grep -E 'He|wo' file.txt

# Display the line containing the He or wo in file.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ date Modularization

broken down
Fri May 13 01:15:03 PDT 2022 Software program → modules
[manju@localhost ~]$ cd !$

cd date

bash: cd: date: No such file or directory

df -haT

# List all files systems and their types in a readable manner

Hardcode
Hardcoding
A part of a computer program which cannot be changed in The process of creating a
any way except by changing the entire program itself hardcode

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Concurrent = two queues one coffee machine

Parallel = two queues two coffee machines

ps aux | grep '(cron|syslog)' Batch file: A script file that stores

Data commands to be executed one after another
# Display the PID numbers related to cron
and syslog services

Descriptive Numerical

(high, low, good, bad, …) (1, 2, 3, 4, …)

(Qualitative) (Quantitative)

Discrete Continuous

(Example: 6 boys) (Example: 6.5 km)

Counted Measured

"Data" comes from a singular Latin word, datum, which originally meant "something given." Its early usage dates back to the
1600s. Overtime "data" has become the plural of datum.

ls | sed "s:^:`pwd`/:"
Bugfairy: A person
# List file absolute paths (excluding hidden files)
who reports a bug to a
find $pwd -maxdepth 1 | xargs ls –ld developer
# List file absolute paths (including hidden files)

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Central Processing Unit:

 Takes all Decisions and performs all calculations.

 Controls all units of the computer and converts data into information

Booting: The process of loading the operating system

Cold booting Warm booting

The process that is performed when Sometimes computer system hangs and stops

computer system is started for the first time responding. In this case warm booting is

by turning on the power required.

 Data definition → value assignment

 Data usage → accessing the value

Control Flow Analysis Data Flow Analysis

Determine the control structure of a program and build Determine the flow of data values and build data flow

control flow graphs graphs

 Native compiler: generates an executable code for a platform on which the

compiler is running.
 Cross compiler: generates an executable code for a platform other than the one on
which the compiler is running.

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The Most Significant Failures When Al Turned Rogue, Causing Disastrous Results

Artificial intelligence will reach human levels by around 2029. Follow that out further to,
say, 2045, we will have multiplied the intelligence, the human biological machine
intelligence of our civilization a billion-fold.

— Ray Kurzweil

Artificial intelligence (sometimes called machine intelligence) is a part of computer science that
emphasizes the creation of intelligent machines with generalized human cognitive abilities that work
and reacts like intelligent beings. Artificial intelligence has made a major breakthrough in the processes,
including learning (the acquisition of information for using the data), reasoning (using rules to reach
definite conclusions) and self-correction −and advancements are accelerating to present a range of new
functionality for businesses. But nothing in this world can be made perfect; hence everything
accompanies some notable failures and fallacies in them. Here we list some of the significant AI failures
from the last decade that hint that the companies need to work harder and keep coming up with better
and improved versions of their innovations.

Occam learning: An algorithmic learning Opportunistic search: A search methodology

approach in which the learner's goal is to produce used by systems that don't have a
a concise representation of received training data. predetermined solution to a problem

Monotonic Reasoning Non-monotonic Reasoning Nearest Neighbor

A methodology for predicting or

Once a conclusion is reached, it Conclusion is invalidated if
classifying observations based on the
will remain unchanged even if further data is added to the
values of past observations that are
further data is added to the existing data
"near" the target value in some aspect
existing data

Markov Decision Process (MDP): A mathematical approach for describing decision making in scenarios
where outcomes are partially random and partly controlled by the decision maker

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Evidence Flows Genetic Algorithm: An
Alan Mathison Turing was an English mathematician, approach for evaluating ML
Illustrate
computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher models based on
and theoretical biologist. Turing's Turing machine, methodologies adapted from
which can be considered a model of a general-purpose
How the evaluations or possibilities the domain of genetics
computer, was crucial in the development of theoretical
for other findings are affected by a
computer science by formalizing the ideas of algorithm
specific piece of data and computing. Turing is usually regarded as the father In-sample Testing: A
of theoretical computer science and AI. method for evaluating error

Problem Reduction: The process of

rates using the same data that

breaking down a complex problem Loebner Prize: An annual prize given to the was used for developing the
into smaller, manageable problems computer software that best mimics natural model
human behavior
Introduction:

From self-driving cars to industrial robots, all complex real world problems are being solved
with applications of intelligence (AI). Artificial intelligence (AI) is progressing rapidly and
makes it possible for machines to think like humans and mimic their actions − adjust to new
inputs and perform human-like tasks by processing large amounts of data and recognizing
patterns in the data. While science fiction often renders AI as robots (a machine − especially one
programmable by a computer − capable of carrying out a complex series of actions without
conscious thought or attention) with human-like characteristics, AI can encompass anything from
missile guidance to tumor detection to face recognition.

The applications for artificial intelligence are countless and John McCarthy, who coined the
term in 1956, defines it as: "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines." The
study and design of intelligent agents − where an intelligent agent is a system that becomes
aware or conscious of its environment and takes actions which maximizes its chances of success
− can be applied to many sectors and industries including computer science, psychology,
philosophy, neuroscience, cognitive science, linguistics, operations research, economics, control
theory, probability, optimization, and logic. The simulation of human intelligence in machines is
being tested and used in the maintenance or improvement of health industry for dosing drugs and
different treatment in patients, and for surgical procedures in the hospital operating room.

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A property of machines: the intelligence that the system demonstrates − today is properly known as
Weak Artificial intelligence, in that it is designed to perform a narrow task (such as web searches,
control systems, scheduling, data mining, logistics, speech recognition, facial recognition and many
others). However, the long-term goal of many technical researchers is to create Strong Artificial
intelligence. While Weak Artificial intelligence may outperform humans at whatever its specific task is,
like playing games or solving mathematical problems, Strong Artificial intelligence would outsmart
humans at nearly every cognitive task.

In little over a decade, Artificial intelligence (a wide-ranging tool that enables people to rethink how we
integrate information, analyze data, and use the resulting insights to improve decision making) has made
leaps and bounds. Every single day, a new thousand word post showcase the most recent advancement in
Artificial intelligence. Being Artificial intelligence has made remarkable breakthroughs, and many
scientists dream of creating the Master Algorithm proposed by Pedro Domingos − which can solve all
problems envisioned by humans − failure is at the core of human advancement − notable failures are
emerging. From self-driving car accidents to Face ID hacks, AI didn't have a perfect year. Transformational Grammar:
A series of transformations on a
basic set of sentences can be
The Most Significant Failures When Al Turned Rogue, Causing Disastrous Results: used to construct any sentence

• 1959: AI designed to be a General Problem Solver failed to solve real world problems.
• 1982: Software designed to make discoveries, discovered how to cheat instead.
• 1983: Nuclear attack early warning system falsely claimed that an attack is taking place.
• 2010: Complex AI stock trading software caused a trillion dollar flash crash.
• 2011: E-Assistant told to "call me an ambulance" began to refer to the user as Ambulance.
• 2013: Object recognition neural networks saw phantom objects in particular noise images.
• 2015: An automated email reply generator created inappropriate responses, such as writing "I
love you" to a business colleague.
• 2015: A robot for grabbing auto parts grabbed and killed a man.
• 2015: Image tagging software classified black people as gorillas.
• 2015: Medical AI classified patients with asthma as having a lower risk of dying of pneumonia.
• 2015: Adult content filtering software failed to remove inappropriate content, exposing children
to violent and sexual content.
A model's resubstitution error
• 2016: AI designed to predict recidivism acted racist.

The error measured on the data used to train it

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• 2016: An AI agent exploited a reward signal to win a game without actually completing the
game.
• 2016: Video game NPCs (non-player characters, or any character that is not controlled by a
human player) designed unauthorized super weapons.
• 2016: AI judged a beauty contest and rated dark-skinned contestants lower.
• 2016: A mall security robot collided with and injured a child.
• 2016: The AI "Alpha Go" lost to a human in a world-championship-level game of "Go."
• 2016: A self-driving car had a deadly accident.
• 2017: Google Translate shows gender bias in Turkish-English translations. Scrubmate:

• 2017: Facebook chat bots shut down after developing their own language. An intelligent housekeeping
• 2017: Autonomous van in accident on its first day. robot capable of doing tasks
such as floor cleaning and
• 2017: Google Allo suggested man in turban emoji as response to a gun emoji.
restroom cleaning
• 2017: Face ID beat by a mask.
• 2017: AI misses the mark with Kentucky Derby predictions.
• 2017: Google Home Minis spied on their owners.
• 2017: Google Home outage causes near 100% failure rate. Tabula Rasa Theory
• 2017: Facebook allowed ads to be targeted to "Jew Haters".
• 2018: Chinese billionaire's face identified as jaywalker.
• 2018: Uber self-driving car kills a pedestrian.
The theory that humans are born with no
• 2018: Amazon AI recruiting tool is gender biased.
built-in mental content and they learn
• 2018: Google Photo confuses skier and mountain.
everything through experience or
• 2018: LG robot Cloi gets stagefright at its unveiling.
observation
• 2018: IBM Watson comes up short in healthcare.

While these are only a few instances of failures that have been observed so far, they are pieces of
evidence to the fact that Artificial intelligence (the simulation of human intelligence processes by
machines, especially computer systems) has the potential to develop a will of its own that may be in
conflict with members of the human race. This is definitely a warning about the potential dangers of
Artificial intelligence which should be addressed while exploring its potential interests.

"I believe there is no deep difference between what can be achieved by a biological brain and what can be achieved by a computer. It
therefore follows that computers can, in theory, emulate human intelligence — and exceed it."
– Stephen Hawking

Artificial intelligence in general, context remains a challenge. Despite Its Many Failures, why is
artificial intelligence important?

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 Artificial intelligence automates repetitive learning and discovery through data.
 Artificial intelligence analyzes more and deeper data.
 Artificial intelligence adds intelligence to existing products.
 Artificial intelligence adapts through progressive learning algorithms to let the data do
the programming.
 Artificial intelligence gets the most out of data.
 Artificial intelligence achieves unbelievable accuracy through deep neural networks –
which was previously impossible. For example, your interactions with Amazon Alexa,
Google Search and Google Photos are all based on deep learning – and they keep
getting more precise the more we use them.

The threat of AI-charged job loss is spreading (AI and automation will eliminate the most
mundane tasks). No matter what industry you’re in, AI-powered bots (which can answer
common questions and point users to FAQs and knowledge base articles) and software are taking
a crack at it. Artificial intelligence seems to be ringing the death sound of a bell for all manner of
jobs, tasks, chores and activities. From hospitality, to customer service, to home assistants, no
job feels safe. Naturally, this has made people worried about the future. But is Artificial
intelligence ready to take over our jobs, or even likely to do so ever? Prevalent AI- charged
failures would suggest not.

Natural Language Processing → developed so that users can communicate with computers in
human language.

1. Observe an event
2. Develop a model
3. Test the model with data
A successful model becomes a Scientific Theory
4. Observe the result
5. Revise the model

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"I find it useful to distinguish what I will call "strong" AI from "weak" or "cautious" AI.
According to weak AI, the principle value of the computer in the study of the mind is that it
gives us a very powerful tool. For example, it enables us to formulate and test hypothesis in a
more rigorous and precise fashion. But according to strong AI, the computer is not merely a
tool in the study of the mind; rather, the appropriately programmed computer really is a mind,
in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and
have other cognitive states."

[Searle, 1980, Minds, Brains and Programs]

Some definitions of AI. They are organized into 4 categories:

Systems that think like humans. Systems that think rationally.

Systems that act like humans. Systems that act rationally.

Lifecycle of a ML Project

Conception → Experimentation → Productionizing → Usage

Potential Risks of AI
Superintelligence (a hypothetical agent that possesses intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted human minds)

Robotic supremacy over humans

Skynet Scenarios and AI Terrorism

A unemployed Future and Accelerated Hacking

Autonomous weapons controlled by artificial intelligence may trigger the nuclear holocaust.

The WALL-E Dystopia

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John McCarthy was a computer scientist and cognitive scientist from the Generate and Test Method:
United States. McCarthy was one of the pioneers of the artificial intelligence
A problem solving strategy
field. He co-wrote the paper that originated the phrase "artificial intelligence",
that involves generating a
established the Lisp programming language family, influenced the design of the
possible solution and testing to
ALGOL programming language, popularized time-sharing, devised garbage
see whether it works
collection, and was a key figure in the early development of AI.

Process of Computer vision

Real world Capture image Process image

Conceptual Dependency Evaluate and deduce

conclusion
A natural language processing theory that focuses on the
representation of a language's semantics and captures the hidden
meaning of a sentence and explains it very clearly

"First the machines will do a lot of jobs for us "I think we should be very careful about artificial
and not be super intelligent. That should be intelligence. If I had to guess at what our biggest
positive if we manage it well. A few decades existential threat is, it's probably that "
after that though the intelligence is strong enough
to be a concern" (Elon Musk)

Character Recognition: A computer's capability to

(Bill Gates) identify a character's image as a character

Adaptive Fuzzy Associative Memory: A neural network that can adapt to changing
Edward Albert Feigenbaum is a computer
input and effectively stores both content and correlations of patterns
scientist who works in artificial intelligence
and was a joint winner of the ACM Turing
Award in 1994. He is frequently referred
Advice Taker: A sophisticated AI system capable of learning from experience in the
to as the "Father of Expert Systems."
same way as humans does

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Analytical learning: An analytical approach
Akaike Information Criteria (AIC):
to learning that uses previous information as a
foundation for designing and developing ideas

A data-driven metric for determining which of the several models is

Q-learning: A value-based reinforcement
most probably the better fit for a particular dataset
learning approach aimed at determining the
best plan of action in a particular scenario

Autoepistemic Logic

A kind of logical thinking that helps us understand and describe many of the observed
occurrences in our understanding of the world

Brier score: An assessment metric for checking the

Chunking
accuracy of probabilistic forecasts

 A Brier score of 0 → Perfect accuracy

The process of gathering little bits of data and arranging
 A Brier score of 1 → Perfect inaccuracy
them into more accessible or informative larger units

Term Frequency:

Number of times the word "to" appears in a document Concept learning

TF ('to') =
Total number of words in the document

Inverse Document Frequency: Learning how to

distinguish and
Number of documents
IDF ('to') = log ( )
Number of documents containing the word "to" classify things

Concept Drift: The statistical features of the target variable that the model is attempting to
forecast change in unexpected ways over time

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Closed World Assumption

Document X: I am reading comedy book

Document Y: I am watching comedy movie

What is unknown to be true is

presumed to be untrue
 Number of words in Document X: 5
 Number of words in Document Y: 5

Terms Term Frequency Term Frequency

Decision Theory
(Document X) (Document Y)

I 1 1
5 5
am 1 1
A logical theory of mathematics that
5 5
describes how to make rational
reading 1 0
decisions when the results are
5
1 1 unknown
comedy
5
5
book 1 0 Data reduction: A method for
5 increasing storage efficiency by reducing
watching 0 1 the size of data and representing it in a
5 much lower size
movie 0 1
5
Plausible reasoning: a method of

Terms Inverse Document Frequency deducing new conclusions from given

known assumptions
I 2
log ( ) = log (1) = 0
2

2 Discourse Reasoning: A method for

am
log ( ) = log (1) = 0 understanding a text or a conversation
2
using natural language processing

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reading 2 Low-code AI
log ( ) = log (2)
1

comedy 2
log ( ) = log (1) = 0 Enables anyone with little coding
2
experience to develop AI systems
book 2
log ( ) = log (2)
1 Distributed Problem Solving: The
application of multiple systems to
watching 2
log ( ) = log (2) address a specific problem
1

movie 2 Distributed AI: A branch of AI study focused

log ( ) = log (2)
1 on developing dispersed solutions to complex
learning and decision-making challenges

Terms TF-IDF score = TF * IDF TF-IDF score = TF * IDF

Fault tree analysis (FTA):
(Document X) (Document Y)

I 1 1
∗0= 0 ∗0 =0
5 5
am 1 1 A method of deductive failure
∗0= 0 ∗0 =0
5 5 analysis in which a sequence of

reading 1 0 ∗ log(2) = 0 checks is conducted logically to

∗ log(2) identify the cause of failure
5
comedy 1 1
∗0=0
∗0= 0 5
5 Means-ends analysis: A
book 1 0 ∗ log(2) = 0 problem-solving strategy
∗ log(2)
5 that addresses the hurdles
watching 0 ∗ log(2) = 0 1
∗ log(2) that exist between the initial
5
problem state and the
movie 0 ∗ log(2) = 0 1
∗ log(2) desired outcome
5

Domain theory: A mathematical theory that

5 Major Reasons for AI Failures: defines a programming language's data values
and fundamental operations

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 Issues of correctness, completeness and appropriateness of data
 Incorrectly coded rules Combinatorial explosion: The rapid

 Misunderstanding of data relationships increase in the complexity of a

 Propagation of false positives at the feedback stage problem as the number of possible
combinations of inputs increases
 Formatting and data reconciliation issues

"Once computers can effectively reprogram themselves, "I don't want to really scare you, but it was
and successively improve themselves, leading to a so- alarming how many people I talked to who are
called technological singularity or intelligence explosion highly placed people in AI who have retreats
the risks of machines outwitting humans in battles for that are sort of ‘bug out’ houses, to which they
resources and self-preservation cannot simply be could flee if it all hits the fan"
dismissed"
(James Barrat)
(Gary Marcus)

"One can imagine such technology outsmarting "We cannot blithely assume that a superintelligence
financial markets, out-inventing human researchers, out- will necessarily share any of the final values
manipulating human leaders, and developing weapons stereotypically associated with wisdom and

we cannot even understand" intellectual development in humans — scientific

curiosity, benevolent concern for others, spiritual
enlightenment and contemplation, renunciation of
(Max Tegmark)
material acquisitiveness, a taste for refined culture
or for the simple pleasures in life, humility and
Church's Thesis:
selflessness, and so forth"
AI is achievable and can be implemented in
computing machines
(Nick Bostrom)
"The development of full artificial intelligence could "We're still pretending that we're inventing a
spell the end of the human race. It would take off on its brain when all we've come up with is a giant
own, and re-design itself at an ever-increasing rate" mash-up of real brains. We don't yet understand
how brains work, so we can't build one"
(Stephen Hawking) (Jaron Lanier)

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Is DevOps a good career?

Operations team
DevOps and its resulting technical, architectural, and
cultural practices represent a convergence of many
Development team
(Employed to keep the system stable, fast
philosophical and management movements (including):
(Employed to add features) and available)
Lean, Theory of Constraints, Toyota production system,
resilience engineering, learning organizations, safety
culture, Human factors, high- trust management cultures,
servant leadership, organizational change management,
and Agile methods.
DevOps team
— Gene Kim
(Employed to add features and keep the system stable, fast and available)

DevOps (a set of software development practices that combines software development (Dev) and
information technology operations (Ops) to shorten the systems development life cycle while
delivering features, fixes, and updates frequently in close alignment with business objectives) is
becoming the standard way of working for Enterprises. Among the few powerful trends we had
experienced in the recent times, one is undoubtedly the adoption of DevOps practices – and
adoption of DevOps within the organization is rising on a broader scale, and Enterprises are
trending toward it. DevOps builds upon best practices to help drive enterprise performance in
modernizing environments. It offers organizations a new way to move the business forward and
turn technology into a strategic advantage. An increasing number of businesses recognize the
power that DevOps can bring a natural extension for Agile and continuous delivery approaches.

"At its essence, DevOps is a culture, a practice, a philosophy."

DevOps expertise is in high demand. Job postings with "DevOps" in a title or keyword are
sprouting up everywhere. DevOps is an enterprise software development phrase emerging from
combination of IT teams, process and products to enable the continuous delivery of value to end
users. It is a firm bond between development and operations that emphasizes a shift in mindset,
better collaboration, and tighter integration and aims to create a culture and environment where
building, testing, and releasing software can happen rapidly, often, and more reliably, so
organizations can solve critical issues quickly, and better serve their customers and compete
more effectively in the market.

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Canary Release: A deployment strategy that
makes new software feature available to a small
Everything as Code: The practice of treating
percentage of users − making sure that it is
operations, infrastructure, security, configuration
safe and functional − before being rolled out to
management and compliance as code What is DevOps?
everyone

"A software development method formed out of a fundamental need that stresses
communication, collaboration and integration between software developers and IT
professionals." DevOps could be explained simply as operations working together with engineers
to get things done faster in an automated and repeatable way.

Application Release Automation

History of DevOps The process of packaging and deploying an application or update of an application

from development to production environment

At the 2008 Agile Toronto conference, Andrew Shafer and Patrick Debois introduced the term
intheir talk on "Agile Infrastructure". Since 2009, the DevOps term has been steadily promoted
based on a simple philosophy — business works best when efforts being coordinated and
collaborative — and brought into more mainstream usage through a series of "DevOpsDays",
which started in Belgium and has now spread into Web-enabled sphere to resolve the conflict
between the software developers and the operations teams when it comes to getting great work
done quickly. In recent years, more tangential DevOps initiatives have also evolved, such as
OpsDev, WinOps, and BizDevOps to encourage the communication between software
developers and IT Operations to increase the speed at which applications being delivered.

Test-driven development Behavior-Driven Development

A software development A software development practice
Benefits of DevOps
practice that focuses on writing that focuses on understanding the
the test cases prior to writing any intended behavior of the software
code and the needs of the consumers
The technical benefits include:

 Continuous software delivery Business intelligence: The process by which enterprise

 Less complexity to manage organize, analyze and transform raw data into useful
business insights

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Lead time
 Faster resolution of problems The cultural benefits include:

The time taken  More productive teams

between the start and  Higher employee engagement
completion of a  Greater professional development opportunities
process

Unit testing
The business benefits include:
The process of verifying the individual units of source code to validate
that each unit of the source code performs as expected

 Faster delivery of features

 More stable operating environments  Smoke Testing: Check whether the build software can be

 Improved communication and collaboration send to testing team for testing or not

 More time to innovate (and not fix / keep up)  Sanity Testing: Check whether the code changes that are
made are working as properly or not

 Shakeout Testing: This test is basically carried out to

check the networking functionality, database connectivity
Features of DevOps
and the integration of modules

 Source control: Software developers need to safely store their code and keep track of
source- code history and versions. For this reason alone, source control is of critical
importance.
 Issue tracking system: An issue tracking system allows everyone involved to track
current issues, estimates, and deadlines.
 Build system: The build system supports continuous integration by building the
software, running unit and integration tests, deploying to the integration environment, and
performing any other automated checks defined for new versions of the software.
 Monitoring system: Monitoring systems continuously track all autonomous systems
within the DevOps environment, notifying necessary maintenance staff if a system failure
occurs.
 Communications system: The constant exchange of information is important so email,
wiki, and a real-time chat system being enabled for effective communication and
collaboration among all members of the project team.

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 Integration environment: The integration environment hosts all the virtual machines
that make up our DevOps environment
 Code review system: To make sure software quality, every line of code being
reviewed by an experienced developer. The practice of reviewing code also accelerates
career growth and learning.
 Documentation system: Regrettably, documentation often remains an afterthought in
production software projects. To ensure that documentation being written throughout the
project, an automated system being developed to allow developers to write
documentation easily, along with source code.
Build Agent

A piece of software that runs a series of

DevOps Goals software build tasks called a job

Software build
 Improved deployment frequency
 To make faster time to market The construction of executable applications from

 Less failure rate to new releases source code

 Short lead time between fixes

Build Automation
 Improve mean time to recovery
The process of automating the software builds
Capacity Test
A measure of the maximum number of users or
transactions a software application can Is DevOps a good career?
smoothly handle

DevOps practitioners are among the highest paid IT professionals today, and the market demand
for them is growing rapidly because organizations using DevOps practices are overwhelmingly
high-functioning to deliver IT services that offer value to the business. According to a study on
the application economy and the role of DevOps, 88% of enterprise IT organizations and LOB
(line of business) executives already have planned to adopt DevOps sometime within the next
five years to accelerate delivery of apps and offer customers with higher-quality software. In the
last two years, listings for DevOps jobs at Indeed.com increased 75 percent. On LinkedIn.com,
mentions of DevOps as a skill increased 50 percent. In a recent survey by Puppetlabs, half of

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their 4,000-plus respondents (in more than 90 countries) said their companies consider DevOps
skills when hiring.

Android

Developer Various (mostly Google and the Open Handset Alliance)

Written in Java (UI), C (core), C++ and others

OS family Unix-like (Modified Linux kernel)

Working state Current

Source model Open source (most devices include proprietary components, such as Google Play)

Initial release September 23, 2008; 11 years ago

Latest release Android 10 / September 3, 2019; 9 months ago

Latest preview Android 11 Developer Preview 4 (RPP4.200409.015) / May 6, 2020; 38 days ago

android.googlesource.com
Repository

Marketing target Smartphones, tablet computers, smart TVs (Android TV), Android Auto and smartwatches (Wear

OS)

Available in 100+ languages

Update method Over-the-air

Package manager APK-based

Platforms 32- and 64-bit ARM, x86 and x86-64

Kernel type Linux kernel

Userland Bionic libc, mksh shell, Toybox as core utilities (beginning with Android 6.0)

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Default user interface Graphical (multi-touch)

License  Apache License 2.0 for userspace software

 GNU GPL v2 for the Linux kernel modifications

Official website www.android.com

"I think right now it's a battle for the mindshare of developers and for the mindshare of
customers, and right now iPhone and Android are winning that battle."

− Steve Jobs

Android application development is one of the hottest topics in the present time. To be up-to-date
with the latest trends in mobile application development, one can perceive by chance or
unexpectedly a plethora of tech blogs all over the internet. Contemplating Android application
development is a great choice as per current market scenario and importance of Android
application development for businesses of today is expanding itself, to wearable, automobiles
and other areas. Applications like WhatsApp, Facebook, Twitter, Amazon etc. have brought the
world around us in our handset. In a statistical study that spans the America, Europe, Asia, and
the Middle East, GlobalWebIndex reports that Android tablets outnumber Apple iPad by more
than 34 million and has now garnered the interest of a million smart phone users and it powers
hundreds of millions of mobile devices in more than 190 countries of the world.

More than a million applications are available for download at the digital distribution platform
operated by Google (double the number of apps that were available in the last few years). And
more than 9 million developers write code using Java, XML (the languages that empowers an
array of software intended for mobile devices that features an operating system, core applications
and middleware). With the increase in the number of Android based smartphones (the devices
that we started to use just for the communication purpose (i.e. for talking and messaging),

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abruptly became the most powerful and dependable source of our day-to-day living) and owing
to popularity of android and access of internet over mobiles, people using android smart-phones
demand for new Android applications, this in turn creates an outstanding career in technology
innovation (to push the boundaries of hardware and software forward to bring new capabilities to
users and developers) and a demand for better applications and update for existing one.

The Mobile Application Development is the future of Software Development and Android is on
the path of proving the same - according to Google's Eric Schmidt. Companies like Nokia,
BlackBerry, Samsung, HTC, Motorola, Google and many others are going wild with their
innovations to alter the software applications according to their requirements to get in touch with
millions of users all over the world including their potential customer and the global client base.
This adds a big sign of scope for the Android market would be beaming with lots of
opportunities in the nearby future.
Access control: The process of ensuring that only authorized
users can access corporate data and resources in permissible ways
Introduction

Android is the world's most popular open source mobile operating system (OS) based on the
Linux Kernel − which run on 53 percent of all smartphones in the United States and on 80
percent of all smartphones worldwide − developed by Android Incorporation (a Palo Alto-based
startup company, founded in 2003) and later after acquired by and further advanced by coalition
of hardware, software and telecommunications companies i.e., open hand set alliance (a group of
84 technology and mobile companies including Dell, Motorola, Samsung Electronics, Sony,
Intel, LG Electronics, Qualcomm, Broadcom, HTC, Sprint, Texas Instruments and Japanese
wireless carriers KDDI and NTT DoCoMo etc.) − led by Google − designed primarily for
touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. But now this technology
is growing at such a rapid pace that it is going to hit the markets of Television, Cars and Wrist
Watches very soon too.
Active program Application Programming Interface:

A software interface that allows

Android Architecture
The currently running program applications to connect with one another

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Data Archiving: The process of storing older data in
long-term storage systems so that it can be retrieved and
1. Linux Kernel
analyzed in the future

What is a Kernel? The basic layer is the Linux kernel. The whole Android OS built on top of the
Linux Kernel with some further architectural changes made by Google. It is the core part of the
Android Operating System that acts as an abstraction layer between the hardware and the rest of
the software stack ‒ which consists of drivers (i.e., a well-defined set of instructions ‒ what we
call programs or software written in C language that installed into mobile phones and stored in
the form of files in the phone) ‒ that tells your mobile phone how to communicate with its
hardware components such as camera, display etc. ‒ without which keypad, Bluetooth, Audio,
Wi-Fi, Camera won't work properly and it is responsible for:

• Inter Process Communication − A Mechanism which allows applications running in

different processes to share data and communicate with each other i.e., a mechanism
which allows an application running in a process to send requests and receive responses
from an application running in another process.
• Power Management (conserves power in the cost of performance and holds the device
not to get to sleep state).
• Memory Management (make the best or most effective use of memory).

Android uses the Linux Kernel for all its core functionality such as Memory management,
process management, networking, security settings etc.

Software Architect

An expert in software development who uses available

2. Libraries
technologies to solve business problems

The next layer is the Android's native libraries. It is this layer that enables the device to handle
different types of data. These libraries are a Collection of pre-written non-volatile data (written
in C / C++ language) and pre-compiled programming codes ‒ which support the well-
functioning of android operating system.
Clear data → Unencrypted data

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Some of the important native libraries include the following:

• Surface Manager / Screen Manager that supports the display screen.

• OpenGL (Open Graphics Library) that supports 3 dimensional graphics.
• SGL (Scalable Graphics Library) that supports 2 dimensional graphics.
• Media Framework that supports recording and playback of audio and video and
image formats (MP3, JPG, JPEG, PNG, GIF etc.)
• Free Type that is responsible for font support (i.e., font size, color etc.)
• SSL (Secured Sockets layer) / TLS (Transport Layer Security) that is responsible for
internet security and support network applications.
• WebKit that supports the display of web pages (i.e., supports inbuilt browser)
• SQLite that is responsible for storage of user data.
• Bionic is the standard C library that supports embedded Linux-based devices in
mobile phones.
Background task: A task that continues to execute
even when the user is not interacting with it

3. Android Run Time (ART)

Android Runtime consists of Core Java libraries and Dalvik Virtual machine.

• Java Core Libraries that consists of Java packages that enable Android application
developers to write Android applications using standard Java programming language.
• DVM (Dalvik Virtual Machine) that is responsible to run android application.

Change management: The process of organizing and

managing software changes over a network
4. Application Frame Work

Software Frame work (written in Java language) that supports the features of android
applications and manage the basic functions of phone like resource management, voice call
management etc.

Important blocks of Application framework are:

• Content Provider that enable applications to get access data from other applications
(such as Contacts), or to share their own data.

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• Notifications Manager that enables all applications to display custom alerts in the
status bar.
• Activity Manager that manages the life-cycle of applications and provides a common
navigation back stack.
• Window Manager that organizes the display screen for the application.
• Location Manager that provides the periodic updates of the geographical location of
the mobile device using GPS (Global Positioning System which is a satellite-based
navigation system) or cell tower.
• View Manager that manages the Application User Interface.
• Package Manager that provides information about the list of installed apps in Android
Mobile Device.
• Telephony Manager that provides information about the Telephony Services (such as
Phone Network, SIM Serial Number, IMEI Number etc.)
• XMPP (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol) that supports Online Chat
Application (like Yahoo Messenger etc.)
• Resource Manager that manages the various types of resources we use in our
Application and provides access to non-code resources such as localized strings,
graphics, and layout files.
Batch processing Real-time processing

Data takes time to be processed Data is processed immediately

5. Applications

Applications are the top layer in the Android architecture. Examples of such applications are:

• SMS client app Beta test

• Dialer
• Web browser Make a prerelease version of software application available to a selected
• Contact manager group of clients and users in order to test it.
• Facebook
• WhatsApp Bitmap: An array of bits that is used to represent an image

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Android Application Development Tools and IDE's:

• Android SDK (Software Development Kit) - It contains debugger, libraries, emulator,

sample code, documentation and tutorials.
• Android Studio by Google (official IDE for developing Android Apps)
• Eclipse IDE using ADT plugin
• IntelliJ IDEA IDE Bridge: A network device that joins together numerous local

• NetBeans IDE area networks to establish a larger local area network

Usage of mobile phones in India has rapidly increased from the past year and counting is still on.
Out of the six billion smart phone devices in the world, close to one billion is being used in
India. This comes to about 70% of our current population of India. Lots and lots of startups and
other Mobile Application Development industries in India are considering Android Application
Development as one of the best remunerative business opportunities. Scope of Android App
Development in India is huge since every website or company in India needs its own android app
(especially if it is providing a web-based service) to make their business plan into action and for
capture their services in phone. Certificate authority: A reputable entity responsible for storing,
signing, issuing, distributing and revoking digital certificates

The bright future of the App Development in India can better understand with this one example.
The telecommunications companies such as idea, Vodafone, MobikWik, FreeRecharge, Aircel
and other cellular depends on the third-party app like, Paytm or free charge for the recharge.
Thus they are making their own apps to earn direct profit from it and this is the golden
opportunity for the Android Developers. In essence, India considered as a country with several
globally recognized IT hubs and Android is a choice at the best for exploration in India.

CADAM
Benefits of Choosing Android Application Development: (Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing)

i. Android is Open Source

ii. Adaptable User Interface
The use of computers in product design and
iii. Massive Mobile App Market
manufacturing

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 Google PlayStore - contains more than 2.7 million android apps
Content migration:
 Amazon Appstore - contains 800,000+ apps
The process through which
 Aptoide - contains more than 750,000 apps
content is moved from one
content management system  1Mobile Market - contains more than 800,000 apps
or platform to another  Opera Mobile Store - contains more than 300,000 apps
 Mobango-contains over 100k mobile apps
 GetJar - contains over 850,000 apps

Pseudo code → neither an algorithm nor a program − an informal way of program description
p-code
Source computer: The computer in which a software program
Advantages: is being assembled or generated from machine readable codes

Easy to read, understand and modify.

Idempotence: A property of certain operations in mathematics
and computer science – such that no matter how many times we
Example: execute them, we get the same result

Pseudo code to perform the basic arithmetic operations:

read n1, n2

sum = n1 + n2
Data-flow analysis: The process of
diff = n1 − n2
analyzing how the value of a variable changes
mult = n1 * n2 over time while the program is running
quot = n1 / n2 468
print sum, diff, mult, quot

end

Glitch: An error in software program that causes

Glue code: A code that connects together different incompatible
the program to behave in unintended ways
software components

Heuristic evaluation: The process of

identifying problems in the user interface Hardware abstraction layer: A programming layer that enables the

design and reporting issues computer operating system to interact with a hardware device

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Number of iterations:

 For a list of n elements, Binary Search can execute at most log2 n times!!
 Linear Search, on the other hand, can execute up to n times!!

Nonexecutable statement
Code

(Programming command that is not executed)

Error Correction
main()

Build {
Debug
int x = 2; Nonexecutable
int y =3;
int z; statements

Program Development Flow z = x + y;

}
Obfuscation

The act of creating Programming source code that is purposely Non-Disclosure Agreement: An
complicated and made difficult for human beings to understand − help agreement developer makes to an
hide information about what the code performs enterprise organization − indicating he
will not reveal any of the organization's
Input size intellectual property or secrets

T(n) ≈ cop C(n)

Running time
Number of times basic
operation is executed
Operation code: A code that tells a Execution time
Persistent memory: A memory that can
computer what task to perform for basic operation
be accessed even after the process that
created it has terminated

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Time complexity: The time required to solve a problem of a specified size

Expressed in terms of the number of

operations used by the algorithm

Space complexity: The computer memory required to solve a problem of a specified size

CPU scheduling

A method which permits one process to use the CPU while the

execution of another process is on hold

Preemptive Scheduling Non-Preemptive Scheduling

The CPU allocated to the process can be taken The CPU allocated to the process cannot be
back at any time during the execution of the taken back until the process completes its
process execution

Causation

A change in one variable causes a change in another variable −

which means one variable is dependent on the other

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Contiguous memory allocation Noncontiguous memory allocation
Allocation of consecutive blocks of memory to a process Allocation of separate blocks of memory to a process

Process
Process

Memory blocks
Memory blocks

Source code
Data Lake: A data storage repository that
stores a vast amount of raw data

Compiler

Input data
Executable Program Output data

Computer Vision Generalizability

The field of computer science

that focuses on extracting

Making predictions based on past observations
information from images

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Data governance: A set of principles and practices Data velocity
that ensure the effective and efficient gathering,
storing, processing and usage of data in permitting an
The speed at which data is
enterprise organization to reach its goals processed

 Target variable: The output value which the ML model is trying to predict
 Features: The data used by the ML model to predict the target variable

Probability How likely an event is to occur

Retraining

The process of retraining a ML model with new data

Input data → Develop model → Train model → Test and evaluate → Model become available for use

Retraining

Pseudo-operation
Quick-and-dirty

The act of software sending

A software code written in a short time at the sacrifice of code
instructions to a non-compiled
quality − containing bugs− making it very difficult to maintain
hardware device

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Overflow: A condition that occurs when a
software program receives a value beyond the
limits of its ability to handle. For example, if we
try to fit 6 bottles in a box designed to hold 4
bottles, 2 bottles will "overflow" that space  Infrastructure as code
 Automation
at its core:  Continuous Integration and Deployment
DevOps
 Release Management Strong IT
Performance
(Development + operations)  Continuous Monitoring
 Continuous Testing

 Communication
 Collaboration
 Integration

Page-description language: A computer language

Benefits that tells a computer printer how to properly print
pages sent by a computer

Underflow

 Measure of success
 Measure of failure
A condition that occurs when the
result of a mathematical operation  Accelerate innovation time to market
is smaller than what the  Compress testing time
computing machine is capable of  Reduce time spent troubleshooting
storing  Accelerate release cycles, release more frequently
 Improve application quality and performance
 Reduce downtime and unplanned outages

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Pastebin: A website that permits
Data type overflow error: An error that users to upload and share text, code,
occurs when the size of data type used to store DevOps or other data online
data is not large enough to hold the data.

Plan Code Build test release deploy operate

Continuous Delivery

Continuous Integration
Without automation − there
is no DevOps

Agile Development

A software library is a collection of

computer programming codes used for

software development

AI
Robot
Programmed
Programmed to do
to think

The Computer and human have separate

Can AI System Work As Efficient As Human Brain discussions with the translator.

????? Turing Test If the translator can't guess which is the

Computer or if the translator gets it wrong
then the computer has Artificial Intelligence
Created by Alan Turing
Includes a translator, a human and a Computer

602
Configuration drift: The phenomenon where running servers in a company infrastructure become

increasingly different over time − usually due to manual changes and updates on individual servers

 Logic Based Approach

Major AI Approaches
 Pattern Based Approach

Rapid Application Development Waterfall model

 includes Does not work well
includes
 s
for large projects


 Define the user requirements  Define the client requirements

 Build a sample model of application and test it to  Plan the software architecture based on the client requirements

ensure it meets the user expectations  Implement the software application based on the design
 Ensure that the software application functions as designed
 Create a workable application and gather feedback
 Maintain and support the application in a live environment
 Optimize the application and deploy it

Configuration as a code: Defining all the configurations of the servers as a code

Release orchestration

Planning → Coding → Build → Testing → Release → Monitoring

Deployment automation

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Advanced Persistent Threat: Highly Sophisticated Hacking technique used by hackers to gain access to a system
on a network and remain inside for an extended length of time in order to steal highly sensitive data

Request for Searches for

information information
Database management system
User Database
(DBMS)

Race condition:
Consider:
1. int x = 1
2. int x = x * 4
3. int y = x + 1
Retrieves the information and returns to the user If the operations:
1, 2 and 3
are processed in the proper sequence
int y = 5
But if operation 3 is executed before operation 2 has completed
int y = 2

• Usability (faster User Interface)

JavaScript • Efficiency
• Event-driven

• runs on the client's browser

Button click An 'event' occurs
• case-sensitive
• Interpreted, not compiled
• Integrates with HTML and CSS content
A piece of JS code
runs in response
a = 1; // undefined variable → causes an error
int a = 1; // variable declared and assigned a value
Output
No error

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4 Comment Syntaxes

HTML

CSS/JS/PHP /* comment */

Java/JS/PHP // comment

PHP # comment

• Self-describing
• Data Independence
Objectives of the DBMS
• Multiple Views
• Multiple Users
Integration

Knowledge

Two-tier Architecture
Creation Dissemination
Knowledge management cycle

Client Applications
Database

Distributed Denial-of-Service Attacks: A Cyberattack in which a

perpetrator floods a website with high internet traffic in order to prevent
targeted users from visiting the site and causing it to crash

Three-tier Architecture

Client Applications Application server Database

Phishing: A bogus email from a bank asking you to verify your account details by clicking a link.

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Client with Internet Web server
web browser

Application server
A Typical 3 Tier Server Architecture

Database server
Database

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol: A protocol that

allows a server on a local network to assign a computer or other
network device a temporary IP address

• Memory errors (memory incorrectly allocated, memory

leaks, 'null pointer')

• File system errors (disk is full, disk has been removed)

Errors
• Network errors (network is down, URL does not exist)

• Calculation errors (divide by 0)

Exploit Kit: A toolkit used by cyber-offenders to exploit

system vulnerabilities in order to carry out malicious operations

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Human Firewall: Individuals who work towards reporting as well as preventing any data
breaches, security violations or suspicious cyber attacks

Feature C++ Objective C Ada Java

Encapsulation Yes Yes Yes Yes

Inheritance Yes Yes No Yes

Multiple Inheritance Yes Yes No No

Polymorphism Yes Yes Yes Yes

Concurrency Poor Poor Difficult Yes

Garbage Collection No Yes No Yes

Genericity Yes No Yes No

Class Libraries Yes Yes Limited Yes

Hyperconverged Infrastructure The Information Technology Infrastructure Library:

A set of detailed guidelines and procedures for providing

IT services
(Storage + Compute + Networking + Management)

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Programming Languages

• Interpreted languages: An interpreter program takes in commands, checks syntax and

translates to machine language at runtime. Examples of common interpreted languages
are PHP, Ruby, Python, and JavaScript.
• Compiled languages: Programs are translated and saved in machine language by a
compiler. At runtime no additional interpretation is necessary. Examples of common
compiled languages are C, C++, Erlang, Haskell, Rust, and Go.

Managed Antivirus: A service in which one business

organization manages all of another organization's
antivirus installations on an ongoing basis
High Level
• Python, JavaScript
Interpreted every time it runs
• C, C++
Compiled into an executable file
• Assembly language
Assembled into machine code
• Machine code
Run by the CPU

Low Level
Mobile device management: The secure management of
mobile devices that have access to sensitive business data

Machine language Natural language High-level language

Easy for computer Easy for human Some difficulty for both

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Managed Detection and
Integrated Development Environments (IDE) Response: Outsourced service
Network News Transport
that offers threat hunting
Protocol: The protocol for Consists of
sending, receiving, and posting
services to assist enterprise

network news broadcasts organizations to protect their IT

• a source code editor
systems and respond to threats
• build automation tools once they have been detected
• a debugger

Basic operation cycle of a computer processor

Instruction Phase Execution Phase

• Fetch: get an instruction from Main Memory

• Decode: translate it into computer commands

• Execute: actually process the command

Storage Area Network: A network of storage • Store: write the result to Main Memory
devices that can be accessed by multiple servers

Semantic Errors
Interpreters and Compilers cannot notice
them, but on execution, they cause
unexpected results.

program Hello;
Pascal Program:
begin Outputs "Hello, World!"
and then exits
writeln ('Hello, World!')

end.

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Understand the problem Data wrangling: The
process of gathering,
selecting, and transforming
Define the problem
data to answer an analytical
question
Define the technical architecture

Voice over Internet Protocol: A means

of making voice calls using a broadband
Data collection
Internet connection

Understand the data

Data Science
• Data Cleaning
Data preparation • Data Integration
• Data Transformation
• Data Reduction

Data modeling Model Validation

Evaluation

Deployment
Hardened systems

Monitor
Computer systems that have been safeguarded in
order to be secured from hackers

• ETL (Extract, Transfer and Load) process → receive input from any source and output the
transformed data to an analytic data model.
Security Operations Center: The team within an
Network Operations Center: The team within an enterprise organization in enterprise organization responsible for monitoring
charge of continuously monitoring a network's performance and health and protecting against threats and cyber attacks

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Data Preprocessing

Data Integration Data Cleaning

• Integration of data from various sources • Dealing with missing data

• Bringing integrated data into common format • Remove Noise from data
• Remove outliners from data
• Remove duplicate data
Data Transformation • Remove inconsistencies from data

• Feature scaling
• Dealing with categorical data
• Dealing with imbalanced data
go Program:
• Dimension reduction
• Feature engineering
package main
• Train test split of data
import "fmt"

func main() {
fmt.Println("Hello, World!")
C# Program:
}

using System;
class HelloWorld {
static void Main() {
Console.WriteLine("Hello, World!");
Outputs "Hello, World!"
} and then exits
}

Software-defined networking: A networking Software-defined security: A computer

architecture that makes networks more flexible and network security architecture and methodology
manageable for controlling information security

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In case of Virtual machines In case of Docker

VM1 (6GB) Container 1 (4GB)

16 GB Memory VM2 (4GB) Container 2 (3GB)

16 GB Memory

VM3 (6GB) Container 3 (2GB)

VM1:
 Memory Used: 4GB Total Memory Used: 9GB
 Memory wasted: 2GB
7GB Memory can be allotted to a new
VM2: Container
 Memory Used: 3GB
 Memory wasted: 1GB

VM3:
 Memory Used: 2GB
 Memory wasted: 4GB

Total Memory Used: 9GB

Total Memory Wasted: 7GB

7GB Memory is blocked and cannot be

allotted to a new VM

Run

Docker image Docker container

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Docker command:

docker run ubuntu

Tells docker which image has to be

Tells your operating system that loaded into the container
you are using the docker program

A subcommand that creates and runs a

docker container

• Recovery Point Objective: The maximum amount of data loss that a company can tolerate

• Recovery Time Objective: The maximum amount of downtime a company can tolerate

Man in the Middle Attack

User 1 User 2

User 2 sends
Perpetrator sends User 2 money to the
User 1 sends his account his account number wrong account
number as 000123656 555110444
Perpetrator
(Man in the middle)

613
Commit code
Shared repository
Developers

Selenium Jenkins Server

Deploy the build Maven

application on the
test server for User Using Tools used to
Acceptance Test Build build software

Gradle

Production Compile → Code Review → Unit testing → Integration testing

Package (WAR, JAR etc.)

Continuous Integration / Continuous Delivery

Docker Commands:

docker --version get the installed docker version

docker pull hello-world download the image "hello-world" from the docker
repository (hub.docker.com)
docker images list all the images that are locally stored with the
docker engine
docker run hello-world create a container from the image "hello-world"
docker container ls -a list all containers

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docker container ls -a -s list the size for all containers
docker rmi 515d5e66f68a remove the docker image "hello-seattle" with
image id "515d5e66f68a"
docker rm d9bf06498bb2 remove the docker container with container id
"d9bf06498bb2"
docker history hello-world display the history of the image "hello-world"
docker info get detailed information about docker installed
on the system including the kernel version,
number of containers and images, etc.
docker volume create create a volume which docker container will
use to store data
docker volume ls list all the volumes known to Docker
docker logs c70201336fd8 display the logs of the docker container with
contained id "c70201336fd8"
docker search hadoop search for docker image "hadoop" on
dockerhub
docker network ls list all docker networks
docker login login into docker repository (hub.docker.com)
docker logout logout from docker repository (hub.docker.com)
docker start c70201336fd8 start the docker container with container id
"c70201336fd8"
docker stop c70201336fd8 stop the docker container with container id
"c70201336fd8"
docker restart c70201336fd8 restart the docker container with container id
"c70201336fd8"
docker inspect c70201336fd8 get detailed information about the docker
container with container id "c70201336fd8"
docker stats c70201336fd8 get the statistics of the docker container with
container id "c70201336fd8"
docker image ls List all images that are locally stored with the
docker engine.

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docker system prune delete all unused containers, unused
networks, and dangling images
systemctl status docker check the Docker service
systemctl start docker start the Docker service
docker image prune remove unused images
docker save hello-world > hello-world.tar save the image "hello-world" to a tar
archive
docker load < hello-world.tar load the image "hello-world" from the
saved tar file

docker export a27999b71e62 > hello-world.tar export the docker container with
container id " a27999b71e62" as a tar
archive
docker import hello-world.tar import the contents from hello-world.tar

Vishing: The fraudulent practice of making bogus phone calls or

leaving voice messages to conduct phishing attacks

 Simplifies JavaScript

jQuery  Offers built-in animation effects

 Offers useful functions to capture a wide variety of events

Unified Threat Management

There are two ways to create a thread in Java: A method of information security in
which a single hardware or software
 By implementing the Runnable interface
installation provides multiple security
 By extending the Thread
features and services

616
Benefits of Cybersecurity: Annotation:

 Protection for Data and Networks The technique of labeling the unlabeled data. For

 Prevention of Unauthorized User Access

example, assigning a value of 4 to the image of 4
in the handwritten digit recognition task

Bias Error:

Inaccuracy resulting from algorithm's ability to repeatedly learn the

incorrect idea by not accounting for all the information in the data

Is this X or Y? Classification Algorithm

Is this strange? Anomaly Detection Algorithm

How much or how many? Regression Algorithm

How could this be coordinated? Clustering Algorithm

What should I do next? Reinforcement Learning Algorithm

Pigeon Hole Principle:

There must be more than one item in at least one container if "x" items are
placed in "y" containers, where x > y

Exploration → Data preparation → Model planning → Model Building → put into operation

Share or exchange results

Data Science Lifecycle

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Java Programming Language

Paradigm Multi-paradigm: generic, object-oriented (class-

based), imperative, reflective

Designed by James Gosling

Developer Sun Microsystems

First appeared May 23, 1995; 25 years ago

Stable release Java SE 14 / March 17, 2020; 2 months ago

Typing discipline Static, strong, safe, nominative, manifest

James Gosling

Filename extensions .java, .class, .jar Creator of Java

Website oracle.com/java/

Influenced by

CLU, Simula67, LISP, SmallTalk, Ada 83, C++, C#, Eiffel, Mesa, Modula-3, Oberon, Objective-
C, UCSD Pascal, Object Pascal

Influenced

Ada
2005, BeanShell, C#, Chapel, Clojure, ECMAScript, Fantom, Gambas, Groovy, Hack, Haxe, J#, Kotli
n, PHP, Python, Scala, Seed7, Vala

Java is one of the most used class-based, robust, secure popular programming languages

used in the development of virus-freesystems because:

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 Java avoids using pointers because they allow for direct access to memory locations, which
poses a security risk
 Java programs run within a virtual machine sandbox where a security policy is in place,
preventing the Java code from opening network connections, reading from or writing to the hard
drive, and other malicious activities

and a open-source and free high level object-oriented programming language and a
computing platform for application development conceived by James Gosling, Patrick
Naughton, Chris Warth, Ed Frank, and Mike Sheridan at Sun Microsystems, Inc. in 1991 to
create programs to control consumer electronics (which is now a subsidiary of Oracle
Corporation) and released in 1995, runs on a variety of platforms, such as Windows, Mac OS,
and the various versions of UNIX, used in internet programming, mobile devices, games,
e-business solutions etc., because of its reliability, high performance, simplicity and easy to use
and quick to learn and rigid versus extensibility. Since Java has a runtime environment (JRE)
and API, it is called a platform. As a language that has the Object-Oriented feature, Java
supports: /*
This is a simple Java program.
Call this file "MyClass.java".
 Polymorphism
*/
 Inheritance
public class MyClass {
 Encapsulation
// The program begins with a call to main()
 Abstraction public static void main(String args[]) {
// This declares integer variables 'a' and 'b'
 Classes
int a, b;
 Objects
// This assigns 'a' the value 10 and 'b' the value 30
 Instance a = 10; b = 30;
if(a < b) System.out.println("a < b");
 Method a = a * 3; // a = 10 * 3 = 30
if(a == b) System.out.println("a = b");
 Message Passing a = a * 3; // a = 30 * 3 = 90
if(a > b) System.out.println("a > b");
// This won't display anything
Advantages: if(a == b) System.out.println("We would not see this");
}
}

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 Object Oriented
Output:
 Platform Independent a < b
 Simple a = b

a > b
 Dynamic

 Secure

 Multi-threaded // Compute the area of a rectangle

 Architecture-neutral
public class MyClass {
 Portable
public static void main(String[] args) {
 Robust int l, b, a;

l = 12; // Length of rectangle

Types of Java Applications: b = 13; // Breadth of rectangle
a = l * b; // compute area
 Standalone Application
System.out.println("Area of rectangle is: " + a);
 Web Application }
}
 Enterprise Application

 Mobile Application // Output:

Area of rectangle is: 156

Java Language Keywords:

 
abstract continue for new switch
assert default goto package synchronized
boolean do if private this
break double implements protected throw
byte else import public throws
case enum instanceof return transient
catch extends int short try
char final interface static void
class finally long strictfp volatile
const float native super while

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Text file named MyClass.java

// Declare a class with name "MyClass"

public class MyClass {
// Declare the main method at which the program will begin executing
public static void main(String[] args) {
// println() statement which displays the text "Hello World!"
System.out.println("Hello World!");
} // ends main()
} // ends the MyClass class definition

byte x = 25;

x = x * 3; // Error: Cannot assign an int to a byte

byte x = 25;

x = (byte)(x * 3); // Outputs the value of 75

Process of Java program execution: All method names should start with a Lower
Case letter. For all class names the first

A Java program: letter should be in Upper Case.

public class MyClass { The beginning of the class

public static void main(String [] args) { The beginning of

the main method
System.out.println("Hello World!");

} The end of the class The end of the main method

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is written using Text Editor, such as [Notepad++, Notepad] and saved with .java extension.…

File saved with .java extension is called Source Program or Source Code.

// MyClass.java Single line comment

The source filename "MyClass.java"

public class MyClass {
must match the class name in the
public static void main(String [] args) {
source file. If they don't match,
System.out.println("Hello World!");
we will get a compilation error.
}
}

/* Because the class name is "MyClass" the source file should be named

as MyClass.java */ Multi-line comment

and sent to the java compiler (i.e., javac compiler) where the source program is compiled
i.e., the program is entirely read and translated into Java byte codes (but not into machine
language). If the javac compiler finds any error during compilation, it provides information
about the error to the programmer. The programmer has to review code and check for the
solution. And if there are no errors the translated program (i.e., java byte codes − a highly
optimized set of instructions) is stored in computers main memory as MyClass.class and
since the java byte codes cannot be trusted to be correct. Therefore before execution they are
verified and converted to machine level language i.e., machine code sequence of 0s and 1s by
Java run-time system, which is called the Java Virtual Machine (JVM) and is
executed by a Java interpreter and // Converting int datatype to String
public class MyClass {
Hello World!
public static void main(String[] args) {
int a = 54; // Declare integer variable 'a'

is displayed on the console screen. String x = String.valueOf(a);

System.out.println(x);
// Output: 54
// string now equals "54"
}
}

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An entry point method from which
the JVM can run the program
public static void main(String[] args){

System.out.println("Hello World!"); Java Program

public static main([Ljava/lang/String; args)V

getstatic java/lang/System out Ljava/io/PrintStream; Java Bytecode
ldc "Hello World!"
invokevirtual java/io/PrintStream print(Ljava/lang/String;)V

The intermediate representation of Java program

that contains instructions that the Java Virtual
JVM (Java Virtual Machine) resides under RAM Machine will execute effectively

Random Access Memory – the stuff that boosts up your computer to run
faster and allows your computer to perform many tasks at the same time

and JVM comprises:

• Class Loader: Loads .class file that contains Java bytecodes.

• Byte Code Verifier: Verifies byte codes.

• Execution Engine: Translates java byte codes to machinecodes and executes them.

In the statement:

public class MyClass

The word "MyClass" implies: name of the class is MyClass and this class is public. public
means that the class "MyClass" can be accessed by any other class in any package.

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Java program processing starts from the main() method which is a mandatory part of every Java
program. public static void main(String [] args)

A collection of statements or methods

main method like System.out.println() that are
grouped together to perform an operation

and this main method is public indicating that a method may be called from anywhere, including

outside of a program. Every Java program should have one main method.

main method in java functions like main function in C and C++

Like C and C++, Java is also a case sensitive language i.e., capital letters (or upper case
letters) must be avoided to prevent the display of error on the screen. For example: If the

statement:
PUBLIC static void main(String [] args)

is written instead of the statement: public static void main(String [] args)

Marks the end of

Compilation Error will be displayed on the console screen.
the statement

Each code statement must end with a semicolon. If we forget to end each program statement

within the body of main method with a semicolon " ; " − Error will be displayed on the screen.

In the statement:
System.out.println("Hello World!");

 System → name of a standard class that contains variables and methods for supporting

simple keyboard and character output to the display.

 Dot Operator ". " → provides access to the out static field within the System class

 out → represents the standard output stream. It is the name of the static field within the 

System class containing the standard output functionality.



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 Dot Operator ". " → provides access to the println method within the out static field

 println("Hello World!") → output method of the Java language which makes provision 
to print the String literal "Hello World!" that is passed as a parameter into the println method.

The double quotation marks on each end of the text Hello World!
delimit the text as a String

Semicolon marks the end of the println method

If the word "public" in the statement:

public static void main(String [] args)

is replaced by the word

private or

protected

Then compilation error will be flagged on the screen because if the method is declared
private or….protected then this method does not make itself available to JVM for execution.

 main → implies the name of the method

 static means the main method is the part of the class MyClass

Why static?

Because the program execution begins from the main method and if the main method is not
declared static then the execution of the program does not take place.

 void → implies the main method does not return any value i.e., main method return
nothing when it completes execution.

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 String [] args → While running the program if we want to pass something to the main

method, then this parameter is used as the way of taking input from the user − so we.. .can pass

some strings while running the program if we want. Moreover, JVM cannot recognize the
method: public static void main(String [] args)

as method if the parameter String [] args is not included.

public static void main(String [] args)

If the word "args" in the statement:

is replaced by another word say "jamesgosling" or "java"

public static void main(String [] jamesgosling)

No error will be
or displayed on the screen

public static void main(String [] java)

Most Java programmers prefer args and argv i.e., the statements:

• public static void main(String [] args)

• public static void main(String [] argv)

are preferred.
NoOps:
Java Modifiers

The idea that automation of

 Access Modifiers − default, public, protected, private
deployment, monitoring and
 Non-access Modifiers − final, abstract, strictfp management of applications can
completely eliminate the need

Java Variables for an operations team to manage

 Local Variables the software environment
 Class Variables (Static Variables)
 Instance Variables (Non-static Variables)

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Non-Functional Testing: The process of verifying the way software application works — and how
well it works by examining things like performance, usability, reliability and accountability of the software
application

Shift Left: The practice of testing the software application in the early stages of software development
process − allowing developers to identify and resolve bugs before they become critical

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String... args) {
System.out.println("Hello World!"); // Output: Hello World!
}
}

import java.util.*; // import java.util package

public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Integer[] x = {11, 12, 13}; // object array of Integer
System.out.println(Arrays.asList(x).contains(11));
// Output: true

System.out.println(Arrays.asList(11,12,13).contains(11));
// Output: true

}
} Output:
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) { Hello World!
int[] array = new int[5]; Hello World!
for(int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) { Hello World!
System.out.println("Hello World!"); Hello World!
} Hello World!
}
}

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public class MyClass {
Output:
public static void main(String[] args) {
// creating an array with integers 7

int[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}; 6

for(int x = array.length - 1; x >= 0; x--) { 5

4
System.out.println(array[x]);
3
}
2
}
1
} 0

import java.util.*;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] x = new int[]{11, 12, 13};
int[] y = new int[]{11, 12, 13};
// prints "false" because 'x' and 'y' refer to different objects
System.out.println(x.equals(y));
// prints "true" because the elements of objects 'x' and 'y' have the same values
System.out.println(Arrays.equals(x, y));
}
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String x = System.console().readLine("Input your name and then hit Enter:%n");
System.out.printf("Hi, %s!", x);
}
}

// Output:
Input your name and then hit Enter:
John # entered name
Hi, John!

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import java.util.*;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String args[]) {
// create and populate hash table
Hashtable<Integer, String> map = new Hashtable<Integer, String>();
map.put(88,"Albert");
map.put(89, "John");
map.put(90, "Mary");
System.out.println("Before removing values: \n"+ map);
// remove value for key 89
map.remove(89);
System.out.println("After removing values: \n"+ map);
}
}
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// Output:
System.out.println("\\".matches("\\\\"));
Before removing values:
// prints true
{90=Mary, 89=John, 88=Albert}
}
After removing values:
}
{90=Mary, 88=Albert}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int i = 0;
i = i++ + 1 + i++; // i = 0 + 1 + 1
System.out.println(i);
public class MyClass {
// Output: 2
public static void main(String[] args) {
}
int i = 0; // initializes i
}
i = i++ + 1 + i; // i = 0 + 1 + 1
i++; // adds 1
System.out.println(i);
// Output: 3
}
}

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import java.util.regex.Pattern;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("[1988".matches(Pattern.quote("[") + "1988"));
// Output: true
System.out.println("[1985".matches(Pattern.quote("[") + "1988"));
// Output: false
}
}

import java.util.Arrays;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
x %= 2;
// create an array with integers
int[] array = {27, 34, 12, 21, 39}; The %= obtains the remainder of x/2

// sort the array and puts that result back into x

Arrays.sort(array);
System.out.println(Arrays.toString(array));
// prints [12, 21, 27, 34, 39]
}
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("ALBERT".equalsIgnoreCase("albert"));
// prints true
} public class MyClass {
} public static void main(String[] args) {
String x = "apple";
System.out.println(x.replace('p','B'));
// Output: aBBle
}
}

// Output:
The sum of 1 to 10 is 36

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 = 55

Since 010 is an octal number, which is equivalent to 8 in decimal, the

program above actually prints the sum of the numbers 1 to 8.

public class MyClass {

Float Over-Flow
public static void main(String[] args) {

float x = 3.4e38f;
System.out.println((float) x*3); // Output: Infinity

/*
maximum possible value of float is 3.4028235e+38
since (float) x*3 exceeds this value the program outputs Infinity
*/

}
}

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public class MyClass {
Float Under-Flow
public static void main(String[] args) {
float x = 1e-45f;
System.out.println((float) x/1000); // Output: 0.0

/*
minimum possible value of float is 1.4e-45f
since (float) x/1000 goes below this value the program outputs 0.0
*/

}
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) { Double Over-Flow

double x = 1e308;
System.out.println((double) x*3); // Output: Infinity

/*
maximum possible value of double is 1.7976931348623157e+308
since (double) x*3 exceeds this value the program outputs Infinity
*/

public class MyClass {

} public static void main(String[] args) { Double Under-Flow
} double x = 4.8e-323;
System.out.println((double) x/1000); // Output: 0.0

/*
minimum possible value of double is 4.9e-324
since (double) x/1000 goes below this value the program outputs 0.0
*/

}
}

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public class MyClass {

public enum Names {

Albert, John, Mary, James, David;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

// convert enum to a String

// Names.Albert to "Albert"
// returns the String representation of the enum

System.out.println(Names.Albert.name()); // Output: Albert

System.out.println(Names.Albert.toString()); // Output: Albert
}
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
StringBuilder x = new StringBuilder("Alan");
System.out.println(x.reverse().toString());
// Output: nalA
} StringBuilder:
}
A class in Java used to
assemble and modify strings
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
StringBuilder x = new StringBuilder("19");
System.out.println(x.append("0").append(5).toString());
// Output: 1905
}
}

public class MyClass {

// main method begins execution of Java application

public static void main (String [] args) {

System.out.println("Hello Bill Gates");
} // end method main

} // end class MyClass

Through the use of inheritance, encapsulation, and

The output on the screen: polymorphism, the Object Oriented Programming

Hello Bill Gates methodology helps in organizing complex programs

 Program 1.2

Java program to print the word " ****Hello silicon city**** " on screen

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
System.out.println(" ****Hello silicon city**** ");
}
}
// This is a one-line comment

/**
This is a
The output on the screen: Multi-line
Comment */ Java comments
****Hello silicon city****

/* This is a
Multi-line
 Program 1.3 Comment */

Java program to print

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*

*****

on screen

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
System.out.println("\n * ");
public class MyClass {
System.out.println("\n ***** ");
System.out.println("\n ***** ");
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("\n ***** "); System.out.println(2.04 - .52);
System.out.println("\n ***** "); // Output: 1.52
}
System.out.println(2.00 - 8 * .20);
}
// Output: 0.3999999999999999
}
}
The output on the screen:

*****

If new line \n is not included in the above program then the output on the screen is:

*********************

 Write a program to print the following outputs:

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(a)

Python code:
*

**** x = "Albert"

java print(isinstance(x, str))

# Output: True
****

* x = 1

(b) print(type(x) == int)

# Output: True

**************** x = 1.6
print(type(x) == float)
* *
# Output: True
* Hello World! *

* *

****************

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {
(c) Double x = new Double(9.87654);
Double y = new Double("987654E-5");
System.out.println(x + " = " + y + " -> " + x.equals(y));
// Output: 9.87654 = 9.87654 -> true
Braces come in pairs! }
Comments come in pairs! }

All statements end with a semicolon!

Spaces are optional!

Must have a main method!

Java is done mostly in lowercase. Like C & C++ it's also a case-sensitive language

Answers:

public class MyClass {

public static void main (String [] args) {
double r, area;
r = 2.5;
area = 3.14 * r * r;
System.out.println("The area of the circle = " + area);
}
}

The output on the screen:

The area of the circle = 19.625

In C language, the statement:

printf("The area of the circle = %f ", area); HotJava(TM) Browser:

A Java(TM) programming language-based

make the provision to print the output on the screen. Web browser created by Sun Microsystems
that is highly customizable

In C++ language, the statement:

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cout<<"The area of the circle = "<< area;

make the provision to print the output on the screen.

whereas in the Java language, the statement:

System.out.println("The area of the circle = " + area);

make the provision to print the output on the screen.

In the statement:

System.out.println("The area of the circle = " + area);

There are two strings:

 The area of the circle =

 area

Plus operator (+) functions as the concatenation operator (concatenation means connecting
two statements to produce a single statement) – which (here) concatenates the string:

"The area of the circle = "

public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 5;
and the string: if(x > 0) {
String i = "The value of x is: " + x;
System.out.print(i);
area (which is 3.14 * r * r = 19.625)
}
}
Output:
}
The value of x is: 5

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producing a String statement:

The area of the circle = 19.625

which will be displayed on the screen as the result.

Even though if we write ARGS instead of args i.e., even though if we express args in capital
letter, No error will be displayed on the screen.

public static void main(String [] ARGS) → no error will be displayed on the console
screen

Operator Name Description Example

+ Addition Adds together two values x + y

- Subtraction Subtracts one value from another x - y

* Multiplication Multiplies two values x * y

/ Division Divides one value by another x / y

% Modulus Returns the division remainder x % y

++ Increment Increases the value of a variable by 1 x++

-- Decrement Decreases the value of a variable by 1 x--

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 Program 1.5

Java program to find the circumference of the circle

public class MyClass {

public static void main (String [] args) {
double r, circumference;
r = 2.5;
circumference = 2 * 3.14 * r;
System.out.println("The circumference of the circle = " + circumference);
}
}

The output on the screen is:

The circumference of the circle = 15.700000000000001

What will be the output of the following programs?

JAR (Java Archive):

a)
A platform-independent file format that
combines multiple files into one
public class MyClass {
public static void main (String [] args) {
double l, b, area;
l=2.9;
b=2.5;
area = l*b;

System.out.println("The area of the rectangle = " + area);

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Answer:

The area of the rectangle = 7.25

b) Java Blend:

A tool that makes it easier for programmers to create

database applications by mapping database records to
public class MyClass {
Java objects and Java objects to databases
public static void main (String [] args) {
int a, b, c;
a= 3;
b=3;
c=3;
if ((a + b< c) || (b + c < a) || (a==b && b==c))
System.out.println(" The triangle is equilateral");
else
JavaBeans:
System.out.println(" The triangle is not possible");
} Classes that combine several objects
}
into one standardized object

Answer:

The triangle is equilateral

 Program 1.6

Java program to convert the temperature in Celsius to Fahrenheit

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args){
double C, F;
C=38.5;

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F = 9*C/5 +32;
System.out.println("Temperature in Fahrenheit= " +F);
}
}

The output on the screen:

Temperature in Fahrenheit= 101.3

JavaCheck:
 Program 1.7
A tool for determining if Java applications
Java program to find the sum of two numbers
and applets adhere to a specification

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {

int a, b, sum;
a=1;
Delegation:
b=2;
sum = a + b;
An approach for extending
System.out.println("The sum of a and b = " + sum);
} and reusing the behavior
} of a class

The output on the screen:

The sum of a and b = 3

If you want to supply the values for a and b through the key board, then we have to rewrite the
program as follows:

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import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

JavaChip:
public static void main(String [] args) {
int a, b, sum; A microchip that will speed up the execution of Java
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in); programs when inserted inside or added to a computer
System.out.print("Enter any two Numbers: ");
a = scan.nextInt();
b = scan.nextInt();
sum = a + b;
System.out.println("The sum of a and b = " + sum);
}
} public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String x = "x: " + 3 + 3;
The output on the screen: System.out.println(x);
// Output: x: 33
Enter any two Numbers:
String y = "y: " + (3 + 3);
If you enter two numbers 2 and 3
System.out.println(y);
The sum of a and b = 5 // Output: y: 6
}
will be outputted on the screen
}

Scanner is a class found in java.util package. So to use Scanner class, we first

need to include:
java.util package
in our program.

import java.util.Scanner; // This will import just the Scanner class

import java.util.*; // This will import the entire java.util package

The statement:

Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);

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implies: declaring an object of the Scanner class "scan" to read the values entered for a and
b through the key board. And the statements:

a = scan.nextInt();

b = scan.nextInt();

imply: scan is an object of Scanner class and nextInt() is a method of the object "scan"
that allows the object "scan" to read only integer values from the keyboard.

 nextInt() that allows the object "scan" to read only integer values from the keyboard,

methods that allows the object "scan" to read other data types from the keyboard are
listed below:

Methods Datatype

nextInt() Integer

nextFloat() Float

nextDouble() Double

nextLong() Long

nextShort() Short

next() Single word

nextLine() Line of Strings

nextBoolean() Boolean

 Program 1.8

Java program to find the square root of a number

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i)

Executable content:

public class MyClass { A program incorporated inside

public static void main(String [] args) { an HTML file
int x;
x = 233;

System.out.println("Square root of a number = " + Math.sqrt(x));

The output on the screen:

Square root of a number = 15.264337522473747

If you want to supply the value for 'x' through the key board, then the above program should
take the form:

import java.util.Scanner; // import class Scanner

public class MyClass {
public static void main(String [] args) {
int x;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("Enter any Number: ");

x = scan.nextInt(); // read in number from user

System.out.println("Square root of a number = " + Math.sqrt(x)); // display the result

}

The output on the screen:

Enter any Number:

If you enter the number 233

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Square root of a number = 15.264337522473747

will be outputted on the screen.

Java Compatibility Kit (JCK):

A test suite, a collection of tools, and other specifications

ii) used to attest for a Java platform implementation's
adherence to the appropriate Java platform specifications
as well as Java Software reference implementations

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
double x;
x = 19.99d;
System.out.println("Square root of a number = " + Math.sqrt(x));
}
}

The output on the screen:

Square root of a number = 4.471017781221631

If you want to supply the value for 'x' through the key board, then the above program should
take the form:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String [] args) {
double x;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("Enter any Number: ");
x = scan.nextDouble();
System.out.println("Square root of a number = " + Math.sqrt(x));

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The output on the screen:

Enter any Number:

If you enter the number 19.99

Impersonation:

Square root of a number = 4.471017781221631 A thread's ability to operate with

will be outputted on the screen. security information different from
that of the process it belongs to

 Program 1.9

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {

String m;

Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.print("Enter the word: ");

m = in.nextLine();

System.out.println("The word you entered: " + m);

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The output on the screen: // Construct one String from another
public class MyClass {
Enter the word: public static void main(String args[]) {
char i[] = {'A', 'l', 'a', 'n'};
If you enter the word dog String a = new String(i);
String b = new String(a);
The word you entered: dog System.out.println(a);
// Output: Alan
will be outputted on the screen. System.out.println(b);
// Output: Alan
}
}
If the statement:

m = scan.nextLine();

is written instead of

m = in.nextLine();

Then we have to replace the statement:

Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);

by the statement:

Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);

Otherwise compilation error will be displayed on the console screen.

 What is the mistake in the following program?

public class MyClass {

static public void main(String args []) {

double x;
x = 233;

System.out.println("Cube root of a number = " + Math.cbrt(x));

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}
}
Output:

Cube root of a number = 6.1534494936636825

Answer:

There is no mistake in the above program.

The statement:

public static void main(String[] args) public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {
byte i[] = {65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70 };
can also be written as: String x = new String(i);
System.out.println(x);
static public void main(String args [])
// Output: ABCDEF
}
}

 Program 2.1

Java program to find the product of two numbers.

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {

int a, b, product;

a=1;

b=2;

product = a * b;

System.out.println("The product of a and b = " + product);

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The output on the screen:

The product of a and b = 2

If you want to supply the values for a and b through the key board, then we have to rewrite the
above program as follows:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String [] args) {
int a, b, product;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("Enter any two Numbers: ");
a = scan.nextInt();
b = scan.nextInt();
product = a * b;
System.out.println("The product of a and b = " + product);

}
Java Electronic Commerce Framework:
}
A structured framework for creating Java-based
applications for online business
The output on the screen:

Enter any two Numbers:

If you enter two numbers 1 and 2

The product of a and b = 2

will be outputted on the screen

If you want to assign the floating point values for a and b, then the above program should
take …the form:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String [] args) {
float a, b, product;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);

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System.out.print("Enter any two Numbers: ");
a = scan.nextFloat();
b = scan.nextFloat();
product = a * b;
System.out.println("The product of a and b = " + product);
}
}
Java Enterprise API:

A simple-to-use API that enables the development of large-

scale database and commercial applications that can exchange
The output on the screen: multimedia data with other applications both inside and
outside of an enterprise organization via internet
Enter any two Numbers:

If you enter two floating point values 2.9 and 3.6

The product of a and b = 10.440001

Javadoc Tool:
will be outputted on the screen.

A program that converts source code documentation

comments into HTML API documentation
If the statement:

System.out.println("The product of a and b = " + product);

is replaced by the statement:

System.out.println(a + " * " + b + " = " + product);

Then the output on the screen is:

2.9 * 3.6 = 10.440001

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 Note: The word public in the statement:

public class MyClass

implies: that the program or the data within the program (such as methods, variables etc.) can be
accessed directly by an external java program.

If replace the word public by private i.e.,

private class MyClass Java Media APIs:

A group of APIs that enable the incorporation of

voice calls, 3D models, 2D typefaces, graphics, and
is written instead of
pictures, as well as audio and video footage

public class MyClass

then the program or the data within the program (such as methods, variables etc.) cannot be
accessed directly by an external program.

Optional packages:

If you want to insert a 10 digit number for a and b i.e.,

The collection or groups of Java platform
a=1000000000
edition APIs that can be used with and
b=3000000000, then the statement: perhaps supported by a compatible

int a, b, product; implementation. Optional packages may

eventually become necessary in a given
should be replaced by the statement:
edition when the market demands them.
long a, b, product;

i.e.,

public class MyClass {

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public static void main(String [] args) {
long a, b, product;
a=1000000000;
b=2000000000;
product = a * b;
System.out.println("The product of a and b = " + product);
}
}

The output on the screen:

The product of a and b = 2000000000000000000

 What will be the output of the following program?

public class MyClass {

static public void main(String args []) {
int x;
x = 2;
System.out.println("Square of " +x+ " is: " + Math.pow((x), 2));
}
}

Answer:
Square of 2 is: 4.0

Dummy parameter:
 Program 2.2
A parameter that is included in a command
Java program to find the square of a number
or instruction even when its value is
public class MyClass { insignificant because it is necessary to meet
public static void main(String [] args) {
the system's requirements
int a, b;

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a=2;
b = a * a;
System.out.println("The square of a = " + b);
}
}

The output on the screen:

The square of a = 4

If you want to supply the value for a through the key board, then we have to rewrite the above
program as follows:

import java.util.Scanner;
import static java.lang.Math.*;

public class MyClass { public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) { public static void main(String... args) {
int a, b;
// prints the absolute value of -5.8
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter any Number: ");
System.out.println(abs(-5.8));
a = scan.nextInt();
b = a * a;
// prints the lowest value
System.out.println("The square of a = " + b);
System.out.println(min(15, 20));
}

} // prints the highest value

System.out.println(max(15, 20));
}
The output on the screen: }

Enter any number:

If you enter a number 3

The square of a = 9 will be outputted on the screen.

 Note:

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 If scan.nextint() is written instead of scan.nextInt()
 public static void main(string [] args); is written instead of
public static void main(String [] args)

 system.out.println("The square of a = " + b); is written instead of

System.out.println("The square of a = " + b);

Then the compilation error will be displayed on the screen.

import java.math.BigDecimal;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
BigDecimal x = new BigDecimal("9876.54321056");
// moves the decimal point to 2 places left of current position
System.out.println(x.movePointLeft(2));
}
}

// Output: 98.7654321056

 Program 2.3

Java program to find the greatest of two numbers using if - else statement

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
The main method's header
int a, b;
a=2; b
=3;
if(a>b)

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{
System.out.println("a is greater than b");
}
else
{
System.out.println("b is greater than a");
}
} import java.util.*;
} public class MyClass {
public static void main(String... args) {
List<String> x = new ArrayList<String>();
x.add("Albert");
The output on the screen: x.add("John");
x.add("Mary");
b is greater than a
for(String i : x) {
System.out.println(i);

In the above program: }

}
Output:
}
If the condition (a> b) is true, then the statement: Albert
John
Mary
System.out.println("a is greater than b");

is executed to print the output:

a is greater than b

else the statement:

Hash table:

System.out.println("b is greater than a"); A data structure designed for effective

object search, insertion, and deletion

is executed to print the output:

b is greater than a

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If you want to supply the values for a and b through the key board, then the above program
should be rewritten as:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

Write the code Compile the code
public static void main(String [] args){
int a, b;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter any two Numbers: ");
a = scan.nextInt();
b = scan.nextInt(); Run the code
if(a>b) {

System.out.println("a is greater than b");

else { Modify the code

System.out.println("b is greater than a");

} Java Program Development

public class MyClass {

The output on the screen:
static String x = "Elsa Einstein";
Enter any two Numbers:
public static void main(String[] args) {
If you enter two numbers 2 and 3
String x = "Albert Einstein";
b is greater than a
System.out.println(x);
will be outputted on the screen.
// Output: Albert Einstein

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public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
try {
System.out.print("Albert ");
Output:
} finally {
System.out.print("Einstein"); Albert Einstein
}
}
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) { Output:
try { Albert
System.out.print("Albert ");
System.exit(0);
} finally {
Ceases Java Virtual Machine's execution
System.out.print("Einstein");
}
import java.math.BigInteger;
}
} public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
BigInteger x= new BigInteger("5");
BigInteger y = new BigInteger("6");
BigInteger z = new BigInteger("7");
BigInteger c = BigInteger.ZERO;
c = c.add(x);
c = c.add(y);
c = c.add(z);
System.out.println(c);
// Output: 18 (5 + 6 + 7)
}
}
 Program 2.4

Java program to find the greatest of three numbers using else if statement

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public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args){

int a, b, c;
a=2;
b =3;
c=4;
if(a>b&&a>c) {

System.out.println("a is greater than b and c");

else if(b>a&&b>c) {

System.out.println("b is greater than a and c");

else {

System.out.println("c is greater than b and a");

The output on the screen:

c is greater than b and a

If the statements:
if(a>b&&a>c) {

System.out.println("a is greater than b and c");

else if(b>a&&b>c) {

System.out.println("b is greater than a and c");

else {

System.out.println("c is greater than b and a");

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are replaced by the statements:

if(a>b&&a>c)
{
System.out.println(a + "is greater than" + b + "and" + c);
}
else if(b>a&&b>c)
{
System.out.println(b + "is greater than" + a + "and" + c);
}
else
{
System.out.println(c + "is greater than" + b + "and" + a);
}

Then the output on the screen is:

4 is greater than 3 and 2

import java.math.BigDecimal;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
BigDecimal x = new BigDecimal("9876.54321056");
// moves the decimal point to 3 places right of current position
System.out.println(x.movePointRight(3));
}
}

// Output: 9876543.21056

 Precedence: The sequence in which operations are evaluated

 Scaffolding: Code that is utilized while creating a software but isn't included in the final version

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 Program 2.5
JavaPlan:
Java program to find the average of 10 numbers
A Java programming language-
import java.util.Scanner;
based object-oriented design and

public class MyClass { diagramming tool

public static void main(String [] args) {

int N1, N2, N3, N4, N5, N6, N7, N8, N9, N10, X;

Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.println("Enter any ten Numbers: ");

public class MyClass {

N1 = scan.nextInt(); public static void main(String args[]) {
N2 = scan.nextInt();
StringBuffer x = new
N3 = scan.nextInt();
N4 = scan.nextInt();
StringBuffer("Hilbert");
N5 = scan.nextInt(); System.out.println(x.deleteCharAt(0));
N6 = scan.nextInt(); // Output: ilbert
N7 = scan.nextInt();
}
N8 = scan.nextInt();
}
N9 = scan.nextInt();
N10 = scan.nextInt();
X = (N1 + N2 + N3 + N4 + N5 + N6 + N7 + N8 + N9 + N10) /10;

System.out.println("The average of 10 numbers = " + X);

}
JavaOS:

An operating system based on Java technology that is designed to

The output on the screen: function on a variety of computing and consumer environments

Enter any ten Numbers:

If you enter ten numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10

The average of 10 numbers = 5

will be outputted on the screen.

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 Note: The average of 10 numbers is 5.5, the output on the screen is 5 because int is
used instead of float.

 Program 2.6

Java program to find the simple interest

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
int P,T, R, SI; // declaration statement

P = 1000;
T = 2;
assignment statements
R = 3;
SI = P*T*R/100;
System.out.println("The simple interest = " + SI);
}
}

The output on the screen:

The simple interest = 60

If you want to supply the values for P, T and R through the key board, then the above program
should take the form:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

Linked data structure:
public static void main(String [] args) {
int P,T, R, SI; A group of data made up of several
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
objects connected by pointers kept in
System.out.println("Enter principal amount: ");
the objects' instance variables
P = scan.nextInt();
System.out.println("Enter time: ");
T = scan.nextInt();
System.out.println("Enter rate of interest: ");
R = scan.nextInt();

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SI = P*T*R/100;

System.out.println("The simple interest = " + SI);

The output on the screen: public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Enter principal amount:
int x = 62; { // start of block
If you enter the principal amount 1000
int y = 58;
Enter time: System.out.println("x: " + x);
System.out.println("y: " + y);
If you enter the time 2
} // end of block
Enter rate of interest:
}
If you enter the rate of interest 3 } Output:
The simple interest = 60
x: 62

will be outputted on the screen. y: 58

 Program 2.7

Java program to find the senior citizen

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {
StringBuffer x = new StringBuffer("Alan Turing");
public static void main(String [] args) {
System.out.println(x.insert(4, " Mathison"));
int age;
// Output: Alan Mathison Turing
age=20;
}
if(age >= 60) {
}
System.out.println("Senior citizen");

else {

System.out.println("Not a senior citizen");

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The output on the screen:

Not a senior citizen

 (age> = 60) implies age greater than or equal to 60

If you want to supply the value for age through the key board, then the above program should be
rewritten as:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
int age;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter the age: ");
Output:
age = scan.nextInt();
if(age >= 60) Length of x is: 20
Length of y is: 4
{

System.out.println("Senior citizen");

else

System.out.println("Not a senior citizen");

}
public class MyClass {
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
}
int x[] = new int[20];
int y[] = {14, 13, 12, -1};
System.out.println("Length of x is: " + x.length);
The output on the screen:
System.out.println("Length of y is: " + y.length);
Enter the age: }
}
If you enter the age 60

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Senior citizen

will be outputted on the screen. public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Suppose if you enter the age 28 Double a, b, c;
a = 15.0;
Not a senior citizen b = 12.0;
c = Math.sqrt(a*a + b*b);
will be outputted on the screen. // prints the hypotenuse of a right triangle
System.out.println("Hypotenuse is: " + c);
}
} // Output: Hypotenuse is: 19.209372712298546
 Program 2.8

Java program to get marks for 3 subjects and declare the result:

If the marks >= 35 in all the subjects the student passes else fails.

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {

int M1, M2,M3;
M1 = 38;

M2= 45;

M3 = 67;

if(M1 >= 35 && M2 >= 35 && M3 >= 35)

{
JavaSafe:

System.out.println("candidate is passed"); An application created in Java for organizing

} and tracking source file modifications
else

System.out.println("candidate is failed");

The output on the screen:

candidate is passed

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If you want to supply the values for marks M1, M2 and M3 through the key board, then theabove
program should be rewritten as:

import java.util.Scanner; Python code:

public class MyClass {
public static void main(String [] args) {
x = True
int age; print(type(x) == bool)
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in); # Output: True
System.out.println("Enter any three Numbers: ");
M1= scan.nextInt();
print(isinstance(x, bool))
M2 = scan.nextInt();
M3 = scan.nextInt(); # Output: True
if(M1 >= 35 && M2 >= 35 && M3 >= 35)
{ print(round(0.5435, 2))
System.out.println("candidate is passed");
# Output: 0.54
}
else
{
System.out.println("candidate is failed");
}
public class MyClass {
}
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 1;
int y = ++x;
System.out.println("y: " + y + ", x: " + x);
The output on the screen: // Output: y: 2, x: 2
}
Enter any three Numbers:
}
If you enter three numbers 26, 28, 39

candidate is failed public class MyClass {

will be outputted on the screen. public static void main(String[] args) {

int x = 1;
int y = x++;
System.out.println("y: " + y + ", x: " + x);
 Program 2.9
// Output: y: 1, x: 2

Java program to find profit or loss }

}

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521
import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
int CP, SP, loss, profit;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter cost price: "); JavaSpaces:
CP = scan.nextInt();
System.out.println("Enter selling price: "); A Java programming language technology
SP = scan.nextInt(); that offers distributed durability and data
if(SP>CP)
communication protocols
{

System.out.println("profit= " + (SP-CP));

else

System.out.println("loss =" +(CP-SP));

}
import java.util.*;

}
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String args[]) {
The output on the screen:
Formatter x = new Formatter();
Enter cost price:
x.format("|%f|%n|%12f|%n|%012f|",
If you enter the cost price 25 15.98765, 15.98765, 15.98765);
System.out.println(x);
Enter selling price:
}
If you enter the selling price 26
} Output:
profit = 1
|15.987650|
will be outputted on the screen. | 15.987650|
|00015.987650|

 Program 3.0

Java program to find the incremented and decremented values of two numbers

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public class MyClass {
JMAPI
public static void main(String [] args) {
int a, b, c, d, e, f; (Java Management API)
a = 10;
b=12;
A set of Java classes and interfaces that enable
c=a+1;
programmers to create system, network, and
d=b+1;
e=a-1; service management applications
f=b-1;

System.out.print("The incremented value of a = "+ c);

System.out.print("The incremented value of b = "+ d);
System.out.print("The decremented value of a = "+ e);
System.out.print("The decremented value of b = "+ f);
}
}

The output on the screen:

The incremented value of a = 11 The incremented value of b = 13 The decremented value

of a = 9 The decremented value of b = 11

If the statements:

System.out.print("The incremented value of a = "+ c);

System.out.print("The incremented value of b = " + d);
System.out.print("The decremented value of a = " + e);
System.out.print("The decremented value of b = " + f);

Python code:

are replaced by the statements: product = lambda x, y : x * y

print(product(6, 6))
print("Al\"an")
# Output: 36
# Output: Al"an

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System.out.print("\n The incremented value of a = " + c);

System.out.print("\n The incremented value of b = " + d);

System.out.print("\n The decremented value of a = " + e);

System.out.print("\n The decremented value of b = " + f);

Then the output on the screen is:

The incremented value of a = 11

The incremented value of b = 13

The decremented value of a = 9

The decremented value of b = 11

i.e., \n make provision for the another result to print in the new line. If you want to supply the
values for a and b through the key board, then the above program should take the form:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String [] args) {
int a, b, c, d, e, f; Mosaic:
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter any Number: "); A tool that offers a simple Graphical
a = scan.nextInt(); User Interface to make it simple to
System.out.println("Enter any Number: ");
access data stored online
b = scan.nextInt();
c=a+1;
d=b+1;
e=a-1;
f=b-1;
System.out.print("\n The incremented value of a = " + c);

System.out.print("\n The incremented value of b = " + d);

System.out.print("\n The decremented value of a = " + e);

System.out.print("\n The decremented value of b = " + f);

}

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The output on the screen:

Enter any Number:

If you enter the value 2 public class MyClass {
Enter any Number: public static void main(String... args) {
If you enter the value 3 int[] x = {21, 6, 3, 4, 7};
for(int i = 0; i < x.length; i++) {
The incremented value of a = 3 if(x[i] == 4) {
The incremented value of b = 4
System.out.println("Fount 4 at index: " + i);
The decremented value of a = 1
// Output: Fount 4 at index: 3
The decremented value of b = 2
}
}
will be outputted on the screen.
}
}

 What will be the output of the following programs?

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
float T1, T2, A;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter the temperature in degree Celcius: ");
T1 = scan.nextFloat();
System.out.println("Enter the temperature in degree Celcius: ");
T2 = scan.nextFloat();
A = (T1 + T2) / 2;
System.out.println("The average temperature of the day = " + A + " degree Celcius");
}
}

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Answer:

Enter the temperature in degree Celcius:

26.3 # entered temperature
Enter the temperature in degree Celcius:
27.9 # entered temperature
The average temperature of the day = 27.099998 degree Celcius

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
int P;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter the percentage: ");
P = scan.nextInt();
if(P >= 60) {
System.out.println("First class");
Secure Socket Layer (SSL):
}
else if(P>=50 && P<60) {
A technology that enables encrypted communication
System.out.println("Second class");
between a Web browser and a server
}
else {
if(P<40) System.out.println("Fail");
else System.out.println("Pass class");
}
}
}

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Answer:

Enter the percentage:

45 # entered percentage

Pass class

Architecture-neutral

Software that is created without taking the target platform into consideration

 Program 3.1

Java program to calculate the discounted price and the total price after discount

Given:

 If purchase value is greater than 1000, 10% discount

 If purchase value is greater than 5000, 20% discount
 If purchase value is greater than 10000, 30% discount

 Discounted price
Mutual exclusion

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass { Prohibits two threads from

public static void main(String [] args) {
using the same resource
int PV, dis;
simultaneously
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter purchased value: ");
PV = scan.nextInt();
if(PV<1000) {

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System.out.println("dis = " + PV* 0.1);
}

else if(PV>5000) {

System.out.println("dis = " + PV* 0.2);

else {

System.out.println("dis = " + PV* 0.3);

} Boxing:

The method of encapsulating a value within an object

The output on the screen:

Enter purchased value:

If you enter the purchased value 6500

dis = 1300
import java.util.*;

will be outputted on the screen. public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {
Formatter x = new Formatter();
x.format("Albert %s %d %s", "Einstein", 1915, "Papers");
 Total price
System.out.println(x);
// Output: Albert Einstein 1915 Papers
import java.util.Scanner;
}
}
public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {

int PV, total;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter purchased value: ");
PV = scan.nextInt();
if(PV<1000) {
System.out.println("total= " + PV - PV* 0.1);
}
else if(PV>5000) {

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System.out.println("total = " + PV- PV* 0.2);
}
else {
System.out.println("total= " + PV- PV* 0.3);
}
}
}
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {

The output on the screen: Integer x = new Integer(125);

int i = x.intValue();
Enter purchased value:
System.out.println(x); // displays 125
If you enter the purchased value 650 System.out.println(i); // displays 125

total = 585 }
}
will be outputted on the screen.

 Combing both the programs (above), we can write:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
int PV, dis, total;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in); World readable files:
System.out.println("Enter purchased value: ");
PV = scan.nextInt(); Files on a file system − accessible to all users.
For example, files on web servers can only be
if(PV<1000) {
viewed by Internet users if their permissions
System.out.println("dis = " + PV* 0.1);
are set to world readable
System.out.println("total= " + total - dis);
}

else if(PV>5000) {

System.out.println("dis = " + PV* 0.2);

System.out.println("total= " + total - dis);

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}
else {
System.out.println("dis = " + PV* 0.3);
System.out.println("total= " + total - dis);
}
} public class MyClass {
} public static void main(String[] args) {
int x[] = {10, 13, 6, 4, 2};
for(int i = -1; i++ < x.length -1;) {
System.out.println("x[" + i + "] = " + x[i]);
The output on the screen: }
} Output:
Enter purchased value:
}
If you enter the purchased value 850
x[0] = 10
dis = 85
x[1] = 13
total = 765
x[2] = 6
will be outputted on the screen.
x[3] = 4
x[4] = 2

 Program 3.2

Java program to print the first ten natural numbers using for loop statement

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {

int i;
for(i=1; i<=10; i++)
System.out.println("value of i = " + i);
}

The output on the screen is:

value of i = 1 value of i = 2 value of i= 3 value of i= 4 value of i= 5 value of

i= 6 value of i = 7 value of i= 8 value of i = 9 value of i = 10

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If the statement:

System.out.println("value of i = " + i);

is replaced by the statement:

System.out.println("\n value of i = " + i);

Then the output on the screen is:

public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
value of i = 1
value of i = 2 for(int x=0; x<10; x++) {
value of i = 3 for(int y=x; y<10; y++)
value of i = 4 System.out.print(".");
value of i = 5 System.out.println();
value of i = 6 }
value of i = 7 }
value of i = 8 ..........
} .........
value of i = 9
........
value of i = 10 .......
......
Output
.....
....
If the for loop statement: ...
..
for(i=2; i<=10; i++) .

is written instead of the statement:

for(i=1; i<=10; i++), then the output on the screen is:

value of i = 2 value of i = 3 value of i= 4 value of i= 5 value of i= 6 value

of i = 7 value of i= 8 value of i = 9 value of i= 10

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If the for loop statement:

for(i=1; i<10; i++)

is written instead of the statement: for(i=1; i<=10; i++), then the output on the screen
is:

value of i = 1 value of i = 2 value of i= 3 value of i= 4 value of i= 5 value of

i= 6 value of i = 7 value of i= 8 value of i = 9

 Note: the condition i<=10 tells to print till value of i=10 but the condition i<10 tells to
print till value of i=9

If the statement:

for(i=1; i=10; i++)

is written instead of the statement: for(i=1; i<=10; i++), then the output on the screen is:

MyClass.java:12: error: incompatible types: int cannot be converted to boolean

for(i=1; i=10; i++)
^
1 error

Variable-length argument:

A feature that permits a function to take any number of arguments

If the statement:

System.out.println("\n value of i = " + i); is replaced by the statement

System.out.println("\n " + i);

684
Then the output on the screen is:

2
public class MyClass {
3 public static void main(String[] args) {
4 int x = 24;
int y = 21;
5
boolean z = x < y;
6 System.out.println(z);
7 // Output: false
}
8
}
9

 What is the mistake in the following program?

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String []args) throws Exception {

System.out.println("Hello World");
}

}
Pragmatics: Guidelines for what makes quality program writing. The
pragmatics of a programming language, for example, includes stylistic rules and
recommendations for program organization
Answer:

There is no mistake in the above program. Addition of the statement throws Exception does
not make any change in the output displayed on the screen or give rise to any compilation
error onthe screen.

685
 Program 3.3

What will be the output of the following program?

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {

int i;
for(i =1; i<=5; i++)

System.out.println("\n Linux is not portable");

Answer:

Linux is not portable

Multithreaded: The ability of computer software to support numerous users simultaneously

without requiring additional copies of the software to be running on the system. Multiple requests
from the same user can be handled via multithreading as well

 Java program to print the first ten natural numbers using while loop statement

public class HelloWorld{

public static void main(String [] args)
{
int i = 1;

686
while (i<=10)
{
System.out.println("\n " + i++);
}
}
}

The output on the screen is:

1
public class MyClass {
2
public static void main(String[] args) {
3 int a = 64;
4 double b = 64.98;

5 System.out.println("a mod 10 = " + a % 10);

// Output: a mod 10 = 4
6
System.out.println("b mod 10 = " + b % 10);
7
// Output: b mod 10 = 4.980000000000004
8 }
9 }

If the statement:

int i = 1;

is replaced by:

int i = 0;

Then the output on the screen is:

687
536
0

2
public class MyClass {
3 public static void main(String[] args) {
4 int x[] = {31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31};
System.out.println("February has " + x[1] + " days");
5
}
6
}
7
// Output: February has 28 days
8

Similarly if the statement int i = 0; is replaced by:

int i = 7;

Then the output on the screen is:

Java Concurrency Utilities:

A method of asynchronous programming that let users propose or plan activities for parallel execution,
construct threads that inherit Java EE context, and provide Java EE context to interfaces like
asynchronous callbacks when they are invoked

 Java program to print first 10 numbers using do while loop statement

688
536
public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {

int i =1;
do {

System.out.println("\n i= " + i++);

} while (i<=10);

}
i= 1
} The statement:
i= 2
System.out.println("\n i= " + i++);
i= 3
is executed and then condition (i<=10) is
The output on the screen is: i= 4 checked. If condition (i<=10) is true then

i= 5
The statement:
i= 6
System.out.println("\n i= " + i++);
i= 7

i= 8 is executed again. This process repeats

until the given condition (i<=10) becomes
i= 9
false.
i= 10

import java.math.BigInteger;

// Subtraction: 50 - 41 = 9

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
BigInteger x = new BigInteger("50");
BigInteger y = new BigInteger("41");
System.out.println(x.subtract(y));
}
}

// Output: 9

689
 Program 3.4

Java program to print the characters from A to Z using for loop, do while loop and
while loop statement.

 Java program to print the characters from A to Z using for loop statement:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {

char a;
for( a='A'; a<='Z'; a++)

System.out.println("\n " + a);

} public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {
int x = 200, y = 300;
The output on the screen:
while(++x < --y) ;
A
// prints the midpoint between 'x' and 'y'
B
System.out.println("Midpoint is: " + x);
C // Output: Midpoint is: 250
D }
E }
F

G public class MyClass {

H public static void main(String args[]) {
I int x, y;
J for(x=1, y=4; x<y; x++, y--) { Output:
K System.out.println("x : " + x);
x : 1
L
System.out.println("y : " + y);
y : 4
}
M x : 2
} y : 3
N
}
O

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539
P
public class MyClass {
Q
public static void main(String args[]) {
R
int x = 20, y = 60;
S
while(x > y)
T
System.out.println("This won't appear on the screen");
U }
V }
W
Since the condition is false
X

 Java program to print the characters from A to Z using while loop statement:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
char a = 'A';
while (a<='Z') {
System.out.println("\n " + a++);
}
}
}

 Java program to print the characters from A to Z using do while loop statement:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
char a = 'A';
do {
System.out.println("\n " + a++);
} while (a<='Z');
}
}

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539
import java.math.BigInteger;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
BigInteger x = BigInteger.valueOf(11);
BigInteger y = BigInteger.valueOf(11);
if(x.equals(y)) {
System.out.println("Equal");
}
else {
System.out.println("Not Equal");
} import java.math.BigInteger;

}
} // Addition: 50 + 50 = 100

// Output: Equal public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
BigInteger x = new BigInteger("50");
BigInteger y = new BigInteger("50");
System.out.println(x.add(y));
}
}

// Output: 100

 Program 3.5

Java program to print the given number is even or odd.

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {

int a;

Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.println("Enter a number: ");

a = scan.nextInt();

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if(a%2 == 0) {

System.out.println("The number is even");

else {

System.out.println("The number is odd");

}
// Using break to exit a loop
} public class MyClass {
} public static void main(String args[]) {
for(int x=0; x<10; x++) {
if(x == 3) break; // terminate loop if x is 3
The output on the screen: System.out.println(x);

Enter a number: }
System.out.println("...........");
If you enter the number 4
}
The number is even } Output:

will be outputted on the screen. 0

 Program 3.6 2
...........
Java program to print the remainder of two numbers

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String [] args) {
int a, b, c;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter a number: ");
a = scan.nextInt();
System.out.println("Enter a number: ");
b = scan.nextInt();
c = a%b;

System.out.println("The remainder of a and b = " + c);

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The output on the screen:

Enter a number:
If you enter the number 3
Enter a number:
If you enter the number 2
The remainder of a and b = 1
will be outputted on the screen.

Since (a=3 and b=2). Therefore: 3 divided by 2 (i.e., a divided by b) yields the remainder equal
to 1.

 Program 3.7

Java program to check equivalence of two numbers.

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String [] args) {
int x, y;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter a number: ");
x = scan.nextInt();
System.out.println("Enter a number: ");
y = scan.nextInt();
if(x-y==0) {
System.out.println("The 2 numbers are equivalent");
}
else {
System.out.println("The 2 numbers are not equivalent");
}
}
}

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The output on the screen:

Enter a number:

2 # entered number

Enter a number:

2 # entered number

The 2 numbers are equivalent

 Program 3.8

Java program to print the leap year or not

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
int year;
year =1996;
if(year%4==0) {
System.out.println("Leap year");
}
else {
System.out.println("Not a leap year");
}
}
}

The output on the screen:

Leap year

 Encapsulation enables us to change our implementations over time without affecting the
code that relies on the classes' public interface
 Polymorphism enables us to create clear, sane, readable, resilient code

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 What will be the output on the screen?

public class MyClass {int

a=5;
public static void main(String[] args) {
int a=2;
System.out.println("Value of a = " + a);

Answer:

Value of a = 2

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String x;
x = "Einstein";
System.out.print("Albert ");
System.out.println(x);
}
} // Output: Albert Einstein

If the statement:

System.out.println("Value of a = " + a);

is replaced by the statement

System.out.println("Value of a = " + ::a);

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(where :: denote scope resolution operator)

i.e.,

public class MyClass {

int a=5;
public static void main(String[] args) {
int a=2 ;
System.out.println("Value of a = " + ::a);

Then the compilation error will be displayed on the screen because [like C++] JAVA does not
hold or support the resolution operator.

 Program 3.9

Java program to print whether the given number is positive or negative

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {

int a;
a = -35;

if(a>0) {

System.out.println("Number is positive");

else {

System.out.println("Number is negative");

697
The output on the screen:

Number is negative

Since a = −35. Therefore:

a is less than 0 i.e., a<0

The statement

System.out.println("Number is negative");

is executed to print the output:

Number is negative

 Program 4.0

Java program to print the sum of the first 10 digits using for loop statement:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {

int i, sum = 0;

for(i=1; i<=10; i++)

sum = sum + i;

System.out.println("Sum of the first 10 digits = " + sum);

The output on the screen:

Sum of the first 10 digits = 55

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The statement:

System.out.println("Sum of the first 10 digits = " + sum);

is executed to display the output:

Sum of the first 10 digits = 55

on the screen.

If the statement:

int i, sum = 0;

is replaced by:

int i, sum = 1;

Then the output on the screen is:

Sum of the first 10 digits = 56

 What will be the output if the for loop statement for(i=1; i<=10; i++) is replaced by
the statement for(i=2; i<10; i++)?

Answer: Sum of 10 digits = 44

Generalization:

Code that has been generalised is more adaptable, more likely to

be reused, and occasionally even simpler to implement

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If the statement:

int i, sum, sum = 0; is written instead of int i, sum = 0;

Then the compilation error message will be displayed on the screen (stating that sum is twice
declared).

If the for loop is ended with a semicolon i.e.,

for(i=1; i<=10; i++);

Then the compilation error will be displayed on the console screen.

 Program 4.1

Java program to print the average of the first 10 numbers using for loop statement

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
int i, avg, sum = 0;
for(i=1; i<=10; i++)
sum = sum + i;
avg = sum/10;

System.out.println("Sum of the first 10 numbers = " + sum);

System.out.println("Average of the first 10 numbers = " + avg);

}

The output on the screen:

Sum of the first 10 numbers = 55

Average of the first 10 numbers = 5

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If the data type float is used i.e.,

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {

float i, avg, sum = 0;
for(i=1; i<=10; i++)
sum = sum + i;
avg = sum/10;

System.out.println("Sum of the first 10 numbers = " + sum);

System.out.println("Average of the first 10 numbers = " + avg);
}

The output on the screen:

Sum of the first 10 numbers = 55

Average of the first 10 numbers = 5.5

 Program 4.2

Java program to print the product of the first 10 digits using for loop statement

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {

int i, product = 1;

for(i=1; i<=10; i++)

product = product * i;

System.out.println("The product of the first 10 digits = " + product);

The output on the screen:

The product of the first 10 digits = 3628800

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The statement:

System.out.println("The product of the first 10 digits = " + product);

is executed to display the output:

The product of the first 10 digits = 3628800

If the statement int i, product = 1; is replaced by int i, product = 0;

Then the output on the screen is:

The product of the first 10 digits = 0

If the statement for(i=1; i<=10; i++) is replaced by for(i=5; i<=8; i++)

Then the output on the screen is:

The product of the first 10 digits = 1680

 Program 4.3

Java Program to print the table of a number using the for loop statement

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
int x, i;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter a number: ");
x = scan.nextInt();
for(i=1; i<=5; i++)

System.out.println (\n x + " * " + i + " = " + x * i);

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Output on the screen:

Enter any number:

If you enter the number 2 (i.e., x=2)

2 * 1 = 2
2 * 2 = 4
2 * 3 = 6
2 * 4 = 8
2 * 5 = 10

will be outputted on the screen.

If the symbol * is replaced by +

i.e.,

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {

int x, i;

Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.println("Enter a number: ");

x = scan.nextInt();

for(i=1; i<=5; i++)

System.out.println ( \n x + " + " + i + " = " + x + i);

Then the output on the screen is:

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public class MyClass {
public static void main(String... args) {
int x[] = {16, 3, 6, 3, 2};
Enter any number:
If you enter the number 2 (i.e., x=2) int i = 0;
for (; ;) {
2 + 1 = 3 if (i >= x.length) {
2 + 2 = 4 break;
2 + 3 = 5 }
2 + 4 = 6 System.out.println("x[" + i + "] = " + x[i]);
2 + 5 = 7
i++;
} x[0] = 16
will be outputted on the screen.
} x[1] = 3
} x[2] = 6
Output
x[3] = 3
x[4] = 2
 Program 4.4

Java program to print the first 10 numbers starting from one together with their squares

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i;
for(i=1; i<=10; i++)

System.out.println("\n number = " + i + " its square = " + i*i);

} Output: Blocking method:

number = 1 its square=1

number = 2 its square=4
A method that halts the thread that is
number = 3 its square=9
currently running until their operation is
number = 4 its square=16
number = 5 its square=25 complete. The InputStream read() method,
number = 6 its square=36 which stops until the entire contents of the
number = 7 its square=49 InputStream have been read, is a well-known
number = 8 its square=64
example of the blocking method
number = 9 its square=81
number= 10 its square=100

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If the statement:

System.out.println(" \n number = " + i + " its square = " + i*i);

is replaced by the statement:

System.out.println(" \n number = " + i + " \t its square = " + i*i);

i.e.,

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i;
for(i=1; i<=10; i++)

System.out.println("\n number = " + i + " \t its square = " + i*i);

Then the output on the screen is:

number=1 its square=1

number=2 its square=4
number=3 its square=9
number=4 its square=16
number=5 its square=25
number=6 its square=36
number=7 its square=49
number=8 its square=64
number=9 its square=81
number=10 its square=100

tab /t is included because to leave space between

number=1 and its square=1

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547
import java.math.BigInteger;

// Division: 20/2 = 10

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
BigInteger x = new BigInteger("20");
BigInteger y = new BigInteger("2"); import java.util.*;
System.out.println(x.divide(y));
} public class MyClass {

} public static void main(String[] args) {

Set<Integer> x = new TreeSet<Integer>();
List<Integer> y = new ArrayList<Integer>();
// Output: 10
for(int i = -3; i < 3; i++) {
x.add(i);
y.add(i);
import java.math.BigInteger;
}
for(int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
// Multiplication: 50 * 2 = 100
x.remove(i);
y.remove(i);
public class MyClass { }
public static void main(String[] args) { System.out.println(x + " " + y);
BigInteger x = new BigInteger("50"); }
BigInteger y = new BigInteger("2"); } // Output: [-3, -2, -1] [-2, 0, 2]

System.out.println(x.multiply(y));
}
}

This program removes the non-negative values from

// Output: 100 the set 'x' and the odd values from the list 'y'

Aliasing:

The condition when 2 or more variables refer to the same object

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547
import java.math.BigInteger;

// Power: 10 ^ 2 = 10 * 10 = 100

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
BigInteger x = new BigInteger("10");
System.out.println(x.pow(2));
import java.util.List;
}
public class MyClass {
}
public static void main(String... args) {
List<Integer> x = List.of(8, 6, 5, 4, 1);
// Output: 100
for(int i = 0; i < x.size(); i++) {
System.out.println("x[" + i + "] = " + x.get(i));
}
import java.math.BigInteger;
}
Output:
}
// Remainder: 20 % 8 = 4
x[0] = 8
x[1] = 6
public class MyClass { x[2] = 5
public static void main(String[] args) { x[3] = 4
BigInteger x = new BigInteger("20"); x[4] = 1
BigInteger y = new BigInteger("8");
System.out.println(x.remainder(y));
}
}

// Output: 4

Pseudorandom:

A sequence of integers that seem random but were actually generated by a deterministic computation

707
547
 Write a program to print the first 10 numbers starting from one together with their
squares and cubes:

Answer:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {

int i;
for(i=1; i<=10; i++)

System.out.println(" \n number = " + i + " its square = " + i*i + " its cube = " + i*i*i);
}

}
public class MyClass { public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) { public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Albert"); System.out.print("Albert");
System.out.println("Albert"); System.out.print("Albert");
} // Printing begins in the next line } // Printing begins in the same line
} }

Albert
Albert
Output // Output:
AlbertAlbert
 Program 4.5

Java program to print the sum of two numbers using method

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int a, b, c;
a = 11;

b = 6;

c = add (a, b);

System.out.println("Sum of two numbers = " + c);

public static int add (int a, int b) {

708
return (a+b) ;

The output on the screen:

Sum of two numbers = 17

There are 2 methods in the above program:

 public static void main(String[] args)

 public static int add (int a, int b)

public static void main(String[] args) imply: main method and

} imply the body of the main method with in which the program statements:

int a, b, c;

a = 11;

b = 6;

c = add (a, b);

System.out.println("Sum of two numbers = " + c);

public static int add (int a, int b) imply: the method to add two
are written.
integers 'x' and 'y' and

return (a+b);

imply the body of the method public static int add (int a, int b)

709
main method:

public static void main(String[] args)

and the method:

public static int add (int a, int b)

should be written inside the body of the public class MyClass.

The statement

int a, b, c;

imply that we creating the integer variables a, b and c.

The statements:

a = 11;

b = 6;

c = add (a, b);

imply that we are assigning the values to the created variables.

The statement:

c = add (x, y);

imply method call (i.e., we are calling the method public static int add (int a, int b)

to add the.. values (i.e., 11 and 6) and return the result (i.e., 17) to the statement

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System.out.println("Sum of two numbers = " + c);

to make provision to display the output of the sum of two entered numbers as 17 on the screen.

import java.math.BigInteger;

// GCD: Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) for 14 and 20 is 2

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
BigInteger x = new BigInteger("14");
BigInteger y = new BigInteger("20");
System.out.println(x.gcd(y));
}
}

// Output: 2


 Java program to print the product of two numbers using method

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int a, b, c;
a = 2;

b = 3;

c = mult (a, b);

System.out.println("Product of two numbers = " + c);

public static int mult (int a, int b) {

return (a*b) ;
}
}

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The output on the screen:

Product of two numbers = 6

will be outputted on the screen.

if(x < 20) System.out.println("x is less than 20");

If 'x' contains a value that is less than 20, the conditional expression is true,
then the println() will get executed. If 'x' contains a value greater than or
equal to 20, the condition is not true, then the println() method is bypassed

 Java program to print the greatest of two numbers using method

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int a, b;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter any two numbers: ");
a = scan.nextInt();
b = scan.nextInt();
System.out.println("Largest of two numbers = " + max (a, b) );
}
public static int max (int a, int b) {
if(a>b)
return a;
else
return b;
}
}

The output on the screen:

Enter any two numbers:

If you enter two numbers 5 and 2

Largest of two numbers= 5

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will be outputted on the screen.

 Java program to print the greatest of three numbers using method

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int a, b, c;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter any three numbers: ");
a = scan.nextInt();
b = scan.nextInt();
c= scan.nextInt();
System.out.println("Largest of two numbers = " + max (a, b, c) );
}
public static int max (int a, int b, int c) {
if(a>b && a>c)
return a;
else if (b>c && b>a)
return b;
else
return c;
}
}

The output on the screen:

Enter any three numbers:

If you enter three numbers 3, 5 and 10
Largest of three numbers = 10
will be outputted on the screen.
562

Abstract parameter:

A group of parameters that act together as a single parameter

713
 Java program to print the square of the number using method

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter any number: ");
x = scan.nextInt();
System.out.println("Square of the number = " + square (x));
}
public static int square (int x) {
return x*x;
}
}

import java.math.BigInteger;

The output on the screen is: // Maximum of two BigIntegers: 21

Enter any number:

public class MyClass {
If you enter the number 5 public static void main(String[] args) {
Square of the number = 25 BigInteger x = new BigInteger("20");
BigInteger y = new BigInteger("21");
will be outputted on the screen.
System.out.println(x.max(y));
}
Object method
}

// Output: 21

A method that is called on an

object and performs operations Class method: A method that includes the keyword static.
Class methods have no current object and are not called on objects
on it. The keyword "static" does

not exist in object methods

The object on which an object method is invoked

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 Program 4.6

Switch (case) allows to make decision from the number of choices i.e., from the

numberof cases

For example:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args)throws Exception {
char ch;
System.out.print("Enter a character: ");
ch = (char)System.in.read();
switch(ch) {
case 'R': System.out.print("Red");
break;
case 'W': System.out.print("White");
break;
case 'Y': System.out.print("Yellow");
break; The output on the screen is:
case 'G': System.out.print("Green");
Enter a character:
break;
If you enter a character R
default: System.out.print("Error");
Red
break;
will be outputted on the screen.
}
}
}

// Char variables behave like integers

public class MyClass {
public static void main(String args[]) {
char i = 'B';
System.out.println(i); // Output: B
i++; // i is incremented
System.out.println(i); // Output: C
}
}

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 Program 4.7
public class MyClass {

Java program to print the output public static void main(String args[]) {
boolean i = false;
int x = 0;
Element [0] = 16
for( ; !i; ) {
Element [1] = 18
System.out.println(x);
Output:
Element [2] = 20 if(x == 3) i = true;
x++; 0
Element [3] = 25
} 1
Element [4] = 36 2
}
3
}

using arrays:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int i;
int [] num = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
System.out.println("Element [" + i + " ] = " + num[i]);
}
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {
The output on the screen: System.out.println("Albert Einstein");
if(true) return; // stop the execution of a method
Element [0] = 16
System.out.println("This statement is not executed.");
Element [1] = 18 }
Element [2] = 20 }
Output:
Element [3] = 25
Albert Einstein
Element [4] = 36

Ends because of the condition i<5.

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Array declaration in C:

int num [5] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};

or
int num [] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};

Array declaration in C++:

int num [5] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};
or
int num [] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};

But array declaration in java:

int [] num = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};

import java.math.BigInteger;

// Minimum of two BigIntegers: 20

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
BigInteger x = new BigInteger("20");
BigInteger y = new BigInteger("21");
System.out.println(x.min(y));
}
}

// Output: 20

Classpath:

A parameter in the Java Virtual Machine or Java Compiler that indicates

where user-defined classes and packages are located

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563
 Java program to print the sum of the elements in array.

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int i, sum = 0;
int [] num = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
sum = sum + num[i];
System.out.println("Sum of the Elements in the array = " + sum);
}
}

The output on the screen:

Sum of the Elements in the array = 115

i.e., 16 + 18 + 20 + 25 + 36 = 115

import java.math.BigInteger;

// Binary Or: 10 | 9 = 11

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
BigInteger x = new BigInteger("10");
BigInteger y = new BigInteger("9");
System.out.println(x.or(y));
}
}
// Output: 11

 Java program to print the average of the elements in the array

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public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i, avg, sum = 0;
int [] num = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};

for(i=0; i<5; i++)

sum = sum + num[i];
avg = sum/5;
System.out.println("Sum of the Elements in the array = " + sum);
System.out.println("Average of the Elements in the array = " + avg);
}

The output on the screen:

Sum of the Elements in the array = 115

Average of the elements in the array = 23

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(98765 + 4321L);
 Write a program to print
// Output: 103086
}
Einstein [0] = E
}
Einstein [1] = I
Einstein [2] = N
Einstein [3] = S Compilation unit:
Einstein [4] = T
Einstein [5] = E The smallest unit of source code that can be compiled
Einstein [6] = I
Einstein [7] = N
Compositing:

Combining multiple images into one through the

using arrays method of superimposing

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Answer:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {

int i;
char [] num = {'E' , 'I', 'N', 'S', 'T', 'E', 'I', 'N'};

for(i=0; i<8; i++)

System.out.println("Einstein [" + i + " ] = " + num[i]);

 What will be the output of the following programs?

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {

int i;
int [] name = {'E' , 'I', 'N', 'S', 'T ', 'E', 'I', 'N'};

for(i=0; i<8; i++)

System.out.println("Einstein [" + i + " ] = " + name[i]);

Answer:

Einstein [0] = 69
Einstein [1] = 73
Einstein [2] = 78
Einstein [3] = 83
Einstein [4] = 84
Einstein [5] = 69

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Einstein [6] = 73
Einstein [7] = 78

ii)

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {

int i;
char [] body = {'b', 'o', 'd', 'y'};
for(i=0; i<4; i++)
System.out.println("body [" + body [i] + " ] = " + body [i]);

}
import java.util.Arrays;
}

public class MyClass {

public static final int x[] = {15, 6, 8, 9, 2};
Answer: public static void main(String... args) {

body [b] = b for(int i = 0; i < x.length; i++) {

if(i == 2) {
body [o] = o
System.out.println(".........");
body [d] = d
break;
body [y] = y }
System.out.println("x[" + i + "] = " + x[i]);
}
import java.math.BigInteger;
} Output:
}
// Binary And: 10 & 9 = 8 x[0] = 15
x[1] = 6
public class MyClass { .........

public static void main(String[] args) {

BigInteger x = new BigInteger("10");
BigInteger y = new BigInteger("9");
System.out.println(x.and(y));
}
}
// Output: 8

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Constructor:
 What is the mistake in the following program? A pseudo-method that
creates an object
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String [] args) {
long float x;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("Enter any Number: ");
x = scan.nextFloat();
System.out.println(" square root of x = " + Math.cbrt(x));
}

Answer:

long float x; should not be used − only float x should be used because Java do not

support the.. data type such as long int, long float etc.

import java.math.BigInteger;

// Binary Xor: 10 ^ 9 = 3

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
BigInteger x = new BigInteger("10");
BigInteger y = new BigInteger("9");
System.out.println(x.xor(y));
}
}

Critical section:
// Output: 3
The term "critical section" refers to a code

segment that is accessed by multiple processes

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 Program 4.8

Continue and break statements:

public class MyClass {
A) public static void main(String... args) {
// The size of the array 'x' is: 3
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String []args) {
int[] x = new int[3];
for(int i = 0; i < x.length; i++) {
int i;
for (i=1; i<=5; i++){ System.out.println("x["+ i +"]= " + x[i]);
if (i==3) { }
continue; }
} Output:
}
System.out.println("" + i); x[0]= 0
} x[1]= 0
} x[2]= 0
}

Output on the screen:

public class MyClass {

Logging:
public static void main(String []args) {

int i; Creating log files that can be

for (i=1; i<=5; i++){ utilized to track down code issues
if (i==3){

break;

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}
import java.util.List;
System.out.println("" + i);

} public class MyClass {

} public static void main(String... args) {
} List<Integer> x = List.of(25, 8, 3);
x.forEach(item -> System.out.println(item));
}
Output on the screen: } Output:
1
25
2 8
3

 What will be the output of the following program?

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {

System.out.println(Math.max(1269, 1356));
}

Output on the screen:

1356

Abstraction → Hiding implementation details from the user by providing interface

Encapsulation → Hiding data

In the statement:

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"1 + 2"

"1" and "2" imply the operands and the plus symbol imply the operator.

 Polymorphism

Suppose if you are in class room that time you behave like a student, when you are in shopping
mall at that time you behave like a customer, when you at your home at that time you behave
like a son or daughter. Your ability to present in different-different behaviors is known as
polymorphism.

In the example:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {

int a, b, sum;
a=1;
b=2;

sum = a + b;

System.out.println("The sum of a and b = " + sum);

Plus symbol ("+") act as an arithmetic operator in the statement:

sum = a+b;

and it acts as the concatenation operator in the statement:

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System.out.println("The sum of a and b = " + sum);

The ability of plus symbol to behave both as arithmetic operator and concatenation operator
is known as polymorphism. import java.util.Arrays;
public class MyClass {
public static final int x[] = {12, 8, 9, 6, 1};
 Inheritance public static void main(String... args) {
for (int i = 0; i < x.length; ++i) {

public class game { if (i % 2 != 0) {

} continue;
}
public class player extends game { System.out.println("x[" + i + "] = " + x[i]);
} }
x[0] = 12
}
Output x[2] = 9
}
x[4] = 1

Here public class player extends game implies: class player is public and it is the sub class of the
class game. Since class player is the subclass of class game − class player automatically takes on
all the behavior and attributes of its parent class "game" i.e., methods or fields within the class
game will be automatically be included in the class player.

The statements:

public class player extends game

public class game extends ball

implies: that class player is not only a subclass of class game but also it is a subclass of class
ball.

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 Encapsulation

public class Account {

private decimal accountBalance = 500.00;

public decimal CheckBalance() {

return accountBalance;
}
}

/* accountBalance can be checked via public "CheckBalance" method provided by the

"Account" class but its value cannot be manipulated because data variable
accountBalance is declared private */

Encapsulation is the technique of bringing the data variables and methods in single frame and
declaring data variable private (so it cannot be accessed by anyone outside the class, thereby
hiding or encapsulating the data variable (String name) within the public class Student) and
providing indirect access to the data variable via public methods.

import java.math.BigInteger;

Used in debugging, module Used in testing

documentation, etc.

Software Documentation Illustrates the preparation of

data, running the program,
obtaining and interpreting the
results

 Requirements and problem definition.

 Architecture of software components and description of the test perform.
 Documentation of code, algorithms, interfaces and APIs.
 Manuals for the end-user, system administrators and support staff.
 How to market the product and analysis of the market demand.

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print("Jean-Luc Picard".lower())

Output

jean-luc picard

Program maintenance

 Find, eliminate and correct program errors

 Modify the program and Improve its performance

 Add new features, functionalities and a better user interface

 Update the documentation

The best programs are written so that computing machines can perform them

quickly and so that human beings can understand them clearly. A programmer is

ideally an essayist who works with traditional aesthetic and literary forms as

well as mathematical concepts, to communicate the way that an algorithm

works and to convince a reader that the results will be correct.

― Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Computer Science

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Classification

Binary Classification Multiclass Classification

A given data is being classified A given data is being classified

into two classes into more than two classes

Classifying books according to

their Genre
2 emails are sent to us, one is sent by a mobile
advertising company that keeps sending their
ads, and the other is from our bank regarding Ensemble Learning
our balance. The email service provider will
classify the 2 emails, the first one will be sent
to the spam folder and the second one will be A machine learning model that combines
kept in the primary folder. the predictions from two or more models

Parametric method Non-Parametric method

Information is completely known and No Information is available and No

specific assumptions are made assumptions are made

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Dimensionality reduction

A Technique that reduce the number of input variables in training data

 It helps in data compression and hence reduced storage space.

 It reduces computation time.

Training set Testing set

The portion of the dataset used to train The portion of the dataset used to test the
the model trained model

Underfitting

No No
Performed Performed
Model well on the well on the
test data training data

Yes Yes

Overfitting
Good model

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Testing Debugging
Finding and locating of a error Fixing that error
Done by testing team Done by development team
Find as many error as possible Remove those errors
can be automated cannot be automated

Symmetric Algorithms: use the same key for encryption and decryption

key key

plaintext ciphertext plaintext

encryption decryption

Asymmetric Algorithms: use a different key for encryption and decryption

encryption key decryption key

plaintext ciphertext plaintext

encryption decryption

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Verification Validation

Are you building it right? Are you building the right thing?

Check whether the software meets all the Check whether the functionality meets the
functionality intended behavior
Done by developers Done by testers

Scripted testing Unscripted testing

Test execution carried out by following a Test execution carried out without previously
previously documented sequence of tests documented sequence of tests

Black-box testing method White-box testing method

Software testing method in which the Software testing method in which the internal
internal structure of code or program being structure of code or program being tested is known
tested is not known to the tester to the tester

Gray-box testing method = Black-box testing method + White-box testing method

• Error: a mistake made by developer that leads to discrepancy between the actual and the
expected result.
• Defect: a problem in the functioning of software during testing.

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 Fault: an incorrect step, process or data definition in software.
 Bug: a flaw in software that causes the software to behave in an unintended manner.
 Failure: inability of software to perform its operations within the specified performance
benchmark.

System Integration Testing User Acceptance Testing

Testing the functionality of a system as a whole Testing the system from the user's perspective
after integrating all the system components

Proactive testing Reactive testing

Focusing on eliminating problems before they Reacting to problems when they occur
have a chance to appear instead of doing something to prevent them
Testing is initiated as early as possible in order Testing is not started until design and coding
to find and fix the errors before the build is are completed
created

Exploratory testing Adhoc testing

Learning application first and then work with

Exploring the application while learning
(Simultaneous learning, test design and test execution ) actual testing process
(Documentation is not a basic need)
(Documentation is mandatory)
Aim: to get information to design new Aim: to find errors
and better tests
Result: Result:
 errors are found and registered  errors are found and registered
 new tests are designed and documented
for further usage

736
Structured query language

SQL: Structured query language – a standard computer language developed by American

computer scientists Donald D. Chamberlin and Raymond F. Boyce at IBM in 1974 to
create database, store, update, manipulate, delete and retrieve data stored in database. It
became a standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986 and of the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987. SQL is NOT case sensitive:
select is the same as SELECT.

How to create database in MySQL

First you have to open MySQL terminal and then you have to enter the command:

create database data;

or
CREATE DATABASE data;

And press enter. Then

Query OK, 1 row affected (0.01 sec)

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will be displayed on the console screen indicating that database named data is created. And if
you enter the command:

show databases;

And press enter. Then

+--------------------
+

| Database |

+--------------------
+

| CODINGGROUND |

| data |

| information_schema |

| mysql |

| performance_schema |

| test

will be displayed on the console screen. And if you want to create a table in the database "data",
then you have to enter the command:

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use data;

And press enter. Then

Database changed

will be displayed on the console screen stating that your active database is now "data". And if
you want to create a table named "states" with three fields: id, state, and population:

id state population

in your active database named "data", then you have to enter the command:

CREATE TABLE states (id INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY AUTO_INCREMENT, state CHAR(25),
population INT(9));

And press enter. Then

Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.07 sec)

will be displayed on the console screen stating that the above table is created.

Note:

 The INT command will make the id field contain only numbers (i.e.,
integers).
 The NOT NULL command makes sure that the id field cannot be left blank
or empty.
 The PRIMARY KEY designates the id field as the key field in the table.

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 The AUTO_INCREMENT command will automatically assign increasing values
into the id field, essentially automatically numbering each entry.
 The CHAR(characters) and INT(integers) commands designate the types of
data allowed in those fields. The number next to the commands CHAR and
INT indicate how many characters or integers can fit in the field.

Now it’s time to start entering your information. Use the following command:

INSERT INTO states (id, state, population) VALUES (NULL, 'Karnataka', 256666); INSERT
INTO states (id, state, population) VALUES (NULL, 'Assam', 2568585); INSERT INTO states
(id, state, population) VALUES (NULL, 'Kashmir', 2569);

to input your entry. Then

Query OK, 1 row affected (0.03 sec)

Query OK, 1 row affected (0.01 sec)

Query OK, 1 row affected (0.00 sec)

will be displayed on the console screen stating that you have inputted your entry. And if you
enter the following command:

select*from states;

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Then, your created table named "states" will be displayed on the screen as follows:

+----+-----------+------------
+

| id | state | population |

+----+-----------+------------
+

| 1 | Karnataka | 256666 |

| 2 | Assam | 2568585 |

| 3 | Kashmir | 2569 |

+----+-----------+------------+

And if you wish to create the following table

+----+-----------+------------+----------
+

| id | state | population | language |

+----+-----------+------------+----------
+

| 1 | Karnataka | 256666 | Kannada |

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| 2 | Assam | 2569 | Assami |

You have to use the following command:

CREATE TABLE states (id INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY AUTO_INCREMENT, state CHAR (25),
population INT (9), language CHAR (25));

And press enter and

Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.03 sec)

will be displayed on the console screen and then you should enter the following command:

INSERT INTO states (id, state, population, language) VALUES (NULL, 'Karnataka', 256666,
'Kannada'); INSERT INTO states (id, state, population, language) VALUES
(NULL,'Assam',2569,'Assami');

And press enter and

Query OK, 1 row affected (0.01 sec)

Query OK, 1 row affected (0.00 sec)

| 1 | Karnataka | 2562 | kannada

will be displayed on the console screen. Similarly, if you enter the command:

select*from states where id =2;

Then

+----+-------+------------+----------+---------
+

| id | state | population | language |

+----+-------+------------+----------+---------
+

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| 2 | assam | 25695 | assami

will be displayed on the console screen.

 SQL and & or command

If you enter the command:

select*from states where population =2566 and language ='kannada';

select*from states where population = 22666 or language = 'kannada';

Then

+----+-----------+------------+----------
+

| id | state | population | language |

+----+-----------+------------+----------
+

| 1 | Karnataka | 2566 | Kannada |

+----+-----------+------------+----------+

will be displayed on the console screen.

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If you enter the command:

select *from states where population = 2566 or language ='assami';

+----+-----------+------------+----------
+

| id | state | population | language |

+----+-----------+------------+----------
+

| 1 | Karnataka | 2566 | Kannada |

| 2 | assam | 22666 | assami |

 HOW to insert information into the table

If you enter the command:

INSERT INTO states (id, state, population, language) VALUES (NULL, 'tamil nadu',
288,'tamil');

Then

746
593
+----+------------+------------+----------
+

| id | state | population | language |

+----+------------+------------+----------
+

| 1 | Karnataka | 2566 | Kannada |

| 2 | assam | 22666 | assami |

| 3 | tamil nadu | 288 | tamil |

+----+------------+------------+----------+

will be displayed on the console screen.

 UPDATE INFORMATION

If you enter the command:

update states set language =' telagu', population = 1 where state ='Karnataka';

Then

Query OK, 1 row affected (0.01 sec)

Rows matched: 1 Changed: 1 Warnings: 0

747
594
will be displayed on the console screen. And if you enter the command:

select*from states;

Then

+----+------------+------------+----------
+

| id | state | population | language |

+----+------------+------------+----------
+

| 1 | Karnataka | 1 | telagu |

| 2 | assam | 22666 | assami |

| 3 | tamil nadu | 288 | tamil |

+----+------------+------------+----------
+

3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

will be displayed on the console screen.

 DELETE information

If you enter the command:

delete from states where language ='assami' and state ='assam';

748
595
Then

Query OK, 1 row affected (0.00 sec)

will be displayed on the console screen. And if you enter the command:

select*from states;

Then

+----+------------+------------+----------
+

| id | state | population | language |

+----+------------+------------+----------
+

| 1 | Karnataka | 1 | telagu |

| 3 | tamil nadu | 288 | tamil |

+----+------------+------------+----------
+

2 rows in set (0.00 sec)

will be displayed on the console screen.

 How to delete database in MYSQL

749
596
If want to delete database "dbtest" from MySQL. Then you have to enter the command:

drop database dbtest;

Then

Query OK, 1 row affected (0.00 sec)

will be displayed on the console screen stating that database "dbtest" is deleted from MySQL.
If want to delete table "states" from database "dbtest". Then you have to enter the command:

drop table states;

Then

Query OK, 1 row affected (0.00 sec)

will be displayed on the console screen stating that table "states" is deleted from database
"dbtest".

 Limit Data Selection From MySQL Database

If enter the command:

select*from states limit 1;

Then

id | state | population | language |

750
597
+----+------------+------------+----------
+

| 1 | Karnataka | 2566 | Kannada |

will be displayed on the console screen.

If enter the command:

select*from states limit 2;

Then

id | state | population | language |

+----+------------+------------+----------
+

| 1 | Karnataka | 2566 | Kannada |

| 2 | assam | 22666 | assami |

will be displayed on the console screen.

 TRUNCATE

If you enter the command:

truncate states;

Then

751
598
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.06 sec)

will be displayed on the console screen stating that all the rows are removed from the table
"states". And you can confirm it by entering the command:

select*from states;

Then:
Empty set (0.01 sec)

will be displayed on the console screen.

Some of The Most Important SQL Commands

 SELECT - extracts data from a database

 UPDATE - updates data in a database

 DELETE - deletes data from a database

 INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database

 CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database

 ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database

 CREATE TABLE - creates a new table

 ALTER TABLE - modifies a table

 DROP TABLE - deletes a table

 CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)

 DROP INDEX - deletes an index

752
599
Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning Deep Learning

The process of using Artificial

A technology that enables human Method of teaching machines to learn
Neural Networks (algorithms
thinking capability and behavior from the past data and past
modeled to work like the
in machine to perform human- experiences to identify patterns and
human brain) to solve complex
like tasks on its own make predictions with minimal
problems
human intervention

Data masking

Deep neural network A data security technique that replaces confidential data with
structurally similar bogus data

Consists of
3 Layers

 Input Layer: receives the input

 Hidden Layer: carry out the analysis
 Output Layer: Display the desired result
Synthetic data: Artificially
generated data that is not based on
any real-world observations and is Data perturbation: A data security technique that
used to train ML models when protects sensitive information from unauthorized users by
actual data is unavailable adding unwanted information to a database

 Less Code
 Prebuilt Libraries
 Simple syntax and Open source
Python
 Platform Independent
Advantages over other
 Huge community of users Data Loss Prevention
Programming Languages
The process of detecting and
preventing the misusage,
unauthorized usage and unwanted
destruction of sensitive data

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Python Library Used for

Tensorflow performing heavy computations that involve Neural Networks

Scikit-Learn working with complex data

NumPy computing mathematical data

Theano computing mathematical expressions involving multi-dimensional arrays

Keras computing models, evaluating data-sets and visualizing graphs

Natural Language ToolKit Natural Language Processing, text analysis, and text mining

ML Library Purpose

Numpy Mathematical Computation

Pandas Tabular Data handling

Scikit Learn Data Modeling and Data Preprocessing

Statsmodels Time-Series Analysis

Regular Expressions Text processing

Natural Language ToolKit

Tensorflow Deep Learning

Pytorch

Cognitive Computing → the use of computational models to simulate human reasoning and
human behavior

754
Yes/1

Is it hot?
Boolean Logic

No/0

Very much/0.9

Is it hot? Little/0.25
Fuzzy Logic

Very less/0.1

3 limitations of ML that led to the emergence of Deep Learning:

 Unable to process high dimensional data

 Manual Feature engineering
 Unable to process image data sets

Applications of patterns recognition

Pattern Recognition
are voice recognition, weather
 Learn from the data forecast and object detection in
 Recognize patterns from different angles and shapes images.

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Training data
To build the model

Data

Testing data To check the correctness of the model

Pattern Classification Models

Mathematical approach Knowledge-based approach Neural networks

3 types of Data:
• Structured data
• Unstructured data
• Semi-structured data

Pattern matching Statistical modeling

(Structured data + Unstructured data)

Feature Vector:
Real-time machine learning applications:

A set of numerical characteristics of observable

phenomena that are arranged and provided to the Applications that work with real-time data feeds to produce
decisions that must be made quickly, including those needed by
Machine Learning model that makes a prediction
consumer applications, fraudulent prediction, recommendation
systems, and proactive maintenance, to mention a few.

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Data migration

Identify the data sources

Review the source data for duplicate records

Sharding:
Transform and cleanse the data
The process of storing data
records across multiple servers

Schedule the new storage location

Backup the source data prior to data migration

Move the data

Verify and validate the migrated data

Data Visualization:

Collect data → prepare data → visualize → generate report

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Expert System → computer-based decision making system that is designed to solve complex
problems using both Knowledge base facts and heuristics.

Knowledge Knowledge base

Human Expert
Engineer
(Repository of facts)

Knowledge Extraction Inference Engine

(Applies logical rules to the
knowledge base to deduce new
information)

User
User Interface
(May not be an expert)

Knowledge engineer → a technical person who integrates

knowledge into computer systems.

758
Perl Program:

3
$x = 2;
4
until( $x > 10 ) {
5
printf "$x\n"; Output
6
$x = $x + 1;
7
}
8

ETL in Data warehousing

DATA SOURCES

RDBMS

Staging area
SQL Server (Intermediate storage
Raw data Formatted and Data warehouse
area used for data
processed data
processing)
Flat Files

Transformation Loading
Extraction

 Data extraction
 Data analysis
 Data cleaning using Pattern reorganization and AI
Techniques  Data reporting
 Data transformation
 Data mining
 Load the transformed data and create indexes

759
Python code:

Falsy value = False, 0, '', []

x = "Albert"

print(type(x) == str)
print(0 or 1)
# Output: True
# Output: 1
print(isinstance(x, str))
print(False or 'Albert')
# Output: True

# Output: Albert

print('Albert' or 'Alan')
x = 1

print(type(x) == int) # Output: Albert

If the value of the
# Output: True print([] or False)
first operand = Falsy
print(isinstance(x, int))
# Output: False value: "or" used in
# Output: True an expression returns
print(False or [])
the value of second
# Output: [] operand
x = 1.1

print(type(x) == float)
print(0 and 1)
# Output: True
# Output: 0
print(isinstance(x, float))
print(False and 'Albert')
# Output: True
# Output: False

print('Albert' and 'Alan')

# Output: Alan

If the value of the first operand = Falsy print([] and False)

value: "and" used in an expression returns # Output: []

the value of first operand
print(False and [])

# Output: False

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 Identify the URL where the data is located
 Extract the data Web Data integration
 Transform and cleanse the extracted data
 Integrate the prepared data with a library of APIs to support seamless integrations with
other systems
 Analyze and visualize the data with graphs and charts to find answers and obtain insights.

3 types of Data Models:

 Conceptual Data Model (the needs and requirements of the database)

 Representational Data Model (logical part of the database)
 Physical Data Model (physical structure of the database)

Cassandra-Cqlsh is a Python-based query language that enables users to:

 Define a schema
 Insert a data
 Execute a query

Basic MongoDB Commands

db.help() get a list of commands

show dbs print a list of all databases on the server
use myTestDB create new database "myTestDB"
db know your current selected database
db.dropDatabase() drop the current selected database

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db.createCollection("Employee") create new collection "Employee"
show collections print a list of all collections created
db.Employee.drop() drop the collection "Employee"
db.Employee.insert({name: 'Raj', address: insert document in collection "Employee"
'Bangalore'})
db.Employee.find() list the documents in collection "Employee"

{ "_id" : ObjectId("60658a0dbe02cfa1d386ab52"), "name" : "Raj", "address" : "Bangalore" }

db.Employee.update({'name' : 'Raj'}, update the document in collection "Employee"

{$set: {'name' : 'Albert'}})
db.Employee.find() list the documents in collection "Employee"

{ "_id" : ObjectId("60658a0dbe02cfa1d386ab52"), "name" : "Albert", "address" : "Bangalore" }

save document in collection "Employee"

db.Employee.save({"_id": new
ObjectId("60658a0dbe02cfa1d386ab53"),
name: "Newton", address: "Delhi"});

db.Employee.find() list the documents in collection "Employee"

{ "_id" : ObjectId("60658a0dbe02cfa1d386ab52"), "name" : "Albert", "address" : "Bangalore" }

{ "_id" : ObjectId("60658a0dbe02cfa1d386ab53"), "name" : "Newton", "address" : "Delhi" }

db.Employee.remove({'name': 'Albert'}) delete document in collection "Employee"

db.Employee.find() list the documents in collection "Employee"

{ "_id" : ObjectId("60658a0dbe02cfa1d386ab53"), "name" : "Newton", "address" : "Delhi" }

db.getUsers(); list down all the users of current database

show roles list down all the roles

db.Employee.dataSize() get the size of the collection "Employee"
db.Employee.storageSize() get the total size of document stored in the
collection "Employee"
db.Employee.totalSize() get the total size in bytes for both collection
data and indexes

db.Employee.totalIndexSize() get the total size of all indexes in the

collection "Employee"

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Python

Paradigm Multi-paradigm: functional, imperative, object-

oriented, structured, reflective

Designed by Guido van Rossum

Developer Python Software Foundation

First appeared 1990; 30 years ago

Stable release 3.8.3 / 13 May 2020; 32 days ago

Preview release 3.9.0b3 / 9 June 2020; 5 days ago

Guido van Rossum

Typing discipline Duck, dynamic, gradual (since 3.5) (Creator of Python Language)

OS Linux, macOS, Windows Vista (and newer) and more

License Python Software Foundation License

Filename extensions .py, .pyi, .pyc, .pyd, .pyo (prior to 3.5), .pyw, .pyz (since 3.5)

Website www.python.org

Major implementations

CPython, PyPy, Stackless Python, MicroPython, CircuitPython, IronPython, Jython,

RustPython

Dialects

Cython, RPython, Starlark

Influenced by

ABC, Ada, ALGOL 68, APL, C, C++, CLU, Dylan, Haskell, Icon, Java, Lisp, Modula-

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3, Perl, Standard ML

Influenced

Apache Groovy, Boo, Cobra, CoffeeScript, D, F#, Genie, Go, JavaScript, Julia, Nim,
Ring, Ruby, Swift

Python is a popular, very powerful high-level language (like C, C++, Perl, and Java – and its name is derived
from "Monty Python's Flying Circus" – a British television series), object- oriented programming scripting
language ideally designed for rapid prototyping of complex applications by Dutch programmer "Guido van
Rossum" in the early 1990s (often referred to as a "glue" language, meaning that it is capable to work in mixed-
language environment) – which has simple syntax similar to the English language and is easy to understand, easy
to use, write, modify and debug and flexible and easy to implement and run on open source operating systems like
Linux, Windows, Macintosh, Solaris, FreeBSD, OS/2, Amiga, AROS, AS/400 and is employed to perform
automated testing of applications (i.e., to execute tests of applications, report outcomes and compare results with
earlier test runs) and to increase the effectiveness and speed of software testing and its other commercial uses
include financial applications, educational software, games, production of special effects for such movies as The
Phantom Menace and The Mummy Returns, and business software. And python might not be the best choice for
building the following types of applications and systems: Graphics-intensive applications, such as action games −
where performance is important (because it is true that CODE WRITTEN IN Python, C# and visual basic etc. is
far slower thanthe same code write in C++. Hence, C++ is necessarily preferred). You should be very careful while
working on python code. Indentation in python takes the center-stage. You cannot write a loop or a conditional
statement without using indentation. There is a popular saying that code in python should be as Guido indented it
not how he intended it.
''' This a multiple
Line
Python Comments:
Comment'''

print("Albert Einstein")
# This is a single line comment

print("Albert Einstein")
"""This is a
Multiple line
Comment"""
Output:
print("Albert Einstein")
Albert Einstein

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Python Variables:

p = 15
q = "Turing" Output:
print(p)
15
print(q)
Turing

p, q, r = "Albert", "Alan", "John"

Output:
print(p)
Albert
print(q)
Alan
print(r)
John

p = q = r = "Albert"
print(p) Output:
print(q) Albert
print(r) Albert
Albert

p = "Einstein"
print("Albert " + p) Output:

Albert Einstein

x = "Turing"
print(f"Alan {x}") Output:

x = "Turing" Alan Turing

print("Alan {}".format(x))

765
p = "Alan "

q = "Turing" Output:

r = p + q Alan Turing
print(r)

p = 15
print(bool(6<8)*30)
q = 20
# Output: 30
print(p + q)

# Output:

p = 25

q = "Albert" TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'str'

print(p + q)

print("Albert", end=" ")

print("Einstein")

p = "Hawking" print("1905", end="-")

def myfunc(): print("papers")

Output:
print("Stephen " + p)
Albert Einstein
myfunc()
1905-papers

# Output:

Stephen Hawking

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p,q,*r=[21,22,23,24,25]
try:
print(p)
raise ValueError('Albert', 'Einstein')
print(q)
except ValueError as x:

print(r) print(x.args)

# Output: ('Albert', 'Einstein')

# Output:

[23, 24, 25]

# print the data type of the variable x

p = 25

print(type(p)) Output:

Jan = Mar = May = Jul = Aug = Oct = Dec = 31

Apr = Jun = Sep = Nov = 30

Feb = 28

x = Jan + Feb + Mar + Apr + May + Jun + Jul + Aug + Sep + Oct + Nov + Dec

print(x)
Output:

365

767
Value of y Data Type

y = "Albert Einstein" str

y = 50 int

y = 50.5 float

y = 5j complex

y = ["albert", "alan", "hawking"] list

y = ("albert", "alan", "mary") tuple

y = range(16) range

y = {"name" : "Mary", "age" : 106} dict

y = {"albert", "alan", "john"} set

y = frozenset({"alan", "john", "jerry"}) frozenset

y = True bool

y = b"Albert" bytes

y = bytearray(5) bytearray

768
y = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview

Python Numbers

# Display a random number between 1 and 8:

print(4**3**2**1)
import random
# Output: 262144
print(random.randrange(1, 9))

# Output:

Python Casting

p = int(6)

q = float(5.8) Output:
r = str("albert") 6
print(p)
5.8
print(q)
albert
print(r)

Python Strings import math

400.0
print(math.pow(20,2))
x = "Mary"

print(x)
print(pow(20,2))
# Output: Mary 400

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x = """Mary"""

print(x) # The ASCII value of 'A' is 65

# Output: Mary print(ord("A"))

# Output: 65

x = '''Mary''' print(chr(65))

print(x) # Output: A

# Output: Mary

Python Booleans

print(20 > 19)

print(20 == 19) Output:

print(20 < 19) True

False

Python Operators a = 20

 Python Arithmetic Operators b=2

Operator Name Example Output

+ Addition print(a + b) 22

- Subtraction print(a - b) 18

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* Multiplication print(a * b) 40

/ Division print(a / b) 10.0

% Modulus print(a % b) 0

Exponentiation print(a b) 400

// Floor division print(a // b) 10

# 19/ 2 = 9.5

# the floor division // rounds 9.5 to 9 # prints the numpy version

a = 19 import numpy
b = 2 print(numpy.__version__)
print(a // b)

# Output: 1.16.2

 Python Assignment Operators

Operator Example Same As Output

= a = 15 a =15 15

print(a) print(a)

+= a+= 3 a= a + 3 18

print(a) print(a)

771
-= a -= 3 a=a-3 12

print(a) print(a)

*= a *= 3 a=a*3 45

print(a) print(a)

/= a /= 3 a=a/3 5.0

print(a) print(a)

%= a %= 3 a=a%3 0

print(a) print(a)

//= a //= 3 a = a // 3 5

print(a) print(a)

= a = 3 a = a ** 3 3375

print(a) print(a)

&= a &= 3 a=a&3 3

print(a) print(a)

|= a |= 3 a=a|3 15

print(a) print(a)

^= a ^= 3 a=a^3 12

772
print(a) print(a)

>>= a >>= 3 a = a >> 3 1

print(a) print(a)

<<= a <<= 3 a= a << 3 120

print(a) print(a)

a = 13
 Python Comparison Operators b = 12

Operator Name Example Output

== Equal print(a == b) False

!= Not equal print(a != b) True

> Greater than print(a > b) True

< Less than print(a < b) False

>= Greater than or equal to print(a >= b) True

<= Less than or equal to print(a <= b) False

773
 Python Logical Operators a=2

Operator Description Example Output

and Returns True if both statements are true print(a < 5 and a < 10) True

or Returns True if one of the statements is true print(a < 5 or a < 1) True

not Returns False if both statements are true print(not(a < 5 and a < 10)) False

a=3
 Python Identity Operators
b=4

Operator Description Example Output

is Returns True if both variables are the same print(a is b) False

is not Returns True if both variables are not the same print(a is not b) True

print("{:.2f}".format(99.452))
x = pow(20,2,3)
# Output: 99.45
print(x)
Output:

print(pow(2,2)) 1
x = pow(20,2)%3
# Output: 4
print(x)

774
 Python Membership Operators

a = ["albert", "alan"]

Operator Description Example Output

in Returns True if b is present in a b ="john" False

print(b in a)

not in Returns True if b is not present in a b ="john" True

print(b not in a)

 Python Bitwise Operators a = 10

b=2
Bitwise AND

a b a & b
Operator Description Example Output
0 0 0
0 1 0
& Bitwise AND print(a & b) 2
1 0 0
1 1 1
| Bitwise OR print(a | b) 10

~ Bitwise NOT print(~a) -11 a = 10 = 1010 (in Binary)

b = 2 = 0010 (in Binary)

^ Bitwise XOR print(a ^ b) 8
1010

>> Bitwise right shift print(a>>2) 2 & 0010

---------
<< Bitwise left shift print(a<<2) 40
0010 = 2 (in Decimal)

---------

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Bitwise OR Bitwise XOR

a b a | b a b a ^ b
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0

a = 10 = 1010 (in Binary) a = 10 = 1010 (in Binary)

b = 2 = 0010 (in Binary) b = 2 = 0010 (in Binary)

1010 1010

| 0010 ^ 0010

--------- ---------

1010 = 10 (in Decimal) 1000 = 8 (in Decimal)

--------- ---------

Bitwise left shift

Bitwise NOT

a b ~a ~b a = 10 = 1010 (in Binary)

0 0 1 1
a<<1 = 1010<<1
0 1 1 0 The binary number
= 10100 1010 is appended with
1 0 0 1
= 20 (in Decimal) one zero at the end
1 1 0 0

a = 10 = 1010 (in Binary)

~a = ~1010 a<<2 = 1010<<2

The binary number
= -(1010 + 1) = 101000 1010 is appended with
= -(1011) = 40 (in Decimal) two zeros at the end

= -11 (Decimal)

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Bitwise right shift

a = 10 = 1010 (in Binary) x=6+4j

a>>1 = 1010>>1 The last one digit is removed y=3+2j

= 101 from binary number 1010 print(x*y)

= 5 (in Decimal) # Output: (10+24j)

a>>2 = 1010>>2 x=6+4j

The last two digits are removed
= 10 from binary number 1010 y=3+2j

= 2 (in Decimal) print(x+y)

# Output: (9+6j)

iseven=lambda i:i%2==0
x=6+4j
x=6+4j
x=[50,42,43,80,70]
y=3+2j
y=3+2j
print(x/y) print(all(iseven(i) for i in x))
print(x-y)
# Output: (2+0j) print(any(iseven(i) for i in x))
# Output: (3+2j)
# Output:

isodd=lambda i:i%2!=0 False

Output:
x=[50,42,43,80,70] True

print(all(isodd(i) for i in x))

False

True isodd=lambda i:i%2!=0

print(any(isodd(i) for i in x))
print(isodd(101))

iseven=lambda i:i%2==0 # Output: True

print(iseven(102))

# Output: True isodd=lambda i:i%2!=0

print(isodd(102))

iseven=lambda i:i%2==0 # Output: False

print(iseven(101))

# Output: False

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Python Lists

x = ["alan", "albert", "john"]

print(x)

x=(6+4j)*(3-2j)/(3+2j)*(3-2j)
# Output: ['alan', 'albert', 'john']
print(x)

# Output: (10-24j)
x = ["alan", "albert", "john"]

print(x[1])
x=(6+4j)/(3+2j)
# Output: albert
print(x)

# Output: (2+0j)

x = ["alan", "albert", "john"]

print(x[-1])

# Output: john

x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

print(x[2:5])

# Output: ['john', 'mary', 'james']

x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

print(x[:4])

# Output: ['alan', 'albert', 'john', 'mary']

x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

print(x[2:])

# Output: ['john', 'mary', 'james', 'joseph']

778
x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

print(x[-4:-1])

# Output: ['john', 'mary', 'james']

x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

for i in x:
x=zip('alan')
print(i)
print(list(x))
# Output:
# Output: [('a',), ('l',), ('a',), ('n',)]
alan

albert
Python code to get the home directory:
john
import os
mary
print(os.path.expanduser('~'))

james # Output: C:\Users\Manju

joseph

x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

if "alan" in x:

print("Yes, 'alan' is in this list")

# Output: Yes, 'alan' is in this list

x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

x[1] = "david"

print(x)

# Output: ['alan', 'david', 'john', 'mary', 'james', 'joseph']

779
# prints the length of the List

x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

print(len(x))

# Output: 6

x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

x.append("david") # add an item to the end of the list

print(x)

# Output: ['alan', 'albert', 'john', 'mary', 'james', 'joseph', 'david']

x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

x.insert(1, "david") # insert an item as the second position

print(x)

# Output: ['alan', 'david', 'albert', 'john', 'mary', 'james', 'joseph']

x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

x.remove("alan") # remove an item from the list

print(x)

# Output: ['albert', 'john', 'mary', 'james', 'joseph']

x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

x.pop()

print(x)

# Output: ['alan', 'albert', 'john', 'mary', 'james']

x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

del x[0] Output: ['albert', 'john', 'mary', 'james', 'joseph']

print(x)

780
x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

del x

print(x)

# This will cause an error [NameError: name 'x' is not defined]

# because we have successfully deleted "x".

x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

x.clear()
import math
print(x)
print(math.ceil(4.34)) # Output: 5

# Output: [] print(math.ceil(4.66)) # Output: 5

x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

x = x.copy() # copy of a list with the copy() method

print(x)

# Output: ['alan', 'albert', 'john', 'mary', 'james', 'joseph']

x = ["alan", "albert", "john", "mary", "james", "joseph"]

x = list(x) # copy of a list with the list() method

print(x)

# Output: ['alan', 'albert', 'john', 'mary', 'james', 'joseph']

x = ["A", "B", "C"]

y = [11, 12, 13]

Output: ['A', 'B', 'C', 11, 12, 13]
z = x + y

print(z)

781
x = ["A", "B", "C"]

y = [11, 12, 13]

import math
for i in y: # append y into x
print(math.floor(4.34)) # Output: 4
x.append(i)
print(math.floor(4.66)) # Output: 4
print(x)

# Output: ['A', 'B', 'C', 11, 12, 13]

x = ["A", "B", "C"]

y = [11, 12, 13]

x.extend(y) # add y at the end of x using extend() method

print(x)

# Output: ['A', 'B', 'C', 11, 12, 13]

x = list(("A", "B", "C")) x="james"

print(x) y=list(range(6))

# Output: ['A', 'B', 'C'] z=(12,22,32,42,52)

b=zip(x, y, z)

x = list(("A", "B", "C")) print(list(b))

x.reverse() # Output:

[('j', 0, 12), ('a', 1, 22), ('m', 2, 32), ('e', 3, 42), ('s', 4, 52)]
print(x)

# Output: ['C', 'B', 'A']

x=['albert', 'einstein']
print([x for x in range(10,50) if x% 10 == 0])
y=[19,15]
# Output: [10, 20, 30, 40]

z=zip(x,y)

print(list(z))

# Output: [('albert', 19), ('einstein', 15)]

782
x=['A', 'B', 'C']
print(round(4.34))
y=[21,22,23]

z=zip(x,y)
print(round(4.66))

b=list(z) # Output:

p,q=zip(*b) 4

print(p,q) 5

# Output: ('A', 'B', 'C') (21, 22, 23)

print((lambda x, y, z: (x+y)**z) (3,2,4))

# Output: 625

Python Tuples

x = ("albert", "alan", "mary")

x = ("A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F", "G")
print(x)
print(x[2:5])
# Output: ('albert', 'alan', 'mary')
# Output: ('C', 'D', 'E')

x = ("albert", "alan", "mary") x = ("A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F", "G")

print(x[1]) print(x[-4:-1])

# Output: ('D', 'E', 'F')

# Output: alan

x = ("A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F", "G")

x = ("albert", "alan", "mary")
a = list(x)

print(x[-1]) a[1] = "Z"

# Output: mary x = tuple(a)

print(x)

# Output: ('A', 'Z', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'F', 'G')

783
x = ("A", "B", "C")
from os.path import exists as file_exists
for i in x:
print(file_exists('1.txt'))
print(i)

# Output:
OR
A

B
import pathlib
C
file=pathlib.Path('1.txt')
x = ("albert", "alan", "james")
print(file.exists())
if "james" in x:

print("Yes, 'james' is in this tuple")

# Output: Yes, 'james' is in this tuple

If the 1.txt file exists:

# prints the length of the Tuple
Output: True
x = ("alan", "albert", "john", "mary")
Otherwise:

print(len(x)) Output: False

# Output: 4

# You cannot add items to a tuple

x = ("albert", "alan", "mary")

Error
x[3] = "james"

print(x)

x = ("alan",)

print(type(x)) # Output: <class 'tuple'>

y = ("alan")

print(type(y)) # Output: <class 'str'>

784
x = ("albert", "alan", "joseph")

del x # this will raise an error [NameError: name 'x' is not defined]
# because the tuple 'x' no longer exists
print(x)

import time
x = ("A", "B", "C")
print("Albert")
y = (12, 22, 33)
time.sleep(5)
z = x + y print("Einstein") # this statement is executed after 5 seconds

print(z)

# Output: ('A', 'B', 'C', 12, 22, 33)

x = tuple(("alan", "albert", "jenny"))

print(x)

# Output: ('alan', 'albert', 'jenny')

# prints the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple

x = tuple(("alan", "albert", "jenny", "albert"))

print(x.count("albert"))

# Output: 2

# Searches the tuple for a specified value and prints the position of where it was found

x = tuple(("alan", "albert", "jenny", "james"))

print(x.index("albert"))

# Output: 1

785
Python Sets

x = {"alan", "john", "ram"}

print(x) # returns a set that contains all items from both sets

# except items that are present in both sets

# Output: {'alan', 'john', 'ram'}

x = {"albert", "alan", "david"}

x = {"alan", "john", "ram"}
y = {"mary", "david", "albert"}
for i in x: z = x.symmetric_difference(y)

print(i) print(z)

# Output: # Output: {'alan', 'mary'}

alan

ram

john

# returns True if all items set y are present in set x

x = {"alan", "john", "ram"}

print("ram" in x) x = {"F", "G", "H", "C", "B", "A"}

# Output: True y = {"A", "B", "C"}

z = x.issuperset(y)

print(z)
x = {"alan", "john", "ram"}
# Output: True
x.add("albert")

print(x)

# Output: {'alan', 'ram', 'john', 'albert'}

786
x = {"alan", "john", "ram"}

x.update(["david", "albert", "james"])

print(x)

# Output: {'alan', 'david', 'james', 'ram', 'john', 'albert'}

# prints the length of the set

x = set(("alan", "albert", "john"))

x = {"alan", "john", "albert"} y = x.copy()

print(len(x)) print(y)

# Output: {'alan', 'john', 'albert'}

# Output: 3

x = {"alan", "john", "albert"}

# prints a set that contains the items that only exist

x.remove("john") # in set x and not in set y

print(x)

x = {"albert", "john", "david"}

# Output: {'albert', 'alan'}
y = {"james", "david", "albert"}

z = x.difference(y)
x = {"alan", "john", "albert"}
print(z)
x.discard("john")
# Output: {'john'}

print(x)

# Output: {'alan', 'albert'}

x = {"alan", "john", "albert"}

Output:
i = x.pop()
john
print(i) # prints removed item
{'albert', 'alan'}
print(x) # prints the set after removal

787
x = {"alan", "john", "albert"}

x.clear()
Constituency parsing

print(x)

# Output: set() A technique for breaking down sentences into

constituent parts

x = {"alan", "john", "albert"}

del x # this will raise an error [NameError: name 'x' is not defined]
# because the set 'x' no longer exists
print(x)

# returns True if no items in set x is present in set y

x = {"A", "B", "C"}

y = {11, 12, 13}

x = {"albert", "john", "david"}

z = x.union(y)
y = {"mary", "joseph", "alan"}

print(z)
z = x.isdisjoint(y)

# Output: {13, 'B', 'C', 11, 12, 'A'}

print(z)

# Output: True

x = {"A", "B", "C"}

# returns True if all items in set x are present in set y

y = {11, 12, 13}

x.update(y)
x = {"A", "B", "C"}
print(x)
y = {"G", "H", "I", "C", "B", "A"}
# Output: {13, 'B', 'C', 11, 12, 'A'} z = x.issubset(y)

print(z)

x = set(("alan", "albert", "john")) # Output: True

print(x)

# Output: {'alan', 'john', 'albert'}

788
x = 6

y = 7.4
name = "Albert Einstein"
z = "Turing"
year = "1905"

print(x, y, z) print("{1} papers of {0}".format(name, year))

# Output: 6 7.4 Turing

# Output: 1905 papers of Albert Einstein

x = 6
x = '{:^20}'.format('Albert Einstein')
y = 7.4
print(x)
z = "Turing"

print(x, y, z, sep=",") # Output: Albert Einstein

# Output: 6,7.4,Turing

x = '{:{width}.{prec}f}'.format(2.71828, width=5, prec=2)

print('{:+d}'.format(1905))
print(x)

# Output: +1905 # Output: 2.72

x = {'n1': 'Stephen', 'n2': 'William', 'n3': 'Hawking'}

print('{n1} {n3}'.format(**x))

# Output: Stephen Hawking

from datetime import datetime

print('{:%Y-%m-%d %H:%M}'.format(datetime(1879, 3, 14, 11, 18)))

# Output: 1879-03-14 11:18

789
Python Dictionaries

x = {

"name": "John",

"gender": "Male",

"year": 1965

print(x)

# Output: {'name': 'John', 'gender': 'Male', 'year': 1965}

x = {
x = {
"name": "John",
"name": "John",
"gender": "Male", "gender": "Male",

"year": 1965 "year": 1965

} }

y = x["gender"] x["year"] = 2019

print(x)
print(y)

# Output: {'name': 'John', 'gender': 'Male', 'year': 2019}

# Output: Male

x = {

"name": "John",

"gender": "Male",
Output:
"year": 1965
Male
}

y = x.get("gender")

print(y)

790
x = {

"name": "John",
x = {
"gender": "Male",
"name": "John",
"year": 1965
"gender": "Male",
}
"year": 1965
for i in x:
}
print(i)
for i in x.values():

print(i)
# Output:

name
# Output:
gender
John
year
Male

1965
x = {

"name": "John", x = {

"gender": "Male", "name": "John",

"year": 1965 "gender": "Male",

} "year": 1965

for i in x: }

print(x[i]) for a, b in x.items():

print(x)

# Output: {'name': 'John', 'gender': 'Male'}

x = {

"name": "John",

"gender": "Male",
Output:
"year": 1965
{'name': 'John', 'year': 1965}
}

del x["gender"]

print(x)

x = {

"name": "John",

"gender": "Male",

"year": 1965

x.clear()

print(x)

# Output: {}

793
x = {

"name": "John", x = "Einstein"

"gender": "Male", i = x[6:]

"year": 1965 print(f"Albert'{i}'")

# Output: Albert'in'
}

y = x.copy()

print(y)

# Output: {'name': 'John', 'gender': 'Male', 'year': 1965}

a = " albert"

x = { print(a)

"name": "John", print(a.lstrip())

"gender": "Male",

"year": 1965 # Output:

} albert

y = dict(x) albert

print(y)

# Output: {'name': 'John', 'gender': 'Male', 'year': 1965}

x = "Einstein"

i = x[:3]

print(f"Albert'{i}'")

# Output: Albert'Ein'

794
mycolleagues = {

"colleague1" : {

"name" : "John",

"gender" : "Male"

"colleague2" : {
for x, y in enumerate(['Alan','John','Albert'], 100):

"name" : "Mary", print(x,y)

"gender" : "Female" # Output:

100 Alan
},
101 John
"colleague3" : {
102 Albert
"name" : "Jessey",

"gender" : "Female"

print(mycolleagues)

Output:

{'colleague1': {'name': 'John', 'gender': 'Male'}, 'colleague2': {'name': 'Mary',

'gender': 'Female'}, 'colleague3': {'name': 'Jessey', 'gender': 'Female'}}

x = "Einstein"

i = x[6:12]

print(f"Albert'{i}'")

# Output: Albert'in'

795
x = dict( name="David", gender="Male", year=1965)

print(x)

# Output: {'name': 'David', 'gender': 'Male', 'year': 1965}

x = {'a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u' }

y = 'vowel'

a = dict.fromkeys(x, y)

print(a)

# Output: {'u': 'vowel', 'o': 'vowel', 'i': 'vowel', 'a': 'vowel', 'e': 'vowel'}

Python Lambda

y = lambda i: i + 15
def myfunc(i):
print(y(2))

# Output: 17 return lambda x : x * i

y = myfunc(4)

y = lambda i, u: i * u
print(y(22))
print(y(2, 4))

# Output: 8 Output:

88
y = lambda i, u, v: i + u + v

print(y(2, 8, 4))

# Output: 14

796
Python Arrays

x = ["Albert", "John", "Mary"]

print(x) x = ["Albert", "John", "Mary"]

# Output: ['Albert', 'John', 'Mary'] x.append("Henry")

print(x)

x = ["Albert", "John", "Mary"] # Output: ['Albert', 'John', 'Mary', 'Henry']

i = x[0]

print(i)

x = ["Albert", "John", "Mary"]

# Output: Albert

x.remove("Mary")

print(x)
x = ["Albert", "John", "Mary"]

# Output: ['Albert', 'John']

x[0] = "David"

print(x)

# Output: ['David', 'John', 'Mary']

x = ["Albert", "John", "Mary"]

x.pop(2)
# prints the length of the array
print(x)
x = ["Albert", "John", "Mary"]
# Output: ['Albert', 'John']
print(len(x))

# Output: 3

Output:
x = ["Albert", "John", "Mary"]
Albert
for i in x:
John
print(i)
Mary

797
x = ["Albert", "John", "Mary"]

a = "ALBERT EINSTEIN"
x.clear()
print(a.swapcase())
print(x)
# Output: albert einstein
# Output: []

b = "albert einstein"

x = ["Albert", "John", "Mary"] print(b.swapcase())

x.reverse() # Output: ALBERT EINSTEIN

print(x)

# Output: ['Mary', 'John', 'Albert']

# prints the number of times the value "Albert" appears in 'x' list

x = ["Albert", "John", "Mary", "Albert"]

print(x.count("Albert"))

# Output: 2

# prints the position of the value "Mary" in 'x' list

x = ["Albert", "John", "Mary", "David"]

print(x.index("Mary"))

# Output: 2

x = ["Albert", "John", "Mary", "David"] Output:

x.insert(1, "Joseph") ['Albert', 'Joseph', 'John', 'Mary', 'David']

print(x)

798
Python Classes

class MyClass:

a=16

i = MyClass()

print(i.a)

# Output: 16

Python Iterators

x = ("Albert", "Alan", "Joseph")

i = iter(x)
# Output:

print(next(i)) Albert

print(next(i)) Alan

print(next(i)) Joseph

x = "ALAN"
# Output:
i = iter(x)
A
print(next(i))
L
print(next(i)) A

print(next(i)) N

print(next(i))

799
x = "ALAN"
# Output:
for i in x:
A
print(i)
L

Python Math

a = min(15, 20, 35)

import math
b = max(15, 20, 35)
# prints the arc cosine value of 0.44
print(a)

print(b) print(math.acos(0.44)) # Output: 1.1151976533990733

# Output: # prints the inverse hyperbolic cosine value of 5

15
print (math.acosh(5)) # Output: 2.2924316695611777
35
# prints the arc sine value of 0.44

print(math.asin(0.44)) # Output: 0.4555986733958234

import math
# prints the inverse hyperbolic sine value of 5
a= math.sqrt(4)

print(a) print (math.asinh(5)) # Output: 2.3124383412727525

# Output: 2.0

import math

# convert angle from a radian value to degree

print (math.degrees(6.702)) # Output: 383.9963142966777

# convert angle from a degree value to radian

print (math.radians(383.9963142966777)) # Output: 6.702

800
import math

# prints the arc tangent value of 0.44

print (math.atan(0.44)) # Output: 0.41450687458478597

# prints the inverse hyperbolic tangent value of 0.5

print (math.atanh(0.5)) # Output: 0.5493061443340549

# prints the arc tangent value of 8/2 in radian

print(math.atan2(8, 2)) # Output: 1.3258176636680326

# prints the cosine value of 0.00

print (math.cos(0.00)) # Output: 1.0

# prints the hyperbolic cosine value of 1

print (math.cosh(1)) # Output: 1.5430806348152437

# prints the error function value of 0.59

print (math.erf(0.59)) # Output: 0.5959364971979085

# prints the complementary error function value of 0.59

print (math.erfc(0.59)) # Output: 0.4040635028020914

# prints the exponential value of 56

print(math.exp(56)) # Output: 2.091659496012996e+24

# prints the absolute value of -55.68

print(math.fabs(-55.68)) # Output: 55.68

# prints the factorial of 4

print(math.factorial(4)) # Output: 24

# prints the remainder of 11/2

print(math.fmod(11, 2)) # Output: 1.0

801
import math

# prints the natural logarithm of 3.8278

print(math.log(3.8278)) # Output: 1.3422902256218356

# prints the base-10 logarithm of 3.8278

print(math.log10(3.8278)) # Output: 0.5829492381002341

# prints the base-2 logarithm of 3.8278

print(math.log2(3.8278)) # Output: 1.9365154519383503

# prints the greatest common divisor of 2 and 4

print(math.gcd(2, 4)) # Output: 2

# prints the tangent value of 90

print(math.tan(90)) # Output: -1.995200412208242

# prints the sine value of 10

print(math.sin(10)) # Output: -0.5440211108893698

# prints the log gamma value of 6

print(math.lgamma(6)) # Output: 4.787491742782047

import math

# check whether the 2 values are close to each other or not

print(math.isclose(1.533, 1.3566)) # Output: False

print(math.isclose(1.533, 1.533)) # Output: True

802
import math

# prints the natural logarithm of (1 + 3.5456)

print(math.log1p(3.5456)) # Output: 1.5141597321177864

x=9
import math
i=3
print(math.ldexp(9, 3))
print(x*(2**i))

Output:

72.0

import math
Output:
print(math.trunc(5.55)) 5

print(math.trunc(6.36)) 6

print(math.trunc(-100.78)) -100

import math

# prints the value of (11 + 12 + 13 + 14 + 15)

print(math.fsum([11, 12, 13, 14, 15])) # Output: 65.0

803
import math

Perpendicular = 20

Base = 10

# prints the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle

print(math.hypot(Perpendicular, Base)) # Output: 22.360679774997898

import math

# check whether a value is 'Not a Number' or not

print (math.isnan(16)) # Output: False

print (math.isnan(math.inf)) # Output: False

print (math.isnan(float("nan"))) # Output: True

print (math.isnan(float("inf"))) # Output: False

print (math.isnan(float("-inf"))) # Output: False

print (math.isnan(math.nan)) # Output: True

import math

# Check whether a value is finite or not

print(math.isfinite(252)) # Output: True

print(math.isfinite(-15.15)) # Output: True

print(math.isfinite(+15.15)) # Output: True

print(math.isfinite(math.inf)) # Output: False

print(math.isfinite(float("nan"))) # Output: False

print(math.isfinite(float("inf"))) # Output: False

print(math.isfinite(float("-inf"))) # Output: False

print(math.isfinite(-math.inf)) # Output: False

print(math.isfinite(0.0)) # Output: True

804
Math Constants

import math

# prints the value of Euler's number

print (math.e)

# prints the value of positive infinity

print (math.inf)

# prints the value of negative infinity

print (-math.inf)

# prints the value of Pi

print (math.pi)

# tau = (the circumference of a circle / the radius of a circle) = 2Pi

# prints the value of tau

print (math.tau)

Output:

2.718281828459045

inf

-inf

3.141592653589793

6.283185307179586

805
Python JSON

import json

a = '{"name":"David", "age":30, "gender":"Male"}'

b = json.loads(a)

print(b["name"])

# Output: David

import json

a = '{"name":"David", "age":30, "gender":"Male"}'

print(json.dumps(a))

# Output: "{\"name\":\"David\", \"age\":30, \"gender\":\"Male\"}"

import json

a = {"name":"David", "age":30, "gender":"Male"}

print(json.dumps(a))

# Output: {"name": "David", "age": 30, "gender": "Male"}

Python RegEx import re

# checks if the string 'x' starts with "Albert" and ends with "German"

x = "Albert Einstein was a German"

i = re.search("^Albert.*German$", x)
Output:
if i:
Wow! We've found a match!
print("Wow! We've found a match!")

else:

print("No match")

806
import re

# checks if the string 'x' starts with "Albert" and ends with "German"

x = "Albert Einstein was a German"

i = re.findall("^Albert.*German$", x)

if i: Output:

print("Wow! We've found a match!") Wow! We've found a match!

else:

print("No match")

import re

# splits the string 'x' at every white-space character

x = "Albert Einstein was a German"

print(re.split("\s", x))

# Output: ['Albert', 'Einstein', 'was', 'a', 'German']

import re

# replaces the word 'German' with the word "theoretical physicist"

x = "Albert Einstein was a German"

print(re.sub("German", "theoretical physicist", x))

Output:

Albert Einstein was a theoretical physicist

807
import re

x = "Albert Einstein grew up in Munich"

# prints all lower case characters alphabetically between "a" and "e"

print(re.findall("[a-e]", x))

# Output: ['b', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'c']

import re

x = "Albert Einstein grew up in Munich"

# prints all upper case characters alphabetically between "a" and "e"

print(re.findall("[A-E]", x))

# Output: ['A', 'E']

import re

x = "1905 Papers"

# prints all digit characters

print("No match")

809
import re

x = "Stephen Hawking was a British scientist"

# Check if the string 'x' has any a, g or s characters

y = re.findall("[ags]", x)

print(y)

if y:

print("Wow! We've found a match!")

Output:
else:
['a', 'g', 'a', 's', 'a', 's', 's', 's']
print("No match")
Wow! We've found a match!

import re

x = "Stephen Hawking was a British scientist"

# Check if the string 'x' has any characters between a and c

y = re.findall("[a-c]", x)

print(y)

if y:

print("Wow! We've found a match!")

Output:
else:
['a', 'a', 'a', 'c']
print("No match")
Wow! We've found a match!

810
import re

x = "1905 Papers"

# Check if the string 'x' has any digits

y = re.findall("[0-9]", x)

print(y)

if y:
Output:
print("Wow! We've found a match!")
['1', '9', '0', '5']
else:
Wow! We've found a match!
print("No match")

import re

x = "a+b+c"

# Check if the string 'x' has any + characters

y = re.findall("[+]", x)

print(y)
Output:
if y:
['+', '+']
print("Wow! We've found a match!")
Wow! We've found a match!
else:

print("No match")

811
Python If ... Else
x = 25

y= 50
x = 55
if y > x:
y = 25
print("x < y")
if y > x:
# Output: x < y
print("y>x")

else:
x = 25
print("x≠y")
y = 25
# Output: x≠y
if x > y:

print("x > y")

elif x == y:
x = 55
print("x=y")
y = 25
# Output: x=y
if y < x: print("y<x")

# Output: y<x

x = 55

y = 25

if y > x:
x = 55
print("y>x")
y = 25
elif x == y:
print("X") if y > x else print("Y")
print("x=y")
# Output: Y
else:

print("x>y")

# Output: x>y

812
x = 25

y = 25

print("X") if x > y else print("=") if x == y else print("Y")

# Output: =

x = 50

y = 25

z = 100

if x > y and z > x:

print("Both conditions are met")

# Output: Both conditions are met

x = 100

y = 50

z = 200

if x > y or x > z:

print("At least one of the conditions is fulfilled")

# Output: At least one of the conditions is fulfilled

Python Loops

x = ["C++", "Java", "Python"]

for i in x: Output:
print(i) C++
if i == "Java":
Java
break

813
x = ["C++", "Java", "Python"]

for i in x:
Output:
if i == "Java":
C++
break

print(i)

x = ["C++", "Java", "Python"]

for i in x: Output:

if i == "Java": C++

continue Python

print(i)

for i in range(4):

print(i) for i in range(3, 5):

# Output: print(i)
0 Output:
1 3
2 4

for i in range(2, 8, 5):

Output:
for i in range(3):
print(i) 0
print(i)
# Output: 1
else:
2 2
print("Completed successfully!")
Completed successfully!
7

814
i = ["Albert", "Alan"]
Output:
u = ["Engineer", "Doctor"]
Albert Engineer
for a in i:
Albert Doctor
for b in u: Alan Engineer

print(a, b) Alan Doctor

for i in [11, 12, 13]:

pass

# would raise an error without the pass statement

x = 1
x = 1
while x < 3: Output:
while x < 3:
print(x) 1
print(x)
x += 1 2
x += 1
Output: x is no longer less than 3
else:
1
print("x is no longer less than 3")
2

x = 0
x = 0
while x < 4: Output: while x < 4:
x += 1 Output:
1 x += 1
if x == 2: 1
3 if x == 2:
continue
4 break
print(x)
print(x)

815
Python User Input

x = input("Enter username:")
Enter username:
print("Username is: " + x)
If you enter the word "ram"

Username is: ram

will be outputted on the console screen

print "Hello World" # is acceptable in Python 2

print ("Hello World") # in Python 3, print must be followed by ()

Python Try Except

print(i) # would raise an error because i is not defined

try: # would generate an exception because i is not defined

print(i)

except:

print("An exception occurred") # Output: An exception occurred

try: # would raise an NameError because i is not defined

print(i)

except NameError:

print("i is not defined")

except:

print("Something else went incorrect") # Output: i is not defined

816
try: # would not generate any error

print("Albert")
Output:
except:
Albert
print("Something went incorrect")
Nothing went incorrect
else:

print("Nothing went incorrect")

i = -6 # would raise an error and stop because i < 0

if i < 0:

raise Exception("No numbers below zero acceptable.")

i = "Alan" # would raise a TypeError because i is not an integer

if not type(i) is int:

raise TypeError("Only integer values are acceptable.")

Python String Formatting

year = 1905
x = "{name} Einstein's {year} Papers."
name = "Einstein's" print(x.format(name = "Albert", year = "1905"))

x = "Albert {1} {0} Papers." # Output: Albert Einstein's 1905 Papers.

print(x.format(year, name))

# Output: Albert Einstein's 1905 Papers.

i = 15

x = "The cost of the pen is: {:.4f} Rupees"

print(x.format(i)) # Output: The cost of the pen is: 15.0000 Rupees

817
x = True

print(("Albert", "Einstein")[x]) # Output: Einstein

x = False

print(("Albert", "Einstein")[x]) # Output: Albert

def myfunc():

print("Albert Einstein")

if __name__ == '__main__':

myfunc()

# Output: Albert Einstein

import sys
A new file is created with name '1.txt' with following contents:
sys.stdout = open('1.txt','wt')
Albert Einstein
print("Albert Einstein")
Alan Turing
print("Alan Turing")

print("Albert Einstein", file=open('1.txt','a'))

print("Alan Turing", file=open('1.txt','a'))

A new file is created with name '1.txt' with following contents:

Albert Einstein

Alan Turing

n = [2, 5, 7, 17]
Output:
a = map(lambda i: i%2, n)
0
for x in a:
1
print(x)
1

818
months = ['jan', 'feb', 'mar', 'april', 'may', 'june']

x = filter(lambda x: x if len(x)==3 else '', months)

for i in x:

print(i)

# Output:

jan

feb

mar

may

print((8-3)*(2-(1+1))) # Output: 0
print ("xyz" > "") # Output: True

A = 1,2,3,4 print(" ".isspace() # Output: True

print(A) # Output: (1, 2, 3, 4)

x = "Albert Einstein"

B = 'a', 'b', 'c', 'd' print(x.startswith("Ala")) # Output: False

print(B) # Output: ('a', 'b', 'c', 'd') print(x.endswith("ein")) # Output: True

x = [1,2,3,4]

print(x[3]) # Output: 4

print(x[5]) # would raise a IndexError: list index out of range

a = [11,12]

x = '+'.join(str(i) for i in a)

b = [21,22]

y = '*'.join(str(u) for u in b)

print(x,y) # Output: 11+12 21*22

819
x = ['albert', 'alan', 'james', 'mary', 'peter', 'john']

# prints a list of names that start with the letter 'a'

print([i for i in x if i[0] == 'a']) # Output: ['albert', 'alan']

print(sorted([250, 230, 240, 220, 210]))

# Output: [210, 220, 230, 240, 250]

f = open("1.txt","a+") # opens the 1.txt file in append mode

f.write("Albert Einstein") # appends content to the file

f.close() # closes the file

import platform

print(platform.system()) # Output: Windows

print(platform.processor()) # Output: Intel64 Family 6 Model 78 Stepping 3, GenuineIntel

print(platform.architecture()) # Output: ('64bit', 'WindowsPE')

print(platform.machine()) # Output: AMD64

print(platform.node()) # Output: DESKTOP-68GI94H

print(platform.platform()) # Output: Windows-10-10.0.10586-SP0

Python Datetime

import time;

x = time.asctime(time.localtime(time.time()))

print ("Local current time:", x)

# Output: Local current time: Thu Jun 23 19:38:21 2022

820
import datetime

i = datetime.datetime.now()

# prints the year

print(i.year) # Output: 2022

# prints the full name of weekday

print(i.strftime("%A")) # Output: Thursday

# prints the short name of weekday

print(i.strftime("%a")) # Output: Thu

# prints the weekday as a number 0-6, 4 is Thursday

print(i.strftime("%w")) # Output: 4

# prints the day of month 01-31

print(i.strftime("%d")) # Output: 23

# prints the full name of month

print(i.strftime("%B")) # Output: June

# prints the short name of month

print(i.strftime("%b")) # Output: Jun

# prints the month as a number 01-12, 06 is June

print(i.strftime("%m")) # Output: 06

# prints the day number of year: 001-365

print(i.strftime("%j")) # Output: 174

# prints the local version of date and time

print(i.strftime("%c")) # Output: Thu Jun 23 20:20:39 2022

821
import datetime

i = datetime.datetime.now()

# prints the local version of date

print(i.strftime("%x")) # Output: 06/23/22

# prints the local version of time

print(i.strftime("%X")) # Output: 20:20:39

# prints AM/PM # check the documentation of the print function

print(i.strftime("%p")) # Output: PM help(print)

# prints the minute 00-59

print(i.strftime("%M")) # Output: 37

# prints the second 00-59

print(i.strftime("%S")) # Output: 10

class Science:

def init(self, x = "Albert", y = 1905, z = "Relativity"):

self.x = x

self.y = y

self.z = z

print(vars(Science()))

# Output: {'x': 'Albert', 'y': 1905, 'z': 'Relativity'}

822
import statistics

# prints the harmonic mean of the given data

print(statistics.harmonic_mean([40, 60, 80])) # Output: 55.38461538461538

# prints the average of the given data

print(statistics.mean([11, 12, 15, 17, 19, 14])) # Output: 14.666666666666666

# prints the median of the given data

print(statistics.median([11, 12, 15, 17, 19, 14])) # Output: 14.5

# prints the high median of the given data

print(statistics.median_high([11, 12, 15, 17, 19, 14])) # Output: 15

# prints the low median of the given data

print(statistics.median_low([11, 12, 15, 17, 19, 14])) # Output: 14

# prints the mode of the given data

print(statistics.mode([11, 12, 15, 11, 19, 14])) # Output: 11

# prints the standard deviation of the given data

print(statistics.stdev([11, 12, 15, 17, 19, 14])) # Output: 3.011090610836324

# prints the variance of the given data

print(statistics.variance([11, 12, 15, 17, 19, 14])) # Output: 9.066666666666666

import random

x = ["A", "B", "C"]

# prints a random element from a list 'x'

print(random.choice(x)) # Output: C

823
import random

x = ["A", "B", "C"]

# prints a list that contains any 2 of the items from the list 'x'

print(random.sample(x, k=2)) # Output: ['C', 'A']

import random

# prints a random number between and included 10 and 30

print(random.uniform(10, 30)) # Output: 23.223429438350152

import random

# prints a random number between and included 10 and 30 but most likely closer to 15

print(random.triangular(10, 30, 15)) # Output: 16.011782141402527

# import cmath for complex number operations

import cmath

# prints the arc cosine value of 5+6j

print (cmath.acos(5+6j)) # Output: (0.8800800926246654-2.7493465969740996j)

# prints the arc sine value of 5+6j

print (cmath.asin(5+6j)) # Output: (0.6907162341702312+2.7493465969740996j)

# prints the arc tangent value of 5+6j

print (cmath.atan(5+6j)) # Output: (1.488221988087583+0.09801052194400592j)

# prints the cosine value of 5+6j

print (cmath.cos(5+6j)) # Output: (57.21909818460074+193.4276431213065j)

# prints the sine value of 5+6j

print (cmath.sin(5+6j)) # Output: (-193.43002005693958+57.21839505634109j)

# prints the tangent value of 5+6j

print (cmath.tan(5+6j)) # Output: (-6.6852313902770184e-06+1.0000103108981198j)

824
Python NumPy

print(np.sort(x)) # Output: ['alan' 'james' 'mary']

825
import numpy as np
import numpy as np
x = np.array([[23, 22, 24], [25, 20, 21]])
x = np.array([31, 30, 29, 28, 27])
print(np.sort(x))
i = x.view()
# Output: x[0] = 32

[[22 23 24] print(x) # Output: [32 30 29 28 27]

[20 21 25]]

import numpy as np
import numpy as np
x = np.array([31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37])
x = np.array(['albert', 'james', 'mary'])
print(x[1:5]) # Output: [32 33 34 35]
y = np.array([41, 42, 43, 44])
print(x[4:]) # Output: [35 36 37]
# prints the data type of arrays 'x' and 'y'
print(x[:4]) # Output: [31 32 33 34]
print(x.dtype) # Output: <U6
print(x[-3:-1]) # Output: [35 36]
print(y.dtype) # Output: int64
print(x[1:5:2]) # Output: [32 34]

print(x[::2]) # Output: [31 33 35 37]

import numpy as np

x = np.array([[31, 32, 33, 34, 35], [36, 37, 38, 39, 40]])

print(x[0:2, 1:4]) import numpy as np

os.chdir(y)

# verify that our working directory has been changed using getcwd()

print("New working directory: ", os.getcwd())

827
import os

# get the current working directory

x = os.getcwd()

# list all the files and directories present in the current working directory

print(os.listdir(path = x))

import os

# get the current working directory

x = os.getcwd()

y = "123.txt"
Set the path of the 123.txt file that we are going to delete
i = x + "/" + y

# list all the files and directories present in the current working directory

# before deletion of 123.txt

print("Files before deletion: ", os.listdir(path = x))

# delete the file '123.txt'

os.remove(path = i)

# list all the files and directories present in the current working directory

# after deletion of 123.txt

print("Files after deletion: ", os.listdir(path = x))

828
Pandas Series

import pandas as pd

x = pd.DataFrame([[25, 33], [47, 89]],

columns=['No. Rejected', 'No. Accepted'],

index=['1905 Papers', '1915 Papers'])

print(x)

# Output:

No. Rejected No. Accepted

1905 Papers 25 33

1915 Papers 47 89

import pandas as pd

x= [12, 72, 22]

import pandas as pd
print(pd.Series(x))
x = [12, 72, 22]
# Output: i = pd.Series(x)
0 12 print(i[0])

1 72 # Output: 12

2 22

dtype: int64

import pandas as pd

x= [12, 72, 22]

y = pd.Series(x, index = ["a", "b", "c"])

print(y["b"]) # Output: 72

829
import pandas as pd

x= [12, 72, 22]

import pandas as pd
y = pd.Series(x, index = ["a", "b", "c"])
months = {"jan": 31, "feb": 28, "mar": 31}
print(y) print(pd.Series(months))

# Output: Output:

a 12 jan 31

b 72 feb 28

mar 31
c 22

dtype: int64
dtype: int64

import pandas as pd

x = { months days

0 1 31
"months": [1, 2, 3],
1 2 28
"days": [31, 28, 31]
2 3 31
}

print(pd.DataFrame(x))

x = ["12", "11", "15", "13", "14"]

print(4**0.5!= 2)
x = [int(a) for a in x]
# Output: False
x.sort()

print(x)

# Output: [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]

830
# creates a list of the first letters of every word in the given string

x = "Albert Einstein profoundly changed physics"

i = [a[0] for a in x.split()]

print(i) # Output: ['A', 'E', 'p', 'c', 'p']

# check if the length of a particular word in the given string is odd or even

x = "Albert Einstein"

for i in x.split():

if len(i)%2 == 0:

print("The length of the word " + i + " is even" + " because it has "+ str(len(i)) + " characters")

elif len(i)%2 == 1:

print("The length of the word " + i + " is odd" + " because it has "+ str(len(i)) + " characters")

Output:

The length of the word Albert is even because it has 6 characters

The length of the word Einstein is even because it has 8 characters

x = [11,12,[13,14,'Alan']]

x[2][2] = 'Albert'

print(x) # Output: [11, 12, [13, 14, 'Albert']]

print(divmod(10,2)) # Output: (5, 0)

print(5 ** 2) # Output: 25
print(divmod(15,5)) # Output: (3, 0)
print(25 ** 0.5) ) # Output: 5.0

831
# display the size of each item in the array
x = "Galileo Galilei"
import numpy as np
for i in x:

x = np.array([[11,12,13]]) if i == "G":

print(x.itemsize, "bytes") # Output: 4 bytes pass

print(i)

else:
# display the data type of each item in the array
pass
import numpy as np
# Output:
x = np.array([[11,12,13]]) G

print(x.dtype) # Output: int32 G

import numpy as np

# prints 6 values which are evenly spaced over the given interval 6-10

print(np.linspace(6, 10, 6))

# Output: [ 6. 6.8 7.6 8.4 9.2 10. ]

import numpy as np

x = np.array([[11,12,50],[20,25,8]])
Output:
y = np.array([[15,16,1],[32, 39, 35]])
[[11 12 50]
print(np.vstack((x, y)))
[20 25 8]

[15 16 1]
print(np.hstack((x, y)))
[32 39 35]]

Output:

[[11 12 50 15 16 1]

[20 25 8 32 39 35]]

832
11 12
11 12 13
13 14
14 15 16
15 16 reshape() (3 × 2)

(2 × 3)

import numpy as np

x = np.array([[11,12],[13,14],[15,16]])

print(x) # prints (2×3) array

"""

# Output: import numpy as np

print(np.dot(2,4)) # Output: 8

[[11 12]

[13 14]

[15 16]]

"""

print(x.reshape(2,3)) # prints (3×2) array

""" print(2 * (6 + 10)) # Output: 32

# Output: print(2 * 6 + 10) # Output: 22

[[11 12 13]

[14 15 16]]
print('Albert %s' %'Einstein') # Output: Albert Einstein

print('Albert {}'.format('Einstein')) # Output: Albert Einstein

"""

833
a=3

for x in range(a):

print('+'*(a-x-1) + '*'*(2*x+1)+'+'*(a-x-1))

# Output:
x=21
++*++
if sum(map(int, str(x))) % 2:
+***+
print("odd")

***** else:

print("even")

a=2 # Output: odd

x=a-1

while x>-1:

print('+'*(a-x-1) + '*'*(2*x+1)+'@'*(a-x-1))

x=x-1

# Output:

***

+*@

x=5

for i in [i for i in range(2, x+1) if all(i % a!= 0 for a in range(2, i))]:

print(i)

# Output:

834
x="Einstein Albert"

print(" ".join(str.split(x, " ")[-1::-1]))

# Output: Albert Einstein

x = ((11, 14, 12), (19, 0, 13), (15, 16, 18))

print(x[2][1]) x = "15"
# Output: 16
if x.isdigit():

print("Digit")
x=3
else:
for a in range(0, x, int(x**0.5)):

print(a) print("String")

# Output: # Output: Digit

x = {1:['Albert', 1905], 2:['Newton', 1875], 3:['Alan', 1922]}

for i in x:
x="NUN"

print(i)
# convert the string 'NUN' to lower case

# Output:
# check whether the string is a palindrome or not

1
# if it is palindrome print 1 else 0

2
print(int(x.lower()==x.lower()[::-1])) # Output: 1

x = {11, 12, 13, 14}

y = {13, 14, 15, 16}

print(x ^ y) # Output: {11, 12, 15, 16}

835
x = [11, 13, 12, 12, 13, 14, 15, 12]

i = []
Output:
for a in x:
[11]
if a not in i:
[11, 13]
i.append(a)
[11, 13, 12]

print(i) [11, 13, 12, 14]

[11, 13, 12, 14, 15]

x = "15"
x = "Albert"
if x.isnumeric():
if x.isnumeric():
print("Integer")
print("Integer")
else:
else:
print("String")
print("String")
# Output: Integer
# Output: String

a = "john"

i = ""
x = "michaeljohn"
for x in a:
print(x[0].upper() + x[1:7] + x[7].upper() + x[8:])
i = x + i
# Output: MichaelJohn
print(i)

# Output:

j exec('x = 6\ny=20\nprint("Sum", "of", x, "and", y, "=", x+y)')

oj # Output: Sum of 6 and 20 = 26

hoj

nhoj

836
a = [11, 12, 13, 14]

x= [11, 12, 13, 14] x = 0

print(sum(x)) for i in a:

x += i

print(x)

Output:

x = [18,12,13,15,14,17]
x = [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]
# sort the list in ascending order
print(x[1 : : 2]) # Output: [12, 14, 16, 18, 20]
x.sort()

# prints second maximum element from a given list

print(x[-2]) # Output: 17

# prints second minimum element from a given list

print(x[1]) # Output: 13

x = [12, 11, 12, 14, 15, 13, 16]

print(14 in x) # Output: True x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]

print(x[1:-1:2]) # Output: [2, 4, 6, 8]

print(20 in x) # Output: False

837
x = [19, 15, 'Papers']

for a in x:

print(a, end=' ') # Output: 19 15 Papers

# prints the sum of digits from 1 to 5

def myfunc(x):
print(sum(range(1,5))) # Output: 10
x.append(24)

x = [21, 22, 23]

print(x) # Output: [21, 22, 23]

myfunc(x)

print(x) # Output: [21, 22, 23, 24]

import pandas as pd
import pandas as pd
print(pd.DataFrame())
if pd.DataFrame().empty:

Output:
print('Empty DataFrame')
Empty DataFrame
else:
Columns: []
print('DataFrame is not empty')
Index: []
# Output: Empty DataFrame

import pandas as pd

if pd.DataFrame({'name': ["albert", "alan"], 'year': [1915, 1925]}).empty:

print('Empty DataFrame')
Output:
else:
DataFrame is not empty
print('DataFrame is not empty')

838
class Relativity:

year = 1905

name = 'Albert Einstein'

physicist = Relativity()
Output:

Albert Einstein
name = getattr(physicist, 'name')
1905
print(name)

year = getattr(physicist, 'year')

print(year)

x = [14, 10, 28, 37]

y = (14, 10, 28, 37)

x = set() print(isinstance(x, list)) # Output: True

print(isinstance(x, tuple)) # Output: False

x.add(12)
print(isinstance(y, list)) # Output: False
x.add(14)
print(isinstance(y, tuple)) # Output: True
x.add(16)

print(x) # Output: {16, 12, 14}

i = 'print("Albert Einstein")\nprint("Newton")'

exec(compile(i, '', 'exec'))

import numpy as np
# Output:
# prints the Lowest Common Multiple of 14 and 16
Albert Einstein
print(np.lcm(14, 16)) # Output: 112
Newton

839
class Science:

Relativity = 'E=mcsquared'

subject = 'Relativity'

object = Science

result = hasattr(object, subject)

print(f'Does the object {object} has attribute named "{subject}"? \n Ans. {result}')

Output:

Does the object <class 'main.Science'> has attribute named "Relativity"?

Ans. True

class Science:

Relativity = 'E=mcsquared'

subject = 'Gravitation'

object = Science

result = hasattr(object, subject)

print(f'Does the object {object} has attribute named "{subject}"? \n Ans. {result}')

Output:

Does the object <class 'main.Science'> has attribute named "Gravitation"?

Ans. False

x = import('math', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

print(x.pow(2,3)) # Output: 8.0

840
import numpy as np

x = np.array([50, 25, 15, 10])

print(np.diff(x)) # Output: [-25 -10 -5]

# [-25 -10 -5] because (25-50) = -25, (15-25) = -10, and (10-15) = -5

import numpy as np

x = np.array([50, 25, 15, 10])

print(np.diff(x, n=2)) # Output: [15 5]

# [15 5] because:

# (25-50) = -25, (15-25) = -10, and (10-15) = -5

# -10 -(-25) = 15 and -5 -(-10) = 5

import numpy as np

import numpy as np # prints the Greatest Common Denominator of 6 and 9

print(np.gcd(12, 18)) # Output: 6

x = np.array([11, 12, 13, 14])

y = np.array([15, 16, 17, 18])

print(np.prod([x, y])) # Output:1764322560

# 11 × 12 × 13 × 14 × 15 × 16 × 17 × 18 = 1764322560

import numpy as np

x = np.array([11, 12, 13, 14])

print(np.cumprod(x)) # Output: [ 11 132 1716 24024]

# [11, 11 × 12, 11 × 12 × 13, 11 × 12 × 13 × 14] = [ 11 132 1716 24024]

841
import pandas as pd

names = ['Einstein', 'Hawking', 'Planck', 'Darwin', 'Mendel']

is_Biologist = [False, False, False, True, True]

print(pd.DataFrame(zip(names, is_Biologist), columns=['names', 'is_Biologist']))

# Output:

names is_Biologist

0 Einstein False

1 Hawking False

2 Planck False

3 Darwin True

4 Mendel True

import numpy as np

print(np.sin(np.pi/2)) # Output: 1.0

print(np.deg2rad(180)) # Output: 3.141592653589793

x = [11, 0, -12, 14, -13]

print([i**2 for i in x if i > 0]) # Output: [121, 196]

print(input("Albert Einstein")) # Output: Albert Einstein

def myfunc():

yield "Albert Einstein"

print(next(myfunc())) # Output: Albert Einstein

842
def myFunc(*argv):
# Fibonacci sequence of numbers: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34 . . .
for i in argv:
# Python program to get the first 5 Fibonacci numbers

print(i) x, y = 0, 1
Output:
myFunc('Albert', 'Einstein') for i in range(0, 5):
0
print(x)
# Output:
x, y = y, x + y 1
Albert
1
Einstein
2

import numpy as np import numpy as np

x = np.array([2,6,5]) x = np.array([2,6,5])

y = np.array([4,12,6]) y = np.array([4,12,6])

z = np.sum((x,y), axis=0) z = np.sum((x,y), axis=1)

a = 0 a = 0

for i in z: for i in z:

print("" + str(a) + ":", i) print("" + str(a) + ":", i)

a = a + 1 a = a + 1

Output: Output:

0: 6 0: 13

1: 18 1: 22

2: 11

843
def myFunc(**kwargs):

for x, y in kwargs.items():

print ("%s = %s" %(x, y))

myFunc(Name = 'Albert Einstein', Born = '14 March 1879', Died = '18 April 1955')

Output:

a = [[]]*6
Name = Albert Einstein

a[0].append(3)
Born = 14 March 1879

print(a) # Output: [[3], [3], [3], [3], [3], [3]]

Died = 18 April 1955

def myfunc(i):

months = ['jan','feb','mar','apr','may','jun','jul']

yield months[i]

Output:
yield months[i+1]

jan
x = myfunc(0)
feb
print(next(x))

print(next(x))

def myfunc(i):

months = ['jan','feb','mar','apr','may','jun','jul']

yield months[i]

yield months[i+2] Output:

x = myfunc(0) jan

print(next(x))
mar

print(next(x))

844
Output:

600 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

500 import numpy as np

400 a = np.array(["X", "Y", "Z"])

300 b = np.array([500, 400, 300])

plt.bar(a,b)
200

plt.show()
100

0
X Y Z

Output:

600 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

500 import numpy as np

400 a = np.array(["X", "Y", "Z"])

300 b = np.array([500, 400, 300])

plt.bar(a,b, color = "green")

200

plt.show()
100

0
X Y Z

845
Output:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np

Z a = np.array(["X", "Y", "Z"])

b = np.array([4, 7, 3])

plt.barh(a, b)
Y
plt.show()

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

from scipy import constants

print(constants.pi) # Output: 3.141592653589793

print(constants.speed_of_light) # Output: 299792458.0

print(constants.golden_ratio) # Output: 1.618033988749895

print(constants.gravitational_constant) # Output: 6.67408e-11

print(constants.elementary_charge) # Output: 1.6021766208e-19

print(constants.electron_mass) # Output: 9.10938356e-31

print(constants.proton_mass) # Output: 1.672621898e-27

print(constants.neutron_mass) # Output: 1.674927471e-27

print(constants.Planck) # Output: 6.62607004e-34

print(constants.hbar) # Output: 1.0545718001391127e-34

print(constants.Avogadro) # Output: 6.022140857e+23

846
Machine Learning Data Science

Prove mathematical properties of models Understand empirical properties of models

Benford's Law:

The probability of a first digit being ' x ' is: P(x) = log10(1 + 1/x)

For example:

The probability of a first digit being ' 2 ' is:

P(2) = log10(1 + 1/2) = log10(1.5) = 0.17609125905

Lotka's law
(Inverse square law of scientific productivity)

ETL (extract, transform, load) ax × b = constant

Data Processing
 a: number of publications

 b: number of authors credited with 'a'

publications

Web mining  x is often nearly 2

Web content mining Web structure mining

Web usage mining
Mines content of Web Analyzes links to and from
Mines user interaction
pages Web page
data recorded by Web
server

847
The SQL commands are mainly categorized into 4 categories:

 Data Definition Language: commands used to define the database.

Example: CREATE, DROP, ALTER, TRUNCATE, COMMENT, RENAME
 Data Manipulation Language: commands deal with the manipulation of data present in the
database.
Example: SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
 Data Control Language: commands deal with the rights, permissions and other controls of
the database system.
Example: GRANT, INVOKE
 Transaction Control Language: commands deal with the transaction of the database.
Example: COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT, SET TRANSACTION

A Schema in SQL is a collection of database

objects associated with a database.

SQL Operators

SELECT 60 + 40; 60 + 40
Output 100
SELECT 60 - 40; 60 - 40
20
SELECT 60 * 40; 60 * 40
2400
SELECT 60 / 40; 60 / 40
1.5000
SELECT 60 % 40; 60 % 40
20

848
• Requirements Gathering
• Software Design
• Implementation Three phases are often taken
Agile methodology
• Testing to build a business strategy:

• Deployment • Analysis
• Maintenance
• Decision

• Implementation

Lean development:

• Eliminate unnecessary steps

• Create quality in development

• Increase Feedback and amplify learning

Changeability:
• Delay decisions until you have learned enough to make a good decision
The software product's ability
• Document the whole infrastructure
to allow for the implementation
• Deliver software as fast as possible of specific customizations

• Empower the programming team

• Build a focus on system integrity and the development sequence has to be perfected enough to be able to delete

errors in the code − in order to create a flow of reliability and validity

Language Theory How do computations get expressed?

Automata Theory How do computations get done?
Computability Theory What are the computational system's underlying bounds?
Complexity Theory What tools are needed to carry out particular computations?

• Accuracy testing: Testing a software application to evaluate its accuracy

• Attractiveness: The ability of the software application to appeal to users

849
Design thinking + Lean Development + Agile Development = Project success

The most popular DevOps tools:

 Git : Version Control System tool

Assist software teams to track changes in source code over time.

 Jenkins : Continuous Integration tool

Assist the software development process where multiple developers make small, frequent changes
to code. The software is tested immediately after each change is made. With each change, code is
built and tested. If the test is passed, the build is tested for deployment. If the deployment is
successful, the code is pushed to production. This code change, build, test, and deploy is a
continuous process and hence the name continuous integration continuous deployment.

 Selenium : Continuous Testing tool

Assist the testing of the software at every stage of the software development life cycle.

850
 Puppet, Chef, Ansible : Configuration Management and Deployment tools

Automate administration tasks, configure multiple servers at a time − without any user
intervention and gives software team the power to deploy multi-tier applications as fast as
possible.

 Nagios : Continuous Monitoring tool

Assist the software team to detect application performance issues, identify their cause and implement a
solution before the issue leads to unplanned application downtime and lost revenue.

 Docker : Containerization tool

Assist the process of packaging a software application along with its required libraries, frameworks and
configuration files together so that it runs quickly and reliably in various computing environments.

Selenium supports 2 types of testing:

 Functional testing → performed to ensure all functionalities of an application is working

as expected.

851
 Regression Testing → performed to ensure that new product version still works after the
new changes have been made.

Commit changes to
the source code
Developer

Developer
Shared repository Pull changes made in the
source code from the shared
repository
Developer
Commit changes to Jenkins
the source code

Deploy changes made in

the source code for testing

Test results are fed back to the developers Selenium

Request for Master Certificate

After successful testing the
Send Master Certificate build application is deployed to
the production server
Request for Slave Certificate
Puppet Slave Puppet Master
Send Slave Certificate

Request for Data

Send Data

852
AWS Services: AWS EC2
 Compute
 Storage
A part of the cloud computing infrastructure from Amazon.com that offers
 Networking
secure, scalable compute capability
 Monitoring
 Databases
 Security AWS Lambda

AWS Elastic Beanstalk A serverless compute service that makes it easier to implement the code
without worrying about setting up or managing servers

AWS Lightsail
An AWS service that is
simple to use and creates
the foundation for
An AWS service that gives application developers access to a customizable
developing and scaling web
virtual private server (VPS) and a number of simple-to-use tools for data
applications
storage, code execution and the creation of websites or web-based applications

Python program: print(("%d" % 1905), '{:d}'.format(1915))

# Output: 1905 1915

x = ['Albert Einstein', 1879, 1955, 'physicist']

y = ['Charles Darwin', 1809, 1882, 'biologist'] print("19" + str(15), int("1900") + 5)

# Output: 1915 1905

print(x[0], y[2]) # Output: Albert Einstein 1882

print(y[0].split()[-1]) # Output: Darwin

import os

print(y[2] * 1.25) # Output: 2352.5 os.system('1.txt') # opens the file 1.txt

x= {'albert': 1905, 'einstein': 'papers'}

print('%(albert)s => %(einstein)s' % x) # Output: 1905 => papers

# prints the size of path 'C:/Users/Manju' in bytes

print(os.path.getsize('C:/Users/Manju')) # Output: 40960

import os

print(os.path.split('C:/Users/Manju')) # Output: ('C:/Users', 'Manju')

print(os.path.join("C:", "/Users/Manju")) # Output: C:/Users/Manju

import os

os.startfile("1.txt") # open file in Notepad

os.startfile("1.docx") # open file in Microsoft Word

854
import sys

sys.stdout.write('Albert Einstein' + '\n') # Output: Albert Einstein

input('Albert Einstein') # Output: Albert Einstein

import glob

# prints all the .txt files in the current directory

print(glob.glob('*.txt'))

# Output: ['1.txt', '2.txt', 'names.txt', 'output.txt', 'spam.txt']

import os

# prints all the files and directories in the current directory

print(os.listdir(os.curdir))

import time

print('Albert') # Output: Albert

time.sleep(3) # wait for 3 seconds

print('Einsteinian %d and [%s] papers' % (1905, 1915)) # Output: Einsteinian 1905 and [1915] papers

# prints the content of 1.txt file

print(open('1.txt').read())

x = open('output.txt', 'r').read()

y = open(r'C:\Users\Manju\output.txt', 'r').read()

print(x == y) # Output: True

855
import html.parser

print(html.escape("4<9 <b>Albert</b>")) # Output: 4<9 <b>Albert</b>

print(html.unescape("4<9 <b>Albert</b>")) # Output: 4<9 <b>Albert</b>

print('Stephen %s %s' % ('William', 'Hawking')) # Output: Stephen William Hawking

print('Alan {} {}'.format('Mathison', 'Turing')) # Output: Alan Mathison Turing

print('Albert "%-5s", %06d' % ('Einstein', 1)) # Output: Albert "Einstein", 000001

print('Albert "{0:<5}", {1:06}'.format('Einstein', 1)) # Output: Albert "Einstein", 000001

print('xyz'.split('*')) # Output: ['x', 'y', 'z']

print(''.join(['x', 'y', 'z'])) # Output: xy*z

import re

print(re.split('--|==', 'xx--yy==zz')) # Output: ['xx', 'yy', 'zz']

print(re.split('[-=]', 'xx-yy=zz')) # Output: ['xx', 'yy', 'zz']

print(re.split('(--)|(==)', 'xx--yy==zz')) # Output: ['xx', '--', None, 'yy', None, '==', 'zz']

print(re.split('(?:--)|(?:==)', 'xx--yy==zz')) # Output: ['xx', 'yy', 'zz']

x = {}

x['b'] = 21 import math Output:

6.283185307179586
exec('a = 100', x, x) x = 1
6.283185307179586
exec('c = a + b', x, x) for i in range(3):
6.283185307179586
print(x['c']) # Output: 121 print(math.pi*x*(1+x))

856
x="Albert"

y=5

print(x[y-1]) # Output: r

x="Albert Einstein grew up in Munich"

print(x)

""" import random

for x in range(3):
Output: print(random.randint(2, 9))

Albert Einstein grew up in Munich # Output:

""" 6

print(x.center(50)) 3

""" 9

Output:
print('Alan', end='')
Albert Einstein grew up in Munich
print('Turing') # Output: AlanTuring
"""

print('Albert Einsteinian ' + str(1905) + ' papers')

# Output: Albert Einsteinian 1905 papers

for x in range(3):

print('Alan (' + str(x) + ')')

print(int(5.2) + 2) # Output: 7
# Output:
print(float(5.2) + 2) # Output: 7.2
Alan (0)

Alan (1)

Alan (2)

857
print((3 < 7) and (7 < 9)) # Output: True

(3 < 7) and (7 < 9) for x in range(3, -1, -1):

print(x)
True and (7 < 9) # Output:

3
True and True 2

1
True 0

def myfunc():
Output:
print('Alan')
Alan
myfunc()
Alan
myfunc()
Alan
myfunc()

def myfunc(x):
Output:
print('Albert, ' + x)
Albert, 1905
myfunc('1905')
Albert, 1915
myfunc('1915')
Albert, 1955

myfunc('1955')

print('Albert Einstein')
def myfunc(x):
Output:
indent = 3 # 3 spaces to indent
return 55 / x
Albert Einstein
print(' ' * indent, end='')
print(myfunc(5)) # Output: 11.0 Albert Einstein
print('Albert Einstein')

858
x = [['alan', 'albert'], [12, 22, 32, 42, 62]]

print(x[0]) # Output: ['alan', 'albert'] print('Alan Turing'.startswith('Alan'))

print(x[0][1]) # Output: albert # Output: True

print(x[1][4]) # Output: 62 print('Alan Turing'.endswith('Turing'))

# Output: True

x = ['alan', 'albert', 'james', 'mary']

for a in range(len(x)):

print(x[a], end =" ") # Output: alan albert james mary

x = 'Albert ' x = 'Albert '

x += 'Einstein' x *= 2

print(x) # Output: Albert Einstein print(x) # Output: Albert Albert

import random
x = ['c', 'b', 'C', 'B']
if random.randint(0, 1) == 0:
x.sort(key=str.lower)
print("random number is 0")
print(x) # Output: ['b', 'B', 'c', 'C']
else:

print("random number is 1")

print('albert'.upper()) # Output: ALBERT

print('albert'.upper().lower()) # Output: albert

print('albert'.upper().lower().upper()) # Output: ALBERT

print('ALBERT'.lower()) # Output: albert

print('ALBERT'.lower().islower()) # Output: True

859
JavaScript
Did you know?

Java and JavaScript are conceptually

and visually quite distinct languages

Paradigm Multi-paradigm: event-driven, functional, imperative, procedural, object-oriented programming

First appeared December 4, 1995; 26 years ago

Stable release ECMAScript 2021 / June 2021; 15 months ago

Preview release ECMAScript 2022 / 22 July 2021; 13 months ago

Typing discipline Dynamic, weak, duck

 .js
Filename Brendan Eich
 .cjs
extensions
 .mjs Creator of JavaScript

Website www.ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-262/

Major implementations

V8, JavaScriptCore, SpiderMonkey, Chakra

Influenced by

860
Java, Scheme Self, AWK, HyperTalk

Influenced

ActionScript, AssemblyScript, CoffeeScript, Dart, Haxe, JS++, Objective-J, Opa, TypeScript

Designed by an American technologist and co-founder of the Mozilla project, the Mozilla
Foundation, and the Mozilla Corporation "Brendan Eich" and it was developed under

the name Mocha, the language was officially called LiveScript when it first shipped in beta
releases of Netscape Navigator 2.0 in September 1995, but it was renamed JavaScript

JavaScript / Jscript is an relatively popular object-oriented scripting interpreted

programming language embedded in high level programming language of Hypertext

Markup Language The language that websites are rendered in and basically,
everything you and your readers see on the "frontend" is
HTML), commonly abbreviated as HTML pages

primarily used to design interactive websites with dynamic content and perform functions
that the HTML cannot do, because of its reliability, simplicity and easy to understand,
easy to use, write, modify and debug and quick to learn.

The primary language used in web design is HTML. In addition to HTML, CSS is employed to further
enhance web page appearance. HTML and JavaScript are combined to build dynamic websites.

Advantages of JavaScript:

 Massive community support and no requirement for compilers

 Simple to learn and accessible to everyone
 Both client-side and server-side usage
 Aids in creating a comprehensive solution

861
Syntax:
Tag used to incorporate an executable
client side scripting language such as
JavaScript into an HTML page
<script>

// JavaScript code to be executed

</script>
Inserted in the <body> or in the <head>
section of an HTML document or in both

// Single-line Comment

Describe JavaScript code and make it more

/* Multi-line
understandable, but ignored by JavaScript
Comment (will not be executed)

// Display the text "Albert Einstein" on the console screen using document.write() method

document.write('Albert Einstein'); Both double and single quotes are

supported by JavaScript
document.write("Albert Einstein");

// Display the result "31" on the console screen using document.write() method

document.write(15 + 16);

</script>

862
<script>

// Display the text "Albert Einstein" on the console screen using console.log() method

console.log('Albert Einstein');

console.log("Albert Einstein");

// Display the result "31" on the console screen using console.log() method

console.log(15 + 16);

</script>

// Declare x, give it the value of 15 using the assignment operator "="

let x = 15;

// Declare y, give it the value of 12 using the assignment operator "="

let y = 12;

// Declare z, give it the value of "x + y" using the assignment operator "="

let z = x + y; The addition operator (+) adds 2 numbers 'x' and 'y'

document.write(z); // Display the computed result

</script>

863
<script>

let x = 15;

let y = 12;

let z = x - y;

document.write(z); // Output: 3

</script>

The subtraction operator (-) subtract the number "y" from the number "x"

let x = 15;

let y = 12;

let z = x * y;

document.write(z); // Output: 180

</script>

The multiplication operator (*) multiplies 2 numbers 'x' and 'y'

let x = 6;

let y = 2;

let z = x / y;

document.write(z); // Output: 3

</script>

The division operator (/) divides the number 'x' by the number 'y'

864
<script>

let x = 7;

let y = 2;

let z = x % y;

document.write(z); // Output: 1

</script>

The modulus operator (%) returns the division remainder

let x = 7;

x++;

let z = x;

document.write(z); // Output: 8

</script>

The increment operator (++) increments the number "x"

let x = 7;

x--;

let z = x;

document.write(z); // Output: 6

</script>

The decrement operator (--) decrements the number "x"

865
<script>

let x = 4;

let z = x ** 3;

document.write(z); // Output: 64

</script>

The exponentiation operator (**) raises the number "x" to the power of 3

let x = 4;

let z = Math.pow(x,3);

document.write(z); // Output: 64

</script>

x ** 3 produces the same result as Math.pow(x,3)

let x = 50 + 50 * 3;

document.write(x); // Output: 200 50 + 150 = 200

If parentheses are used, the

operations inside the parenthesis
are computed first
let y = (50 + 50) * 3; 100 * 3 = 300

console.log(y); // Output: 300

</script>

866
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<body>

<!--

The HTML document contains a <p> element that has the id attribute with the value "add".

-->

<p id="add"> 36 </p> Defines a paragraph

Change the HTML content inside an <p> element

<script> 36 → (15 + 16) = 31

document.getElementById("add").innerHTML = 15 + 16;

Find an HTML element with an id that

matches a specified string "add"
</script>

</body>

</html>

This program display the computed result "31" on the console screen

using document.getElementById() method

Output:

867
var x = 15;
The "var" keyword has been used to
var y = 26;
declare the variables x, y and z
var z = x * y;

let x = 15;
The "let" keyword has been used to
let y = 26;
declare the variables x, y and z
let z = x * y;

x = 15;
The no keyword has been used to declare
y = 26;
the variables x, y and z
z = x * y;

const x = 3; Variable defined with "const" keyword

cannot be changed or reassigned
x = 6; // This will give an error

868
<script>

let x = 6.25; // A number with decimal

let y = 6; // A number without decimal

console.log(x+y);

// Then, because z is a string, 19 + "15" is concatenated

x = 10;

y = 9;

z = "15";

console.log(x + y + z); // Output: 1915

</script>

// When dividing, JavaScript will convert numeric strings to numbers

x = "6"; // numeric string

y = "2"; // numeric string

console.log(x / y); // Output: 3

</script>

870
<script>

// When Multiplying, JavaScript will convert numeric strings to numbers

</script>
<script>

// When Subtracting, JavaScript will convert numeric strings to numbers

x = "6"; // numeric string

y = "2"; // numeric string

console.log(x - y); // Output: 4

</script>

// When Adding, JavaScript will not convert numeric strings to numbers

JavaScript uses the "+" operator to

x = "6"; // numeric string
concatenate the 2 numeric strings
y = "2"; // numeric string

console.log(x + y); // Output: 62

</script>

871
<script>
NaN is the result of dividing a
x = "6"; // numeric string
number by a non-numeric string
y = "Albert"; // non-numeric string

console.log(x / y); // Output: NaN (Not a Number)

</script>

x = "6";

y = "Albert";

console.log(isNaN(x / y)); // Output: true

</script>
<script>

<script> console.log(5/0); // Output: Infinity

x = 6; console.log(-5/0); // Output: -Infinity

y = NaN; </script>

z = "5";

console.log(x + y); // Output: NaN

console.log(y + z); // Output: NaN5

x and y are equal

A block scoped variable:

A variable declared inside a block won't be accessible from the outside. Even though a
block can be embedded within a function, a block scoped variable will not be accessible
outside of the block even if the block is inside the function

873
console.log("Albert
Error: Unterminated string literal
Einstein");

console.log("Albert \
No Error
Einstein");
Output: Albert Einstein

console.log("Albert "
+ No Error

"Einstein"); Output: Albert Einstein

x = "Albert"; // x is a string

y = new String("Albert"); // y is a String object

console.log(x===y); // Output: false

</script>

x and y are of different type

874
<script>

x = new String("Albert");

y = new String("Albert");

console.log(x==y); // Output: false

</script>

JavaScript objects

<script> cannot be compared

x = new String("Albert"); Comparing 2 JavaScript

objects always returns false
y = new String("Albert");

console.log(x===y); // Output: false

</script> Fallback function: A function that defines a

response to be given whenever a call to a remote
service is unsuccessful. A fallback function, for
<script>
example, can be used to deliver the client a
let x = 20; // Number personalized message regarding service failures

let y = "Albert"; // String

let z = {Name:"Albert", Country:"Germany"}; // Object

let w = ["Apple", "Orange", "Mango"]; // Array

console.log(x); // Output: 20

console.log(y); // Output: Albert

console.log(z); // Output: { Name: 'Albert', Country: 'Germany' }

console.log(w); // Output: [ 'Apple', 'Orange', 'Mango' ]

</script> The object "z" in the example above has 2 properties: Name
and Country and 2 property values: Albert and Germany

875
<script>

let i; // Now 'i' is undefined

i = 15; // Now 'i' is a Number

i = "Albert"; // Now 'i' is a String

console.log(i); // Output: Albert

</script>
Polyfill:

A software program used to add current

let y = 35;

let z = 56;

console.log(x==y); // Returns true

console.log(x==z); // Returns false

</script>

// The type of a variable or expression is returned by the "typeof" operator

console.log(typeof "Albert"); // Output: string

console.log(typeof ("Albert" + "Einstein")); // Output: string

console.log(typeof 52); // Output: number

console.log(typeof (23 + 54)); // Output: number

x += "Einstein";

console.log(x); // Output: Albert Einstein

property_name property_value
</script> Name Albert
Country Germany
<script>
Age 56

// Create an object named 'x'

x = {Name: "Albert", Country:"Germany", Age:56};

// Accessing an property_value via object_name.property_name

console.log(x.Name); // Output: Albert

console.log(x.Country); // Output: Germany

console.log(x.Age); // Output: 56

</script>

877
<script>

// Create an object named 'x'

x = {Name: "Albert", Country:"Germany", Age:56};

// Accessing an property_value via object_name["property_name"]

console.log(x["Name"]); // Output: Albert

console.log(x["Country"]); // Output: Germany

return x + y;

console.log(add(14, 13)); // Output: 27

</script>

var c = mult(8, 4);

// Function is called, return value will end up in variable 'c'

function mult(x, y) {

return x * y; // Function returns the product of x and y

console.log(c); // Output: 32 (computed result)

</script>

880
<script>

let x = "Albert Einstein";

console.log(x.replace("Albert", "Elsa")); // Output: Elsa Einstein

</script>

let x = "Albert Einstein";

console.log(x.replace(/ALBERT/i, "Elsa")); // Output: Elsa Einstein

</script>

let x = "Albert and Albert Einstein";

console.log(x.replace("Albert", "Elsa"));

// Output: Elsa and Albert Einstein

console.log(x.replace(/Albert/g, "Elsa"));

// Output: Elsa and Elsa Einstein

</script>

// A string is converted to upper case with toUpperCase() method

var x = "albert";

console.log(x.toUpperCase());

// Output: ALBERT

</script>

881
<script>

// A string is converted to lower case with toLowerCase() method

var x = "ALBERT";

console.log(x.toLowerCase());

// Output: albert

</script>

// The concat() method can be utilized instead of the "+" operator

console.log("Albert" + " " + "Einstein");

// Output: Albert Einstein

console.log("Albert".concat(" ", "Einstein"));

// Output: Albert Einstein

</script>

// Whitespace on both sides of a string is removed using the trim() method

var x = " Albert ";

console.log(x.trim());

console.log(x.padEnd(4,"x")); // Output: 16xx

console.log(x.padEnd(5,"x")); // Output: 16xxx

</script>

var x = 16;

// convert the number 16 to a numeric string "16"

var y = x.toString();

console.log(y.padStart(4,"x")); // Output: xx16

console.log(y.padEnd(4,"x")); // Output: 16xx

</script>

884
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
E i n s t e i n

let x= "Einstein";

console.log(x[0]); // Output: E

console.log(x[1]); // Output: i

console.log(x[2]); // Output: n

console.log(x[3]); // Output: s

console.log(x[4]); // Output: t

console.log(x[5]); // Output: e

console.log(x[6]); // Output: i

console.log(x[7]); // Output: n

</script>

The use of split() method to split the

string "Alan Mathison Turing" into words

var x = 'Alan Mathison Turing';

console.log(x.split(' ')); // Output: [ 'Alan', 'Mathison', 'Turing' ]

</script>

885
<script>

var x = 'Alan Mathison Turing';

console.log(x.split(' ', 2)); // Output: [ 'Alan', 'Mathison' ]

</script>

var x = "Sleep well! What is up? It is Albert here. Albert and I are connected.";

console.log(x.split(/[!,?,.]/));

</script>

[ 'Sleep well',

' What is up',

' It is Albert here', Output

' Albert and I are connected',

'' ]

var x = "Sleep well! What is up? It is Albert here. Albert and I are connected.";

console.log(x.split(/([!,?,.])/)); [ 'Sleep well',

'!',
</script>
' What is up',

'?',

' It is Albert here',

'.',

' Albert and I are connected',

Output
'.',

'' ]

886
<script>

console.log(x.match(/ein/g)); // Output: [ 'ein', 'ein' ]

</script>

888
<script>

var x = "Elsa Einstein was Albert Einstein's wife";

console.log(x.startsWith("Elsa")); // Output: true

</script>

890
<script>

The endsWith() method returns true if a string

"Elsa Einstein was Albert Einstein's wife"

ends with a specified text "wife",

otherwise returns false

var x = "Elsa Einstein was Albert Einstein's wife";

console.log(x.endsWith("wife")); // Output: true

</script>

// The toString() method converts a number to a string

var x = 1915;

console.log(x.toString()); // Output: 1915

console.log((156).toString()); // Output: 156

console.log((120 + 42).toString()); // Output: 162

// 120 + 42 = 162

// console.log((162).toString());

</script>

891
<script>

Multiline strings are supported through

template literals. Internet Explorer does

not support template literals

Output:
let x =
Elsa Einstein
`Elsa Einstein
was
was
Albert Einstein's
Albert Einstein's

wife`; wife

console.log(x);

</script>

let x = "Mathison";

let y = "Turing";

console.log(`Alan ${x} ${y}`);

// Output: Alan Mathison Turing

</script>

892
<script>

// The toExponential() method converts a number to its exponential form

var x = 5.496;

console.log(x.toExponential(2)); // Output: 5.50e+0

console.log(x.toExponential(4)); // Output: 5.4960e+0

console.log(x.toExponential(6)); // Output: 5.496000e+0

</script>

The toFixed() method rounds the number "5.496"

to a specified number of decimals

var x = 5.496;

console.log(x.toFixed(0)); // Output: 5

console.log(x.toFixed(2)); // Output: 5.50

console.log(x.toFixed(4)); // Output: 5.4960

console.log(x.toFixed(6)); // Output: 5.496000

</script>

893
<script>

The toPrecision() method formats a number

"5.496" to a specified precision or length

var x = 5.496;

console.log(x.toPrecision()); // Output: 5.496

console.log(x.toPrecision(2)); // Output: 5.5

console.log(x.toPrecision(4)); // Output: 5.496

console.log(x.toPrecision(6)); // Output: 5.49600

</script>

// MAX_VALUE returns the largest possible number in JavaScript

console.log(Number.MAX_VALUE);

// Output: 1.7976931348623157e+308

// MIN_VALUE returns the smallest possible number in JavaScript

console.log(Number.MIN_VALUE);

// Output: 5e-324

</script>

894
<script>

console.log(Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY); // Output: Infinity

console.log(Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY); // Output: -Infinity

console.log(Number.NaN); // Output: NaN

</script>

// JavaScript variables are converted to numbers using the Number() Method

console.log(Number(true)); // Output: 1

console.log(Number(false)); // Output: 0

console.log(Number("54")); // Output: 54

console.log(Number(" 54")); // Output: 54

console.log(Number("54 ")); // Output: 54

console.log(Number(" 54 ")); // Output: 54

console.log(Number("54.96")); // Output: 54

console.log(Number("54,96")); // Output: NaN

console.log(Number("54 96")); // Output: NaN

console.log(Number("Albert")); // Output: NaN

</script>
Not a Number or NaN is returned if the

JavaScript variables cannot be

converted to numbers

895
<script>

console.log(parseInt("54.96")); // Output: 54

console.log(parseFloat("54.96")); // Output: 54.96

</script>

/* Creating an array 'x' and then providing the elements */

x = [];

x[0]= "Apple";

x[1]= "Orange";

x[2]= "Mango";

console.log(x); // Output: [ 'Apple', 'Orange', 'Mango' ]

</script>

/* Creating an array 'x' and then assigning values to it */

x = new Array("Apple", "Orange", "Mango");

console.log(x); // Output: [ 'Apple', 'Orange', 'Mango' ]

</script>

896
<script>

x = ["Apple", "Orange", "Mango"];

// Change the value of the first Array element

x[0] = "Grapes";

console.log(x); // Output: [ 'Grapes', 'Orange', 'Mango' ]

</script>

x = ["Apple", "Orange", "Mango"];

Getting Data Type
// Display the number of array elements

console.log(x.length); // Output: 3
Obtaining the data type
</script>
of an object
<script>

x = ["Apple", "Orange", "Mango"];

The spaces at the beginning of a code line are termed as

indentation. It makes the code easier to read

898
<script>

names = ["Alan", "Albert", "John"]; // an array with 3 elements

console.log(typeof names); // Output: object

// JavaScript array is an object

</script>

names = ["Alan", "Albert", "John"];

console.log(Array.isArray(names)); // Output: true

</script>

Whenever an object is created by a constructor,

the instanceof operator returns true.

When applied to an array,
*/
the instanceof operator

returns a true result

names = ["Alan", "Albert", "John"];

console.log(names instanceof Array); // Output: true

</script>

899
<script>

// All array elements are combined into a string by the join() method

names = ["Alan", "Albert", "John"];

console.log(names.join(" * ")); // Output: Alan * Albert * John

// Merging 2 Arrays "x" and "y"

x = ["Apple", "Orange"];

y = ["Grapes", "Lemon", "Mango"];

console.log(x.concat(y));

// Output: [ 'Apple', 'Orange', 'Grapes', 'Lemon', 'Mango' ]

</script>

<script> [ 'Apple',

// Merging 3 Arrays "x", "y" and "z" 'Orange',

'Grapes',

x = ["Apple", "Orange"]; 'Lemon',

y = ["Grapes", "Lemon", "Mango"]; 'Mango',

z = ["Pear", "Raspberries", "Banana"]; 'Pear',

'Raspberries',
console.log(x.concat(y, z));
'Banana' ]
</script>

901
<script>

x = ["Apple", "Orange"];

console.log(x.concat("Mango"));

// Output: [ 'Apple', 'Orange', 'Mango' ]

</script>

x = ["Apple", "Orange", "Mango", "Pear"];

x.splice(2, 0, "Papaya", "Cherry")

console.log(x);

// Output: [ 'Apple', 'Orange', 'Papaya', 'Cherry', 'Mango', 'Pear' ]

</script>

The position where new elements should be inserted

How many elements should be removed?

"Papaya", "Cherry" The new elements to be inserted

The splice() method returns an array with the deleted items

902
<script>

x = ["Apple", "Orange", "Mango", "Pear"];

x.splice(2, 2, "Papaya", "Cherry")

console.log(x);

// Output: [ 'Apple', 'Orange', 'Papaya', 'Cherry' ]

</script>

// The toString() method turns an array into a string separated by commas

x = ["Apple", "Orange", "Mango", "Pear"];

console.log(x.toString());

// Output: Apple,Orange,Mango,Pear

</script>

// The sort() method sorts an array alphabetically

x = ["Apple", "Grapes", "Banana", "Mango"];

console.log(x.sort());

// Output: [ 'Apple', 'Banana', 'Grapes', 'Mango' ]

</script>

903
<script>

x = [50, 60, 10, 30, 40, 20];

// Sort the array in ascending order

x.sort(function(a, b){return a - b});

console.log(x);

// Output: [ 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 ]

// Sort the array in descending order

x.sort(function(a, b){return b - a});

console.log(x);

// Output: [ 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10 ]

</script>

x = [50, 60, 10, 30, 40, 20];

// Display the highest number in an array

console.log(Math.max.apply(null, x)); // Output: 60

// Display the lowest number in an array

console.log(Math.min.apply(null, x)); // Output: 10

</script>

904
<script>

console.log(Math.E); // Displays Euler's number

// Output: 2.718281828459045

console.log(Math.PI); // Displays PI

// Output: 3.1415926535897935

console.log(Math.SQRT2); // Displays the square root of 2

// Output: 1.4142135623730951

console.log(Math.SQRT1_2); // Displays the square root of 1/2

// Output: 0.7071067811865476

console.log(Math.LN2); // Displays the natural logarithm of 2

// Output: 0.6931471805599453

console.log(Math.LN10); // Displays the natural logarithm of 10

// Output: 2.302585092994046

console.log(Math.LOG2E); // Displays base 2 logarithm of E

// Output: 1.4426950408889634

console.log(Math.LOG10E); // Displays base 10 logarithm of E

// Output: 0.4342944819032518

</script>

905
<script>

// Math.floor() returns the value of "x" rounded down to its nearest integer

x = 4.6;

console.log(Math.floor(x));

// Output: 4

// Math.ceil() returns the value of "x" rounded up to its nearest integer

console.log(Math.ceil(x));

// Output: 5

</script>

// Math.trunc() returns the integer part of "x"

x = 4.6;

console.log(Math.trunc(x)); // Output: 4

y = -4.6;

console.log(Math.trunc(y)); // Output: -4

</script>

906
<script>

// Math.sqrt() method returns the square root of a number "16"

console.log(Math.sqrt(16)); // Output: 4

// Math.min() method returns the lowest value in a list

console.log(Math.min(60, 30, 50, 20, 10, 40)); // Output: 10

// Math.max() method returns the highest value in a list

console.log(Math.max(60, 30, 50, 20, 10, 40)); // Output: 60

// Math.random() method returns a random number between 0 and 1

console.log(Math.random()); // Output: 0.6239112970213929

// Math.log() method returns the natural logarithm of a number "2"

console.log(Math.log(2)); // Output: 0.6931471805599453

How many times we must

multiply 2 to get 16?

// Math.log2() method returns the base 2 logarithm of a number "16"

console.log(Math.log2(16)); // Output: 4

How many times we must

multiply 10 to get 100?

// Math.log10() method returns the base 10 logarithm of a number "100"

console.log(Math.log10(100)); // Output: 2

</script>

907
<script>

// Math.cbrt() method returns the cubic root of a number "81"

console.log(Math.cbrt(81)); // Output: 4.326748710922225

</script>

// Displays a random integer from 0 to 10

console.log(Math.floor(Math.random() * 11));

// Displays a random integer from 0 to 100

console.log(Math.floor(Math.random() * 101));

// Displays a random integer from 1 to 10

console.log(Math.floor(Math.random() * 10) + 1);

// Displays a random integer from 1 to 100

console.log(Math.floor(Math.random() * 100) + 1);

</script>

console.log(Boolean(10 > 9)); // Output: true

console.log(10 > 9); // Output: true

var x = true;

var y = new Boolean(true);

// The Boolean value of 1 is true

// typeof "x" returns boolean

console.log(Boolean(1)); // Output: true
// typeof "y" returns object
// The Boolean value of 0 is false

console.log(Boolean(0)); // Output: false

</script>

908
<script>

var x = 19;

console.log((x < 18) ? "x<18":"x>18"); // Output: x>18

</script>
If the variable "x" is a value below 18, then
x<18 is displayed, otherwise x>18 is displayed

var x=4; JavaScript if – else statement

var y=6;

if(x>y) {

document.write("x is greater than y");

} else {

document.write("y is greater than x");

// Output: y is greater than x

</script>

Currying

The method of breaking down a function with several arguments into a

collection of functions with just one argument each

909
<script>

var x=4;
JavaScript else-if statement
var y=6;

var z=12;

if(x>y&&x>z) {

document.write("x is greater than y and z");

} else if (y>x&&y>z) {

document.write("y is greater than x and z");

} else {

document.write("z is greater than x and y");

} // Output: z is greater than x and y

</script>

2
for(i=1; i<=10; i++)
3
document.write(i);
4
</script>
5

910
<script> Output:
<script>
var i=1; 1
var i=1;
2
do {
while(i<=10) {
3
document.write(i++);
4 console.log(i++);
} while(i<=10)
5 }
</script> 6 </script>
7

JavaScript do-while loop 9 JavaScript while loop

console.log(x[i]);
9

} 36

</script> 3

JavaScript Hoisting

The method by which, prior to code execution, the interpreter

seems to shift the definition of functions, variables, or classes
to the top of their scope. Before a function is declared, hoisting
enables safe use of that function in the code

911
<script>

var ch ='2';
JavaScript Switch case
switch(ch) {

case '1':

document.write("Red");

break;

case '2':

document.write("White");

break;

case '3':
Output:
document.write("Yellow");
White
break;

case '4':

document.write("Green");

break;

default:

document.write("Error");

break;

</script>

var x = 6;

var y = 2;

if(x > y) { alert "Albert" if x is greater than y

alert("Albert");

</script>

912
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

function addNumbers() {

var x = parseInt(document.getElementById("value1").value);

var y = parseInt(document.getElementById("value2").value);

var z = document.getElementById("answer");

z.value = x + y; value1 =

}
value2 =
</script>

Click here
</head>

Answer =

<body>

value1 = <input type ="text" id="value1"/>

<br> <br> value2 = <input type ="text" id="value2"/>

<br> <br> <input type="button" value="Click here" onclick="addNumbers()"/>

<br> <br> Answer = <input type="text" id = "answer"/>

</body>

</html>

913
The above program demonstrates how to get two inputs from the user (i.e., value1 and value2) and
have a button (i.e., Click here) on the page to call a function:

addNumbers()

to process the inputs and output the answer on the console screen.

var x = parseInt(document.getElementById("value1").value);

Creating the variable "x" and assigning it a value

parseInt(document.getElementById("value1").value)

var y = parseInt(document.getElementById("value2").value);

Creating the variable "y" and assigning it a value

parseInt(document.getElementById("value2").value)

parseInt(document.getElementById("value1").value) → get the integer value for "x"

entered in the input field which is defined with id "value1"

914
parseInt(document.getElementById("value2").value) → get the integer value for "y"
entered in the input field which is defined with id "value2"

After entering the values for "x" and "y" in the input fields – if we click on the button

Click here

"on click" in the statement:

<input type="button" value="Click here" onclick="addNumbers()"/>

call the function addNumbers() → within which

var z = document.getElementById("answer");
Statements
z.value = x + y;

are executed − i.e., the entered values for "x" and "y" are added and the answer is entered in the input
field which is defined with id "answer".

for(var i=1; i<=10; i++) {

Output:
if(i==5) {
1
break;
2
}
3
console.log(i);
4

</script>

915
<script> 1

for(var i=1; i<=10; i++) { 2

if (i==5) { 3

continue; 4

} Output 6

7
console.log(i);

8
}

9
</script>
10

// for..of loop iterate over the elements of a string "x"

x = "Alan";
Output:
for(i of x) { A

console.log(i); l

} a

</script> n

// for..of loop iterate over the elements of an array "x"

x = ["Albert", "John", "James"];

Output:
for(i of x) {
Albert
console.log(i);
John
}
James
</script>

916
<script>

// for..of loop iterate over the elements of a Set "x"

x = new Set(["A","B","C"]);
Output:
for(i of x) {
A
console.log(i);
B
} C

</script>

// for..of loop iterate over the elements of a Map "x"

x = new Map([

["Albert", 56],
Output:
["John", 85],
[ 'Albert', 56 ]
["Elsa", 45]
[ 'John', 85 ]
]);
[ 'Elsa', 45 ]
for (i of x) {

console.log(i);

</script>

917
<script>

// Create a Set "x"

x = new Set();

// Add Values to the Set

x.add("A");

x.add("B");

x.add("C");

console.log(x); // Output: Set { 'A', 'B', 'C' }

</script>

// Create a Set "x"

x = new Set();

// Create Variables

var a = "A";

var b = "B";

var c = "C";

// Add Variables to the Set using add() Method

x.add(a);

x.add(b);

x.add(c);

console.log(x); // Output: Set { 'A', 'B', 'C' }

</script>

918
<script>

// Create a Map "x"

x = new Map();

// Add elements to a Map "x" with the set() method

x.set("Albert", 56);

x.set("John", 38);

x.set("Elsa", 46);

console.log(x); // Output: Map { 'Albert' => 56, 'John' => 38, 'Elsa' => 46 }

// The get() method gets the value of a key "Albert" in a Map

console.log(x.get("Albert")); // Output: 56

// Display the number of elements in a Map

console.log(x.size); // Output: 3

// The has() method returns true if a key "Albert" exists in a Map

console.log(x.has("Albert")); // Output: true

// The delete() method removes a Map element "Albert"

x.delete("Albert");

console.log(x); // Output: Map { 'John' => 38, 'Elsa' => 46 }

console.log(x.has("Albert")); // Output: false

</script>

919
<script>
Prevent us from using undeclared variables

"use strict";

x = 5.496;

console.log(x); // Because x is not declared, this will result in an error

</script>

"use strict";

var x = 5.496;

console.log(x); // Output: 5.496

</script>

One of the new features in the ES6

var add = (x, y) => x + y;
edition of JavaScript is the arrow
console.log(add(4, 5)); // Output: 9
function. Compared to conventional
functions, it enables us to create
functions in a cleaner manner
var mult = (x, y) => x * y;

console.log(mult(4, 5)); // Output: 20

var x = () => "Albert";

console.log(x()); // Output: Albert

</script>

920
PHP

Paradigm Imperative, functional, object-oriented, procedural, reflective

Designed by Rasmus Lerdorf

Developer The PHP Development Team, Zend Technologies

First appeared 1995; 25 years ago

Stable release 7.4.12 / 29 October 2020; 3 days ago

Preview release 8.0.0 Release Candidate 3 / October 30, 2020; 2 days ago

Typing Dynamic, weak

discipline
since version 7.0: Rasmus Lerdorf

Gradual Creator of PHP

Implementation C (primarily; some components C++)

language

OS Unix-like, Windows

License PHP License (most of Zend engine under Zend Engine License)

Filename .php , .phtml , .php3 , .php4 , .php5 , .php7 , .phps , .php-s , .pht , .phar
extensions

Website www.php.net

Major implementations

Zend Engine, HHVM, Phalanger, Quercus, Parrot

Influenced by

Perl, HTML, C, C++, Java, Tcl, JavaScript, Hack

Influenced

921
Hack, JSP, ASP

PHP / Hypertext Preprocessor (designed by an Greenlandic-Danish programmer "Rasmus

Code:

<?php

// This is a single-line comment

# This is also a single-line comment

/*
This is a
Comments are lines of code that are not executed when
multiple-line
a program is executed and are typically written inside
comment a block of PHP code to describe how the code works.

*/ PHP comments are only visible while inspecting the PHP

code in a file; they are not visible to end users

PHP Variables

Code:

<?php // A PHP script starts with <?php and ends with ?>

$x = 5 /* + 12 */ + 0;
Declaring and assigning values to Variables
$y = 5;
echo $x + $y; # Display the sum of $x and $y

Output on the screen:

923
689
Code:

<?php
In PHP, a variable starts with the $ sign,
followed by the name of the variable
$txt = "World";
echo "Hello $txt!";

Output on the screen:

Hello World!

PHP echo and print Statements

Code: <?php

# Strip the string from HTML tags

<?php echo strip_tags("Elsa <b>Einstein</b>");

// Output: Elsa Einstein

$txt = "World";
?>
echo "Hello $txt!";
print "Hello $txt!";

Output on the screen:

Hello World!Hello World!

924
691
PHP $GLOBALS

Code:

The superglobal variable $GLOBALS is used to

<?php
access global variables from anywhere in the
$x = 75; PHP program. All global variables are stored in
Global variables
$y = 25; PHP in an array named $GLOBALS[index]. The
index holds the name of the variable
function addition() {
$GLOBALS['z'] = $GLOBALS['x'] + $GLOBALS['y'];
}
addition(); echo
$z;
?>

Output on the screen:

100

PHP Data Types

Code:

<?php

$x = 7982;

$y = 798.2;

var_dump($x); // The var_dump() function returns the

data type and value of a variable
var_dump($y);

Output on the screen:

int(7982)

float(798.2)

925
PHP Strings

Code:

<?php
Return the length of the
echo strlen("Hello world!"); string "Hello world!"

Output on the screen:

Code:

<?php
Return the number of words found
echo str_word_count("Alan Turing");
in the string "Alan Turing"
?>

Output on the screen:

Code:

<?php
Reverse the string "Alan Turing"
echo strrev("Alan Turing");

<?php
The abs() function returns the absolute
echo(abs(−6.27)); (positive) value of a number
?>

928
695
Output on the screen:

6.27

Code:

<?php

echo(sqrt(16)); The sqrt() function returns the square root of a number

Output on the screen:

Code:

echo greeting;
Specifies that the constant name

?> is case-insensitive

Output on the screen:

Hello World!

930
695
Code:

<?php
define("fruits", [
"Apple",
"Mango", Creating an Array constant using the define() function

"Orange"

]);

echo fruits[1];

Output on the screen:

Mango

Code:

<?php

define("GREETING", "Hello World!");

function myfunc() { Even though a constant in this program

echo GREETING; is defined outside of a function, the

} function still uses the constant

myfunc();

Output on the screen:

Hello World!

931
695
PHP Operators

Code:

<?php
// Convert the first character of each word to uppercase
<?php echo ucwords("albert einstein");
# Output: Albert Einstein
?>
$x = 12;

$y = 6;

echo $x + $y; // Addition

echo "\n";
echo $x - $y; // Subtraction
echo "\n";
echo $x / $y; // Division
echo "\n";
echo $x * $y; // Multiplication
echo "\n";
echo $x % $y; // Modulus

Output on the screen:

18
6
2
72
0

932
695
Code:

<?php

$num1=2;

$num2=3;

$num3 = $num1 + 1; // Increments $num1 by one

$num4 = $num1 - 1; // Decrements $num1 by one

$num5 = $num2 + 1; // Increments $num2 by one

$num6 = $num2 - 1; // Decrements $num2 by one

echo ("\n The incremented value of $num1 = $num3");

echo ("\n The decremented value of $num1 = $num4");

echo ("\n The incremented value of $num2 = $num5");

echo ("\n The decremented value of $num2 = $num6");

Output on the screen:

The incremented value of 2 = 3

The decremented value of 2 = 1

The incremented value of 3 = 4

The decremented value of 3 = 2

PHP if Statement

Code:

933
695
<?php

$x = 25;

// Output "Albert Einstein" if $x is less than 21

if($x > 21) {

echo "Albert Einstein";
}

Output on the screen:

Albert Einstein

PHP if – else Statement

Code:

<?php
$x = 4.5;
Output "x is greater than y" if
$y=5;
$x is greater than $y, and "y is
if($x>$y) {
greater than x" otherwise
echo ("x is greater than y");

} else {

echo ("y is greater than x");

Output on the screen:

y is greater than x

934
695
PHP else if Statement <?php
Code: /*
Replace the characters "ALBERT" (case-insensitive)
<?php in the string "Albert Einstein" with "Elsa"
*/
$x = 4.5;
echo str_ireplace("ALBERT", "Elsa", "Albert Einstein");
$y = 5; # Output: Elsa Einstein
$z = 6; ?>

if ($x>$y && $x>z) {

echo ("$x is greater than $y and $z");

} else if ($y>$z && $y>x) {

echo ("$y is greater than $x and $z");

else {

echo ("$z is greater than $x and $y");

Output on the screen:

6 is greater than 4.5 and 5

<?php

$x = 5496;

var_dump(is_numeric($x)); Check if the variable is numeric

# Output: bool(true)

935
695
PHP switch Statement

Code:

<?php

$ch ='3';

switch($ch) { The switch statement in PHP is used to execute

a single statement from multiple conditions
case '1':

echo "Red";

break;

case '2': <?php

echo "White";
$x = 54.960;
break;

case '3': /*
Prints the value of above integer
echo "Yellow";
variable as a numeric string
break;
*/
case '4':
echo strval($x);
echo "Green";

break;
?>
default:

echo "Error";

break;

Output on the screen:

Yellow

936
695
PHP Loops

Code:

<?php

$i = 1;
PHP while Loop
while($i <= 10) {
echo "\n $i ";
$i++;

Output on the screen: <?php

1 # Break a string "x" into an array
2 $x = "Albert Einstein";
3 print_r(explode(" ",$x));
4 ?>
5 Output:
6
Array
7
(
8
[0] => Albert
9 [1] => Einstein
10 )

Code:

<?php
$i = 1;

do { PHP do-while Loop

echo "\n $i ";

$i++;
} while($i <= 9);
?>

937
695
Output on the screen:
<?php
1 # Repeat the string "Albert" 3 times
2 echo str_repeat("Albert ",3);
3 // Output: Albert Albert Albert
4 ?>
5
6 <?php
7 # Randomly shuffle all characters of a string "Albert"
8 echo str_shuffle("Albert");
9 // Output: eAtrbl
?>
Code:

<?php

for($i=1; $i<=10; $i++) PHP for Loop

echo ("\n $i");
?>

<?php
Output on the screen:

1 // Convert all characters to Lowercase

2 echo strtolower("ALBERT");
3 # Output: albert
4
5 echo "\n";
6
7 // Convert all characters to Uppercase

8 echo strtoupper("albert");

9 # Output: ALBERT

10
?>

938
695
Code:
PHP foreach Loop

<?php
$fruits = array("Apple", "Mango", "Kiwi", "Orange");

foreach ($fruits as $value) {

echo "$value \n";
<?php
}
?>
# Convert the first character of "alan" to uppercase
echo ucfirst("alan");
// Output: Alan
Output on the screen:

Apple echo "\n";

Mango
Kiwi # Convert the first character of "Alan" to lowercase

Orange echo lcfirst("Alan");

// Output: alan

Code: ?>

<?php
PHP Break
for($x = 0; $x < 6; $x++) {
if($x == 4) {
break;
This program jumps out of the
}
loop when "x" is equal to 4
echo "$x \n";
}

939
695
Output on the screen:

0
1
2
3

Code:

<?php
for($x = 0; $x < 6; $x++) { PHP Continue
if ($x == 4) {
continue;
} This program skips the value of "4"
echo "$x \n";
}
?>

Output on the screen:

0
1
2
3
5

<?php

$x = "Albert";
Check whether a variable "x" is
var_dump(is_string($x));
of type string or not
# Output: bool(true)

940
695
PHP Functions

Code:

<?php <?php
function addition($a, $b) { function myfunc() {
return $a + $b; echo "Albert Einstein";

} }

$sum = addition(4, 3);

myfunc(); // call the function
echo "The sum of two numbers = $sum "; # Output: Albert Einstein
?>

Output on the screen:

The sum of two numbers = 7

PHP Arrays

Code:

<?php
An array stores multiple values
$x = array("Apple", "Orange", "Mango"); in one single variable

echo "I like " . $x[0] . ", " . $x[1] . " and " . $x[2] . " fruits";

Output on the screen:

I like Apple, Orange and Mango fruits

941
695
Code:

<?php The array() function is used to create an array

$x = array("Apple", "Orange", "Mango");

echo count($x); Returns the length (the number of elements) of an array

Output on the screen:

<?php

$x = array("Apple", "Orange", "Mango");

var_dump(is_array($x)); Check whether a variable is an array or not

# Output: bool(true)

<?php
$x = NULL;
var_dump(is_null($x)); Check whether a variable is NULL or not
# Output: bool(true)
?>

<?php
$x = true; // boolean value
var_dump(is_scalar($x)); # Output: bool(true) Check whether a variable
is a scalar or not
$y = 5; // integer value
var_dump(is_scalar($y)); # Output: bool(true)
?>

942
695
<?php

# Remove the backslash in front of "Einstein"

echo stripcslashes("Albert \Einstein");

// Output: Albert Einstein

<?php

# Return the ASCII value of "B"

echo ord("B");

// Output: 66

<?php

// Add a backslash in front of each double quote

$x = addslashes('Elsa "Albert" Einstein');

echo($x);

# Output: Elsa \"Albert\" Einstein

<?php

// Split the string after each character and add "*" after each split

$x = "Alan";

echo chunk_split($x,1,"*");

# Output: A*l*a*n*

943
A system that carries information
between 2 or more entities, in the
Computer network
form of electric signals

Antifragile

A characteristic property that enables

software systems to become more capable
or perform better when they experience
stress, errors, malfunctions, or failures

Local Area Network (LAN) Wide Area Network (WAN)

Network inside your home Network between Towns, states, countries

Continuous Quality

A rigorous strategy to identify and

correct software application flaws
Request at every stage of the software
development cycle
Client Server

Response

Agile Project Management

A methodology of managing
software development projects that
• HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol iteratively emphasizes frequent
• URL: Uniform Resource Locator "http://www.myw3schools.com" releases and incorporates customer
feedback at every stage
• HTML: Hypertext Markup Language

• VRML: Virtual Reality Markup Language

944
Computer vision → Write computer programs that can interpret images

Technology to convert scanned

Optical character recognition (OCR)
docs to text
Root Cause Analysis: The process of Staging Environment: A nearly exact
identifying the root cause of problems in copy of a production environment used
order to prevent them from happening for the testing of the software application
to make sure it works properly before
Face detection → Technology to detect faces deployment

Binary 0 or 1

Octal (0 −7)

Hexadecimal (0 – 9) + (A− F)

Decimal (0 – 9)

Provisioning

• 0 = false = no
The process of setting up IT infrastructure
Booleans • 1 = true = yes

Model Based Testing

A software testing technique where run time behavior of software application under testing is
examined against predictions made by a model

945
• Requirements analysis
• Design Software Project

• Construction Management

• Testing
The phrase "internet surfing" was coined by a
librarian named Jean Armour Polly in 1992

Symbolics.com was the

first registered domain

Enables users to connect to each other's

Internet peer-to-peer (P2P) hard disks and exchange files directly

Self-Service Deployment

Automating deployment procedures to the extent where developers can

give direct deployment authority to project managers or even clients

Python code:

# prints decimal value '144' in binary form Apache ZooKeeper

print("{0:b}".format(144)) # Output: 10010000 An open source Apache project that

# prints decimal value '144' in octal form offers a centralized service for
configuring large clusters of distributed
print("{0:o}".format(144)) # Output: 220
systems and offering identification,
# prints decimal value '144' in hexadecimal form synchronization and group services

print("{0:x}".format(144)) # Output: 90

946
Description:

Find files edited more than 3 days ago.

print("{:5d}".format(16))
print("{:<5d}".format(16))
print("{:<05d}".format(16))
print("{:>5d}".format(16))
Command:
print("{:>05d}".format(16))
print("{:^5d}".format(16))
find . -type f -mtime +3
print("{:=5d}".format(-16))
print("{:^10.3f}".format(16.45556))
print("{:=8.3f}".format(-16.45556))

Description: Output:

Find files edited in the last 24 hours. 16

16
16000
16
00016
Command:
16
- 16
find . -type f -mtime -1
16.456
- 16.456

Description:

Find files that have more than 100 characters (bytes) in them.

Command:

find . -type f -size +100c

947
Description:

Find files bigger than 100 KB but smaller than 1 MB.

Command:

find . -type f -size +100k -size -1M

Description:

Deletes all the files edited in the last 24 hours.

print("{:^5}".format("Alan")) # Output: Alan

Command: • print("{:.3}".format("albert"))

• print("{:5.3}".format("albert"))
find . -type f -mtime -1 -delete
• print("{:>5.3}".format("albert"))

• print("{:^5.3}".format("albert"))

• print("{:*^5.3}".format("albert"))
Description:

List all files including hidden files. Output:

alb
alb

Command: alb
alb
*alb*

948
ls -a

Description:

List Files and Directories with "/" Character at the End.

Command: names=["John", "Alan", "Albert", "Mary"]

Find all 30 MB files.

Command:

find / -size 30M

x={100,200,300,400,500,600}
x.remove(300)
print(x) # Output: {100, 200, 400, 500, 600}
x.discard(300)
print(x) # Output: {100, 200, 400, 500, 600}

951
Description:

Find files with sizes between 100 - 200MB.

Command:

find / -size +100M -size -200M

Description:
a={100,200,300,400}
b={300,400,500,600}
List directories larger than 20 KB.
print(a.intersection(b))
# Output: {400, 300}
print(a&b)
# Output: {400, 300}
Command:

find / -type d -size +20k

Description: a={100,200,300,400}
b={300,400,500,600}
print(a.difference(b))
Find empty files and directories.
# Output: {200, 100}
print(a-b)
# Output: {200, 100}
print(b.difference(a))
Command: # Output: {600, 500}
print(b-a)
find ./ -type f -size 0 # Output: {600, 500}

952
Description:

List files modified within the last 17 hours.

a={100,200,300,400}
b={300,400,500,600}
print(a.symmetric_difference(b))
Command: # Output: {100, 200, 500, 600}
print(a^b)
find . -mtime -17 -type f # Output: {100, 200, 500, 600}
print(b.symmetric_difference(a))
# Output: {100, 200, 500, 600}
print(b^a)

Description: # Output: {100, 200, 500, 600}

List directories modified within the last 10 days.

Command:

find . -mtime -10 -type d print({i*i for i in range(4)})

# Output: {0, 1, 4, 9}
print({2**i for i in range(4)})
# Output: {8, 1, 2, 4}

Description:

List all files modified between 6 and 15 days ago in the home directory.

Command:

953
find /home -type f -mtime +6 -mtime -15

Description: a=lambda i:i*i

print(a(2)) # Output: 4
print(a(6)) # Output: 36
Display files with permission 777.

Command:
x=open("1.txt",'w')

find -perm 777 print(x.name) # File name

# Output: 1.txt
print(x.mode) # File mode
# Output: w
print(x.readable()) # Is File readable
Description: # Output: False
print(x.writable()) # Is File writable
List files owned by a user (manju). # Output: True
print(x.closed) # Is File closed
# Output: False
x.close()

Command: print(x.closed) # Is File closed

# Output: True
find /home -user manju

Description:

Find all text files owned by user "manju".

954
Command:

find /home -user manju -iname "*.txt"

Description:

Find and list files and directories together with their permissions.

Command:

find -name "*.conf" | ls -l

x=open("1.txt",'w')
x.write("Ethel Sara Stoney\n")
x.write("Julius Mathison Turing\n")

Description: x.write("Alan Mathison Turing\n")

print("Names added to the 1.txt file successfully")
x.close()
List directories only.

# Output: Names added to the 1.txt file successfully

Command: Ethel Sara Stoney

Julius Mathison Turing 1.txt
ls -d */ Alan Mathison Turing

Description:

List multiple files on a single line.

955
Command:

ls --format=comma

Description: Attack Vector

A technique that a Cybercriminal

View the process of a specific user "manju".
employs to obtain unauthorized
access to a computer or network in
order to take advantage of security
vulnerabilities
Command:

ps -u manju

Description:

Execute a previous command starting with a specific letter "c".

x=open("1.txt",'w')
a=["John\n","Mary\n","James\n","Albert"]
x.writelines(a)
Command: print("List of names added to the 1.txt file successfully")
x.close()
!c

# Output: List of names added to the 1.txt file successfully

John
Mary
1.txt
James
Albert

956
Description:

Display BIOS information (You need elevated permissions to run this).

Command:

dmidecode -t 0

Description:

Display CPU information (You need elevated permissions to run this).

x=open("1.txt",'r')
i=x.read()
print(i)
Command: x.close()

dmidecode -t 4
# Output:
John
Mary
James
Description: Albert

View all the system logs. x=open("1.txt",'r')

i=x.read(10)
print(i)
x.close()

Command:
# Output:
John
gnome-system-log
Mary

957
Description:
x=open("1.txt",'r')
Identify SSH Client Version. print(x.readline(),end='')
print(x.readline(),end='')
print(x.readline(),end='')
print(x.readline(),end='')

Command: x.close()

ssh -V # Output:
John
Mary
James

Description:
Albert

Display total connect time of users. x=open("1.txt",'r')

print(x.readline(),end='')
print(x.readline(),end='')
x.close()
Command:
# Output:
ac –d John
Mary

Description: # Display all contents of current working directory

# including directories and files
Display connect time for all the users.
import os
for dirpath,dirnames,filenames in os.walk('.'):
print(dirpath) # prints current directory path
print(dirnames) # prints directories
Command:
print(filenames) # prints files
print()

958
ac -p

Description:

Display connect time report for a specific user "manju".

Command:

ac -d manju

import os
# prints all statistics of 1.txt file
print(os.stat("1.txt"))
Description:

Display the modules compiled inside Apache.

import os
import datetime
# prints the File Size in Bytes
Command: print(os.stat("1.txt").st_size)
# prints the File Last Accessed Time
httpd -l print(datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(os.stat("1.txt").st_atime))
# prints the File Last Modified Time
print(datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(os.stat("1.txt").st_mtime))

Description:

View Processes Owned by Current User.

Output:

25
2022-06-28 02:20:25.945846
2022-07-08 04:53:18.734652

959
Command:

ps U $USER

Description:

Display the information about the file system Type.

Operator Used for

+ • Arithmetic addition
Command: print(22+55) # Output: 77

• String concatenation
df -Tha print('Alb'+'ert') # Output: Albert

* • Multiplication
print(2*5) # Output: 10

• String repetition

Description: print('alan'*2) # Output: alanalan

Display Active Connections with Process ID and Program Name.

Command: import gc
print(gc.isenabled()) # Is Garbage Collector enabled
netstat -tap # Output: True
gc.disable() # Garbage Collector is disabled
print(gc.isenabled()) # Is Garbage Collector enabled
# Output: False
gc.enable() # Garbage Collector is enabled
Description: print(gc.isenabled()) # Is Garbage Collector enabled
# Output: True

Linux User Mode

Graphical user interface

Command Line Interface

Load Linux into memory and start the OS

LILO (Linux Loader)

Logical Volume Manager (LVM)

The maximum length for a filename under

Linux is 255 bytes.

Manage hard drives and other

storage devices on linux

961
C Exercises

Question 1 Maturity Quality Attribute:

How well a software system satisfies

Question: dependability requirements when
used normally
Write a program to print Hello World!.

Solution:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() { Modeling Tool
printf("Hello, World!");
A tool for building models
return 0;
}

Accessibility Quality Attribute:

Question 2
How well and how efficiently a software
application can be used to achieve a
Question: specific purpose in a specific context of
use by people with the broadest range of
Write a program to Find Sum of two numbers. features and skills

Solution:

962
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int x;
Acyclic Dependencies Principle:
int y;
int sum;
A key strategy for developing the structure of software
systems in such a way that the dependencies between the
printf("Enter a number : \n");
components of the software system do not form a cycle
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("Enter a number : \n");
scanf("%d", &y);
sum = x + y;
printf("Sum of %d + %d = %d", x, y, sum);
return 0;
}

Question 3 Assessment: The process of collecting data

about a software system's performance,
threats, or weaknesses
Question:

Write a program to Find Difference of two numbers.

Solution:
Adaptability Quality Attribute:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() { How well and how efficiently a software
int x; system may be modified to work in various
int y;
operational or usage situations with various
int difference;
hardware, software, or other factors

963
printf("Enter a number : \n");
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("Enter a number : \n");
A pattern that appears on a
scanf("%d", &y);
difference = x - y; regular basis is referred to as

printf("Difference of %d - %d = %d", x, y, difference); seasonality in time-series data

return 0;
}

Architecture evaluation:
Question 4
Evaluation of a software
architecture using quantitative or
Question: qualitative methods

Write a program to Find Division of two numbers.

Solution:
Architectural Decision

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int x;
A decision that significantly or sustainably
int y;
affects the software's architecture
int division;

printf("Enter a number : \n");

scanf("%d", &x); Magnet loss:
printf("Enter a number : \n");
A kind of loss function utilized in machine learning
scanf("%d", &y);
issues with a distance metric learning focus
division = x / y;

964
printf("Division of %d / %d = %d", x, y, division);
return 0;
}

Availability Quality Attribute:

Question 5
How well and how efficiently a software system is
usable and accessible when needed
Question:

Write a program to Calculate Area and Circumference of Circle.

Appropriateness Recognizability Quality Attribute:

Solution:
How well consumers can determine whether a software application is
#include <stdio.h> appropriate and suitable for their needs
int main() {
int r;
static float PI = 3.141592;
float area; Architecture rational:
float Circumference;
Documentation of explanation for
architectural decisions taken
printf("Enter the radius of Circle : \n");

scanf("%d", &r);

area = PI*r*r;

Circumference = 2*PI*r;

printf("Area of circle with radius %d = %f \n", r, area);

printf("Circumference of circle with radius %d = %f \n", r, Circumference);

return 0;

965
}

Capacity Quality Attribute:

Question 6 How well a software product parameter's maximum limits

conform to specifications

Question:

Write a program to Calculate Area of Rectangle.

Solution: Learnability Quality Attribute:

#include <stdio.h> How well a software application may be utilized by specific users to
int main() { meet specific goals like becoming effective, efficient, risk-free, and
int l; satisfied users of the application in a certain usage environment
int b;
long area;

printf("Enter the Length of a Rectangle : \n");

scanf("%d", &l);
printf("Enter the Breadth of a Rectangle : \n");
scanf("%d", &b);
area = l*b;
printf("Area of Rectangle with Length as %d and Breadth as %d = %ld", l, b, area);
return 0;
}

The Common Reuse Principle

We should not be dependent on resources we don't actually need

966
Question 7
The Reusability Principle:

It should be simple to reuse software components

Question:

Write a program to Calculate Area of Parallelogram.

Solution:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() { Coupling:
int h;
int b; A measure of how closely two software
long area; components are connected

printf("Enter the height of a Parallelogram : \n");

scanf("%d", &h);
printf("Enter the Base of a Parallelogram : \n");
scanf("%d", &b);
area = h*b;
printf("Area of Parallelogram with Height as %d and Base as %d = %ld ", h, b, area);
return 0;
}

 Accidental complexity: Difficulties that coders accidentally create for themselves when attempting

to tackle a problem

 Essential complexity: How challenging a task is − regardless of our level of expertise, the tools we

utilize, or the innovative and eye-catching architecture pattern we used to address the issue

967
Question 8
Mahout: An Apache open-source framework intended for
the development of machine learning models
Question:

Write a program to Calculate Area of Trapezoid.

Confidentiality Quality Attribute:

Solution:
How well and how efficiently a software system makes sure
#include <stdio.h>
that information is only available to those who have access
int main() {
int h;
int b1,b2;
long area;
Kerckhoffs' Principle:

In order to accomplish the security of the

printf("Enter the Height of a Trapezoid : \n"); encrypted messages, a cryptographic
scanf("%d", &h); method must not need to be kept hidden
printf("Enter the Base 1 value : \n");
scanf("%d", &b1);
printf("Enter the Base 2 value : \n");
scanf("%d", &b2);
area = (h/2)*(b1 + b2);
printf("Area of Trapezoid with Height as %d, Base 1 as %d and Base 2 as %d = %ld", h, b1, b2, area);
return 0;
}

Constraint:

A limit on how flexible we may be when developing, planning, executing, or

otherwise delivering a solution to a problem

968
Question 9 Installability Quality Attribute:

The extent of efficacy and efficiency required to install or remove a

Question: software application in a given environment

Write a program to Calculate Volume of Cube.

Solution: Co-Existence Quality Attribute:

How well and how efficiently a software application may

#include <stdio.h>
effectively carry out its necessary functions while coexisting with
int main() {
int s;
other applications in the same environment and using the same

long volume; resources without negatively affecting any other application

printf("Enter the side of cube : \n");

scanf("%d", &s);
volume = s*s*s;
printf("Volume of Cube with Side as %d = %ld ",s, volume);
return 0;
}

Question 10 Fault Tolerance Quality Attribute:

How well and how efficiently a software system performs as

Question: expected despite possessing hardware or software issues

Write a program to Calculate Volume of Cylinder.

969
Solution:

#include <stdio.h> Interoperability Quality Attribute:

int main() {
The extent to which two or more software systems can
const float PI = 3.141592;
share information and then use that information
float r, h, volume;

printf("Enter Radius and Height of the Cylinder: \n");

scanf("%f%f", &r, &h);
volume = PI * r * r * h;
printf("Volume of Cylinder is: %f", volume);
return 0;
}

Question 11 Functional Appropriateness Quality Attribute:

How well and how efficiently the functions facilitate the completion
of particular tasks and goals
Question:

Write a program to Calculate Area of an Ellipse.

Solution:
Functional Correctness Quality Attribute:
#include <stdio.h> How well and how efficiently a software system delivers the
#define PI 3.141592
required level of precision and the accurate results
int main() {

float major, minor, area;

printf("Enter length of major axis: \n");
scanf("%f", &major);

970
printf("Enter length of minor axis: \n");
scanf("%f", &minor); Integrity Quality Attribute:
area = PI * major * minor;
printf("Area of an ellipse = %0.4f", area); How well a software system prevents

return 0; against unwanted access and data

} alteration

Hybrid architecture style:

Question 12
Combination of 2 or more already-existing
architectural designs or patterns
Question:

Write a program to Calculate Volume of Pyramid.

Solution:

#include <stdio.h>
#define PI 3.141592 Modifiability Quality Attribute:
int main() {
How well a software application may be updated

int b;
quickly and economically without introducing flaws

int h; or lowering the quality of the application

float volume;

printf("Enter the Base Area of Pyramid : \n");

MapReduce:
scanf("%d", &b);
A Google-developed application that
printf("Enter the Height of Pyramid : \n");
enables huge data processing on a
scanf("%d", &h); parallel, distributed cluster
volume = (1/3)*b*h;

971
printf("Volume of Pyramid with Base Area as %d and Height as %d = %f", b, h, volume);

return 0;

Modularity Quality Attribute:

Question 13
The extent to which a software system is made up of distinct components −
so that changing one of them barely affects the other components
Question:

Write a program to Calculate Volume of Cone.

Non-repudiation Quality Attribute:

Solution:
How well events or acts may be definitively demonstrated to have
#include <stdio.h>
occurred so that they cannot thereafter be reversed
int main() {

int h;
int r;
float volume; Markov chain:
float PI = 3.141592;
A stochastic model that depicts a series of conceivable
printf("Enter the Radius of Cone : \n");
events where each event's likelihood solely depends on
scanf("%d", &r);
the condition obtained in the preceding event
printf("Enter the Height of Cone : \n");
scanf("%d", &h);
volume = 1/3 * PI*r*r*h;
printf("Volume of Cone with Radius as %d and Height as %d = %f", r, h, volume);
return 0;
}

972
Question 14 Operability Quality Attribute:

The extent to which a software application contains features

Question: that make it simple to use and manage

Write a program to Calculate Volume of Sphere.

Solution:

#include <stdio.h>
Open-Close-Principle:
int main() {

It should not be necessary to modify current code in order to

int r;
add functionality to the software application
float volume;
float PI = 3.141592;
printf("Enter the Radius of Sphere : \n");
scanf("%d", &r);
volume = (4/3)*(PI*r*r*r);
printf("Volume of Sphere with Radius as %d = %f", r, volume);
return 0;
}

Portability Quality Attribute:

Question 15
The ease and efficacy with which a software system can be adapted to
a different hardware, software, or operating environment
Question:

Write a program to Calculate Volume of Ellipsoid.

973
Solution:
Perfect Forward Secrecy:
#include <stdio.h> A cryptographic protocol's ability to prevent an attacker
int main() {
from obtaining anything about short-term session keys
through the breach of long-term keys
int r1,r2,r3;
float volume;
float PI = 3.141592;
printf("Enter the Radius of the ellipsoid of axis 1 : \n");
scanf("%d", &r1);
printf("Enter the Radius of the ellipsoid of axis 2 : \n");
scanf("%d", &r2);
printf("Enter the Radius of the ellipsoid of axis 3 : \n");
scanf("%d", &r3);
volume = (4/3)*(PI*r1*r2*r3);
printf("Volume of Ellipsoid with (r1,r2,r3) as (%d,%d,%d) = %f",r1,r2,r3,volume);
return 0;
}

Performance Efficiency Quality Attribute:

Question 16
Performance as a function of the quantity of resources consumed
under the specified circumstances
Question:

Write a program to Calculate Surface area of Cube.

Markov decision process:

Solution:
A stochastic model in which an agent makes decisions and
#include <stdio.h> those decisions have random effects

974
int main() {
Qualitative evaluation:

int side; Examining or determining whether a

long surfacearea; software's architecture can achieve the desired
printf("Enter the Side of Cube : \n"); or necessary key objectives
scanf("%d", &side);
surfacearea = 6*side*side;
printf("Surface area of Cube with side as %d = %ld", side, surfacearea);
return 0;
}

Quality attribute:
Question 17
The extent to which a software application has the
desired set of characteristics
Question:

Write a program to Calculate Surface area of Sphere.

Solution: Recoverability Quality Attribute:

#include <stdio.h> The extent to which a software system can restore its
int main() { desired state and recover any immediately damaged
data in the case of an interruption or failure
int r;
float PI = 3.141592;
float surfacearea;
Markov property:
printf("Enter the Radius of Sphere : \n");
scanf("%d", &r); Future Markov process evolution is
surfacearea = 4*PI*r*r; solely dependent on the current situation
and is not influenced by the past

975
printf("Surface area of Sphere with radius as %d = %lf", r, surfacearea);
return 0;
}

Question 18 Redesign:

The modification of software components so that they carry out the same

Question: function as previously but in a new method and maybe by a different means

Write a program to Generate Multiplication Table.

Solution: Replaceability Quality Attribute:

The extent to which a software application can perform the

#include <stdio.h>
function of another specific software application in the same
int main() {
environment and for the same purpose

int number;
int i = 1;
printf("Enter number to generate Multiplication Table : \n");
scanf("%d", &number);
printf("Multiplication Table of %d : \n", number);
for(i; i <11; i++) {
Matplotlib:
printf("%d x %d = %d \n", number, i, i*number);
A Python open-source framework that
}
makes it simple to produce animated and
return 0;
interactive data visualization
}

976
Question 19 Mean Reciprocal Rank:

A statistic used to assess any process that generates a list of potential answers to a

Question: sample of questions, sorted by likelihood that the answers are correct

Write a program to Compute Simple Interest.

Solution:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() { Reliability Quality Attribute:

int principal; The extent to which a software application carries out specific
int rate; tasks under specific circumstances for a specific amount of time
int duration;
float SI;
printf("Enter Principal Amount : \n");
scanf("%d", &principal);
printf("Enter Rate of Interest : \n");
Resource Utilization Quality Attribute:
scanf("%d", &rate);
printf("Enter Duration : \n"); The extent to which a software application complies
scanf("%d", &duration); with requirements in terms of the types and amounts
SI = (principal*duration*rate)/100; of resources it uses to carry out its functions
printf("Simple Interest : %lf", SI);
return 0;
}

Reuse/Release Equivalence Principle:

(Anything that we reuse needs to be released and tracked as well)

The anything of reuse cannot be less than the anything of release

977
Question 20 Mini-batch:

A tiny collection of data that is randomly chosen from all possible examples

Question: and delivered to the machine learning model in a single iteration for training

Write a program to Convert Degree to Fahrenheit.

Solution:
Round-trip engineering:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() { The idea of being able to update a
model in any way and also the code
float degree, fahrenheit; produced by that model
printf("Enter Temperature in Degrees : \n");
scanf("%f", &degree);
fahrenheit = (1.8*degree)+32;
printf("%f Degree in Fahrenheit : %f", degree, fahrenheit);
return 0;
}

Stable Abstractions Principle:

Question 21
The more stable a software component
is, the more abstract it is
Question:

Write a program to Convert Fahrenheit to Degree.

978
Solution:

User Error Protection Quality Attribute:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() { How well a software system prevents users against
committing errors
float degree;
float fahrenheit;
printf("Enter Temperature in Fahrenheit : \n");
scanf("%f", &fahrenheit);
degree = ((fahrenheit-32)*5)/9;
printf("%f Fahrenheit in Degree Celsius = %f", fahrenheit, degree);
return 0;
}

3 Goals of Information Security:

Question 22
 Reliability

Question:  Confidentiality

Write a program to Convert Meters to Feet.  Accessibility

Solution:
Sensitivity point:
#include <stdio.h>
One component is a sensitivity point if it controls both
int main() {
runtime performance and reliability

float meter;
float feet;
printf("Enter Length in Meters : \n");
scanf("%f", &meter);

979
feet = (meter*3.2808);
printf("%f meter in feet = %f", meter, feet);
return 0;
}

Security Quality Attribute: How well a software system safeguards

Question 23 information and data so that users or other software systems can access it to
the extent necessary for their various levels of authorization

Question:

Write a program to Convert Feet to Meters.

Solution: System of Interest:

The software system whose architecture is being taken into

#include <stdio.h>
account when creating an architectural description
int main() {

float meter;
Testability Quality Attribute:
float feet;
printf("Enter Length in Feet : \n");
How effectively and efficiently test
scanf("%f", &feet);
requirements for a software application can be
meter = (feet/3.2808);
defined, and tests can be conducted to see if
printf("%f Feet in Meter = %f", feet, meter);
those requirements are fulfilled
return 0;
}

Time Behavior Quality Attribute: How well a software system satisfies requirements in terms of
response, processing and delivery performance while carrying out its functions

980
Question 24
Minimax: A decision rule for reducing the potential loss in a worst-case
(maximum loss) situation that is utilized in artificial intelligence, decision
Question: theory, game theory, statistics and philosophy

Write a program to Convert Feet to Centimeters.

User Interface Aesthetics Quality Attribute:

Solution:
How well a user interface enables the user to interact in a
#include <stdio.h> pleasant and rewarding way
int main() {

float cm;
float feet;
ML-as-a-service:
printf("Enter Length in Feet : \n");
scanf("%f", &feet); Various Machine Learning tools and
cm = 30.48 * feet; technologies that are offered in the cloud as a
printf("%f Feet in Meter = %f", feet, cm); service as part of cloud computing services
return 0;
}

 Forward traceability: All requirements are met by the software's

Question 25 components
 Backward traceability: At least one requirement justifies each
component of the software
Question:

Write a program to Convert Feet to millimeters.

981
Solution:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() { Broker:

A kind of software that coordinates

float mm;
communication, including forwarding requests
float feet;
and transmitting outcomes and exceptions
printf("Enter Length in Feet : \n");
scanf("%f", &feet);
mm = (feet * 304.8);
printf("%f Feet in Millimeter = %f", feet, mm);
return 0;
}
 Lubarsky's Law of Cybernetic Entomology: One additional bug is
always present
 Gallois' Revelation: Foolishness is the only thing that emerges from a
computer when we put foolishness in it

Question 26

Question:

Write a program to Convert Kilometer to Miles.

The Architecture Tradeoff Analysis Method

Solution:
(ATAM)
#include <stdio.h>
int main() { A technique for assessing software architectural vulnerabilities that can
prevent a company from achieving its objectives
float km;
float miles;
printf("Enter Length in Kilometer : \n");
scanf("%f", &km);

982
miles = (0.621371*km);
printf("%f Kilometer in Millimeter = %f", km, miles);
return 0;
}

AWS Management Console:

A simple and user-friendly web-based interface for

managing Amazon Web Services

Question 27

Question:

Write a program to Convert Yard to Foot.

Solution: AWS Auto Scaling:

AWS service that analyses the software application and

#include <stdio.h>
optimizes capacity to ensure consistent, anticipated
int main() {
performance while being cost-effective

float yard;
float foot;
printf("Enter Length in Yard : \n"); Model capacity:
scanf("%f", &yard);
The degree of complexity of problems that a
foot = (3*yard);
ML model can learn. The complexity of the
printf("%f Yard in Foot = %f", yard, foot);
problem the ML model can learn is inversely
return 0;
}
correlated with model capacity

Elastic Beanstalk: AWS solution that enables users to manage and deploy web applications in the
AWS Cloud without having to worry about the infrastructure

983
Question 28 Lambda:

AWS service that enables users to run

Question: code without having to manage
servers or provide security
Write a program to Convert Inch to Cm.

Solution:
AWS Route 53
#include <stdio.h>
AWS Cloud Domain Name System web
int main() {
service that helps business organizations
turn domain names into IP addresses
float inch;
float cm;
printf("Enter Length in inch : \n");
scanf("%f", &inch);
cm = (2.54*inch); In an algorithm for a neural network, a
printf("%f inch in cm = %f", inch, cm); neuron represents a node. One output is
return 0; produced by a neuron from many inputs.
}

AWS Direct Connect:

Question 29
A cloud solution that provides constant, low-latency performance
by connecting your network directly to AWS cloud
Question:

Write a program to convert bytes to kilobytes.

984
Solution:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {

AWS Storage Gateway:

int bytes;
double kilobytes; AWS service that makes it possible for the user's
printf("Enter number of bytes: \n"); existing application to access AWS cloud storage
scanf("%d", &bytes);
kilobytes=bytes/1024.00;
printf("Kilobytes: %.2lf",kilobytes);
return 0;
}

Question 30 Amazon glacier: An affordable AWS storage solution that

offers security measures for data backup and data preservation

Question:

Write a program to convert MB to KB.

Snowball:
Solution:
A data transport solution that moves a lots of data in
#include <stdio.h> and out of the AWS cloud
int main() {

double megabytes, kilobytes;

printf("Please enter the amount of megabytes to convert: \n");
scanf("%lf", &megabytes);
kilobytes = megabytes * 1024;
printf("There are %lf kilobytes in %lf megabytes.", kilobytes, megabytes);

985
return 0;
}

AWS Simple Notification Service:

Question 31
AWS completely managed message delivery solution
that updates the user on their AWS Account status
Question:

Write a program to convert GB to MB.

Amazon Aurora:
Solution:
A large-scale relational database solution created for the cloud that is fully
#include <stdio.h>
compatible with MySQL and PostgreSQL and combines the flexibility,
int main() {
availability and efficiency of high-end economical databases

double gb, mb;

printf("Enter Length in Gigabyte : \n");
scanf("%lf", &gb);
mb = gb*1024; Moving average:

printf("%lf GB = %lf MB", gb, mb); A stock indicator frequently employed in technical
return 0;
analysis that establishes a continuously updated
}
average price to assist smooth out price data

Amazon ElastiCache

AWS managed caching service that sets up, runs, and scales well-known in-memory
data stores that are compatible with open source

986
Question 32
Data Pipeline:

AWS web service that facilitates processing and

Question: movement of data between several AWS
computing and storage services
Write a program to convert KB to MB.

Solution: Amazon Kinesis:

AWS service that gathers, processes,

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
and evaluates live streaming data so we
can quickly respond to new data and
double kb, mb; gain reliably accurate insights
printf("Enter Length in Kilobyte : \n");
scanf("%lf", &kb);
mb = (kb/1024);
printf("%lf KB = %lf MB", kb, mb);
return 0;
}

Amazon Simple Queue Service:

Question 33
AWS managed messaging service that facilitates the scaling and decoupling of
serverless applications, distributed systems and microservices
Question:

Write a program to Convert Kilogram to Pounds.

Solution:

987
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
AWS CloudSearch:
float kg, lbs;
AWS managed service that sets up, manages
printf("Enter Weight in Kilogram : \n");
and scales a search solution for our web
scanf("%f", &kg);
application in a simple and affordable way
lbs = kg*2.20462;
printf("%f Kg = %f Pounds", kg, lbs);
return 0;
}

Question 34 AWS Simple Email Service:

A scalable, adaptable and inexpensive AWS email delivery service

Question:

Write a program to Convert Kilogram to Ounce.

Solution: AWS Identity and Access Management:

A framework that controls secure access to AWS resources and services

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {

float kg, ounce; AWS Simple Workflow Service:

printf("Enter Weight in Kilogram : \n");
An AWS solution that assists developers in
scanf("%f", &kg);
ounce = kg*35.274; managing, monitoring, and auditing multi-step,

printf("%f Kg = %f Ounce \n", kg, ounce); multi-machine application jobs

return 0;

988
Question 35 Amazon Cloudwatch:

AWS monitoring service that provides us with insight into the

Question: functionality and condition of our AWS applications and resources

Write a program to Convert Pounds to Grams.

Solution: AWS Key Management Service:

#include <stdio.h> AWS solution that aids in the creation and management of the
int main() { encryption keys used to encrypt data

float pound, gram;

printf("Enter Weight in Pounds : \n");
scanf("%f", &pound);
gram = pound*453.592;
printf("%f Pound = %f Grams", pound, gram );
return 0;
}

AWS CloudTrail:
Question 36
AWS solution that records usage of the API and AWS
accounts for risk assessment, accountability and surveillance
Question:

Write a program to Calculate total marks and Percentage.

989
Solution:
AWS CloudFormation:
#include <stdio.h> AWS solution that aids in modeling and setting up
int main() {
our AWS resources so we may spend more time
concentrating on our AWS-running apps and less
int algebra, geometry, arithmetic;
time managing those resources
int sum;
float percentage;
printf("Enter Marks Scored in Algebra : \n");
scanf("%d", &algebra); Application virtualization:
printf("Enter Marks Scored in Geometry : \n");
The process of an operating system and an
scanf("%d", &geometry);
application communicating to each other
printf("Enter Marks Scored in Arithmetic : \n");
scanf("%d", &arithmetic); even when they are not directly connected
sum = algebra + geometry + arithmetic;
percentage = (sum*100)/300;
printf("Total marks scored = %d /300 \n", sum );
printf("Percentage Scored = %f", percentage );
return 0;
}

 AWS Developer Tools: A set of services intended to aid users in creating, testing
Question 37 and deploying their own code
 AWS Management Tools: A set of services that enable users to manage, monitor,
automate and deploy all cloud environment components programmatically
Question:

Write a program to Calculate Discount Amount and Discounted Price.

Solution: Multi-class classification problem:

A problem where there are more than two classes for the target variable
#include <stdio.h>

990
int main() {
Block storage:
float price;
A technique of storing data where each
float discountpercentage;
storage volume functions as a separate hard
float discountamount;
disc that is set up by the storage admin
float discountedprice;
printf("Enter Price of Item : \n");
scanf("%f", &price);
printf("Enter Discount Percentage on Item : \n"); MXNet:
scanf("%f", &discountpercentage);
An open-source platform that
discountamount = (discountpercentage*price)/100;
discountedprice = (price-discountamount); facilitates the deployment and

printf("Discount amount : %f \n", discountamount); training of deep neural networks

printf("Discounted price : %f", discountedprice);
return 0;
}

Composable infrastructure: Resources for storing, computing

Question 38
and networking can be handled by software using a web-based interface
since they are separated from their actual locations
Question:

Write a program to Swap two numbers using a Temporary variable.

Cloudless Computing:
Solution:
Releasing developers from restrictions that require
#include <stdio.h>
them to decide whether to deploy in a private or public
int main() {
cloud for any given workload and then stick with that
decision for the lifetime of the application

double first, second, temp;

991
printf("Enter first number : \n");
scanf("%lf", &first);
printf("Enter second number : \n");
scanf("%lf", &second);
printf("Before Swapping => first number : %lf second number : %lf \n", first, second);
temp = first;
first = second;
second = temp;
printf("After Swapping => first number : %lf second number : %lf", first, second);
return 0;
}

Question 39 Digital manufacturing: The application of technologies to the

manufacturing process in order to increase industrial operations' scalability,
effectiveness, and robustness to changing market demands
Question:

Write a program to Swap two numbers without using a Temporary variable.

Solution:
Hybrid Workplace: A scenario where employees have the
#include <stdio.h>
choice of working remotely or in an office as their workplace
int main() {

double first, second;

printf("Enter first number : \n");
scanf("%lf", &first);
printf("Enter second number : \n");
scanf("%lf", &second);
printf("Before Swapping => first number : %lf second number : %lf \n", first, second);

992
first = first + second;
second = first - second;
first = first - second;
printf("After Swapping => first number : %lf second number : %lf", first, second);
return 0;
}

Exascale computing:
Question 40
Computing systems capable of performing a billion billion
calculations per second (1018 calculations per second)
Question:

Write a program to Reverse Digits of a Number.

Hypervisor :
Solution:
Software that makes it possible for several virtual machines
#include <stdio.h> (VMs) to share resources from a single server
int main(){

int number, reverse = 0;

printf("Enter any number: \n");
Hyperscale:
scanf("%d", &number);
while(number != 0){ The complete set of resources – both
reverse = (reverse * 10) + number % 10; physical and technological − that may
number = number/10; extend a distributed computing environment
} to thousands of servers
printf("Reversed number : %d", reverse);
return 0;
}

993
Question 41
Packet-Switched Network:

Question:
A network that packetizes data transfers between computing devices

Write a program to Calculate sum of Digits of Entered Number.

Intelligent edge:
Solution:
A location where data is created, examined, evaluated and dealt with
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {

Infrastructure Security:
int n, m, sum = 0;
printf("Enter a number: \n"); The process of defending key infrastructure against
scanf("%d", &n); physical and digital threats
m = n;
while (m != 0) {
In-memory computing:
sum = sum + m % 10;
m = m / 10; A technique of using RAM to store
} data instead of databases that are
printf("Sum of digits of %d = %d", n, sum); hosted on drives
return 0;
}

Intelligent Storage:
Question 42
A hybrid cloud environment data storage system that employs AI to
constantly adapt and evolve to improve data management and service
Question:

Write a program to calculate the largest of 3 numbers.

994
Solution: IT Asset Management:

The technique of controlling and managing IT assets while under

#include <stdio.h>
ownership to maximize their value to the enterprise organization
int main() {

int A, B, C;
printf("Enter the numbers A, B and C: \n"); IT procurement:
scanf("%d %d %d", &A, &B, &C); A set of procedures for acquiring and
if (A >= B && A >= C)
implementing information technology
printf("%d is the largest number.", A);
in alignment with business strategy
if (B >= A && B >= C)
printf("%d is the largest number.", B);
if (C >= A && C >= B)
printf("%d is the largest number.", C);
return 0;
}

Kubernetes:
Question 43
An open-source Cluster Management Software for managing, scaling
and automating the deployment of containerized applications
Question:

Write a program to Check Entered character is a Vowel or Consonant.

Object storage:
Solution:
An approach to data storage that effectively organizes data as
#include <stdio.h> objects with supplementary Meta information and unique IDs
int main() {

995
char ch;
printf("Enter a character : \n");
scanf("%c", &ch);
if(ch == 'a' || ch == 'e' || ch == 'i' || ch == 'o' || ch == 'u' ||
ch == 'A' || ch == 'E' || ch == 'I' || ch == 'O' || ch == 'U') {
printf("%c is a Vowel!", ch);
}
else { Hybrid WAN: A wide area network
printf("%c is a Consonant!", ch); that distributes traffic among two or
}
more different types of connections
return 0;
}

Question 44 Operational technology:

Monitoring and controlling physical processes, devices and

infrastructure using hardware and software
Question:

Write a program to Check Entered Number is a Leap Year or not.

Solution: Multi-Cloud:

#include <stdio.h> A cloud computing architecture wherein an enterprise organization divides its
int main() { resources over at least 2 clouds from various vendors, either public or private

int year;
printf("Enter a Number : \n");
scanf("%d", &year);
if ((year % 400 == 0) || ( ( year % 100 != 0) && (year % 4 == 0 ))) {
printf("%d is a leap year!", year);
}

996
else {
printf("%d is not a leap year!", year);
}
return 0;
}

Memory-Driven Computing:
Question 45
An architecture that is practically indefinitely adaptable and
expandable, capable of completing any computing work far more
Question: quickly and efficiently than traditional methods

Write a program to find factorial of a number.

Solution: Reference Architecture:

#include <stdio.h> A set of documentation that recommends how to integrate

int main() { IT services and products to create a solution

int num, i;
long int fact; Zero Trust:
printf("Enter an integer number: \n");
An authentication and authorization strategy
scanf("%d", &num);
built on the principle that no user or piece of
fact=1;
software can be trusted by default
for(i=num; i>=1; i--)
fact=fact*i;
printf("Factorial of %d is : %ld", num, fact);
return 0;
}

997
Question 46 Remote Infrastructure Management:

The method of administering an enterprise organization's full or a

Question: portion of its IT infrastructure from a distant location

Write a program to Display day of week using switch case.

Solution:
Tech Refresh:

#include <stdio.h> The process of consistently upgrading

int main() { important components of our IT infrastructure
to improve performance of the system
int day;
printf("Enter Day (1 to 7) : \n");
scanf("%d", &day);
Apache Spark:
switch(day) {
An open-source data processing
case 1:
printf("The 1st day of week is : Sunday");
technology that makes it easier to

break; create and do data analytics tasks

case 2:
printf("The 2nd day of week is : Monday"); Supercomputing:
break;
A kind of high-performance computing that
effectively combines the processing capacity of
case 3:
numerous computing systems to handle
printf("The 3rd day of week is : Tuesday");
exceedingly complicated data-intensive challenges
break;

case 4:
printf("The 4th day of week is : Wednesday");
break;

998
case 5:
printf("The 5th day of week is : Thursday");
break;

Storage area network: A standard

case 6:
storage networking architecture that provides
printf("The 6th day of week is : Friday");
business critical applications with maximum
break;
bandwidth and reduced latency

case 7:
printf("The 7th day of week is : Saturday");
break;
Security Monitoring:
default:
The computerized process of identifying and
printf("Invalid input!! .....");
analyzing potential security threat indicators, then
}
return 0; classifying and responding to those threats
}

Hyperconverged Infrastructure:
Question 47
A software-based approach to fuse the data center's
networking, storage and computation systems
Question:

Write a program to Check Entered number is positive or negative.

Solution: Converged infrastructure:

A hardware-based approach to fuse the data center's

#include <stdio.h>
networking, storage and computation systems
int main() {

int number;

999
printf("Enter a number : \n");
scanf("%d", &number);
if(number > 0) {
printf("Entered number %d is a positive number", number);
}
else if(number < 0) {
printf("Entered number %d is a negative number", number);
}
else {
printf("Entered number %d is neither positive nor negative", number);
}
return 0;
}

Question 48 Immutable infrastructure:

Infrastructure that − once implemented − cannot be changed

Question:

Write a program to Check Entered Character is Upper Case or Lower Case.

Solution:

Network Functions Virtualization:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() { The use of virtual machines to replace the hardware of network devices

char ch;
printf("Enter a alphabet : \n");
FlowVisor:
scanf("%c", &ch);
A network virtualization hypervisor that enables several
if(ch>=65 && ch<=90) clients to share the same physical infrastructure

1000
printf("upper case"); Anti-Virus Gateway:

A built-in antivirus protection feature of network

else if(ch>=97 && ch<=122)
printf("lower case"); security device that examines files included in
network traffic such as emails, web downloads and
else attachments and tries to prevent potential threats
printf("Invalid input!!"); before they reach the network

return 0;
}

Operation Support System:

Question 49
A piece of software that enterprise organizations typically use to
govern their operating systems
Question:

Write a program to Print Number of Days in a Month.

Application firewall:
Solution:
A kind of firewall that checks, keeps an eye on and manages access to and
#include <stdio.h>
from applications and services on networks, the Internet and local systems
int main() {

int a[12]={31,28,31,30,31,30,31,31,30,31,30,31},m;
printf("Enter the month: \n");
Data Lineage:
scanf("%d", &m);
A lifespan of data that takes into account
if(m>12 || m<1) { the origin of data, what happens to the
printf("Invalid input"); data and where data goes over time
}

1001
else if(m==2) {
printf("Number of days in month 2 is either 29 or 28"); Scaling:

} A feature engineering approach that

else { aids in ensuring that features have
printf("Number of days in month %d is %d", m, a[m-1]);
the same value range. For example,
}
we can scale a feature by dividing it
return 0;
by 100 if we want to change its
}
range from (0 to 100) to (0 to 1)

Business Support System:

Question 50
A piece of software that Enterprise organizations typically
employ to manage all their business operations
Question:

Write a program to calculate the length of string.

Cisco onePK:
Solution:
A framework that allows developers to create an application that
#include <stdio.h>
is simple to incorporate into a Cisco infrastructure
#include <string.h>
int main() {

char Str[1000]; Converged Storage:

int i;
printf("Enter the String: \n");
A scalable storage design that unifies

scanf("%s", Str); computing and storage

for (i = 0; Str[i] != '\0'; ++i);
printf("Length of '%s' is %d", Str, i);
return 0;
}

1002
Question 51
Enterprise Data Center Networking:

A business data center's networking that links users and servers together
Question:

Write a program to Concatenate Two Strings.

Solution: Corporate Social Responsibility:

A means of expressing how business organizations

#include <stdio.h>
evaluate and regulate their business action on
#include <string.h>
financial, ecological and social responsiveness
int main() {

char a[1000], b[1000];

printf("Enter the first string: \n"); Endpoint Protection:
scanf("%s", a); A centralized system with an integrated security
printf("Enter the second string: \n");
solution that incorporates several security services
scanf("%s", b);
strcat(a, b);
printf("String obtained on concatenation: %s", a);
return 0;
}

File Level Protection

A widely used technology that enables file extraction from network traffic and inspects it to
look for malware, Trojan horses, bugs or computer viruses

1003
Question 52 Data observability: Enterprise organization's ability to record,
evaluate and recommend a course of action regarding the status and

Question: health of the data in their system

Write a program to Find Maximum Between Two Numbers.

Solution: Hardware Security Module:

A piece of hardware that combines security mechanisms

#include <stdio.h>
with software security technologies to protect sensitive
int main() {
information and safely store cryptographic keys

int a, b;
printf("Enter two numbers: \n");
Intent-Based Networking:
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
if(a>b) A technological idea that seeks to replace
printf("%d is a maximum number", a); manual methods for setting up networks and
else responding to network problems with a greater
printf("%d is a maximum number", b);
level of intellect and desired configuration
return 0;
}

Intrusion Prevention System:

Question 53
A network security device that continuously scans for fraudulent
attacks on a network and takes action to report and block it
Question:

Write a program to check whether the entered number is a prime number or not.

1004
Solution:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
Intrusion Detection System:
int num, i, x=0;
A passive computer security tool that keeps track
printf("Enter a number: \n");
of all incoming and outgoing network traffic
scanf("%d", &num);

for(i=2; i<num; i++) {

if(num%i == 0) {
Active security:
x++;
break; The steps the business organizations take to
} stop the malicious attack before it happens
}
if(x==0) {
printf("%d is a prime number", num); Passive security:
}
The steps the business organizations
else {
take to address malicious attacks once
printf("%d is not a prime number", num);
}
they have already happened

return 0;
}

Question 54
 Active attack: A perpetrator tries to change the message content

 Passive attack: A perpetrator views the message content and duplicates it

Question:

Write a program to Get Input from User.

Packet Filtering:

A technique for managing network access

1005
Solution:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
Load Balancer:

int num; A solution that aims to boost application

printf("Enter the Number: \n"); performance, efficiency and availability
scanf("%d", &num); while preventing server overload
printf("You've entered: %d", num);
return 0;
}

Question 55 Kernel-based Virtual Machine:

An open-source virtualization platform created for the Linux operating

system and intended to run on x86-based CPU architecture
Question:

Write a program to Print ASCII Value of entered Alphabet.

Overlay network:
Solution:
A network that is supported by the infrastructure of another
#include<stdio.h>
network and is constructed on top of it
#include<conio.h>
int main() {

char ch; Open Systems Interconnection:

int i;
A method for sending messages between any two
printf("Enter a Alphabet: \n");
networked devices
scanf("%c", &ch);
i = ch;
printf("ASCII Value of %c = %d", ch, i);

1006
return 0;
}

Quality of Service:
Question 56
The use of network-based technology to maintain the functioning of
crucial applications despite a limited available bandwidth
Question:

Write a program to Compare Two Strings.

Solution: Stateful Inspection:

A firewall methodology used by security tools to keep track of

#include <stdio.h>
the connections that are currently active on the network
#include <string.h>
int main() {

char a[100], b[100];

printf("Enter a string: \n");
Security service edge:
scanf("%s", a);
printf("Enter a string: \n"); A set of cloud-centric security features that are integrated and enable
scanf("%s", b); safe access to websites, SaaS applications and Cloud services

if (strcmp(a, b) == 0) {
printf("The strings are equal.");
} User and entity behavior analytics:
else {
A security tool that aids security teams in recognizing
printf("The strings are not equal.");
and managing unusual user activity that may be
}
indication of accounts that have been hacked
return 0;
}

1007
The total amount of energy entering a data center
Question 57 Power usage effectiveness =
The energy required to run its IT infrastructure

Question:
A measure used to evaluate a data center's energy efficiency

Write a program to Convert Lowercase to Uppercase.

Python code:

Solution:
x = 1/5.77
#include <ctype.h>
print(x) # Output: 0.1733102253032929
#include <stdio.h>
int main() { print(format(x, '0.3f')) # Output: 0.173

print(format(1/5.77, '.1%')) # Output: 17.3%

Write a program to find the square of a number.

Burndown chart:
Solution:
A graphical representation of the amount of work

#include<stdio.h> remaining versus the amount of time

#include<math.h>
int main() {

Actual Outcome:
int a, b;
Actual output that a tester receives
a=2;
b = pow((a), 2); after running the test

printf("The square of a = %d", b);

return 0;
}

Question 62 Age Testing:

A testing methodology that examines how software

application might function in the future
Question:

Write a program to print the average of the elements in the array.

Solution:

1011
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
API Testing:

int i, avg, sum = 0; A software testing approach that examines an API to

int num [5] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36}; ensure that it meets its requirements for usability,
for(i=0; i<5; i++) security, efficiency and dependability
sum = sum + num [i];
avg = sum/5;
printf("Sum of the Elements in the array = %d \n", sum);
printf("Average of the elements in the array = %d", avg);
return 0;
}

Question 63
Number of decision outcomes that were carried out
Decision Coverage = × 100
Total number of decision outcomes

Question:

Write a program to find the greatest of two numbers using pointers.

Assertion based testing

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
Employed to test a logical statement
int main() {

int x, y, p, q; Automated Software Testing:

printf("Enter any integer: \n");
Before software application is launched into production, a
scanf("%d", &x);
manual process of assessing and validating whether it is
printf("Enter any integer: \n");
functioning properly and satisfying specifications is
scanf("%d", &y);
automated using software testing tools
p = &x;

1012
q = &y;
if(*p>*q) {
printf("x is greater than y"); Backward Compatibility Testing:
}
The method for testing if a software application created
if(*q>*p) {
printf("y is greater than x"); for an older version of a platform still functions on a later
} version of that platform
return 0;
}

Question 64 Bebugging:

The deliberate insertion of known bugs and flaws into the software
application in order to track how quickly they are found and fixed
Question:

Write a program to print the address of x and the value assigned to x.

Solution:
Basis Path Testing: A white box testing methodology
#include <stdio.h>
where test cases are designed in accordance with logical paths of
int main() {
execution that can be followed within the software program

int x, *p;
x = 1;
p = &x; Equally likely outcomes:
printf("The address of the variable x =%d \n", p);
An experiment's results are all
printf("The value of the variable x =%d", *p);
equally likely to occur
return 0;
}

1013
Question 65
Boundary Testing:

A black box testing approach where tests are executed

Question: utilizing the boundary values

Write a program to print the first 10 numbers starting from one together with

their squares and cubes.

Solution:
Big Bang Integration Testing:
#include<stdio.h>
A methodology where all software modules or components are
int main() {
merged at once, after which the entire system is tested

int i;
for(i=1; i<=10; i++)
printf("Number=%d its square=%d its cube=%d\n", i , i*i, i*i*i);
return 0;
}

Question 66
Portability Testing:

Transferring a software application from one environment

Question:
to another while testing it without difficulty. For example:
testing a software application that works well in Windows
Write a program:
8 and observing how it behaves in Windows 10
If you enter a character M

Output must be: ch = M.

1014
Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
Breadth Testing:
char M;
A set of tests that verifies a software
printf("Enter any character: \n");
application's full functionality but does not
scanf("%c", &M);
printf("ch=%c", M); carefully examine each feature

return 0;
}

Question 67 Code Freeze:

Prohibiting software programmers from making

additional changes to the software code
Question:

Write a program to print the product of the first 10 digits.

Solution: Capture/Replay Tool:

#include<stdio.h> A kind of test execution tool where the manual testing

int main() { inputs are recorded with the aim of producing automated
test scripts that may be executed later
int i, product = 1;
for(i=1; i<=10; i++)
product = product * i;
printf("The product of the first 10 digits =%d\n", product);
return 0;
}

1015
Question 68 Code Free Testing:

A testing methodology that doesn't involve running any code

Question:

Write a program to check the equivalence of two numbers.

Solution: Code-Based Testing:

Checking each line of a software code for

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
flaws, bugs or inaccuracies as part of the
software development process
int x, y;
printf("Enter any number: \n");
scanf ("%d", &x); Comparison Testing:
printf("Enter any number: \n");
scanf ("%d", &y); The process of testing a software

if(x-y==0) { application to determine its advantages and

printf("The two numbers are equivalent"); disadvantages in comparison to other
} software applications already on the market
else {
printf("The two numbers are not equivalent");
}
return 0;
}

Compliance Testing: A software testing methodology to check if a software

application satisfies a specified set of enterprise organization's predefined requirements
before it is made available for use in production

1016
Question 69 Context Driven Testing:

A methodology for creating and testing software applications that examines

Question: how they will be used or are predicted to be used in the real world

Write a program to print the characters from A to Z.

Solution: Configuration Testing:

A software testing methodology that compares the

#include<stdio.h>
performance of the software application being developed
int main() {
with various software and hardware configurations to
determine the ideal configuration for the application to
char a;
for( a='A'; a<='Z'; a++) operate flawlessly and meet its functional criteria

printf("%c\n", a);
return 0;
}

Conformance Testing:
Question 70
A software testing methodology used to confirm that a software
application complies with IEEE, W3C or ETSI standards
Question:

Write a program to find the incremented and decremented values of two numbers.

Solution: Delta Release:

#include<stdio.h>
A hardware or software module's partial release

1017
int main() {

int a, b, c, d, e, f;
a = 10; Conversion Testing:
b=12; A testing methodology used to ensure that one data format can be
c=a+1;
transformed into another, with the converted data format being used
d=b+1;
correctly and effectively by the software application being tested
e=a-1;
f=b-1;
printf("The incremented value of a =%d \n", c);
printf("The incremented value of b =%d \n", d);
Learning rate:
printf("The decremented value of a =%d \n", e);
printf("The decremented value of b =%d \n", f); A tuning parameter in an optimization method
return 0; that determines the rate at which model
} parameters are updated based on the gradient

Question 71 Data Integrity Testing:

A testing methodology that confirms the database's data is reliable and

Question: performs as expected for a particular software application

Write a program to print the output:

Einstein [0] = E
Data Driven Testing:
Einstein [1] = I
Data that is loaded and utilized to amplify our automated test
Einstein [2] = N
cases but is not part of our functional tests
Einstein [3] = S
Einstein [4] = T
Data Flow Testing:
Einstein [5] = E

Einstein [6] = I A technique for examining the software program's data flow

Einstein [7] = N

1018
Defect Logging and Tracking:
Solution:
A methodology of identifying flaws in an software application
under test through testing or capturing customer comments,
#include<stdio.h>
followed by the development of subsequent iterations of the
int main() {
application that address the flaws or the client's comments
int i;
char name [8] = {' E', ' I', ' N', ' S', ' T ', ' E', ' I', ' N'};
for(i=0; i<8; i++)
printf("\n Einstein [%d] = %c", i, name[i]);
return 0;
}

Question 72 Depth Testing:

A testing method that thoroughly examines each feature

Question:
of a software application

Write a program to find square of a number using functions.

Solution: Destructive Testing:

#include<stdio.h> A testing method that causes the software application to

int square(); crash uncontrollably in order to assess the application's
int main() { resilience and pinpoint the reason of failure

int answer;
answer = square();
printf("Square of the given number: %d", answer);
return(0);

1019
}
int square() { Domain Testing:
int x;
A method for testing software that involves
printf("Enter any integer: \n");
picking a tiny portion of test cases from an
scanf("%d", &x);
almost unlimited collection of test cases
return x*x;
}

Durability Testing:
Question 73
A method of software testing that offers a precise
evaluation of how our software application might
Question: function in both typical and unexpected circumstances

Write a program to print "Hello world" 10 times.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() { Endurance Testing:

A software testing methodology where a software

int i;
system is tested under huge workload for a long
for(i =1; i<=10; i++)
period of time in order to assess how the system will
printf("Hello world \n");
behave when used continuously
return 0;
}

Error Seeding:

The process of purposefully injecting bugs into a software program to determine

whether test cases can catch the bugs

1020
Question 74
End-to-End Testing:

A testing procedure for estimating whether a software application's

Question: flow functions as planned from beginning to end

Write a program to print first 5 numbers using do while loop statement.

Solution:
 Fair coin: A coin with an equal chance of landing heads-up or tails-up
#include<stdio.h>
 Fair game: A game in which every participant has an equal
int main() {
opportunity to succeed
 Infinite sample space: A sample space with an essentially limitless
int i =1;
do {
number of outcomes

printf("%d\n", i++);
} while (i<=5);
return 0;
}

Entry Criteria:
Question 75
A set of circumstances under which a test activity can be completed, or in the
absence of any of these circumstances, the test activity cannot be completed
Question:

Write a program to print the output:

body [b] = b Error Guessing:

body [o] = o A type of testing methodology in which previous

body [d] = d testing expertise is utilized to find software flaws

body [y] = y

1021
Exhaustive Testing:
Solution:
The method of thoroughly testing a software
#include <stdio.h>
application to ensure that it cannot be damaged or
int main() {
crashed by an unforeseen circumstance

char i;
char body [4] = {'b', 'o', 'd', 'y'}; Quality gate:
for(i=0; i<4; i++)
printf("\n body[%c] = %c", body[i] , body[i]); Software that constantly evaluates and
return 0; keeps track of the source code's quality
}

Question 76 Exit Criteria:

The standards or specifications that are used to evaluate if a

particular test activity has been finished or NOT
Question:

Write a program to check whether a character is an alphabet or not.

Expected Outcome:
Solution:
The ideal output that should be obtained after running a test case
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h> Inter Systems Testing:
int main() {
A methodology for evaluating the integration points and functionalities
between several systems that share same data source
int a =2;
if(isalpha(a)) {
printf("The character a is an alphabet");
}

1022
else {
printf("The character a is not an alphabet");
}
Symbolic execution:
return 0;
} A technique for examining program to ascertain what
inputs trigger the execution of each part of a program

Globalization Testing:
Question 77
A kind of software testing carried out to make sure the software
application can operate regardless of the location and

Question: environments shaped by human activities

Write a program to calculate the discounted price and the total price after discount
Given:

If purchase value is greater than 1000, 10% discount

If purchase value is greater than 5000, 20% discount
If purchase value is greater than 10000, 30% discount.

Keyword Driven Testing:

Solution:
A methodology that involves using data files
#include<stdio.h>
to store keywords associated with the
int main() {
software application being tested

double PV;
printf("Enter purchased value:");
Localization Testing:
scanf("%lf", &PV);
if(PV>1000) { A method for evaluating the performance,
printf("Discount=%lf \n", PV* 0.1); reliability and applicability of software
printf("Total=%lf \n", PV - PV* 0.1); application for certain areas and regions
}
else if(PV>5000) {

1023
printf("Discount =%lf \n", PV* 0.2);
printf("Total=%lf \n", PV - PV* 0.2); Negative Testing:
}
Testing carried out to make sure the
else {
software application being tested
printf("Discount=%lf \n", PV* 0.3);
DOES NOT malfunction when an
printf("Total=%lf \n", PV - PV* 0.3);
} unforeseen input is provided

return 0;
}

Question 78 Partial Automation Testing:

The method used by testers − which combines manual and automated tests

Question:

Write a program to print the first ten natural numbers using while loop statement.

Progressive Testing:
Solution:
Testing modules one after another
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {

int i = 1;
Positive Testing:
while(i<=10) {
printf("%d\n", i++); A kind of testing that involves using authentic datasets
} as input to test a software application
return 0;
}

1024
Prototype Testing:
Question 79
Testing carried out to look for issues before the
software application goes live
Question:

Write a program to check whether the person is a senior citizen or not.

Solution: Release Notes:

Technical documents developed and released in association with

#include<stdio.h>
int main() { the release of a new software application or an application update

int age;
printf("Enter age: \n"); Requirements traceability:
scanf("%d", &age);
Keeping track of requirements during the entire software
if(age>=60) {
printf("senior citizen"); application development process
}
else {
One-tail test:
printf("not a senior citizen");
} A statistical test designed to demonstrate that the sample
return 0; mean would either be more than or less than the
} population mean, but not both

Question 80 Requirement Based Testing:

A testing strategy in which requirements are used to

Question: generate test cases, conditions and data

Write a program to find the size of data types.

1025
Scenario Testing:
Solution:
A method of testing software applications that does not rely on
#include<stdio.h> test cases but rather on real-world scenarios
int main() {

printf("Size of char: %ld byte\n",sizeof(char));

printf("Size of int: %ld bytes\n",sizeof(int));
Thread Testing:
printf("Size of float: %ld bytes\n",sizeof(float));
printf("Size of double: %ld bytes", sizeof(double)); A software testing method used to check
return 0; if a software application can execute a
} particular task or thread or not

Question 81 State Transition Testing:

A black box testing strategy used to track how a software application

Question: behaves when a series of various input conditions are sent through it

Write a program to check whether a triangle is valid (given sides of triangle).

Structural Testing:
Solution:
A white box testing strategy where the tests are
#include <stdio.h>
designed by understanding the underlying workings
int main() { of the software application
int side1, side2, side3;

printf("Enter Length of Three Sides of a Triangle: \n");

scanf("%d %d %d", &side1, &side2, &side3);

1026
if((side1 + side2 > side3)&&(side2 + side3 > side1) &&(side3 + side1 > side2)) {
printf("It is a Valid Triangle");
} else {
printf("It is an invalid Triangle");
}

Storage Testing:
return 0;
} A software testing method carried out to verify if the application
being tested saves the necessary information in the proper
directories and has adequate space to prevent unexpected
application terminations brought on by a lack of disc space
Question 82

Question:

Write a program to check whether a triangle is valid (given angles of triangle).

Shift Left:
Solution: A methodology used early in the software delivery process to identify and prevent BUGS

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
Unreachable Code: A section of the
source code that can never be executed
int angle1, angle2, angle3, sum;
printf("Enter Three Angles of a Triangle : \n");
because of improper control flow or exit points

scanf("%d%d%d", &angle1, &angle2, &angle3);

sum = angle1 + angle2 + angle3;
Shift right:
if(sum == 180) {
printf("This is a Valid Triangle"); The act of conducting testing, quality assurance and
} performance evaluation in real production environments
else {
printf("This is an Invalid Triangle");
}

1027
return 0;
}

Joint probability:
Question 83
A statistical measure that determines the probability of 2 events
happening simultaneously and at the same time
Question:

Write a program to print your name, date of birth and email address.

Verification Testing:
Solution:
The process of verifying that the software complies with all established
#include <stdio.h> software requirements including documents, code, designs and programs
int main() {

printf("Name : Albert Einstein\n");

printf("DOB : 14 March 1879\n"); Volume Testing:

printf("Email : [email protected]\n"); A kind of software testing that uses a large

return(0);
amount of data to test a software application
}

Question 84 Exogenous variable:

A variable that is unaffected by other variables in the system

Question:

Write a program to convert specified days into years, weeks and days.

1028
Service Level Indicator:
Solution:
A measurement of the level of service that a service
#include <stdio.h>
provider offers to a consumer
int main() {

int days, years, weeks;

printf("Enter number of days: \n");
scanf("%d", &days); Basis Test Set:
years = days/365;
A series of tests performed on a software
weeks = (days % 365)/7;
component's internal structures to ensure
days = days-((years*365) + (weeks*7));
printf("Years: %d\n", years); complete coverage of a given requirement
printf("Weeks: %d\n", weeks);
printf("Days: %d", days);
return 0;
}

Loop Testing:
Question 85
A type of software testing that only examines if loop
constructs are accurate
Question:

Write a program to Check the password until it is correct.

Solution:
Coverage Item: An entity or characteristic that

#include <stdio.h> serves as the foundation for test coverage

int main() {

1029
int pass, a;
while (a!=0) {
printf("Input the password: \n");
scanf("%d", &pass); Feedback loops:

Establishing quick and constant feedback between

if (pass==1988) {
operations and development in the earliest stages of
printf("Correct password");
the software delivery process
a=0;
}
else {
printf("Wrong password, try again");
}
printf("\n"); Policy as code:
}
return 0; The concept of managing and automating policies by

} writing code in a high-level language

Bitmap:
Question 86
An image file format that is suitable for storing and
producing computer graphics
Question:

Write a program to Read an integer and find its entire divisor.

Solution:
A variable without restrictions is said to be free
#include <stdio.h> variable. On the other hand, a bound variable is
int main() { a variable with restrictions

int x, i;
printf("Enter a number : \n");

1030
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("All the divisor of %d are: \n", x); CommonJS:

for(i = 1; i <= x; i++) { A set of guidelines for

if((x%i) == 0){ implementing JavaScript modules
printf("\n %d", i);
printf("\n");
}
} Fingerprinting:
return 0;
The practice of correlating data sets to discover network services, software programs,
}
databases, configurations, operating system details, and more

Context switch:
Question 87
A method that the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer uses to switch
from one task (or process) to another while making sure the tasks do not clash
Question:

Write a program to shift given data by two bits to the left.

Solution: Customized built-in elements:

Custom elements that extend a standard HTML tag

#include<stdio.h>
provided by the browser
int main() {

int a, b;
printf("Enter a integer : \n"); Display advertising:
scanf("%d", &a);
The practice of promoting a service or product
printf("Integer value = %d \n", a);
using visuals such as pictures and videos on
a<<=2;
networks of publisher websites like Facebook
b=a;
and Google Display Network, etc.
printf("The left shifted data is = %d \n", b);
return 0;

1031
}

Question 88 Folksonomy:

The method of categorizing or annotating digital content with tags

Question:

Write a program to find Absolute Value of a Number.

Solution: Graceful Degradation:

#include<stdio.h> The capacity of a computer, machine, electronic system, or

#include<stdlib.h> network to keep operating partially even after a significant
int main() { section of it has been damaged or rendered ineffective

int num;
printf("Enter a positive or negative number: \n");
scanf("%d", &num);
printf("Absolute Value of |%d| is %d", num, abs(num));
return 0;
}

import itertools

x = itertools.count(11, .5)
x = 'Einsteinian %s to %s Papers'
print(next(x)) # Output: 11
print(x % (1905, 1915))
print(next(x)) # Output: 11.5
# Output: Einsteinian 1905 to 1915 Papers
print(next(x)) # Output: 12.0

print(next(x)) # Output: 12.5

1032
Jamstack:
Question 89
Architecture created to increase the web's speed, security, and
scalability. It expands on many of the procedures and
Question: technologies that maximize efficiency for developers

Write a program to accept the height of a person in centimeter and categorize the

person according to their height.

MAMP:

 macOS (the operating system)

Solution:  Apache (the web server)

#include <stdio.h>  MySQL or MariaDB (the database management system)

int main() {  PHP, Perl, or Python (programming languages used for web development)

float height;
printf("Enter the height of the person (in cm) : \n");
scanf("%f", &height); Object-Oriented CSS:

A coding methodology that applies

if (height < 150.0) {
strong, reusable styles to "objects" or
printf("The person is Dwarf.");
"modules" − nestable HTML blocks
}
that constitute a portion of a website
else if ((height >= 150.0) && (height < 165.0)) {
printf("The person is average heighted.");
}
else if ((height >= 165.0) && (height <= 195.0)) {
printf("The person is taller.");
} Obfuscation
else {
printf("Abnormal height.");
} The practice of writing machine or source code that
return 0; is challenging for humans to comprehend
}

1033
Offline-First:
Question 90
A model for programming where the software application must
function equally well offline as it does online
Question:

Write a program to compute the area of the various geometrical shape.

Solution: Open Web Application Security Project:

An online group or network that creates free resources on web

#include <stdio.h>
application security, including papers, techniques,
int main() {
documentation, tools, and technologies

int choice, r, l, w, b, h;
float area;
printf("Enter 1 for area of circle\n");
Palpable content:
printf("Enter 2 for area of rectangle\n");
printf("Enter 3 for area of triangle\n"); When content is rendered and
printf("Enter your choice : "); substantive, it is palpable since it is
scanf("%d", &choice); neither empty nor concealed

switch(choice) {
case 1:
printf("Enter the radius of the circle : \n");
scanf("%d", &r);
area=3.14*r*r;
break;
case 2:
printf("Enter the length and width of the rectangle : \n");
scanf("%d%d", &l, &w);
area=l*w; TOML: A basic configuration file format
break; with clear semantics that is easy to read

1034
case 3:
printf("Enter the base and height of the triangle : \n");
scanf("%d%d", &b, &h);
area=0.5*b*h;
break;
Robots exclusion standard:
}
printf("The area is : %f", area); A protocol that websites employ to communicate
return 0; with web crawlers and other web robots
}

Question 91 Round Trip Time: 2 × Propagation delay

The amount of time, measured in milliseconds (ms), it takes for a network

request to go from its origin to its destination before returning to its origin
Question:

Write a program to Find Length of String Using Library Function.

Sectioning content:
Solution:
Definitional content for headings and footers
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main() { Service Level Expectation:

char str[100];
The standard that the service provider must

int x; adhere to in order to provide the services

printf("Enter the String : \n");
scanf("%s", str);
Solution stack:
x = strlen(str);
printf("Length of Given String : %d", x); A collection of many applications or programs that
return(0); are used to deliver the desired result or solution

1035
}

Three-Click Rule:

An official standard that claims that a user should always be able to get the
Question 92 information they're looking for in three clicks or fewer, but there is no
evidence to back this up, and it's now commonly believed to be a
misconception rather than a regulation that should be rigidly followed
Question:

Write a program to illustrate the bitwise operators.

Solution:
Transcompiler:
#include<stdio.h>
int main() { A specific kind of compiler that converts the
source code of one programming language
int a, b; into the source code of another
a=125;
b=35;
a=a>>1; TrustRank:
printf("After right-shifting by 1, a=%d\n", a);
An algorithm that uses link
b=b<<2;
analysis to distinguish between
printf("After left-shifting by 2, b=%d\n", b);
spam and valuable websites and
return(0);
aids in the fight against web spam
}

Trust On First Use

A security model where a client must establish trust with an unidentified server

1036
Question 93 Type coercion:

Value conversion that takes place automatically or implicitly

between different data types (such as strings to numbers)
Question:

Write a program to illustrate the ternary operation.

Typography:

The technique of organizing words and letters so that the reader can
Solution: easily read, understand, and find the copy visually appealing

#include<stdio.h>

/* Web bug:

Small visuals (such as .gif, .jpeg, and.png) are

c will be assigned the value of a
used by businesses and enterprise organizations in
if a is less than b. their HTML-supporting emails, web pages, and
Otherwise, it will be assigned the value of b other documents to track information about the
consumers of their online web services
*/

int main() {

Uninitialized variable:
int a = 10, b = 20, c;
c = (a < b) ? a : b;
A declared variable that isn't given a clear, predetermined value

printf("%d", c); before use. When a variable is not initialized, its value is equal to
return(0); whatever garbage value is in the memory assigned to the variable
}

UNIX philosophy:

A Philosophical approach that places a focus on creating code that is straightforward,

concise, clear, modular, and extensible so that it may be readily maintained and reused
by developers other than its original authors

1037
Question 94
YAML Ain't Markup Language:

An input format for several software programs that uses a data-

Question: oriented language structure

Write a program to accept a character from the keyboard and print "yes" if it is

equal to y. Otherwise print "No".

Solution: Web worker:

#include<stdio.h> A JavaScript code launched from an HTML

int main() { page runs independently of other scripts that
might have also been launched from the same
char ch; HTML page in the background
printf ("Enter a character: \n");
ch = getchar ();
if (ch == 'y' || ch == 'Y') Fine-tuning:
printf ("Yes");
A methodology that takes a model that has
else
already been trained to perform one task and
printf ("No");
return(0);
adjusts or modifies the model to make it

} accomplish another similar task

Question 95 Ridge regression:

A model tuning technique that is applied to analyze any multicollinear data

Question:

Write a program to Demonstrate goto Statement.

1038
Solution: Discriminative models:

#include <stdio.h> A group of supervised machine learning

int main() { models that may be applied to classification or
regression and make predictions by calculating
int sum=0; conditional probabilities
for(int i = 0; i<=10; i++){
sum = sum+i;
if(i==4){ Generative modeling:

goto addition; A type of unsupervised machine learning in which the

} model learns to identify patterns in input data
}

addition:
Kernel Trick: An easy method for classifying data that
printf("%d", sum);
cannot be linearly divided by a plane by projecting
return 0;
}
nonlinear data onto a higher dimension space

Server farm:
Question 96
A large group of servers, possibly thousands, working
together to improve functionality and accessibility
Question:

Write a program to Demonstrate Infinite Loop.

The correlation's value ranges from -1 to +1. On the other hand,

Solution:
the covariance's value is between -∞ and +∞

#include <stdio.h>

1039
int main() {
Data annotation:
int i = 10;
The labeling and classification of data for AI applications
for( ; ;) {
printf("%d\n", i);
} It is always preferable to use the median rather than the mean
return 0; when the data is skewed. The more skewed the data is, the less
} accurate is the mean and the more accurate is the median

A/A Testing:
Question 97
A technique that involves comparing two identical versions of the
same web application to see whether there is any difference
Question:

Write a program to Demonstrate Macro Substitution.

Solution: A/Z Testing:

More than two variations of the same concept are being compared
#include <stdio.h>
#define A 15
int main() { Multivariate:

Comparing multiple presentations of the same concept

int x;
x=A;
printf("%d", x);
AdaBoost:
return 0;
} A meta-learning approach to ensemble learning that was initially
developed to boost the effectiveness of binary classifiers

1040
Question 98 AdaGrad:

A family of sub-gradient stochastic optimization techniques

Question:

Write a program to Check Whether a Number is Even or Odd.

Solution: 1 1−Total error

Amount of say = log ( )
2 Total error
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {

int num; will be positive when the sample is miss-classified

printf("Enter a number : \n");
scanf("%d", &num);
if(num % 2 == 0)
printf("%d is even.", num); Adaptive Moment Estimation (ADAM):
else
A stochastic gradient descent replacement
printf("%d is odd.", num);
return 0;
optimization technique for deep learning models

Question 99 Agent:

In reinforcement learning, an agent is the active component

that decides what should be performed next
Question:

Write a program to multiply given number by 4 using bitwise operators.

1041
Solution:
AlexNet:
#include <stdio.h>
Deep learning image recognition architecture
int main() {

long number, x;
printf("Enter a integer: \n"); You Only Look Once (YOLO):
scanf("%ld", &number);
x = number;
number = number << 2; A real-time object detection algorithm that
printf("%ld × 4 = %ld\n", x, number); recognizes objects using features obtained
return 0; from a deep convolutional neural network
}

Attention mechanism:
Question 100
Instead of using the complete input sequence, the ML model just considers portions
of it where the most significant information is concentrated when predicting an output

Question: word. In other words, it just takes into account a select few input words

Write a program to check whether a number is power of 2 or not.

Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA):

Solution:
A statistical analysis method that employs time series data to forecast future
#include <stdio.h>
patterns or to better comprehend the current data collection. If a methodology
int main() {
forecasts future values using data from the past, it is said to be autoregressive

int num;
printf("Enter a number : \n");
scanf("%d", &num);

1042
if((num != 0) && ((num &(num-1)) == 0)) { Attribute:
printf("%d is a power of 2", num);
The feature of an observation
}
else {
printf("%d is not a power of 2", num);
}
return 0;
}
Area under the curve (AUC)

Assist in assessing a classification model's effectiveness. The performance of

the model improves with increasing area under the curve. AUC of 1
Question 101 indicates a flawless model, whereas AUC of 0 indicates a model that is
completely incapable of differentiating between classes

Question:

Write a program to check whether the triangle is equilateral, isosceles or scalene.

Solution: Autocorrelation:

The extent of similarity (correlation) between close-by observations. The

#include <stdio.h>
autocorrelation ranges from -1 to 1, with -1 denoting a negative correlation,
int main() {
1 denoting a positive correlation, and 0 denoting no correlation

int side1, side2, side3;

printf("Enter the sides of triangle : \n");
scanf("%d%d%d",&side1,&side2,&side3);
if(side1 == side2 && side2 == side3) {
printf("The given Triangle is equilateral.");
}
else if(side1 == side2 || side2 == side3 || side3 == side1) {
printf("The given Triangle is isosceles.");

1043
}
else {
printf("The given Triangle is scalene.");
}
return 0; Automatic summarization:
}
The method of conveying the desired message by using a software
program to condense lengthy texts and produce summaries

"Automatic text summarization is the task of producing a

Question 102 concise and fluent summary while preserving key information
content and overall meaning."

Question: — Text Summarization Techniques: A Brief Survey, 2017

Write a program to print ASCII values of all the letters of the English alphabet

from A to Z.

Automation bias:
Solution:
The tendency for people to dismiss contradicting information
#include <stdio.h>
supplied without automation, even if it is true, and to favor ideas
int main() {
from automated decision-making systems

int i;
for(i='A'; i<='Z'; i++) { Black box
printf("ASCII value of %c = %d\n", i, i);
}
return 0;
}
A system in which the input and output
are the only things that are known

1044
Question 103 Candidate generation:

How many actual recommendations will be used to

Question: create a recommender system

Write a program to find sum of even numbers between 1 to n.

Bootstrap aggregating:
Solution:
An approach to ensemble learning that boosts the
#include <stdio.h> efficiency and precision of machine learning algorithms
int main() {

int i, num, sum=0;

printf("Enter a number: \n"); Baseline:
scanf("%d", &num);
The standard by which any future outcomes can be measured
for(i=2; i<=num; i=i+2) {
sum = sum + i;
}
printf("Sum of all even number between 1 to %d: %d", num, sum);
return 0;
}

Baseline model:
Question 104
A basic model that is trained first, and whose performance serves as
the standard for all future algorithm training and performance
Question:

Write a program to find sum of odd numbers between 1 to n.

1045
Solution:

Candidate sampling:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() { A method to reduce training time for
problems involving many labels
int i, num, sum=0;
printf("Enter a number: \n");
scanf("%d", &num);
Databricks → Unified data science platform
for(i=1; i<=num; i=i+2) {
sum = sum + i;
}
printf("Sum of all odd number between 1 to %d: %d", num, sum);
return 0;
}

Question 105
Centroid:

The center of every cluster in models of unsupervised machine learning

Question:

Write a program to find maximum number using switch case.

Solution:
Centroid-based algorithm:
#include <stdio.h>
An unsupervised machine learning approach to clustering
int main() {
where data is arranged around a cluster center

int num1, num2;

printf("Enter two numbers : \n");
scanf("%d%d", &num1, &num2);

1046
switch(num1 > num2) {
case 0: printf("%d is Maximum number", num2);
break;

case 1: printf("%d is Maximum number", num1);

break;
} Checkpoint:
return 0;
} A technique that periodically saves the models while training

CIFAR-10:
Question 106
A dataset that is well-understood and frequently used in the field of
machine learning to evaluate computer vision algorithms
Question:

Write a program to create simple calculator using switch case.

observed agreement − expected agreement

Solution: Cohen's kappa =
1− expected agreement
# include <stdio.h>
int main() { is always less than or equal to 1. Values of 0 or less
signify the classifier is ineffective
char operator;
double x, y;
printf("Enter an operator (+, -, *,): \n"); Connectivity-based algorithm:
scanf("%c", &operator);
A machine learning approach that groups
printf("Enter two operands: ");
mutually related observations into clusters
scanf("%lf %lf", &x, &y);
for unsupervised machine learning tasks

switch(operator) {
case '+':

1047
printf("%.1lf + %.1lf = %.1lf", x, y, x + y);
break;

case '-':
printf("%.1lf - %.1lf = %.1lf", x, y, x - y);
break;
Convergence:
case '*':
A machine learning model
printf("%.1lf * %.1lf = %.1lf", x, y, x * y);
reaches convergence when a
break;
trained model no longer sees
its error decreased or only
case '/':
slightly if we add additional
printf("%.1lf / %.1lf = %.1lf", x, y, x / y);
break;
data for training

default:
printf("Error! Please enter correct operator");
}
return 0;
}

Continuous learning:
Question 106
The potential of a ML model to learn in a production environment while
being trained with a stream of real-time data
Question:

Write a program to find Square Root of a Number.

Convenience sampling:
Solution:
A kind of sampling where the first main data source that is accessible will
#include<stdio.h> be used for the study without any further criteria

1048
#include<math.h>
int main() {
Cosine similarity:
int number; A parameter used in text mining to
double result;
evaluate how similar documents are
printf("Enter any integer number: \n");
scanf("%d", &number);
result = sqrt(number);
printf("Square root of %d is %.2lf", number, result);
return 0;
}

Question 107 Data preparation:

The phase of a data science project where unclean and unusable raw data is cleaned up

Question: and processed to produce clean and useable data for data investigation or modeling

Write a program to Find Power of a Number Using Library Function.

Solution: DataFrame:

A two-dimensional data structure consisting of rows and columns

#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
int main() {
Davies-Bouldin index:
int base, exponent;
The index that uses the separations between
long power;
cluster centers to evaluate how similar the
printf("Enter Base and Exponent: \n");
clusters are to one another
scanf("%d %d", &base, &exponent);
power = pow(base, exponent);
printf("Result = %ld", power);

1049
return 0;
}

Question 108 Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise:

A density-based clustering technique for unsupervised machine learning problems

Question: that creates clusters by combining points that are close to one another

Write a program to check whether the entered Character is Alphabet or Digit.

Solution: Decile:

#include <stdio.h> A descriptive statistic with nine values dividing the data into ten
#include<ctype.h> equally sized pieces. Each part represents one-tenth of the data
int main() {

char ch; Decision boundary

printf("Enter a character : \n");
scanf("%c", &ch);
if (isdigit(ch)) { A technique that divides the vector space into
printf("%c is a Digit", ch); areas, each of which has a class assigned to
} it, while solving a classification problem
else if (isalpha(ch)) {
printf("%c is an Alphabet", ch);
}
Eclipse Deeplearning4j:
else {
printf("%c is not an Alphabet, or a Digit", ch); A Java-based programming library
} made for the Java virtual machine. It is
return 0; a framework that offers deep learning
} algorithms broad support

1050
DeepDream:
Question 109
A Google-developed computer vision approach that generates
images or transforms existing images into a dreamlike vision using a
Question: deep convolutional neural network

Write a program to check whether the entered character is alphanumeric or not.

Solution: Dense feature:

A tensor or array with a large percentage of non-zero values

#include<stdio.h>
#include<ctype.h>
int main() {
Dplyr:

char a; A robust R package for manipulating data. It makes data

printf( "Enter a character : \n"); transformation, cleaning, and summarization really simple
scanf( "%c", &a );
if(isalnum(a)) {
printf( "%c is an alphanumeric character.", a );
}
else {
printf( "%c is NOT an alphanumeric character.", a );
}
return 0;
}

Dropout:

A regularization technique that simulates the concurrent training of several neural

networks with various architectures

1051
Question 110 The smallest intercluster distance
Dunn index =
The largest intracluster distance

A high Dunn index indicates better clustering since observations inside each
Question:
cluster are closer together while the clusters themselves are farther apart

Write a program to check whether the entered character is punctuation character

or not.
Embedding space:

A relatively low-dimensional space into which high-

dimensional vectors can be translated

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<ctype.h>
int main() { Feature cross:

A feature created synthetically by multiplying

char a;
(crossing) two or more features
printf( "Enter a character : \n");
scanf( "%c", &a );
if(ispunct(a)) {
printf( "%c is an punctuation character.", a );
}
else {
printf( "%c is NOT an punctuation character.", a );
}
return 0;
}

i = 1
Output:
while i < 4:
Alan
print('Alan')
Alan
i = i + 1
Alan

1052
Question 111 Apache flume:

A distributed, dependable, and accessible piece of software for quick

Question: gathering, combining, and transporting enormous amounts of log data

Write a program to check whether the entered character is a character with

graphical representation or not.

Solution:
Federated learning:
#include<stdio.h>
A method of machine learning that trains an
#include<ctype.h>
algorithm on a number of distributed edge
int main() {
devices or servers that keep local data
samples without exchanging them
char a;
printf( "Enter a character : \n");
scanf( "%c", &a );
if(isgraph(a)) {
printf( "%c is a character with graphical representation.", a );
}
else {
printf( "%c is NOT a character with graphical representation.", a );
}
return 0;
}

x = ' ' * 6
print(5 + int('5'))
print('%s 1905 Papers' % x) # Output: 10

# Output: print(5.3 + float('5.3'))

# Output: 10.6
1905 Papers

1053
Question 112 Generalization curve:

A curve that displays the error or loss during training and

Question:
validation over several iterations

Write a program to List all Printable Characters Using isprint() function.

Forget gate:

A concept in the recurrent neural network's long

Solution: short-term memory that determines how much of the
past information will be discarded and how much of
#include <stdio.h>
the past information will be used in subsequent steps
#include <ctype.h>
int main() {

int i; Generator
for(i = 1; i <= 127; i++)
if(isprint(i)!= 0)
printf("%c ", i);
A part of a generative adversarial neural network that
return 0;
creates bogus data out of randomness in a latent space
}

Frechet inception distance:

Question 113
A metric for evaluating the quality of images produced by
generative models such as generative adversarial networks
Question:

Write a program to check whether the entered character is a hexadecimal digit

character or not. Area of Overlap

Intersection over Union = :
Area of Union

A statistic used to assess the effectiveness of the machine learning

model for image detection

1054
Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<ctype.h> Ggplot2:
int main() {
A well-liked R programming library for
data visualization
char a;
printf("Enter a character : \n");
scanf( "%c", &a );
if(isxdigit(a)) {
printf("%c is a hexadecimal digit character.", a );
}
else {
printf("%c is NOT a hexadecimal digit character.", a );
}
return 0;
Highway network:
}
A neural network that assists in very deep neural network training

Question 114 Greedy policy:

A reinforcement learning strategy that chooses an action by

attempting to maximize the reward or return
Question:

Write a program to Print ASCII value of All Control characters.

Solution: Apache Hadoop:

A software framework that enables the distributed processing of massive

#include <stdio.h>
data sets utilizing simple programming models across computer clusters
#include <ctype.h>

1055
int main() {

int i;
printf("The ASCII value of all control characters are: \n");
for (i=0; i<=127; ++i) {
if (iscntrl(i)!=0) Implicit bias:
printf("\n %d ", i);
Making an incorrect or partially true assumption
}
before beginning a machine learning project
return 0;
}

ImageNet large scale visual recognition challenge:

Question 115
A yearly software competition in computer vision and artificial
intelligence based on the ImageNet project that compares object

Question: detection and image classification techniques

Write a program to illustrate isprint() and iscntrl() functions.

Inception:
Solution:
The deep learning architecture for image classification,
#include <stdio.h> particularly CNNs (convolutional neural networks)
#include <ctype.h>
int main() {
Instance-based learning:
char ch = 'a';
A sort of memory-based learning
if (isprint(ch)) {
machine learning method that compares
printf("%c is printable character \n", ch);
} else {
newly arriving data with previously

printf("%c is not printable character", ch); stored data rather than generalizing
} based on training data

1056
if (iscntrl(ch)) {
printf("%c is control character\n", ch);
} else {
printf("%c is not control character", ch);
}
return (0); Kernel support vector machine:
}
A classification technique that transforms the input
data vectors into a higher-dimensional space to
address the issue as though it were non-linear

Question 116 Latent variables:

Variables that are derived from observable variables but

Question: cannot be observed directly

Write a program to check whether the entered character is a white-space character

or not.
Iteration:

How often a machine learning model will

update its parameters
Solution:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h> Kullback–Leibler divergence:
int main() {
A statistic to assess how two probability

char c; distributions differ from one another. It can be

printf("Enter a character : \n"); used to evaluate how far the continuous and
scanf("%c", &c); discrete probability distributions diverge
if (isspace(c) == 0) {
printf("Not a white-space character.");
}
else {

1057
printf("White-space character.");
}
return 0;
}

print(list(zip(range(4), 'ALAN')))

# Output: [(0, 'A'), (1, 'L'), (2, 'A'), (3, 'N')]

print(list(zip(range(4), 'ALAN', [1, 2, 3, 4])))

# Output: [(0, 'A', 1), (1, 'L', 2), (2, 'A', 3), (3, 'N', 4)]

import itertools

print(list(itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])))

# Output: [1, 3, 6, 10, 15]

# [1, 1+2, 1+2+3, 1+2+3+4, 1+2+3+4+5]

import itertools

print(list(itertools.repeat(7, 3)))

# Output: [7, 7, 7] print(True + False == 1)

# Output: True (1 + 0 == 1)
print(list(itertools.repeat(6, 2)))
print(True * True == 1)
# Output: [6, 6]
# Output: True (1 * 1 == 1)

x = itertools.repeat(6)

print(next(x), next(x), next(x))

# Output: 6 6 6

1058
i = 3
Output:
for a in range(1, 5):
Albert 1
print('Albert %s' % a)
Albert 2
if a == i:
Albert 3
print('Einstein')
Einstein
break

i = 3
Output:
for a in range(1, 5):
Albert 1
print('Albert %s' % a)
Albert 2
if a == i:
Albert 3
print('Einstein')
Einstein
pass
Albert 4

x= ('Albert', 1905)
C# program:
y = x + ('Papers',)

print(y)
public class HelloWorld {
# Output:('Albert', 1905, 'Papers')

public static void Main(string[] args) {

System.Console.WriteLine("Albert Einstein");

# Output: Albert Einstein

1059
for _ in range(4):
x = ['5.36', '4.39', '3.55']
print('Albert Einstein')
print([float(i) for i in x])

Output: # Output: [5.36, 4.39, 3.55]

Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein x = [2, 4, 6]

Albert Einstein print([i* 2.16 for i in x])

Albert Einstein # Output: [4.32, 8.64, 12.96]

print(('Albert', object(), 1905))

# Output:('Albert', <object object at 0x000001E34E03BF00>, 1905)

import dis # dis() function generates disassembled representation of the Python code

dis.dis(compile("(19, '05', 'Papers', 'Albert')", '', 'eval'))

# Output:

1 0 LOAD_CONST 0 ((19, '05', 'Papers', 'Albert'))

2 RETURN_VALUE

for i in range(3):
# Output:
print(i, "\t", 3**i)
0 1

1 3

2 9

1060
x = {1905: 'Papers'} print ('\\')
x[1915] = 'Papers'
print(x) # Output: \

# Output:
{1905: 'Papers', 1915: 'Papers'}
print ('A 5\'6" tall object')

x = str("1905 Papers")
# Output: A 5'6" tall object
print(x)
# Output: 1905 Papers

i = 4
x = "Alb"
print(x + "ert" == "Albert") while i> 0:

# Output: True
print (i)
Output:
x=2 i= i-1
4
print(x * 0 == 0)
# Output: True 3

2
print(not (not x) == x)
1
# Output: True

# replaces all occurrences

print('This is a string'.replace('i','x'))

# replaces first 2 occurrences

print('This is a string'.replace('i','x', 2))

# Output:

Thxs xs a strxng
Thxs xs a string

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x = ['Apple', 'Orange', ['Banana', 'Grapes'], 'Figs', ['Guava']]
print(x, False)
print(x, True)

# Output:

['Apple', 'Orange', ['Banana', 'Grapes'], 'Figs', ['Guava']] False

['Apple', 'Orange', ['Banana', 'Grapes'], 'Figs', ['Guava']] True

print(11<12) # Output: True

print(11<12<13) # Output: True

print(11<12<13>14) # Output: False

print(11==12==13) # Output: False

print(12==12==12) # Output: True

x=11
y=12
z=13
print("x value is %i" %x)
print("y value is %d and z value is %d" %(y, z))

# Output:
x value is 11

y value is 12 and z value is 13

x="alan"

print(x.count('a')) # Output: 2

print(x.count('al')) # Output: 1

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x = int(input("Please enter a number:"))

for a in range(1, x+1):

OpenCV:
print("+ " * a) A free graphics library that was
first created by Intel and focuses

# Output: on real-time image processing

Please enter a number:2 # entered number

+
+ +

x=[5,10,15,20]
Output:
for i in x: 50/5 = 10.0

if i==0: 50/10 = 5.0

continue 50/15 = 3.3333333333333335

print("50/{} = {}".format(i, 50/i)) 50/20 = 2.5

x=[11,12,13,14,15]

for i in x: Output:

if i>=20: 11
12
print("Failed to process")
13
break 14
15
print(i)
Successfully processed
else:

print("Successfully processed")

1063
print("{:06d}".format(5496))
Output:
print("{:8.3f}".format(549.6555))
005496
print("{:08.3f}".format(549.6555))
549.655
print("{:08.3f}".format(549.65))
0549.655
print("{:08.3f}".format(54961988.6555))
0549.650

54961988.656

a='Albert'
b ='Einstein'
c=1905 Part of speech tagging:

d='Papers' A method of identifying a word in a

print("{} {}'s {} {}".format(a,b,c, d)) text (compilation) as belonging to a
# Output: Albert Einstein's 1905 Papers specific part of speech based on both
its definition and its context
print("{0} {1}'s {2} {3}".format(a,b,c, d))
# Output: Albert Einstein's 1905 Papers

print("{w} {x}'s {y} {z}".format(w=a, x=b, y=c, z=d))

# Output: Albert Einstein's 1905 Papers

print("{:+d}".format(420)) # Output: +420

print("{:+d}".format(-420)) # Output: -420

print("{:+f}".format(420.840)) # Output: +420.840000

print("{:+f}".format(-420.840)) # Output: -420.840000

Information scent:

The effectiveness of appropriate messaging along the customer journey, as well as the presence of visual
and textual signals that notify website visitors of the type of content that is available there

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Nash equilibrium:

a
A game theory decision-making principle that claims a player can attain the
desired result by adhering to their initial approach b

Negative class: d

There are two classes in binary classification, one of which is classified as positive and e

the other as negative. As an illustration, consider the contradiction spam or not spam, f
where spam is the positive class and not spam is the negative class
g

h
Neural Turing Machine: i

A kind of recurrent neural network that incorporates programmable j

computers with neural networks
k

l
No free lunch theorem:
m
There isn't a single model that works best in all circumstances. It is typical n
in machine learning to test several models in order to find the one that
o
works the best for a given problem because the assumptions of a good
p
model for one issue could not hold true for another
q

Java Program: r

public class MyClass { s

t
public static void main(String[] args) {
u
for(int i = 0; i <= 25; i++) {
v
char x = (char) ('a' + i); w
Output
System.out.println(x); x

y
}
z
}

1065
Nominal variable:

A categorical variable without a clear hierarchy and having two or more categories. For example, a
variable termed color may include the names of many colours, such as orange, green, black, and
white. This is a nominal variable since it includes categories without any established hierarchy

Null accuracy:

A minimum level of accuracy determined by just projecting the most common class

NVIDIA:

A graphics processing unit designed for working with graphics and image processing

Python code:

import math
Q-function:
print(math.sin(3) + math.cos(3))
The probability that a normally distributed
# Output: -0.8488724885405782 (Gaussian) random variable will have a value
higher than the standard deviations

x = [True, "6", 5.0, 8]

print([type(i) for i in x])

# Output: [<class 'bool'>, <class 'str'>, <class 'float'>, <class 'int'>]

'i' is a type code indicating

import array the contents are integers

print(array.array('i', list(range(5))))

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import numpy as np

np.random.seed(0) # seed for reproducibility

x = np.random.randint(10, size=6) # One-dimensional array

print(x)

# Output: [5 0 3 3 7 9]

y = np.random.randint(10, size=(3, 4)) # Two-dimensional array

print(y)

# Output:

[[5 0 3 3]

[7 9 3 5] [[[5 0 3 3 7]

[2 4 7 6]] [9 3 5 2 4]

[7 6 8 8 1]

[6 7 7 8 1]]
z = np.random.randint(10, size=(3, 4, 5)) # Three-dimensional array

print(z)
[[5 9 8 9 4]
# Output
[3 0 3 5 0]

[2 3 8 1 3]

[3 3 7 0 1]]

[[9 9 0 4 7]

[3 2 7 2 0]

[0 4 5 5 6]

[8 4 1 4 9]]]

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Objective:
The goal that a machine learning algorithm seeks to maximize. Every machine
learning algorithm must have a defined objective for each issue

Apache Oozie:

A server-based workflow management framework for scheduling Hadoop operations

import numpy as np

i = np.arange(3) import numpy as np

x = np.arange(3)
print(i)
print(-(0.5*x + 1) ** 2)
# Output: [0 1 2]
# Output: [-1. -2.25 -4. ]
print(i + 3)

# Output: [3 4 5]

print(i - 3)

# Output: [-3 -2 -1] Parameter update:

print(i * 2) The parameters of a model are updated

depending on an iteration of gradient
# Output: [0 2 4] descent during the training of a machine
learning model. Based on the calculated
print(i / 2)
error or loss, this value will be updated
# Output: [0. 0.5 1. ]

print(i // 2) # floor division

# Output: [0 0 1]

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Pig:

An advanced programming language used with Apache Hadoop. Without learning Java, data engineers
may perform sophisticated data transformations with Pig

Post processing:

The methodology used to refine and assess the information obtained by the data mining technique

Pre-processing:

A process of data transformation and cleaning in which unprocessed data is adjusted and
made ready for machine learning algorithms. Pre-processing is an important stage in
machine learning since it lowers interference and improves model performance

import numpy as np

i = np.array([11, 12, 13, 14, 15])

# Are all values equal to 15? Prior belief

print(np.all(i == 15))

# Output: False
All the presumptions made regarding the
data, including distribution assumptions,

# Are there any values equal to 15? correlation assumptions, assumptions on the
data gathering process, and so forth
print(np.any(i == 15))

# Output: True

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Random initialization:

The procedure of initializing the parameters of a machine learning model using random numbers

import pandas as pd

import numpy as np

x = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(4, 2),

index=[['w', 'x', 'y', 'z'], [1, 2, 3, 4]], columns=['A', 'B'])

print(x)

# Output:
Reward:
A B
A crucial idea in reinforcement learning because it
w 1 0.921158 0.083112 instructs the agent on how successfully it is carrying
out a task and enhances the model as a whole
x 2 0.277719 0.009357

y 3 0.842342 0.647174

z 4 0.841386 0.264730

Relationship extraction

A methodology for extracting the semantic relationship between two or more entities in
natural language processing. For example, the relationship between the entities Bangalore and
India is conveyed by the word "is in" in the sentence "Bangalore is in India."

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Cobra Effect:

Unexpected negative impacts when a reward or encouragement is provided to address a problem

Application Programming Interface

Margin of error: An API act like a messenger
(API) who delivers our request for
The extent of error in survey findings that information to somebody and
were chosen at random. A higher statistical then delivers their response
back to us.
margin of error denotes a lower possibility
A code that helps two different
of relying on survey results
software applications to
communicate and exchange • API makes data management more efficient

Multivariate test • API bridges the gap between 2 computer systems

data with each other

An API can be used to securely transfer data stored

by our web browser to a mobile application
Application
A procedure that allows for the
concurrent evaluation of variations
• Open API: No restriction and available to the
of various elements on a webpage. public.
API Request
We can find out which mix of • Internal API: Only available to internal systems
of an enterprise.
variations performs best by using
• Partner API: Only available to certain groups of
multivariate testing users through authentication and authorization
Data Source
mechanisms

Summary statistics:
API Response
Descriptive statistics that provide a • C → Create → POST
concise summary of a dataset and can be • R → Read → GET
used to extract important information • U → Update → PUT

When you type an URL into • D → Delete → DELETE

Cherry picking:
browser − that is a GET HTTP Methods
Request Choosing only the results that
support your argument and
When you hit submit on a form discarding all others Machine Instructions
− that is a POST Request
The instructions executed by a CPU

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Data Dredging: Boolean

A logical data type that can have only the values true or false
Data mining techniques are misused in the
practise of data dredging, also known as
data snooping or data fishing, in order to
present false scientific "research" Latency

Survivorship Bias: The time delay between a user's action and a web application's
response to that action
Focusing only on things that
were chosen and ignoring others High latency → poor user experience

that were not, usually due to their

lack of visibility, is a logical
mistake. Inaccurate inferences In networking, Latency is the time it takes for data

may result from this to pass from one point on a network to another.

All computers consist of 3 main components:

False Causality:
• Computing
To incorrectly believe that if two things • Networking
happen at the same time, one must have
• Storage
triggered the other

Gambler's Fallacy

Cyber security:

The process of protecting

The false assumption that since something
has occurred more frequently than usual, data from unauthorized
it will now happen less frequently in the users
future and vice versa

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Code review
McNamara fallacy:
A process where someone other than the author of a piece of code
Making a choice based only on examines that code to find and remove the weaknesses or flaws in the
quantitative observations, while code that impact software performance and security
ignoring all other observations

Data processing steps:

Inputting more data than an
application is expecting from a • Verification: Ensures accurate and appropriate information
particular input — for example, by • Sorting: Arranges information in a specific order
entering 500 characters into a field • Aggregation: Combining several sources of information
that was only expecting 50
• Summarization: Simplifies complex information into key points
• Analysis: Identifying, explaining and presenting underlying
features of information
Buffer overflow • Data presentation using a wide range of graphical methods to
visually convey to the viewer the relationships between various
data sets
• Classification: Separates data into various groups

Buffer overrun that occurs when a

program attempts to put more data in a Regression Toward the Mean:

buffer than it can hold

A theory that states that if one sample of a random variable
is extreme, the following sample of the same random
variable will probably be closer to its mean
An area of memory used to temporarily
store data while it is being moved from
one place to another Hawthorne effect

When more data gets placed by a program, the

extra data overflows. It causes some of that
data to leak out into other fixed length block of When participants in an experiment try to alter or
memory (buffers) − which can corrupt or enhance their behavior solely because they are being
overwrite whatever data they are holding. examined or researched

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3 principles that form the cornerstone of Publication Bias:
any organization's security infrastructure:
The likelihood of a research discovery being published depends
on how entertaining it is, which distorts our perception of reality
• Confidentiality
• Integrity
• Availability Anchoring Bias:

Largely relying on the first piece of information one come

across while making a decision (treating future
Digital footprint
information as being less important)
A record of our online activity

Stop words:

Remix
A stop word is a frequently used term that a search engine has
The process of creating a new version been configured to ignore − both while indexing entries for
of a program by recombining and searching and when retrieving them as the result of a search
modifying parts of existing programs query. Examples of stop words include "the," "a," "an," and "in."

Parts-of-speech (POS) Tagging:

Troubleshooting

A systematic approach to solve a problem A methodology of identifying a word in a text (corpus) as

belonging to a particular part of speech based on both its
• Define the problem description and its context

• Identify the potential cause of problem

• Analyze Data Journalism
• Eliminate the potential cause of problem
• Propose Hypothesis
• Test Hypothesis
A kind of journalism that acknowledges the growing
• Solve Problem
importance of numerical data in the creation and
• Document solution
dissemination of information in the digital age

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Data Backup Acquiescence bias:

The tendency of survey participants to agree with

research findings without actually reflecting their
The process of creating a copy of the own views or the topic being studied
data and storing elsewhere that we
use for recovery in case our original
Adaptive sampling design:
data is lost or corrupted
A sampling strategy where the experiment is being
modified as it is being conducted using the observations
Applet (or collecting data)

Administrative databases:

A small software program that is Huge databases of information gathered in health care for a variety
intended not to be run on its own − of objectives. Hospitals, healthcare institutions, and health
but rather to be embedded inside insurance firms are the main institutions that keep such databases
another larger application program

Admissibility:

Authentication A fairly broad idea that can be used in any

statistical inference technique
The process of recognizing a user's identity

Aliasing:
Business continuity plan
A scenario when several symbolic names
A written document that outlines how a
within the program can be used to access the
business will operate during an emergency
same data location in memory
• Risk assessment (Analysis)
• Design strategies and tactics for recovery
Audit trail
• Implementation
• Testing and acceptance
• Maintenance
A software program that logs database updates

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Content management system

Ascertainment bias:

A software application that allows users Bias is when some members of the target group are less likely to
to create, manage and modify content on a be included in the results than others when data is collected (or

website − without having to code it from surveyed, filtered, or documented) for a study or analysis

scratch − or know how to code at all

Behrens-Fisher problem:

The challenge of comparing the means of two normal

Desktop as a Service (DaaS)
distributions with different variances to see if they are equal

Delivering virtual desktops to end

users over the Internet
Canonical correlation analysis:

A technique for analyzing the relationship between two

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol groups of variables by identifying linear functions of one set
(DHCP)
of variables that most strongly correlate with linear
functions of the variables in the other set

A network protocol that dynamically

Catastrophe theory:
assign the IP address to each host on
the network so that they can
communicate efficiently A hypothesis explaining the rapid, discontinuous effects
that minor, continuous changes in independent variables
can have on dependent variables
Flash memory

Central Limit Theorem:

A type of memory that retains A statistical concept that claims that when a large
sample size has a finite variance, the samples will have
information even after power
a normal distribution and their means will be roughly
is turned off equal to the population's mean

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System call:

A request from computer software to an operating system's kernel

Library call

A request to use a function provided by a programming library

Library

A package of prewritten code that a programmer can

call when writing code so that the programmer

doesn't have to write it

Library

Pre-compiled object code which is used in source code file to provide functionality for a pre-defined
function or user-defined functions

Static Library Dynamic Library

Called during the compilation of the program Called during run-time and not during the
compilation of the program

1077
Bagplot: Box-and-whisker plot:

A method for finding outliers in A visual way for highlighting the key characteristics
bivariate data of a group of observations

Cluster sampling:

A probability sampling technique where a population is divided into clusters

and some of these clusters are randomly chosen as the sample

Chernoff faces:

A method of data visualization where multivariate data is presented in the form of a human face

Coarse data:

A word occasionally used when information is neither fully missing nor entirely present

Ceiling effect:

The point at which a dependent variable is no longer affected by an independent variable

IP address:

A number assigned to any hardware device that is

connected to the Internet

Used to identify hardware devices on a network

1078
#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

int addition (int x, int y) {

int z; int x and int y are parameters − while 6 and

z = x + y; 2 are the arguments passed to the function to

add the values (6 and 2) and return the result
return z;
(i.e., 6 + 2 i.e., 8) to the statement:
}
cout << "The result is: " << a;

to make provision to display the output:

int main() {

int a; The result is: 8

a = addition(6,2);

cout << "The result is: " << a;

return 0;

IDE
Eclipse and
(Integrated Development Environment)
NetBeans
A software tool to help you write software

Wi-Fi

A wireless method of sending high speed information over short distances using radio waves

Bandwidth:

The maximum amount of information transmitted over an internet connection in a given amount of time

1079
 Compute Intensive – A single application program requiring a large amount of computation.

 Memory Intensive – A single application program requiring a large amount of memory.

 Data Intensive – A single application program operating on a large data set.

Interpreter

(Compiler + runtime environment)

that translates and executes a program in one step

Packet: Ransomware:

A unit of information into which data is Malware designed to deny a user access to
broken up for transmission in a network files on their computer

Functional abstraction:

The details of how a function is implemented are hidden from the consumer of the function

The user is only able view basic functionalities

where the internal details of the basic
implementation of functionalities are hidden

Windows:

The proprietary operating system distributed by Microsoft.

Architectural design

The process of defining a collection of hardware and software components and their interfaces to
establish the framework for the development of a computer system

1080
Bootstrap:

A free and open source front-end framework for designing websites and web applications

Debugger:

A tool that a programmers use to find mistakes in their code

Time-sharing:

The process of sharing a computing resource among many users by means

of multiprogramming and multitasking at the same time

Allows multiple users to use a computer

system at the same time

Multitasking:
 Code → Computer instructions
The concurrent execution of multiple tasks or
 Coding → programming
processes over a certain period of time
 Coder → programmer
Allows multiple tasks or processes to
use a computer system at the same time

Scalability

Message

How well a hardware system performs when

the number of users is increased Object A Object B

How well a database withstands (Sending Object) (Receiving Object)

growing numbers of queries
Message Passing

1081
HTML

(HyperText Markup Language)

Tim Berners-Lee
Robert Cailliau

The majority of Web Pages are written in HTML. Making web pages and online applications functional
requires the use of HTML. Beginning in 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, Robert Cailliau, and others

developed HTML for the first time. Hyper Text Markup Language is what it stands for. Only

HTML can be used to construct static web pages. We will concentrate on CSS, the code used to create
visually pleasing web pages, in a subsequent chapter. We'll concentrate on teaching you how to construct
right now rather than how to design.

HTML Documents

 All HTML documents must start with a document type declaration: <!DOCTYPE html>.
 The HTML document itself begins with <html> and ends with </html>.
 The visible part of the HTML document is between <body> and </body>.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

Describes that this document is an HTML5 document

1082
881
<html> 
<head> 
<title> Page Title </title>
Specifies a title for the HTML Document that will
</head>
appear in the title bar or tab of the web browser

<h1> HTML </h1>

<p> Hyper Text Markup Language.</p>

</body>
</html>

HTML Headings

 HTML headings are defined with the <h1> to <h6> tags.

 <h1> defines the largest heading tag. <h6> defines the smallest one. # Output:

Example
This is heading 1
This is heading 2
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html> This is heading 3
<body> This is heading 4
This is heading 5
<h1>This is heading 1</h1>
This is heading 6
<h2>This is heading 2</h2>
<h3>This is heading 3</h3>
Used to display heading content
<h4>This is heading 4</h4>
<h5>This is heading 5</h5>
<h6>This is heading 6</h6>
</body>
<h1 style="font-size: 40px;"> Heading no 1 </h1>
</html>

Using the CSS font-size property

of the style attribute, we can
HTML Paragraphs
alter the size of a heading.

 HTML paragraphs are defined with the <p> tag

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881
Example

<!DOCTYPE html> # Output:

<html>
This is a paragraph.

This is another paragraph.
<body>

<p>This is a paragraph. </p>

Used to display paragraph content
<p>This is another paragraph. </p>

</body>
A paragraph always begins on a new line. Each paragraph
</html>
begins with the <p> tag and ends with the </p> tag

HTML Links

 HTML links are defined with the <a> tag.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>
This example demonstrates how to create a link to google.com
<body>

<a href="https://www.google.com" target="_blank"> This is a link </a>

</body> The HTML <a> tag defines a hyperlink that

</html> connects one page to another page

HTML Images

 HTML images are defined with the <img> tag.

 The source file (src), alternative text (alt), width, and height are provided as attributes.

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883
Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>
The HTML <img> tag is used to display image on the web page
<body>

<img src="Alan-Turing.jpg" alt="Alan Turing" width="100" height="100">

</body>
 src - Specifies the path to the image
</html>
 alt - Describe the image in words

HTML Buttons

 HTML buttons are defined with the <button> tag.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<body>

<button> Click me </button>

</body>

</html>

HTML Lists
There are 3 different types of HTML lists:

 Ordered HTML List

 Unordered HTML List
 HTML Description List

Example

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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<ul>

<li> Apple </li>

Unordered HTML List
<li> Orange </li> (Bullet list)
<li> Mango </li>

</ul>

<ol>

<li> Apple </li> Ordered HTML List

<li> Orange </li> (Numbered list)

<li> Mango </li>

</ol>

<dl>

<dt> Plum </dt>

HTML Description List
<dd> Stone Fruit </dd>
(Definition List)
<dt> Orange </dt>

<dd> Citrus Fruit </dd>

</dl>

</body>
</html>

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HTML Tag Description # Output:
 Apple
<ul> Defines an unordered list
 Orange
 Mango
<ol> Defines an ordered list
1. Apple
<li> Defines a list item 2. Orange
3. Mango

<dl> Defines a description list

Plum
Stone Fruit
<dt> Defines a term in a description list
Orange
Citrus Fruit
<dd> Describes the term in a description list

Empty HTML Elements

 HTML elements with no content are called empty elements.

 <br> is an empty element without a closing tag (the <br> tag defines a line break)

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<body>

<p> This is a <br> paragraph with a line break. </p>

</body>
# Output:
</html>
This is a
paragraph with a line break.

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HTML Attributes

The href Attribute

 HTML links are defined with the <a> tag. The link address is specified in the href attribute.


Example

<!DOCTYPE html> The URL of the page to which the link leads is
<html> specified by the "href" property

<body>

<a href="https://www.google.com"> This is a link </a>

</body>

</html>

The src Attribute

 HTML images are defined with the <img> tag.

 The filename of the image source is specified in the src attribute.

Example

Absolute URL
<!DOCTYPE html>
A link to an external image hosted on
<html>
another website
<body>

<img src="Alan-Turing.jpg">
Relative URL
</body>
A link to an image that is hosted
</html>
within the website

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The width and height Attributes

 HTML images also have width and height attributes, which specifies the width and height of the image

Example

</body>

</html> <!DOCTYPE html>

<html lang="en">
<body>
... Specifies the language of the
</body> Web page as "English"
The title Attribute </html>

 Here, a title attribute is added to the <p> element. The value of the title attribute will be displayed as a

tooltip when we mouse over the paragraph.


Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
When the mouse moves over the <p> element
<html> then it displays the text "Albert Einstein"

<body>

<p title="Albert Einstein"> Special theory of Relativity. </p>

</body>
<!DOCTYPE html>
</html> <html lang="en-IN">
<body>
... Specifies the "English" as the
</body> language and "India" as the country
</html>

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HTML Horizontal Rules

 The <hr> tag defines a thematic break in an HTML page, and is most often displayed as a horizontal rule.
 The <hr> element is used to separate content (or define a change) in an HTML page.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<body>
The <hr> tag is an empty tag and
<p> Albert </p>
it does not require an end tag
<hr>

<h1> Einstein </h1>

</body>

</html>

# Output:
Albert

Einstein

<!DOCTYPE html>
# Output:
<html>
<body> Albert
<p> Albert </p>
<hr> Einstein
<h1> Einstein </h1>
<hr size="30">
</body>
</html>
Specify the height of the horizontal rule

"30 pixels"

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The HTML <pre> Element

 The HTML <pre> element defines preformatted text.

 The text inside a <pre> element is displayed in a fixed-width font (usually Courier), and it preserves
both.. .spaces and line breaks, and without word wrap.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
Line Breaks in HTML without the <pre> Tag
<html>

<body>

<p>

Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical

physicist who developed the theory of relativity.

</p>

<pre>

Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical

physicist who developed the theory of relativity.

</pre>

Line Breaks in HTML with the <pre> Tag

</body>

</html>

# Output:
Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of relativity.

Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical

physicist who developed the theory of relativity.

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HTML Styles

Background Color

 The CSS background-color property defines the background color for an HTML element.

Example
This example sets the background color
<!DOCTYPE html> for a web page to "orange"
<html>

<body style="background-color: orange;">

<h1> HTML </h1>

<p> HyperText Markup Language. </p>

</body>

</html>

# Output:

HTML
HyperText Markup Language.

Text Color

 The CSS color property defines the text color for an HTML element.

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Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<body>

<h1 style="color: green;"> HTML </h1>

<p style="color: red;"> HyperText Markup Language.</p>

</body>

</html> # Output:

HTML

HyperText Markup Language.

Fonts

 The CSS font-family property defines the font to be used for an HTML element.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<body>

<h1 style="font-family: verdana;"> HTML </h1>

<p style="font-family: courier;"> HyperText Markup Language. </p>

</body>

</html> # Output:

HTML
HyperText Markup Language.
Text Size

 The CSS font-size property defines the text size for an HTML element.

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Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<body>

<p style="font-size:300%;"> HTML </p>

<p style="font-size:160%;"> HyperText Markup Language. </p>

</body>

</html> # Output:

HTML
HyperText Markup Language.
Text Alignment

 The CSS text-align property defines the horizontal text alignment for an HTML element.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<body>

</body>

</html>

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# Output:

HTML

HTML Text Formatting




<!DOCTYPE html>
 <html>
 
 <body>
<p> <b> Albert </b> </p> <! -- Defines bold text --->

<p> <strong> Albert </strong> </p> <! -- Defines important text --->

<p> <i> Albert </i> </p> <! -- Defines italic text --->

<p> <em> Albert </em> </p> <! -- Defines Emphasized text --->

<p> <mark> Albert </mark> </p> <! -- Defines Marked or highlighted text --->

<p> <del> Albert </del> </p> <! -- Defines Deleted text --->

</body>
</html> # Output:

Albert

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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<p> Alan Mathison Turing </p>

<p> <small> Alan Mathison Turing </small> </p> <! -- Defines smaller text --->

</body>
</html> # Output:

Alan Mathison Turing

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<p> E = mc <sup>2</sup> </p> <! -- Defines superscripted text --->

<p> Alan <ins> Mathison </ins> Turing </p> <! -- Defines inserted text --->

</body>
# Output:
</html>

E = mc 2
In most cases, web browsers will
highlight inserted text O2

Alan Mathison Turing

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HTML Quotation and Citation Elements

<!DOCTYPE html>
The HTML <blockquote> tag defines a long quotation
<html>
<body>

<blockquote cite= "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein">

blockquote tag with attribute "cite"

which is used to identify the source of the quotation

<p>
Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged
to be one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all time.
Einstein is best known for developing the theory of relativity, but he also
made important contributions to the development of the theory of quantum
mechanics.
</p>

</blockquote>

</body>
</html>

# Output:
Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged to
be one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all time. Einstein is best
known for developing the theory of relativity, but he also made important
contributions to the development of the theory of quantum mechanics.

 The element content is the text that appears between the start and end tags.

 HTML tags are case-insensitive; <p> and <P> have the same meanings.

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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html> The HTML <q> tag defines a short quotation

<body>

<p>Albert Einstein was a <q> German-born theoretical physicist. </q> </p>

</body>
</html>
# Output:
Albert Einstein was a “German-born theoretical physicist.”

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html> The HTML <abbr> tag defines an abbreviation
<body>

<p> The <abbr title="United Nations">UN</abbr> was founded in 1945. </p>

abbr tag with attribute "title"

</body>

</html>
which is used to display the description for the
abbreviation when you hover your cursor over the element

# Output:

The UN was founded in 1945.

License Reassignment:

The right for one User to run the Software on one Computer being

withdrawn in return for another User being given permission to run

the same Software on another Computer

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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html> The HTML <address> tag defines the contact
<body> information for the author of a HTML document

<address>
Written by Albert.<br> # Output:
Visit us at:<br>
Science.com<br>
Written by Albert.
Box 564, London<br>
Visit us at:
UK
Science.com
</address>
Box 564, London
UK
</body>
</html>

<!DOCTYPE html>
The HTML <cite> tag defines the title of a work (e.g.
<html>
movie, book, literature, sculpture, painting or drawing)
<body>

<p> <cite> Cosmos </cite> is a popular science book. </p>

# Output:
Cosmos is a popular science book.

The HTML <bdo> tag defines

the text direction

<p> <bdo dir="rtl"> Cosmos is a popular science book. </bdo> </p>

</body> # Output:
</html>
.koob ecneics ralupop a si somsoC

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HTML Comments
HTML tags typically come in
 Comment tags are used to insert comments in the HTML source code. pairs like <p> and </p>. The
first tag in a pair is the

Example start tag, the second tag is

the end tag

<!DOCTYPE html> Although HTML comments are not visible in

<html> the web browser, they can aid in the
<body> explanation of your HTML source code.

Comments may be employed to

<h1> HTML </h1>
hide content.

HTML content between the <!--

</body>
and the --> will be concealed
</html> # Output:
from the visibility
HTML

Because each line of HTML code may be individually commented out to check

for flaws, comments are excellent for debugging HTML.

Comments hide a part of a paragraph

<p> Albert  was a German-born theoretical physicist. </p>

# Output:
Albert was a German-born theoretical physicist.

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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<p> I have 2 <span style="color: red"> red </span> shirts. </p>

</body>
# Output:
</html>
I have 2 red shirts.

<!DOCTYPE html> In this example, we used a span tag to modify the "red"

<html> text's color, size, and font style.

<body>

<p> I have 2 <span style="color: red; font-weight: bold"> red </span> shirts. </p>

<p> I have 2 <span style="color: red; font-family: 'Courier New'"> red </span> shirts.

</p>

<p> I have 2 <span style="color: red; font-size: 30px"> red </span> shirts. </p>

<p> I have 2 <span style="color: red; font-style: italic"> red </span> shirts. </p>

</body>
# Output:
</html>

I have 2 red shirts.

I have 2 red shirts.

red I have 2 red shirts.

I have 2 red shirts.

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HTML Colors

 HTML colors are specified using predefined color names, or RGB, HEX, HSL, RGBA, HSLA values.

Background Color
# Output:
Example
HTML

<!DOCTYPE html> Hyper Text Markup Language.

<html>

<body>

<h1 style="background-color: DodgerBlue;"> HTML </h1>

<p style="background-color: Orange;"> Hyper Text Markup Language. </p>

</body>

</html>

Text Color
# Output:
Example
Albert Einstein

<!DOCTYPE html> Elsa Einstein

<html> Elsa Einstein...

<body>

<h1 style="color: Red;"> Albert Einstein </h1>

<p style="color: Green;"> Elsa Einstein </p>

<p style="color: Blue;"> Elsa Einstein... </p>

</body>

</html>

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Border Color
# Output:
Example
Albert

<!DOCTYPE html> Elsa

<h1 style="border:2px solid Red;"> Albert </h1>

<h1 style="border:4px solid Blue;"> Elsa </h1>

<h1 style="border:6px solid Green;"> John </h1>

</body>

</html>

Color Values

 In HTML, colors can also be specified using RGB values, HEX values, HSL values, RGBA values, and
HSLA values:
Example

?
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<body>

<h1 style="background-color: rgb(255, 99, 71);"> rgb(255, 99, 71) </h1>

<h1 style="background-color: #ff6347;"> #ff6347 </h1>

<h1 style="background-color: hsl(9, 100%, 64%);"> hsl(9, 100%, 64%) </h1>

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Color HTML Code
JavaScript Program:

Alice Blue #F0F8FF

Antique White #FAEBD7 <strong>

Beige #F5F5DC
Output:
Bisque #FFE4C4
Hello World!
Black #000000
Boldfaced by the web browser
Blanched Almond #FFEBCD

Blue #0000FF
Dynamic HTML
Blue Violet #8A2BE2
(REAL Interactivity)

Brown #A52A2A

Burly Wood #DEB887

Cadet Blue #5F9EA0

HTML
Chartreuse #7FFF00
+
Chocolate #D2691E
CSS

Coral #FF7F50
+

Cornflower Blue #6495ED JavaScript

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Corn silk #FFF8DC
Synchronous

Crimson #DC143C

Cyan #00FFFF

 Until the current line of code completes,

Dark Blue #00008B
the following one cannot run.
Dark Cyan #008B8B  The current function must be executed
before the next one can be executed.
Dark Goldenrod #B8860B

Dark Gray #A9A9A9 The string "3" is

converted to the
Dark Grey #A9A9A9 <script> number 3.

Dark Green #006400

console.log(parseInt("3") + parseInt("2"));
Dark Khaki #BDB76B

Dark Magenta #8B008B // Output: 5

</script>
Dark Olive Green #556B2F
The string "2" is
Dark orange #FF8C00 converted to the
number 2.
Dark Orchid #9932CC

Dark Red #8B0000

<body onload="alert('Hi');">
Dark Salmon #E9967A

Dark Sea Green #8FBC8F

Execute a JavaScript code immediately after a
Dark Slate Blue #483D8B web page has been loaded

Dark Slate Gray #2F4F4F The onload event is triggered when

the web page finishes loading in
the web browser.

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Beige #F5F5DC
<script>
Dark Slate Grey #2F4F4F /* Display a text "Hi" once after 4 second

using setTimeout method

Dark Turquoise #00CED1
*/
Dark Violet #9400D3
function myfunc() {
Deep Pink #FF1493 console.log('Hi');

Deep Sky Blue #00BFFF }

The setTimeout() function

Dim Gray #696969
creates a timer that
waits 4 second.
Dim Grey #696969

Dodger Blue #1E90FF setTimeout(myfunc, 4000);

Fire Brick #B22222

Floral White #FFFAF0

When the timer expires, The timer delay is
Forest Green #228B22 setTimeout() method 4000 milliseconds,
calls the myfunc() which is 4 second
Fuchsia #FF00FF function

Gainsboro #DCDCDC
</script>
Ghost White #F8F8FF
4 second
Gold #FFD700 delay

Hi
Goldenrod #DAA520

Gray #808080

Grey #808080

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Green #008000
JavaScript + Cookie

Green Yellow #ADFF2F

Honeydew #F0FFF0 Persistent data storage on the client!

The type of the script code is always

Hot Pink #FF69B4
"text/javascript" for JavaScript code
Indian Red #CD5C5C

Indigo #4B0082
<script type="text/javascript" src="gtag.js"></script>
Ivory #FFFFF0
The name of the file
Khaki #F0E68C
containing the script code,
usually ending with .js.
Lavender #E6E6FA

Lavender Blush #FFF0F5 The use of external script by placing the name
of the script file in the src (source)
Lawn Green #7CFC00 attribute of a <script> tag

Lemon Chiffon #FFFACD

JavaScript + Broken cookie
Light Blue #ADD8E6

Light Coral #F08080

Big issue!

Light Cyan #E0FFFF

Light Golden Rod Yellow #FAFAD2 <script>

console.log(Math.round(Math.PI));
Light Gray #D3D3D3
// Output: 3
Light Grey #D3D3D3
console.log(Math.ceil(Math.PI));

Light Green #90EE90 // Output: 4

</script>

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Light Pink #FFB6C1
<script>

Light Salmon #FFA07A

console.log(`50/2 = ${50/2}`);

Light Sea Green #20B2AA // Output: 50/2 = 25

Light Sky Blue #87CEFA

Yellow Green #9ACD32 console.log(- (15 - 6));

Yellow #FFFF00 // Output: -9

White Smoke #F5F5F5

console.log(Math.min(4, 6) * 50);
White #FFFFFF
// Output: 200
Wheat #F5DEB3

Violet #EE82EE
console.log(Math.max(4, 6) * 50);
Light Slate Gray #778899
// Output: 300
Light Slate Grey #778899
</script>
Light Steel Blue #B0C4DE

Light yellow #FFFFE0

Lime #00FF00 let x = [11, 12, 13];

Lime Green #32CD32 x.push(14);

Linen #FAF0E6 x.push(15);

Magenta #FF00FF console.log(x);

// Output: [ 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 ]

Maroon #800000

</script>

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Turquoise #40E0D0
<script>

Tomato #FF6347 if (false != true) {

console.log("Albert");
Thistle #D8BFD8
if (11 < 22) {
Teal #008080
console.log("Einstein");

Tan #D2B48C }

Medium Aqua Marine #66CDAA }

</script>
Steel Blue #4682B4

Output:
Medium Blue #0000CD
Albert
Medium Orchid #BA55D3
Einstein
Spring Green #00FF7F

Snow #FFFAFA
<script>
Medium Purple #9370D8 console.log(5 * null);

Medium Sea Green #3CB371 // Output: 0

console.log(false == 0);
Medium Slate Blue #7B68EE
// Output: true
Medium Spring Green #00FA9A
console.log(true == 1);

Slate Gray #708090 // Output: true

console.log(null == undefined);
Slate Grey #708090
// Output: true
Silver #C0C0C0
</script>
Sienna #A0522D

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Medium Turquoise #48D1CC
<script>

Medium Violet Red #C71585

console.log(true ? 1 : 0);

Midnight Blue #191970 // Output: 1

Olive #808000 console.log(false ? 1 : 0);

Mint Cream #F5FFFA // Output: 0

Misty Rose #ffe4e1

Moccasin #FFE4B5 if (2 + 2 == 4) console.log("2+2=4");

// Output: 2+2=4
Peru #CD853F

Plum #DDA0DD
console.log("A", "B", 5);
Navajo White #FFDEAD
// Output: A B 5
Navy #000080
</script>
Old Lace #FDF5E6

Olive Drab #6B8E23

Orange #FFA500
function myfunc(name) {

Orange Red #FF4500 console.log("Hi " + name);

Orchid #DA70D6 }

Pink #FFC0CB myfunc("Albert");

Salmon #FA8072 console.log("How are you?");

</script>
Pale Golden Rod #EEE8AA
Hi Albert
# Output:
How are you?

1111
Slate Blue #6A5ACD
<script>

Sky Blue #87CEEB /*

Sea Shell #FFF5EE This program serves as an example of a

break statement. The first value higher
Pale Green #98FB98 than or equal to 21 and divisible by 2 is
obtained.
Pale Turquoise #AFEEEE
*/
Pale Violet Red #D87093

Sea Green #2E8B57 for(var i = 21; ; i = i + 1) {

Sandy Brown #F4A460 if (i % 2 == 0) {

console.log(i);
Papaya Whip #FFEFD5
break;
Peach Puff #FFDAB9
}

Powder Blue #B0E0E6 }

// Output: 22
Purple #800080
</script>
Red #FF0000
<script>
Rosy Brown #BC8F8F function repeat(n, action) {

Royal Blue #4169E1 for (var x = 1; x < n; x++) {

action("Albert Einstein");
Saddle Brown #8B4513
}

}
Output: repeat(3, console.log);

Albert Einstein </script>

Albert Einstein This program demonstrates a function

that calls console.log() 2 times.

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<script>

An object can't have new attributes added to it

when it is frozen using the Object.freeze() method.

This method prohibits the alteration of already-existing

characteristics, values, and properties of the object.

var x = Object.freeze({value: 15});

x.value = 100;

console.log(x.value); // Output: 15

</script>

HTML CSS

Inline CSS

 An inline CSS is used to apply a unique style to a single HTML element.

 An inline CSS uses the style attribute of an HTML element.

 This example sets the text color of the <h1> element to blue.

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<!DOCTYPE html>

<html> # Output:
<body>
HTML
<h1 style="color: blue;"> HTML </h1>

</body>

</html>

Internal CSS

• An internal CSS is used to define a style for a single HTML page.

• An internal CSS is defined in the <head> section of an HTML page, within a <style> element.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

</head>

<body>

<h1> HTML </h1>

<p> HyperText Markup Language. </p>

</body>

</html>

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External CSS

• An external style sheet is used to define the style for many HTML pages.
• With an external style sheet, we can change the look of an entire web site, by changing one file!

• To use an external style sheet, add a link to it in the <head> section of the HTML page.

body {
Example background-color: orange;
}
h1 {
color: blue;
}
<!DOCTYPE html> p {
color: green;
}
<html>

<head>

<link rel="stylesheet" href="styles.css">

</head>

<body> # Output:

<h1> HTML </h1> HTML

<p> HyperText Markup Language. </p> HyperText Markup Language.

</body>

</html>

CSS Fonts

• The CSS color property defines the text color to be used.

• The CSS font-family property defines the font to be used.

• The CSS font-size property defines the text size to be used.

Example

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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>

</head>

<body>

<h1> HTML </h1>

<p> HyperText Markup Language. </p>

</body>
</html>

CSS Border

• The CSS border property defines a border around an HTML element.

Example

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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style> # Output:
p {
border: 3px solid green;
HTML
} HyperText Markup Language.
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1> HTML </h1>
<p> HyperText Markup Language. </p>
</body>
</html>

CSS Padding

• The CSS padding property defines a padding (space) between the text and the border.

Example <!DOCTYPE html>

<html>
# Output:
<head>
<style>
p {
HTML
border: 3px solid green;
padding: 40px;
HyperText Markup Language.
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1> HTML </h1>
<p> HyperText Markup Language. </p>
</body>
</html>

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CSS Margin

• The CSS margin property defines a margin (space) outside the border.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
p {
border: 4px solid green;
margin: 50px;
}
</style>
</head>

<body>

<h1> HTML </h1>

<p> HyperText Markup Language. </p>

</body> # Output:
</html>
HTML

HyperText Markup Language.

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The id Attribute

• To define a specific style for one special element, add an id attribute to the element.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>
# Output:
<style>

#p01 {
Albert Einstein.
color: blue;
Elsa Einstein.
}

</style>

</head>

<body>

<p> Albert Einstein. </p>

<p id="p01"> Elsa Einstein. </p>

</body>

</html>

The class Attribute

• To define a style for special types of elements, add a class attribute to the element:

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

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<html>

<head>

<style>

.p01 { # Output:
color: blue;
Albert Einstein.
}

</style> Elsa Einstein.

</head>

<body>

<p> Albert Einstein. </p>

<p class="p01"> Elsa Einstein. </p>

</body>

</html>

HTML Links - The target Attribute

The target attribute specifies where to open the linked document.

The target attribute can have one of the following values:

• _blank → Opens the linked document in a new window

• _self → Opens the linked document in the same window
• _parent → Opens the linked document in the parent frame
• _top → Opens the linked document in the full body of the window

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

1120
<body>

<a href="https://www.google.com/" target="_blank"> Visit GOOGLE! </a>

<a href="https://www.amazon.com/" target="_top"> Visit Amazon! </a>

</body>
If target="_blank", the link will open in
</html>
a new browser window.

HTML Links - Image as a Link

It is common to use images as links:

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
Put the <img> tag within the <a> tag to
<html> use an image as a link.

<body>

<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing" target="_blank">

<img src="Alan-Turing.jpg" alt="Alan Turing" style="width:100px;height:100px;border:0;">

</a>

</body>

</html>

Button as a Link

• To use an HTML button as a link, we have to add some JavaScript code.

• JavaScript allows us to specify what happens at certain events, such as a click of a button.

1121
Example
# Output:

GOOGLE
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html> To access the Google.com, we must click the button.

<body>

<button onclick="document.location = 'https://www.google.com/'"> GOOGLE </button>

</body>

</html>

Link Titles

• The title attribute specifies extra information about an element. The information is most often shown

as atooltip text when the mouse moves over the element.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<body>

<a href="https://www.google.com" title="Go to GOOGLE.com" target="_blank"> Visit GOOGLE </a>

</body>

</html> # Output:

Visit GOOGLE

Go to GOOGLE.com

1122
915
HTML JavaScript

• JavaScript makes HTML pages more dynamic and interactive.

Example
The use of unique HTML tag properties

<!DOCTYPE html> like "onclick" to incorporate JavaScript

<html lang="en"> code directly within the HTML tag.

<body>

<button type="button" onclick="alert('How are you?')"> Click Me </button>

</body> This program will display an alert notification

</html> upon clicking the button element.

The HTML <script> Tag

• The <script> tag is used to define a client-side script (JavaScript).

• The <script> element either contains script statements, or it points to an external script file

through the "src" attribute.

• Common uses for JavaScript are image manipulation, form validation, and dynamic changes of content.

• To select an HTML element, JavaScript most often uses the document.getElementById() method.

• This JavaScript example writes "Albert Einstein" into an HTML element with id="mytxt":

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

1123
916
<html>

<body>
# Output:

<p id="mytxt"></p> Albert Einstein

document.getElementById("mytxt").innerHTML = "Albert Einstein";

</script>

</body>

</html>

HTML Link Bookmarks

• HTML bookmarks are used to allow readers to jump to specific parts of a Web page.
• Bookmarks can be useful if a webpage is very long.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<body>
The use of "href" attribute to link to the bookmark

<p> <a href="#C4"> Jump to Chapter 4 </a> </p>

<p> <a href="#C10"> Jump to Chapter 10 </a> </p>

<h2> Chapter 1 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains absorption </p>

<h2> Chapter 2 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains absorption spectrum </p>

1124
916
<h2> Chapter 3 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains activation energy </p>

The use of "id" attribute to define bookmarks in a page

<h2 id="C4"> Chapter 4 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains adaptive radiation </p>

<h2> Chapter 5 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains aerobiology </p>

<h2> Chapter 6 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains agrobiology </p>

<h2> Chapter 7 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains amino acid </p>

<h2> Chapter 8 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains arachnology </p>

<h2> Chapter 9 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains artificial selection </p>

<h2 id="C10"> Chapter 10 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains asexual reproduction </p>

<h2> Chapter 11 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains autoimmunity </p>

<h2> Chapter 12 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains bacteriophage </p>

<h2> Chapter 13 </h2>

1125
916
<p> This chapter explains behavioral ecology </p>

<h2> Chapter 14 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains binary fission </p>

<h2> Chapter 15 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains biocatalysis </p>

<h2> Chapter 16 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains biogeography </p>

<h2> Chapter 17 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains biomechanics </p>

<h2> Chapter 18 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains biomedical research </p>

<h2> Chapter 19 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains biotechnology </p>

<h2> Chapter 20 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains carbon fixation </p>

<h2> Chapter 21 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains cell biology </p>

<h2> Chapter 22 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains chemical equilibrium </p>

<h2> Chapter 23 </h2>

<p> This chapter explains chemosynthesis </p>

1126
916
</body>

</html>

HTML Link Colors

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head> # Output:
<style>
GOOGLE
a {

text-decoration: none; GOOGLE

color: blue;

}
(On hover)
a:hover {

color: red;

background-color: yellow;

text-decoration: underline;

</style>

</head>

<body>

<a href="https://www.google.com" target="_blank"> GOOGLE </a>

</body>

</html>

1127
916
Link Buttons

• A link can also be styled as a button, by using CSS:

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>
# Output:
<style>

a { GOOGLE
background-color: #89CFF0;

color: black;
GOOGLE
padding: 15px 25px;

text-decoration: none;

display: inline-block;

} (On hover)

a:hover {

background-color: green;
color: white;

</style>

</head>

<body>

<a href="https://www.google.com" target="_blank"> GOOGLE </a>

</body>

</html>

1128
HTML Symbols

! " #
&Tab; &NewLine;

&excl; " &QUOT; &num;

$
&dollar;
%
&percnt;
&
& &AMP;
'
'
(
(

)
)
*
&ast; &midast;
+
+
,
,
.
&period;

/
/
:
&colon;
;
&semi;
<
< &LT;
=
=

>
> &GT;
?
&quest;
@
&commat;
[
[ [
\
\

]
] ]
^
&Hat;
_
&lowbar;
`
&grave;
{
{ {
&DiacriticalGrave;

1129
|
| |
}
} }

 
¡
¡
¢
¢
&VerticalLine; &NonBreakingSpace;

£
£
¤
¤
¥
¥
¦
¦
§
§

¨
&Dot; &die;
©
© &COPY;
ª
ª
«
«
¬¬
&DoubleDot; ¨

® ¯ ° ±


® &circledR; &REG; ¯ &OverBar; ° ± &pm;

&strns; &PlusMinus;

²
²
³
³
´
´
µ
µ
¶
¶
&DiacriticalAcute;

·
· ·
¸
¸ &Cedilla;
¹
¹
º
º
»
»
·

¼
¼
½
½ &half;
¾¾
¿
¿
À
À

1130
Á
Á
Â
Â
Ã
Ã
ÄÄ
Å
Å

Æ
Æ
Ç
Ç
È
È
É
É
Ê
Ê

Ë
Ë
Ì
Ì
Í
Í
Î
Î
Ï
Ï

ÐÐ
Ñ
Ñ
Ò
Ò
Ó
Ó
Ô
Ô

Õ
Õ
ÖÖ
×
×
Ø
Ø
Ù
Ù

Ú
Ú
Û
Û
ÜÜ
Ý
Ý
Þ
Þ

ß
ß
à
à
á
á
â
â
ã
ã

1131
ä
ä
å
å
æ
æ
ç
ç
è
è

é
é
ê
ê
ë
ë
ì
ì
í
í

î
î
ï
ï
ð
ð
ñ
ñ
ò
ò

ó
ó
ô
ô
õ
õ
ö
ö
÷
÷ &div;

ø
ø
ù
ù
ú
ú
û
û
ü
ü

ý
ý
þ
þ
ÿ
ÿ
Ā
&Amacr;
ā
&amacr;

Ă
&Abreve;
ă
&abreve;
Ą
&Aogon;
ą
&aogon;
Ć
&Cacute;

1132
ć
&cacute;
Ĉ
&Ccirc;
ĉ
&ccirc;
Ċ
&Cdot;
ċ
&cdot;

Č
&Ccaron;
č
&ccaron;
Ď
&Dcaron;
ď
&dcaron;
Đ
&Dstrok;

đ
&dstrok;
Ē
&Emacr;
ē
&emacr;
Ė
&Edot;
ė
&edot;

Ę
&Eogon;
ę
&eogon;
Ě
&Ecaron;
ě
&ecaron;
Ĝ
&Gcirc;

ĝ
&gcirc;
Ğ
&Gbreve;
ğ
&gbreve;
Ġ&Gdot;
ġ
&gdot;

Ģ
&Gcedil;
Ĥ
&Hcirc;
ĥ
&hcirc;
Ħ
&Hstrok;
ħ
&hstrok;

Ĩ
&Itilde;
ĩ
&itilde;
Ī
&Imacr;
ī
&imacr;
Į
&Iogon;

1133
į
&iogon;
İ
&Idot;
ı
&imath; &inodot;
Ĳ
&IJlig;
ĳ
&ijlig;

Ĵ
&Jcirc;
ĵ
&jcirc;
Ķ
&Kcedil;
ķ
&kcedil;
ĸ
&kgreen;

Ĺ
&Lacute;
ĺ
&lacute;
Ļ
&Lcedil;
ļ
&lcedil;
Ľ
&Lcaron;

ľ
&lcaron;
Ŀ
&Lmidot;
ŀ
&lmidot;
Ł
&Lstrok;
ł
&lstrok;

Ń
&Nacute;
ń
&nacute;
Ņ
&Ncedil;
ņ
&ncedil;
Ň
&Ncaron;

ň
&ncaron;
ŉ
&napos;
Ŋ&ENG;
ŋ
&eng;
Ō
&Omacr;

ō
&omacr;
Ő
&Odblac;
ő
&odblac;
Œ
&OElig;
œ
&oelig;

1134
Ŕ
&Racute;
ŕ
&racute;
Ŗ
&Rcedil;
ŗ
&rcedil;
Ř
&Rcaron;

ř
&rcaron;
Ś
&Sacute;
ś
&sacute;
Ŝ
&Scirc;
ŝ
&scirc;

Ş
&Scedil;
ş
&scedil;
Š
&Scaron;
š
&scaron;
Ţ
&Tcedil;

ţ
&tcedil;
Ť
&Tcaron;
ť
&tcaron;
Ŧ
&Tstrok;
ŧ
&tstrok;

Ũ
&Utilde;
ũ
&utilde;
Ū
&Umacr;
ū
&umacr;
Ŭ
&Ubreve;

ŭ
&ubreve;
Ů
&Uring;
ů
&uring;
Ű
&Udblac;
ű
&udblac;

Ų
&Uogon;
ų
&uogon;
Ŵ
&Wcirc;
ŵ
&wcirc;
Ŷ
&Ycirc;

1135
ŷ
&ycirc;
Ÿ
&Yuml;
Ź
&Zacute;
ź
&zacute;
Ż
&Zdot;

ż
&zdot;
Ž
&Zcaron;
ž
&zcaron;
ƒ
&fnof;
Ƶ
&imped;

ǵ
&gacute;
ȷ
&jmath;
ˆ
&circ;
ˇ
&caron; &Hacek;
˘
&breve; &Breve;

˙
&dot; &DiacriticalDot;
˚
&ring;
˛
&ogon;
˜
&tilde;
˝
&dblac;
&DiacriticalTilde; &DiacriticalDoubleAcute;

̑
&DownBreve;
̲
&UnderBar;
Α
Α
Β
Β
Γ
Γ

Δ
Δ
Ε
Ε
Ζ
Ζ
ΗΗ
Θ
Θ

Ι
Ι
Κ
Κ
Λ
Λ
Μ Μ
Ν Ν

1136
ΞΞ
Ο
Ο
Π Π
ΡΡ
Σ
Σ

Τ
Τ
Υ
Υ
Φ
Φ
ΧΧ
ΨΨ

Ω
Ω
α
α
β
β
γ
γ
δ
δ

ε
ϵ ϵ
ζ
ζ
η
η
θ
θ
ι
ι
ε

κ
κ
λ
λ
μμ
ν
ν
ξ
ξ

ο
ο
ππ
ρ
ρ
ς
ς ς
σ
σ
&sigmaf;

τ
τ
υ
&upsi; υ
φ
φ ϕ ϕ
χ
χ
ψψ

1137
ω
ω
ϑ
ϑ ϑ
ϒ
&Upsi; &upsih;
ϕ
&straightphi;
ϖ
ϖ ϖ
&thetasym;

Ϝ
&Gammad;
ϝ
&gammad; &digamma;
ϰ
ϰ ϰ
ϱ
ϱ ϱ
ϵ
&epsi;
&straightepsilon;

϶
&bepsi; &backepsilon;
Ё
&IOcy;
Ђ&DJcy;
Ѓ
&GJcy;
Є
&Jukcy;

Ѕ
&DScy;
І
&Iukcy;
Ї
&YIcy;
Ј
&Jsercy;
Љ &LJcy;

Њ &NJcy;
Ћ&TSHcy;
Ќ
&KJcy;
Ў
&Ubrcy;
Џ&DZcy;

А
&Acy;
Б&Bcy;
В&Vcy;
Г&Gcy;
Д&Dcy;

Е
&IEcy;
Ж&ZHcy;
З&Zcy;
И &Icy;
Й &Jcy;

1138
К&Kcy;
Л&Lcy;
М
&Mcy;
Н&Ncy;
О
&Ocy;

П&Pcy;
Р
&Rcy;
С
&Scy;
Т
&Tcy;
У
&Ucy;

Ф&Fcy;
Х&KHcy;
Ц
&TScy;
Ч&CHcy;
Ш
&SHcy;

Щ
&SHCHcy;
Ъ
&HARDcy;
Ы
&Ycy;
Ь
&SOFTcy;
Э
&Ecy;

Ю&YUcy;
Я&YAcy;
а
&acy;
б
&bcy;
в
&vcy;

г
&gcy;
д
&dcy;
е
&iecy;
ж&zhcy;
з
&zcy;

и
&icy;
й
&jcy;
к
&kcy;
л
&lcy;
м
&mcy;

1139
н
&ncy;
о
&ocy;
п
&pcy;
р
&rcy;
с
&scy;

т
&tcy;
у
&ucy;
ф&fcy;
х
&khcy;
ц
&tscy;

ч
&chcy;
ш&shcy;
щ
&shchcy;
ъ
&hardcy;
ы&ycy;

ь
&softcy;
э
&ecy;
ю&yucy;
я
&yacy;
ё
&iocy;

ђ
&djcy;
ѓ
&gjcy;
є
&jukcy;
ѕ
&dscy;
і
&iukcy;

ї
&yicy;
ј
&jsercy;
љ&ljcy;
њ&njcy;
ћ
&tshcy;

ќ
&kjcy;
ў
&ubrcy;
џ
&dzcy;

&ensp;

&emsp;

1140

&emsp13;

&emsp14;

&numsp;

&puncsp;

   

&hairsp; &ZeroWidthSpace; &zwnj; &zwj; &lrm;
&VeryThinSpace; &NegativeVeryThinSpace;
&NegativeThinSpace;
&NegativeMediumSpace;
&NegativeThickSpace;

&rlm;
‐
&hyphen; &dash;
–
–
—
—
―
&horbar;

‖
&Verbar; &Vert;
‘
‘
’
’ &rsquor;
‚
&lsquor; &sbquo;
“
“
&OpenCurlyQuote; &CloseCurlyQuote; &OpenCurlyDoubleQuote;

”
” &rdquor;
„
&ldquor; &bdquo;
†
&dagger;
‡
&Dagger; &ddagger;
•
• &bullet;
&CloseCurlyDoubleQuote;

‥
&nldr;
…
… &mldr;
‰&permil;
‱&pertenk;
′
′

″
″
‴
‴
‵
&bprime; &backprime;
‹
&lsaquo;
›
&rsaquo;

1141
‾
&oline;
⁁
&caret;
⁃
&hybull;
∕
&frasl;
⁏
&bsemi;

⁗
&qprime;

  &NoBreak; ⁡ ⁡ ⁢ ⁢

⁣ ⁣
€
€ &tdot; &TripleDot; &DotDot;
ℂ
&Copf; &complexes;

℅
&incare;
ℊ
&gscr;
ℋ
&hamilt;
ℌ
&Hfr; &Poincareplane;
ℍ
&quaternions; &Hopf;
&HilbertSpace; &Hscr;

ℎ
&planckh;
ℏ
&planck; &hbar;
ℐ
&Iscr; &imagline;
ℑ
&image; &Im;
ℒ
&Lscr; &lagran;
&plankv; &hslash; &imagpart; &Ifr; &Laplacetrf;

ℓ
&ell;
ℕ
&Nopf; &naturals;
№&numero;
℗
&copysr;
℘
&weierp; &wp;

ℙ
&Popf; &primes;
ℚ
&rationals; &Qopf;
ℛ
&Rscr; &realine;
ℜ
&real; &Re; &realpart;
ℝ
&reals; &Ropf;
&Rfr;

1142
℞
&rx;
™
™ &TRADE;
ℤ
&integers; &Zopf;
Ω
&ohm;
℧&mho;

ℨ
&Zfr; &zeetrf;
℩
&iiota;
Å
&angst;
ℬ
&bernou; &Bernoullis;
ℭ
&Cfr; &Cayleys;
&Bscr;

ℯ
&escr;
ℰ
&Escr; &expectation;
ℱ
&Fscr; &Fouriertrf;
ℳ
&phmmat; &Mellintrf;
ℴ
&order; &orderof;
&Mscr; &oscr;

ℵ
&alefsym; &aleph;
ℶ
&beth;
ℷ
&gimel;
ℸ
&daleth;
ⅅ
&CapitalDifferentialD;
&DD;

ⅆ
&DifferentialD; &dd;
ⅇ
&ExponentialE;
ⅈ
&ImaginaryI; &ii;
⅓
&frac13;
⅔
&frac23;
&exponentiale; &ee;

⅕
&frac15;
⅖
&frac25;
⅗
&frac35;
⅘
&frac45;
⅙
&frac16;

⅚
&frac56;
⅛
&frac18;
⅜&frac38;
⅝&frac58;
⅞
&frac78;

1143
←
← &leftarrow;
↑
↑ &uparrow;
→
→ &rightarrow;
↓
↓ &downarrow;
↔↔
&LeftArrow; &slarr; &UpArrow; &RightArrow; &srarr; &DownArrow; &leftrightarrow;
&ShortLeftArrow; &ShortUpArrow; &ShortRightArrow; &ShortDownArrow; &LeftRightArrow;

↕
&varr; &updownarrow;
↖
&nwarr;
↗
&nearr;
↘
&searr; &searrow;
↙
&swarr; &swarrow;
&UpDownArrow; &UpperLeftArrow; &UpperRightArrow; &LowerRightArrow; &LowerLeftArrow;
&nwarrow; &nearrow;

↚ ↛ ↝
&nlarr; &nleftarrow; &nrarr; &nrightarrow; &rarrw;
↞ &Larr;
↟
&Uarr;
&rightsquigarrow; &twoheadleftarrow;

↠ &Rarr;
↡
&Darr;
↢
&larrtl;
↣
&rarrtl;
↤
&LeftTeeArrow;
&twoheadrightarrow; &leftarrowtail; &rightarrowtail; &mapstoleft;

↥
&UpTeeArrow;
↦
&map; &RightTeeArrow;
↧
&DownTeeArrow;
↩
&larrhk;
↪
&rarrhk;
&mapstoup; &mapsto; &mapstodown; &hookleftarrow; &hookrightarrow;

↫
&larrlp;
↬
&rarrlp;
↭ &harrw;
↮
&nharr;
↰
&lsh; &Lsh;
&looparrowleft; &looparrowright; &leftrightsquigarrow; &nleftrightarrow;

↱
&rsh; &Rsh;
↲
&ldsh;
↳
&rdsh;
↵
&crarr;
↶
&cularr;
&curvearrowleft;

1144
↷
&curarr;
↺
&olarr;
↻
&orarr;
↼
&lharu; &LeftVector;
↽&lhard;
&curvearrowright; &circlearrowleft; &circlearrowright; &leftharpoonup; &leftharpoondown;
&DownLeftVector;

↾
&uharr;
↿
&uharl;
⇀
&rharu; &RightVector;
⇁&rhard;
⇂
&dharr;
&upharpoonright; &upharpoonleft; &rightharpoonup; &rightharpoondown; &RightDownVector;
&RightUpVector; &LeftUpVector; &DownRightVector; &downharpoonright;

⇃
&dharl;
⇄&rlarr;
⇅
&udarr;
⇆&lrarr;
⇇&llarr;
&LeftDownVector; &rightleftarrows; &UpArrowDownArrow; &leftrightarrows; &leftleftarrows;
&downharpoonleft; &RightArrowLeftArrow; &LeftArrowRightArrow;

⇈
&uuarr; &upuparrows;
⇉&rrarr;
⇊
&ddarr;
⇋
&lrhar;
⇌
&rlhar;
&rightrightarrows; &downdownarrows; &ReverseEquilibrium; &rightleftharpoons;
&leftrightharpoons; &Equilibrium;

⇍
&nlArr; &nLeftarrow;
⇎&nhArr;
⇏
&nrArr; &nRightarrow;
⇐
⇐ &Leftarrow;
⇑
&uArr; &Uparrow;
&nLeftrightarrow; &DoubleLeftArrow; &DoubleUpArrow;

⇒
⇒ &Rightarrow;
⇓
&dArr; &Downarrow;
⇔ ⇔
⇕
&vArr; &Updownarrow;
⇖
&nwArr;
&Implies; &DoubleDownArrow; &Leftrightarrow; &DoubleUpDownArrow;
&DoubleRightArrow; &DoubleLeftRightArrow;
&iff;

⇗
&neArr;
⇘
&seArr;
⇙
&swArr;
⇚
&lAarr; &Lleftarrow;
⇛
&rAarr; &Rrightarrow;

1145
⇝
&zigrarr;
⇤
&larrb; &LeftArrowBar;
⇥
&rarrb;
⇵
&duarr;
⇽
&loarr;
&RightArrowBar; &DownArrowUpArrow;

⇾
&roarr;
⇿&hoarr;
∀
∀ &ForAll;
∁
&comp; &complement;
∂
∂ &PartialD;

∃
∃ &Exists;
∄
&nexist; &NotExists;
∅
∅ &emptyset;
∇
∇ &Del;
∈
∈ &isinv;
&nexists; &emptyv; &varnothing; &Element; &in;

∉
∉ &NotElement;
∋
&niv; &ReverseElement;
∌
&notni; &notniva;
∏
∏ &Product;
∐
&coprod; &Coproduct;
&notinva; &ni; &SuchThat; &NotReverseElement;

∑
∑ &Sum;
−
−
∓
&mnplus; &mp;
∔
&plusdo; &dotplus;
∖
&setmn; &setminus;
&MinusPlus; &Backslash; &ssetmn;
&smallsetminus;

∗
&lowast;
∘
&compfn; &SmallCircle;
√
√ &Sqrt;
∝
&prop; &propto;
∞
∞
&Proportional; &vprop;
&varpropto;

∟&angrt;
∠
&ang; &angle;
∡
&angmsd;
∢
&angsph;
∣
&mid; &VerticalBar;
&measuredangle; &smid; &shortmid;

1146
∤
&nmid;
∥
&par; &parallel;
∦
&npar; &nparallel;
∧
&and; &wedge;
∨
&or; &vee;
&NotVerticalBar; &DoubleVerticalBar; &NotDoubleVerticalBar;
&nsmid; &nshortmid; &spar; &shortparallel; &nspar;
&nshortparallel;

∩∩
∪∪
∫
∫ &Integral;
∬ &Int;
∭
&tint; &iiint;

∮
&conint; &oint;
∯
&Conint;
∰&Cconint;
∱
&cwint;
∲
&cwconint;
&ContourIntegral; &DoubleContourIntegral; &ClockwiseContourIntegral;

∳
&awconint;
∴
&there4; &therefore;
∵
&becaus; &because;
∶
&ratio;
∷
&Colon; &Proportion;
&CounterClockwiseContourIntegral;
&Therefore; &Because;

∸
&minusd; &dotminus;
∺
&mDDot;
∻
&homtht;
∼
&sim; &Tilde; &thksim;
∽
&bsim; &backsim;
&thicksim;

∾
&ac; &mstpos;
∿&acd;
≀
&wreath;
≁
&nsim; &NotTilde;
≂
&esim; &EqualTilde;
&VerticalTilde; &wr; &eqsim;

≃
&sime; &TildeEqual;
≄
&nsime; &nsimeq;
≅
&cong;
≆
&simne;
≇
&ncong;
&simeq; &NotTildeEqual; &TildeFullEqual; &NotTildeFullEqual;

1147
≈
≈ ≈
≉
&nap; &NotTildeTilde;
≊
&ape; &approxeq;
≋&apid;
≌
&bcong; &backcong;
&TildeTilde; ≈ &napprox;
&thkap; &thickapprox;

≍
&asympeq; &CupCap;
≎
&bump; &HumpDownHump;
≏
&bumpe; &HumpEqual;
≐
&esdot; &DotEqual;
≑
&eDot; &doteqdot;
&Bumpeq; &bumpeq; &doteq;

≒
&efDot;
≓
&erDot; &risingdotseq;
≔
&colone; &coloneq;
≕
&ecolon; &eqcolon;
≖
&ecir; &eqcirc;
&fallingdotseq; &Assign;

≗
&cire; &circeq;
≙
&wedgeq;
≚
&veeeq;
≜
&trie; &triangleq;
≟
&equest; &questeq;

≠
≠ &NotEqual;
≡
&equiv; &Congruent;
≢
&nequiv;
≤
≤ &leq;
≥
≥ &GreaterEqual;
&NotCongruent; &geq;

≦
&lE; &LessFullEqual;
≧&gE;
≨
&lnE; &lneqq;
≩
&gnE; &gneqq;
≪
&Lt; &NestedLessLess;
&leqq; &GreaterFullEqual; &ll;
&geqq;

≫ &Gt;
≬
&twixt; &between;
≭
&NotCupCap;
≮
&nlt; &NotLess;
≯
&ngt; &NotGreater;
&NestedGreaterGreater; &nless; &ngtr;
&gg;

1148
≰
&nle; &NotLessEqual;
≱
&nge;
≲
&lsim; &LessTilde;
≳
&gsim; &gtrsim;
≴
&nlsim; &NotLessTilde;
&nleq; &NotGreaterEqual; &lesssim; &GreaterTilde;
&ngeq;

≵
&ngsim;
≶
&lg; &lessgtr;
≷
&gl; &gtrless;
≸
&ntlg;
≹
&ntgl;
&NotGreaterTilde; &LessGreater; &GreaterLess; &NotLessGreater; &NotGreaterLess;

≺
&pr; &Precedes; &prec;
≻
&sc; &Succeeds; &succ;
≼
&prcue;
≽
&sccue;
≾
&prsim; &precsim;
&PrecedesSlantEqual; &SucceedsSlantEqual; &PrecedesTilde;
&preccurlyeq; &succcurlyeq;

≿
&scsim; &succsim;
⊀
&npr; &nprec;
⊁
&nsc; &nsucc;
⊂
⊂ &subset;
⊃
⊃ &supset;
&SucceedsTilde; &NotPrecedes; &NotSucceeds; &Superset;

⊄
&nsub;
⊅
&nsup;
⊆
&sube; &SubsetEqual;
⊇
&supe; &supseteq;
⊈
&nsube; &nsubseteq;
&subseteq; &SupersetEqual; &NotSubsetEqual;

⊉
&nsupe; &nsupseteq;
⊊
&subne; &subsetneq;
⊋
&supne; &supsetneq;
⊍
&cupdot;
⊎
&uplus; &UnionPlus;
&NotSupersetEqual;

⊏
&sqsub; &SquareSubset;
⊐
&sqsup;
⊑
&sqsube;
⊒
&sqsupe;
⊓
&sqcap;
&sqsubset; &SquareSuperset; &SquareSubsetEqual; &SquareSupersetEqual; &SquareIntersection;
&sqsupset; &sqsubseteq; &sqsupseteq;

1149
⊔
&sqcup; &SquareUnion;
⊕
&oplus; &CirclePlus;
⊖
&ominus; &CircleMinus;
⊗
&otimes; &CircleTimes;
⊘&osol;

⊙
&odot; &CircleDot;
⊚
&ocir; &circledcirc;
⊛
&oast; &circledast;
⊝
&odash; &circleddash;
⊞
&plusb; &boxplus;

⊟
&minusb; &boxminus;
⊠
&timesb; &boxtimes;
⊡
&sdotb; &dotsquare;
⊢
&vdash; &RightTee;
⊣
&dashv; &LeftTee;

⊤
&top; &DownTee;
⊥
&bottom; &bot; &perp;
⊧
&models;
⊨
&vDash;
⊩
&Vdash;
&UpTee; &DoubleRightTee;

⊪
&Vvdash;
⊫
&VDash;
⊬
&nvdash;
⊭
&nvDash;
⊮
&nVdash;

⊯
&nVDash;
⊰
&prurel;
⊲&vltri;
⊳
&vrtri;
⊴&ltrie;
&vartriangleleft; &vartriangleright; &trianglelefteq;
&LeftTriangle; &RightTriangle; &LeftTriangleEqual;

⊵
&rtrie;
⊶&origof;
⊷&imof;
⊸
&mumap; &multimap;
⊹
&hercon;
&trianglerighteq;
&RightTriangleEqual;

1150
⊺
&intcal; &intercal;
⊻
&veebar;
⊽
&barvee;
⊾
&angrtvb;
⊿
&lrtri;

⋀
&xwedge; &Wedge;
⋁
&xvee; &Vee; &bigvee;
⋂
&xcap; &Intersection;
⋃
&xcup; &Union;
⋄
&diam; &diamond;
&bigwedge; &bigcap; &bigcup; &Diamond;

⋅
⋅
⋆
&sstarf; &Star;
⋇
&divonx;
⋈
&bowtie;
⋉
&ltimes;
&divideontimes;

⋊
&rtimes;
⋋
&lthree;
⋌
&rthree;
⋍
&bsime; &backsimeq;
⋎
&cuvee; &curlyvee;
&leftthreetimes; &rightthreetimes;

⋏
&cuwed; &curlywedge;
⋐
&Sub; &Subset;
⋑
&Sup; &Supset;
⋒
&Cap;
⋓
&Cup;

⋔
&fork; &pitchfork;
⋕
&epar;
⋖
&ltdot; &lessdot;
⋗
&gtdot; &gtrdot;
⋘ &Ll;

⋙
&Gg; &ggg;
⋚&leg;
⋛
&gel; &gtreqless;
⋞
&cuepr; &curlyeqprec;
⋟
&cuesc; &curlyeqsucc;
&LessEqualGreater; &GreaterEqualLess;
&lesseqgtr;

1151
⋠
&nprcue;
⋡
&nsccue;
⋢
&nsqsube;
⋣
&nsqsupe;
⋦
&lnsim;
&NotPrecedesSlantEqual; &NotSucceedsSlantEqual; &NotSquareSubsetEqual; &NotSquareSupersetEqual;

⋧
&gnsim;
⋨
&prnsim; &precnsim;
⋩
&scnsim; &succnsim;
⋪
&nltri;
⋫&nrtri;
&ntriangleleft; &ntriangleright;
&NotLeftTriangle; &NotRightTriangle;

⋬
&nltrie;
⋭
&nrtrie;
⋮
&vellip;
⋯
&ctdot;
⋰
&utdot;
&ntrianglelefteq; &ntrianglerighteq;
&NotLeftTriangleEqual; &NotRightTriangleEqual;

⋱
&dtdot;
⋲
&disin;
⋳
&isinsv;
⋴
&isins;
⋵
&isindot;

⋶
&notinvc;
⋷
&notinvb;
⋹
&isinE;
⋺&nisd;
⋻
&xnis;

⋼
&nis;
⋽
&notnivc;
⋾
&notnivb;
⌅
&barwed; &barwedge;
⌆
&Barwed;
&doublebarwedge;

⌈
&lceil; &LeftCeiling;
⌉
&rceil; &RightCeiling;
⌊
&lfloor; &LeftFloor;
⌋
&rfloor; &RightFloor;
⌌ &drcrop;

⌎ ⌏ 1152
⌍ &dlcrop;
⌎ &urcrop;
⌏&ulcrop;
⌐
&bnot;
⌒
&profline;

⌓
&profsurf;
⌕
&telrec;
⌖
&target;
⌜
&ulcorn; &ulcorner;
⌝
&urcorn; &urcorner;

⌞
&dlcorn; &llcorner;
⌟
&drcorn; &lrcorner;
⌢
&frown; &sfrown;
⌣
&smile; &ssmile; &cylcty;

&profalar;
⌶
&topbot;
⌽&ovbar;
⌿
&solbar;
⍼
&angzarr;

⎰
&lmoust; &lmoustache;
⎱
&rmoust; &rmoustache;
⎴
&tbrk; &OverBracket;
⎵
&bbrk; &UnderBracket;
⎶
&bbrktbrk;

⏜
&OverParenthesis;
⏝ ⏞
&OverBrace;
⏟ &trpezium;

&UnderParenthesis;
&UnderBrace;

&elinters;
␣
&blank;
Ⓢ
&oS; &circledS;
─
&boxh;
│
&boxv;
&HorizontalLine;

1153
┌
&boxdr;
┐
&boxdl;
└
&boxur;
┘
&boxul;
├
&boxvr;

┤
&boxvl;
┬
&boxhd;
┴
&boxhu;
┼
&boxvh;
═
&boxH;

║
&boxV;
╒
&boxdR;
╓
&boxDr;
╔
&boxDR;
╕
&boxdL;

╖
&boxDl;
╗
&boxDL;
╘
&boxuR;
╙
&boxUr;
╚
&boxUR;

╛
&boxuL;
╜
&boxUl;
╝
&boxUL;
╞
&boxvR;
╟
&boxVr;

╠
&boxVR;
╡
&boxvL;
╢
&boxVl;
╣
&boxVL;
╤
&boxHd;

╥
&boxhD;
╦
&boxHD;
╧
&boxHu;
╨
&boxhU;
╩
&boxHU;

1154
╪
&boxvH;
╫
&boxVh;
╬
&boxVH;
▀
&uhblk;
▄
&lhblk;

█
&block;
░
&blk14;
▒
&blk12;
▓
&blk34;
□
&squ; &square;
&Square;

▪
&squf; &squarf;
▫
&EmptyVerySmallSquare;
▭&rect;
▮
&marker;
▱&fltns;
&blacksquare;
&FilledVerySmallSquare;

△
&xutri;
▴
&utrif;
▵
&utri; &triangle;
▸
&rtrif;
▹
&rtri; &triangleright;
&bigtriangleup; &blacktriangle; &blacktriangleright;

▽
&xdtri;
▾
&dtrif;
▿
&dtri; &triangledown;
◂
&ltrif;
◃
&ltri; &triangleleft;
&bigtriangledown; &blacktriangledown; &blacktriangleleft;

◊
&loz; &lozenge;
○
&cir;
◬
&tridot;
◯
&xcirc; &bigcirc;
◸
&ultri;

◹
&urtri;
◺
&lltri;
◻
&EmptySmallSquare;
◼
&FilledSmallSquare;
★
&starf; &bigstar;

1155
☆&star;
☎&phone;
♀
&female;
♂&male;
♠
&spades; &spadesuit;

♣
&clubs; &clubsuit;
♥
&hearts; &heartsuit;
♦
&diams; &diamondsuit;
♪
&sung;
♭
&flat;

♮
&natur; &natural;
♯
&sharp;
✓
&check; &checkmark;
✗
&cross;
✠
&malt; &maltese;

✶&sext;
❘
&VerticalSeparator;
❲
&lbbrk;
❳
&rbbrk;
⟦
&lobrk;
&LeftDoubleBracket;

⟧
&robrk;
⟨
&lang;
⟩
&rang;
⟪
&Lang;
⟫
&Rang;
&RightDoubleBracket; &LeftAngleBracket; &RightAngleBracket;
&langle; &rangle;

⟬
&loang;
⟭
&roang;
⟵ &xlarr;
⟶ &xrarr;
⟷ &xharr;
&longleftarrow; &longrightarrow; &longleftrightarrow;
&LongLeftArrow; &LongRightArrow; &LongLeftRightArrow;

⟸ &xlArr;
⟹ &xrArr;
⟺ &xhArr;
⟼
&xmap; &longmapsto;
⟿
&dzigrarr;
&Longleftarrow; &Longrightarrow; &Longleftrightarrow;
&DoubleLongLeftArrow; &DoubleLongRightArrow; &DoubleLongLeftRightArrow;

1156
⤂
&nvlArr;
⤃
&nvrArr;
⤄&nvHarr;
⤅ &Map;
⤌&lbarr;

⤍
&rbarr; &bkarow;
⤎&lBarr;
⤏
&rBarr; &dbkarow;
⤐
&RBarr; &drbkarow;
⤑
&DDotrahd;

⤒
&UpArrowBar;
⤓
&DownArrowBar;
⤖&Rarrtl;
⤙
&latail;
⤚
&ratail;

⤛
&lAtail;
⤜
&rAtail;
⤝
&larrfs;
⤞
&rarrfs;
⤟
&larrbfs;

⤠
&rarrbfs;
⤣
&nwarhk;
⤤
&nearhk;
⤥
&searhk; &hksearow;
⤦
&swarhk; &hkswarow;

⤧
&nwnear;
⤨
&nesear; &toea;
⤩
&seswar; &tosa;
⤪
&swnwar;
⤳&rarrc;

⤵
&cudarrr;
⤶
&ldca;
⤷
&rdca;
⤸
&cudarrl;
⤹
&larrpl;

1157
⤼
&curarrm;
⤽
&cularrp;
⥅
&rarrpl;
⥈
&harrcir;
⥉
&Uarrocir;

⥊
&lurdshar;
⥋
&ldrushar;
⥎
&LeftRightVector;
⥏
&RightUpDownVector;
⥐
&DownLeftRightVector;

⥑
&LeftUpDownVector;
⥒
&LeftVectorBar;
⥓
&RightVectorBar;
⥔
&RightUpVectorBar;
⥕
&RightDownVectorBar;

⥖
&DownLeftVectorBar;
⥗
&DownRightVectorBar;
⥘
&LeftUpVectorBar;
⥙
&LeftDownVectorBar;
⥚
&LeftTeeVector;

⥛
&RightTeeVector;
⥜
&RightUpTeeVector;
⥝
&RightDownTeeVector;
⥞
&DownLeftTeeVector;
⥟
&DownRightTeeVector;

⥠
&LeftUpTeeVector;
⥡
&LeftDownTeeVector;
⥢
&lHar;
⥣
&uHar;
⥤&rHar;

⥥
&dHar;
⥦
&luruhar;
⥧
&ldrdhar;
⥨
&ruluhar;
⥩
&rdldhar;

1158
⥪
&lharul;
⥫
&llhard;
⥬
&rharul;
⥭
&lrhard;
⥮
&udhar;
&UpEquilibrium;

⥯
&duhar;
⥰
&RoundImplies;
⥱&erarr;
⥲
&simrarr;
⥳
&larrsim;
&ReverseUpEquilibrium;

⥴
&rarrsim;
⥵
&rarrap;
⥶
&ltlarr;
⥸
&gtrarr;
⥹
&subrarr;

⥻
&suplarr;
⥼
&lfisht;
⥽
&rfisht;
⥾
&ufisht;
⥿
&dfisht;

⦅
&lopar;
⦆
&ropar;
⦋
&lbrke;
⦌
&rbrke;
⦍
&lbrkslu;

⦎
&rbrksld;
⦏
&lbrksld;
⦐
&rbrkslu;
⦑
&langd;
⦒
&rangd;

⦓
&lparlt;
⦔
&rpargt;
⦕
&gtlPar;
⦖
&ltrPar;
⦚
&vzigzag;

1159
⦜
&vangrt;
⦝
&angrtvbd;
⦤
&ange;
⦥
&range;
⦦
&dwangle;

⦧
&uwangle;
⦨
&angmsdaa;
⦩
&angmsdab;
⦪
&angmsdac;
⦫
&angmsdad;

⦬
&angmsdae;
⦭
&angmsdaf;
⦮
&angmsdag;
⦯
&angmsdah;
⦰
&bemptyv;

⦱
&demptyv;
⦲
&cemptyv;
⦳
&raemptyv;
⦴
&laemptyv;
⦵&ohbar;

⦶ &omid;
⦷ &opar;
⦹&operp;
⦻
&olcross;
⦼&odsold;

⦾&olcir;
⦿&ofcir;
⧀ &olt;
⧁ &ogt;
⧂
&cirscir;

⧃ &cirE;
⧄&solb;
⧅
&bsolb;
⧉&boxbox;
⧍
&trisb;

1160
⧎
&rtriltri;
⧏
&LeftTriangleBar;
⧐
&RightTriangleBar;
⧚
&race;
⧜
&iinfin;

⧝
&infintie;
⧞
&nvinfin;
⧣
&eparsl;
⧤
&smeparsl;
⧥
&eqvparsl;

⧫
&lozf; &blacklozenge;
⧴
&RuleDelayed;
⧶
&dsol;
⨀
&xodot; &bigodot;
⨁
&xoplus; &bigoplus;

⨂
&xotime; &bigotimes;
⨄
&xuplus; &biguplus;
⨆
&xsqcup; &bigsqcup;
⨌
&qint; &iiiint;
⨍
&fpartint;

⨐
&cirfnint;
⨑
&awint;
⨒
&rppolint;
⨓
&scpolint;
⨔
&npolint;

⨕
&pointint;
⨖
&quatint;
⨗
&intlarhk;
⨢
&pluscir;
⨣
&plusacir;

⨤
&simplus;
⨥
&plusdu;
⨦
&plussim;
⨧
&plustwo;
⨩
&mcomma;

1161
⨪
&minusdu;
⨭
&loplus;
⨮
&roplus;
⨯
&Cross;
⨰
&timesd;

⨱
&timesbar;
⨳
&smashp;
⨴
&lotimes;
⨵
&rotimes;
⨶
&otimesas;

⨷
&Otimes;
⨸&odiv;
⨹
&triplus;
⨺
&triminus;
⨻
&tritime;

⨼
&iprod; &intprod;
⨿
&amalg;
⩀
&capdot;
⩂&ncup;
⩃&ncap;

⩄
&capand;
⩅
&cupor;
⩆
&cupcap;
⩇
&capcup;
⩈
&cupbrcap;

⩉
&capbrcup;
⩊
&cupcup;
⩋
&capcap;
⩌
&ccups;
⩍
&ccaps;

⩐
&ccupssm;
⩓
&And;
⩔&Or;
⩕
&andand;
⩖&oror;

1162
⩗
&orslope;
⩘
&andslope;
⩚
&andv;
⩛&orv;
⩜
&andd;

⩝&ord;
⩟
&wedbar;
⩦
&sdote;
⩪
&simdot;
⩭
&congdot;

⩮
&easter;
⩯
&apacir;
⩰&apE;
⩱
&eplus;
⩲
&pluse;

⩳
&Esim;
⩴&Colone;
⩵ &Equal;
⩷
&eDDot; &ddotseq;
⩸
&equivDD;

⩹
&ltcir;
⩺
&gtcir;
⩻
&ltquest;
⩼
&gtquest;
⩽
&les; &LessSlantEqual;
&leqslant;

⩾ &ges;
⩿
&lesdot;
⪀
&gesdot;
⪁
&lesdoto;
⪂
&gesdoto;
&GreaterSlantEqual;
&geqslant;

⪃
&lesdotor;
⪄
&gesdotol;
⪅
&lap; &lessapprox;
⪆
&gap; &gtrapprox;
⪇
&lne; &lneq;

1163
⪋ ⪌
⪈
&gne; &gneq;
⪉
&lnap; &lnapprox;
⪊
&gnap; &gnapprox;
⪋
&lEg; &lesseqqgtr;
⪌
&gEl; &gtreqqless;

⪍
&lsime;
⪎
&gsime;
⪏
&lsimg;
⪐
&gsiml;
⪑&lgE;

⪒&glE;
⪓
&lesges;
⪔
&gesles;
⪕
&els; &eqslantless;
⪖
&egs; &eqslantgtr;

⪗
&elsdot;
⪘
&egsdot;
⪙&el;
⪚&eg;
⪝&siml;

⪞&simg;
⪟
&simlE;
⪠
&simgE;
⪡
&LessLess;
⪢
&GreaterGreater;

⪤ &glj;
⪥ &gla;
⪦
&ltcc;
⪧
&gtcc;
⪨
&lescc;

⪩
&gescc;
⪪&smt;
⪫&lat;
⪬
&smte;
⪭&late;

1164
⪮
&bumpE;
⪯
&pre; &preceq;
⪰
&sce; &succeq;
⪳&prE;
⪴
&scE;
&PrecedesEqual; &SucceedsEqual;

⪵
&prnE; &precneqq;
⪶
&scnE; &succneqq;
⪷
&prap; &precapprox;
⪸
&scap; &succapprox;
⪹
&prnap; &precnapprox;

⪺
&scnap; &succnapprox;
⪻ &Pr;
⪼ &Sc;
⪽
&subdot;
⪾
&supdot;

⪿
&subplus;
⫀
&supplus;
⫁
&submult;
⫂
&supmult;
⫃
&subedot;

⫄
&supedot;
⫅
&subE; &subseteqq;
⫆
&supE; &supseteqq;
⫇
&subsim;
⫈
&supsim;

⫋
&subnE; &subsetneqq;
⫌
&supnE; &supsetneqq;
⫏
&csub;
⫐
&csup;
⫑
&csube;

⫒
&csupe;
⫓
&subsup;
⫔
&supsub;
⫕
&subsub;
⫖
&supsup;

1165
⫗ &suphsub;
⫘
&supdsub;
⫙
&forkv;
⫚
&topfork;
⫛&mlcp;

⫤
&Dashv;
⫦
&Vdashl;
⫧
&Barv;
⫨
&vBar;
⫩
&vBarv;
&DoubleLeftTee;

⫫
&Vbar;
⫬&Not;
⫭
&bNot;
⫮
&rnmid;
⫯
&cirmid;

⫰
&midcir;
⫱
&topcir;
⫲
&nhpar;
⫳
&parsim;
⫽
&parsl;

ff
&fflig;
fi
&filig;
fl
&fllig;
ffi
&ffilig;
ffl
&ffllig;

ᵉ&Ascr;
ᵉ
&Cscr;
ᵊ
&Dscr;
ᵊ
&Gscr;
ᵊ
&Jscr;

ᵋ&Kscr;
ᵊ&Nscr;
ᵋ
&Oscr;
ᵌ
&Pscr;
ᵍ
&Qscr;

1166
ᵊ
&Sscr;
ᵋ
&Tscr;
ᵌ
&Uscr;
ᵍ
&Vscr;
ᵎ
&Wscr;

ᵏ
&Xscr;
ᵐ
&Yscr;
ᵑ
&Zscr;
ᵒ
&ascr;
ᵓ
&bscr;

ᵔ
&cscr;
ᵕ
&dscr;
ᵋ
&fscr;
ᵋ
&hscr;
ᵌ
&iscr;

ᵍ
&jscr;
ᵎ
&kscr;
ᵌ
&lscr;
ᵌ
&mscr;
ᵍ
&nscr;

ᵌ
&pscr;
ᵍ
&qscr;
ᵎ
&rscr;
ᵏ
&sscr;
ᵐ
&tscr;

ᵑ
&uscr;
ᵒ
&vscr;
ᵓ
&wscr;
ᵔ
&xscr;
ᵕ
&yscr;

ᵖ
&zscr;
ᵐ
&Afr;
ᵑ
&Bfr;
ᵐ
&Dfr;
ᵑ
&Efr;

1167
ᵒ
&Ffr;
ᵓ
&Gfr;
ᵐ
&Jfr;
ᵑ
&Kfr;
ᵒ
&Lfr;

ᵓ
&Mfr;
ᵔ
&Nfr;
ᵕ
&Ofr;
ᵖ
&Pfr;
ᵗ
&Qfr;

ᵑ
&Sfr;
ᵒ
&Tfr;
ᵓ
&Ufr;
ᵔ
&Vfr;
ᵕ
&Wfr;

ᵖ
&Xfr;
ᵗ
&Yfr;
ᵑ
&afr;
ᵒ
&bfr;
ᵓ
&cfr;

ᵔ
&dfr;
ᵕ
&efr;
ᵖ
&ffr;
ᵗ
&gfr;
ᵘ
&hfr;

ᵙ
&ifr;
ᵚ
&jfr;
ᵛ
&kfr;
ᵜ
&lfr;
ᵝ
&mfr;

ᵞ
&nfr;
ᵟ
&ofr;
ᵠ
&pfr;
ᵡ
&qfr;
ᵢ
&rfr;

1168
ᵣ
&sfr;
ᵤ
&tfr;
ᵥ
&ufr;
ᵦ
&vfr;
ᵧ
&wfr;

ᵨ
&xfr;
ᵩ
&yfr;
ᵪ
&zfr;
ᵫ
&Aopf;
ᵬ
&Bopf;

ᵓ
&Dopf;
ᵔ
&Eopf;
ᵕ
&Fopf;
ᵖ
&Gopf;
ᵔ
&Iopf;

ᵕ
&Jopf;
ᵖ
&Kopf;
ᵗ
&Lopf;
ᵘ
&Mopf;
ᵔ
&Oopf;

ᵔ
&Sopf;
ᵕ
&Topf;
ᵖ
&Uopf;
ᵗ
&Vopf;
ᵘ
&Wopf;

ᵙ
&Xopf;
ᵚ
&Yopf;
ᵕ
&aopf;
ᵖ
&bopf;
ᵗ
&copf;

ᵘ
&dopf;
ᵙ
&eopf;
ᵚ
&fopf;
ᵛ
&gopf;
ᵜ
&hopf;

1169
ᵝ
&iopf;
ᵞ
&jopf;
ᵟ
&kopf;
ᵠ
&lopf;
ᵡ
&mopf;

ᵢ
&nopf;
ᵣ
&oopf;
ᵤ
&popf;
ᵥ
&qopf;
ᵦ
&ropf;

ᵧ
&sopf;
ᵨ
&topf;
ᵩ
&uopf;
ᵪ
&vopf;
ᵫ
&wopf;

ᵬ
&xopf;
ᵭ
&yopf;
ᵮ
&zopf;

1170
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<p> Π </p> # Output:

console.log(/xyz/.test("vwxyz"));
// Output: true
This program will provide us a Boolean output
indicating whether the string contains a
console.log(/xyz/.test("vxwyz")); match to the expression's pattern
// Output: false

</script>

console.log(encodeURIComponent("How?"));
// Output: How%3F

console.log(decodeURIComponent("How%3F"));
// Output: How?

</script>

1171
<script>
# Output:
for(let x = 1; x < 5; x++) {
1 *^@^*
console.log(x + " *^@^*"); 2 *^@^*
} 3 *^@^*
4 *^@^*
</script>

let x = "Albert";
# Output:
console.log("Hi " + x);
Hi Albert
if(x.length > 5) {
Elsa
console.log("Elsa");

</script>

let x = "Albert";

document.write("Hi " + x);

# Output:

if (x.length > 7) { Hi Albert

document.write("Elsa");

</script>

1172
<script>
let x = true;

let y = true;

let z = true;

if (x) {
# Output:

console.log("Albert Einstein"); Albert Einstein

} else if (y) {

console.log("Elsa Einstein");

} else if (z) {

console.log("Hans Albert Einstein");

} else {

console.log("David Einstein");

</script>

1173
<script>
let x = false;
let y = false;
let z = true;
if (x) { # Output:
console.log("Albert Einstein"); Hans Albert Einstein
} else if (y) {
console.log("Elsa Einstein");
} else if (z) {
console.log("Hans Albert Einstein");
} else {
console.log("David Einstein");
}
</script>

let x = false;

let y = false;

let z = false;

if (x) { # Output:
console.log("Albert Einstein");
David Einstein
} else if (y) {

console.log("Elsa Einstein");

} else if (z) {

console.log("Hans Albert Einstein");

} else {

console.log("David Einstein");

</script>

1174
Document object model (DOM):

The way that HTML elements are arranged and maintained by web browsers

var x = 'Albert, Elsa, David';

console.log(x.split(/\s*,\s*/));

// Output: [ 'Albert', 'Elsa', 'David' ]

var i = '|x|y|z|'.split(/\|/);

console.log(i);

// Output: [ '', 'x', 'y', 'z', '' ]

</script>

let a = 12, b = 13;

console.log(Math.pow(4, 1/3)); // The cube root of 4

// Output: 1.5874010519681994

console.log(Math.pow(4,23)); // 4 to the power 23

// Output: 70368744177664

// String converts to a number before comparing

console.log("0" == 0);
// Output: true

// Boolean converts to number before comparing

console.log(0 == false); // Output: true
console.log(1 == true); // Output: true

</script>

1176
<script>

// This is a single-line comment.

/* This is a further comment. */ // And now we have another comment.
/*
* This is still another comment.
* It has numerous lines.
*/ JavaScript comments are an effective approach to
prevent code execution while testing new features
because they are not actually executed. You can
detect issues using this technique, which
involves gradually eliminating comments until we
reach the incorrect code.

// The two values are treated as equal

console.log(null == undefined); // Output: true

// Integers cannot start with "."

console.log(parseInt(".2")); // Output: NaN

// Integers cannot start with "$"

console.log(parseInt("$54.20")); // Output: NaN

let y = -0; // Negative zero
console.log(x === y); // true: zero and negative zero are equal
console.log(1/x === 1/y); // false: infinity and -infinity are not equal

</script>

 [] → An empty array

 [3+2, 5+4] → A Two element array. First element is 5 and second is 9

x = [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]; // Start with a 5-element array

x.length = 3

console.log(x); // x is now [11, 12, 13]

x.length = 0

console.log(x); // Delete all elements. x is []

</script>

1179
<script>

var [a, b] = [11, 12]; // Same as var a=11, b=12

[a, b] = [a+1, b+1]; // Same as a = a + 1, b = b+1

[a, b] = [b, a]; // Swap the value of the 2 variables

console.log([a, b]); // Output: [13,12]

</script>

var [a, b] = [11]; // a = 11, b = undefined

console.log([a, b]); // Output: [ 11, undefined ]

var[a, b] = [11, 12, 13]; // a = 11, b = 12

console.log([a, b]); // Output: [ 11, 12 ]

var[,a,,b] = [11, 12, 13, 14]; // a = 12, b = 14

console.log([a, b]); // Output: [ 12, 14 ]

var [a, [b, c]] = [11, [12, 12.5], 13]; // a = 11, b = 12

console.log([a, b]); // Output: [ 11, 12 ]

</script>

1180
<script>

let i = [];
for(x=1; x<10; x++) {
<script>
if (x % 2 === 0)
var i = 2; // starting condition
i.push(x*x);
while(i > 1 && i < 10) {
}
i = i + 2; // 2 steps forward
console.log(i);
i = i - 1; // 1 step back
console.log(i);
// Output: [ 4, 16, 36, 64 ]
}
</script>
</script>

# Output:
<script>
3

var x = 589; 4

var y = Number("55"); 5

console.log(x + y); // Output: 644 6

7
8
const x = true;
9
const i = x ? 1 : 0;
10
console.log(i); // Output: 1

const a = 15;
const b = 13 - -a;
console.log(b); // Output: 28

</script>

1181
<script>
<script>

const i = true; /* The eval() method will return

the result of the last expression */
let a = 0;
const b = i || a++;
console.log(eval('13+14;15+16'));
console.log(b);
// Output: 31
// Output: true
</script>

const x = "ALBERT EINSTEIN";

console.log(x.toLowerCase().startsWith("al"))
// Output: true

</script>

const x = false;
const i = x ? "Albert" : "Elsa";
console.log(i); // Output: Elsa

Aggregation:
</script>
The ability to enclose one object

inside another object

1182
<script>

const x = new Date(1988, 2, 11);

const y = new Date(2022, 3, 28);

console.log(x > y); // Output: false

console.log(x < y); // Output: true

const z = y - x;

console.log(z);

// Output: 1077062400000 milliseconds

const w = z/1000/60/60/24;

console.log(w);

// Output: 12466 days Application scaffolding:

A method that enables a programmer to specify and

</script>
create a fundamental application that can generate,
retrieve, update, and remove objects
<script>

console.log(JSON.parse('{ "Albert": 26, "James": 36 }'));

// Output: { Albert: 26, James: 36 }

console.log(JSON.parse('5496'));
// Output: 5496

console.log(JSON.parse('[11, 12, 13]'));

// Output: [ 11, 12, 13 ]

</script>

1183
HTML Video

 The HTML <video> element specifies a standard way to embed a video in a web page.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>
Video controls like
<body> play, pause, and volume
are added through the
<video width = "300" height = "200" controls>
controls attribute
<source src="mov.mp4" type="video/mp4">

<source src="mov.ogg" type="video/ogg">

</video>

</body>

</html>

<!DOCTYPE html>
We employ the "autoplay"
<html>
attribute in order to play
<body> a video automatically

<video width = "300" height = "200" autoplay>

<source src="mov.mp4" type="video/mp4">

<source src="mov.ogg" type="video/ogg">

</video>

</body> File Format

</html>

1184
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html> To enable automatic playback

of a video (but muted), we add
<body>
"muted" after autoplay
<video width = "300" height = "200" autoplay muted>

<source src="mov.mp4" type="video/mp4">

<source src="mov.ogg" type="video/ogg">

</video>

</body> Media Type

</html>

The web browser support for the different video formats is:

Browser MP4 WebM Ogg

Edge YES YES YES

Chrome YES YES YES

Firefox YES YES YES

Safari YES YES NO

Opera YES YES YES

1185
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html> When a video file is

finished playing, the "loop"
<body>
attribute specifies that it
<video width = "300" height = "200" autoplay loop> will restart every time

<source src="mov.mp4" type="video/mp4">

<source src="mov.ogg" type="video/ogg">

</video>

</body>

</html>

HTML Audio

 The HTML <audio> element specifies a standard way to embed audio in a web page.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
Audio controls like play, pause, and volume
<html>
are added through the controls attribute
<body>

<source src="music.ogg" type="audio/ogg">

<source src="music.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">

</audio>
To play an audio file in HTML, we use
</body>
the <audio> element
</html>

1186
934
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html> We employ the "autoplay"

attribute in order to play
<body>
an audio automatically
<audio controls autoplay>

<source src="music.ogg" type="audio/ogg">

<source src="music.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">

</audio>

</body>

</html>

<!DOCTYPE html>
To enable automatic playback
<html> of a audio (but muted), we add

<body> "muted" after autoplay

<audio controls autoplay muted>

<source src="music.ogg" type="audio/ogg">

<source src="music.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">

</audio>

 <audio> tag defines audio content

</body>
 <video> tag defines video content
</html>

The web browser support for the different audio formats is:

1187
934
Browser MP3 WAV OGG

Edge/IE YES YES* YES*

Chrome YES YES YES

Firefox YES YES YES

Safari YES YES NO

Opera YES YES YES

HTML YouTube Videos

To play a video on a web page, do the following:

 Upload the video to YouTube

 Take a note of the "video URL"

 Define an <iframe> element in your web page

 Let the src attribute point to the video URL

 Use the width and height attributes to specify the dimension of the video player.

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<body>

<iframe width="420" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3og4ONN38_0">

</iframe>

</body>

</html>

1188
934
<!DOCTYPE html>
The <embed> element does not have a closing tag. It is
<html>
used to include "index.html" in HTML Document
<body>

<embed width="100%" height="200px" src="index.html">

</body>
</html>

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<img src="alan.png" alt="Alan" style="float: left; width: 100px; height: 100px;">

<img src="alan.png" alt="Alan" style="float: right; width: 100px; height: 100px;">

</body>
</html>

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

 <ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
 # Output:
 <li> Albert </li>
 <li> Elsa </li> o Albert

<li> David </li>
 o Elsa
 </ul> 
 </body> o David

</html>

1189
934
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">

<li> Albert </li>
# Output:
<li> Elsa </li>
<li> David </li>  Albert
</ul>  Elsa
 David
</body>
</html>

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<ul style="list-style-type: square;">

<li> Albert </li>
<li> Elsa </li>
<li> David </li>
# Output:
</ul>
 Albert
</body>  Elsa
</html>  David

<ol type="i">
<li> Albert </li>
<li> Elsa </li> # Output:
<li> David </li>
</ol>
i. Albert
ii. Elsa

</body> iii. David

</html>

1193
934
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<ul>
<li> Alan Turing </li>
<li> Albert Einstein
<ul>
A Nested List
<li> Elsa Einstein </li>
(List inside list)
<li> David Einstein </li>
</ul>
</li>
<li> Charles Darwin </li>
# Output:
</ul>
 Alan Turing
 Albert Einstein
</body>
o Elsa Einstein
</html>
o David Einstein
 Charles Darwin

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<div style="background-color: green; color: white; padding: 20px;">
<h1> Albert Einstein </h1>
</div> # Output:

</body>
Albert Einstein
</html>

1194
934
HTML Tables

HTML Table Tags

Tag Description
<table> Defines a table

<th> Defines a header cell in a table

<tr> Defines a row in a table

<td> Defines a cell in a table

Example

<table>
<tr>
<td> Albert </td> 1 Column
# Output:
</tr>
</table> Albert

<table>
<tr>
<td> Albert </td>
1 Row and 3 Columns
<td> John </td>
<td> Mary </td>
</tr> # Output:
</table>
Albert John Mary

1195
934
<table>
<tr>
<td> Albert </td>
<td> John </td>
<td> Mary </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> Elsa </td>
<td> Alan </td> 3 Rows and 3 Columns
<td> David </td>
</tr>
<tr> # Output:
<td> Charles </td>
<td> James </td> Albert John Mary
<td> William </td> Elsa Alan David
Charles James William
</tr>
</table>

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head> A table with borders

<style>

table, tr, td {

border: 2px solid black; The use of "CSS border attribute" to

} add a border to the table

</style>

</head>

1196
934
<body>
<script>

<table>
console.log(escape("Albert Einstein"));
<tr> // Output: Albert%20Einstein
<td> Albert </td>
<td> John </td> console.log(unescape("Albert%20Einstein"));
<td> Mary </td> // Output: Albert Einstein

</tr>

</script>
<tr>
<td> Elsa </td>
<td> Alan </td>
<td> David </td> # Output:
</tr>
Albert John Mary
<tr> Elsa Alan David
<td> Charles </td> Charles James William
<td> James </td>
<td> William </td>
</tr>

</table> 2 basic groups of data types:

</body>  Reference type: These are complicated data

</html> types, primarily consisting of dates and

strings.

 Primitive type: These types of data contain

numerical information.

1197
934
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>
A table with collapsed borders
<style>

table, tr, td {

border: 2px solid black;

border-collapse: collapse;

} The "CSS border-collapse attribute"

</style> must be included if we wish the
borders to merge into one border.
</head>

<body>
<table>
<tr>
<td> Albert </td>
<td> John </td>
<td> Mary </td>
</tr> # Output:
<tr>
<td> Elsa </td>
Albert John Mary
<td> Alan </td>
Elsa Alan David
<td> David </td>
Charles James William
</tr>
<tr>
<td> Charles </td>
<td> James </td>
<td> William </td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>

1198
934
<head>

border: 2px solid black;

border-collapse: collapse;

td { The space between the content of a cell and

its borders is specified by cell padding.
padding: 15px;

</style>

</head>

<body>
<table>
<tr>
# Output:
<td> Albert </td>
<td> John </td>
<td> Mary </td>
</tr> Albert John Mary
<tr>
<td> Elsa </td> Elsa Alan David
<td> Alan </td>
<td> David </td> Charles James William
</tr>
<tr>
<td> Charles </td>
<td> James </td>
<td> William </td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>

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<head>

<style>

table, th, td {
A table with headings
border: 2px solid black;

border-collapse: collapse;

th, td {

padding: 15px;

</style>

</head>

<body>
# Output:
<table>
<tr>
<th> Name </th>
Name Age
<th> Age </th>
</tr> Elsa 50
<tr>
<td> Elsa </td> Charles 75
<td> 50 </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> Charles </td>
<td> 75 </td>

</tr>
</table>

</body>

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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>

<head> The "colspan attribute" can be used to

<body>
<table>
<tr>
<th> Name </th>
<th colspan="2"> Phone number </th>
</tr>

# Output:
<tr>
<td> Elsa </td>
<td> 080-65960971 </td>
Name Phone number
<td> 080-68950991 </td>
</tr>
Elsa 080-65960971 080-68950991
</table>

</body>
</html>

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CSS
(Cascading Style Sheets)

Cascading Style Sheets, or CSS, is a language that specifies how HTML elements

should be displayed, including the layout, colours, and fonts of an HTML Document. Along with

HTML and JavaScript, CSS is a key component of the World Wide Web and a
simplistic design language made to make the process of generating appealing web pages easier.

CSS Syntax

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
h1 {
color: red; World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
text-align: center;
Creator of CSS
}
</style>
</head> # Output:

<body>
<h1> Albert Einstein </h1>
Albert Einstein

</body>
</html>

 h1 is a selector in CSS (it points to the HTML element you want to style: <h1>).
 color is a property, and red is the property value
 text-align is a property, and center is the property value

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CSS Selectors

 CSS selectors are used to "find" (or select) the HTML elements we want to style.

The CSS element Selector

 The element selector selects HTML elements based on the element name.

Example

 Here, all <h2> elements on the page will be center-aligned with a red text color.

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
h2 {
text-align: center;
color: red; # Output:
}
</style> Albert Einstein
</head>
Elsa Einstein
<body>
David Einstein
<h2> Albert Einstein </h2>
<h2> Elsa Einstein </h2>
<h2> David Einstein </h2>

</body>
</html>

The CSS id Selector

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 The id selector uses the id attribute of an HTML element to select a specific element.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>

#my1 {
text-align: center; # Output:
color: red;
}
Albert Einstein
</style>
</head>
<body>

<h1 id="my1"> Albert Einstein </h1>

</body>
</html>

The CSS class Selector

 The class selector selects HTML elements with a specific class attribute.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<style>

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.my1 {

text-align: center;
color: red;
# Output:
}

</style> Elsa Einstein

</head>

<body>

<p class="my1"> Elsa Einstein </p>

</body>

</html>

The CSS Universal Selector

 The universal selector (*) selects all HTML elements on the page.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
* {
text-align: center;
color: blue; # Output:
}
</style>
Albert Einstein
</head>
<body> Elsa Einstein

<h1> Albert Einstein </h1>

David Einstein
<p> Elsa Einstein </p>
<p> David Einstein </p>

</body>
</html>

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The CSS Grouping Selector

 The grouping selector selects all the HTML elements with the same style definitions.

 Look at the following CSS code (the h1, h2, and p elements have the same style definitions):

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>

h1, h2, p {
text-align: center;
color: red;
}
</style>
</head>

<body> # Output:

<h1> Albert Einstein </h1>

<h2> Elsa Einstein </h2>
Albert Einstein
<p> David Einstein </p> Elsa Einstein
David Einstein
</body>
</html>

CSS Comments

 Comments are used to explain the code and may help when we edit the source code at a later time.
 Comments are ignored by web browsers.

 A CSS comment is placed inside the <style> element and starts with /* and ends with */:

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Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<style>

/* This is a single-line comment */

p {

color: blue; /* Set text color to blue */

}
It's a good idea to include comments in the code
/* This is
because they can make it easier to understand if
a multi-line someone reads it or if it is later reviewed.

Comment */

</style>

</head>

<body>
# Output:
<p> Albert Einstein </p>

Albert Einstein
</body>

</html>

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CSS Backgrounds

CSS background-color

 The background-color property specifies the background color of an element.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>

<h1> Albert Einstein </h1>

</body>
</html>

Opacity / Transparency

The "opacity or transparency" of an HTML element is defined by its opacity

property. It takes values between 0.0 and 1.0. The more opacity, the lower
the value.

opacity 1 opacity 0.6 opacity 0.3 opacity 0.1

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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>

div {
/* Blue background with 60% opacity */
background-color: blue;
opacity: 0.6;

</style> # Output:
</head>
<body>
Albert Einstein

<div>
<h1> Albert Einstein </h1>
</div>

</body>
</html>

<style> The background-image is not repeated

body {
background-image: url("img.png");
background-repeat: no-repeat;
}

</style>

</head>

<body>

<h1> Albert Einstein </h1>

</body>

</html>

CSS background-position

 The background-position property is used to specify the position of the background image.

Example

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<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

}
The background image is placed in the
</style>
top-right corner of the HTML Document
</head>

<body>

<h1> Albert Einstein </h1>

</body>

</html>

CSS background - Shorthand property

Example

background: #ffffff url("img.png") no-repeat right top; margin-right: 300px;

</style>

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CSS Borders

CSS Border Style

 The border-style property specifies what kind of border to display.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>

p.dotted {border-style: dotted;} /* Defines a dotted border */

p.dashed {border-style: dashed;} /* Defines a dashed border */
p.solid {border-style: solid;} /* Defines a solid border */
p.double {border-style: double;} /* Defines a double border */
p.groove {border-style: groove;} /* Defines a 3D grooved border */
p.ridge {border-style: ridge;} /* Defines a 3D ridged border */
p.inset {border-style: inset;} /* Defines a 3D inset border */
p.outset {border-style: outset;} /* Defines a 3D outset border */
p.none {border-style: none;} /* Defines no border */
p.hidden {border-style: hidden;} /* Defines a hidden border */
p.mix {border-style: dotted dashed solid double;}

</style>
</head>
<body>

<p class="dotted"> Albert Einstein </p>

<p class="dashed"> Albert Einstein </p>

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<p class="solid"> Albert Einstein </p>
<p class="double"> Albert Einstein </p>
<p class="groove"> Albert Einstein </p>
<p class="ridge"> Albert Einstein </p>
<p class="inset"> Albert Einstein </p>
<p class="outset"> Albert Einstein </p>
<p class="none"> Albert Einstein </p>
<p class="hidden"> Albert Einstein </p>
<p class="mix"> Albert Einstein </p>

</body>
</html>

# Output:

Albert Einstein

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CSS Border Width

 The border-width property specifies the width of the four borders.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
p.b1 {
border-style: solid; In the Java programming language, the word
border-width: 6px; "Final" has several different meanings:
}
 Final Class: This class is not inheritable.
 Final Variable: Once a value has been assigned
p.b2 { to a final variable, it cannot be changed.
border-style: solid;  Final Method: This Method is irrevocable.
border-width: medium;
}

p.b3 {
border-style: dotted;
border-width: 10px;
}

p.b4 {
border-style: dotted;
border-width: thick;
}

p.b5 {
border-style: double;
border-width: 4px;
}

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p.b6{
border-style: double;
border-width: thick;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>

<p class="b1"> Albert Einstein </p>

<p class="b2"> Albert Einstein </p>
<p class="b3"> Albert Einstein </p>
<p class="b4"> Albert Einstein </p>
<p class="b5"> Albert Einstein </p>
<p class="b6"> Albert Einstein </p>

</body>
</html>

# Output:

Albert Einstein

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CSS Border Color

 The border-color property is used to set the color of the four borders.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
A programmer can add new variables at
<head>
runtime, and variable types are changed
<style>
at runtime, which is why the JavaScript
p.b1 {
programming language is referred to be
border-style: solid;
a dynamically typed language.
border-color: blue;
}

p.b2 {
border-style: solid;
border-color: red;
}

# Output:
p.b3 {
border-style: dotted; Albert Einstein
border-color: green;
} Elsa Einstein
</style>
</head> David Einstein
<body>

<p class="b1"> Albert Einstein </p>

<p class="b2"> Elsa Einstein </p>
<p class="b3"> David Einstein </p>

</body>
</html>

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Specific Side Colors

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
p.b1 {
border-style: solid;
border-color: green orange red yellow;
/* green top, orange right, red bottom and yellow left */
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<p class="b1"> Albert Einstein </p>
</body>
</html>

# Output:

Albert Einstein

Did you know?

border-style: solid;

border-color: hsl(0, 100%, 50%); /* red */

}

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CSS Rounded Borders

 The border-radius property is used to add rounded borders to an HTML element:

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
Did you know?
<head>
<style> The International Space Station uses ADA, a
p.b1 {
coding language that was created in 1980. This
border: 2px solid blue; programming language gained acceptance as an
padding: 5px;
international standard in 1995.
}

The PHP programming language was not intended for

p.b2 {
usage in widespread enterprise applications. PHP was
border: 2px solid blue;
border-radius: 12px; developed by Rasmus Lerdorf solely for use in
padding: 5px; managing his own online project. But over time, PHP
} rose to become one of the most widely used
</style> programming languages available.
</head>
<body>

<p class="b1"> Albert Einstein </p>

<p class="b2"> Elsa Einstein </p>

# Output:
</body>
</html> Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein

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CSS Margins

 The CSS margin properties are used to create space around HTML elements, outside of any defined borders.




<!DOCTYPE html>
 <html> 

<head>
Margin - Shorthand Property
<style>
div {
border: 1px solid black;
margin-top: 100px;
margin-bottom: 100px;
margin: 100px 100px 150px 50px;
margin-right: 150px;
margin-left: 50px;
 top margin is 100px
background-color: yellow;
 right margin is 100px
}
 bottom margin is 150px
</style>
 left margin is 50px
</head>
<body>

<div> Elsa Einstein was the second wife and cousin of Albert Einstein. </div>

</body>
</html> This <div> element has a top margin of 100px, a right margin of
150px, a bottom margin of 100px, and a left margin of 50px.

# Output:

Elsa Einstein was the second wife and cousin of Albert Einstein.

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CSS Padding

 The CSS padding properties are used to generate space around an HTML element's content, inside of
any defined.. .borders.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
div { Padding - Shorthand Property
border: 1px solid black;
background-color: yellow;
padding-top: 60px;
padding-right: 40px;
padding: 60px 40px 60px 70px;
padding-bottom: 60px;
padding-left: 70px;
 top padding is 60px
}
 right padding is 40px
</style>
 bottom padding is 60px
</head>
 left padding is 70px
<body>

<div> Elsa Einstein was the second wife and cousin of Albert Einstein. </div>

</body> This <div> element has a top padding of 60px, a right padding of 40px,
</html> a bottom padding of 60px, and a left padding of 70px.

# Output:

Elsa Einstein was the second wife and cousin of Albert Einstein.

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CSS Height and Width

 The height and width properties are used to set the height and width of an HTML element.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style> # Output:
div {
height: 100px; Albert and Elsa Einstein.

width: 40%;
background-color: orange;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>

<div> Albert and Elsa Einstein. </div>

</body> This <div> element has a height of 100px and a width of 40%.
</html>

The <div> element has a height of 100px and a width of 400px.

Example

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CSS Text

Text Alignment

 The text-align property is used to set the horizontal alignment of a text.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
h1 {
text-align: center;
}

h2 { #Output:
text-align: left;
} Albert Einstein

h3 {
Elsa Einstein
text-align: right;
David Einstein
}
</style>
</head>

The three headings are aligned

<body>
center, left and right.
<h1> Albert Einstein </h1>
<h2> Elsa Einstein </h2>
<h3> David Einstein </h3>
</body>
</html>

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<!DOCTYPE html> When the text-align property is set to "justify",
<html> every line is widened to the same width, and the
<head> left and right margins are aligned evenly.
<style>
div {
border: 1px solid black;
padding: 20px; # Output:
width: 200px;
height: 100px; Elsa Einstein was the second
text-align: justify; wife and cousin of Albert
background-color: yellow; Einstein

}
</style>
</head>
<body>

<div>
Elsa Einstein was the second wife and cousin of Albert Einstein
</div>

</body>
</html>

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Text Decoration

 The text-decoration property is used to set or remove decorations from text.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
h1 {
text-decoration: overline;
}

h2 {
text-decoration: line-through;
} # Output:

# Output:

Albert Einstein
AlbertEinstein

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Line Height

 The line-height property is used to specify the space between lines.

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
p.l1 {
line-height: 0.8;
} # Output:

Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist.

p.l2 { 1201
985for developing the theory of relativity.
Best known
line-height: 1.5;
Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist.
} Best known for developing the theory of relativity.
</style>
</head>
<body>

<p class="l1">
Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist. <br>
Best known for developing the theory of relativity. <br>
</p>

<p class="l2">
Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist. <br>
Best known for developing the theory of relativity. <br>
</p>

</body>
</html>

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Word Spacing

 The word-spacing property is used to specify the space between the words in a text.


 Text Shadow
<!DOCTYPE html>

 <html>
 The text-shadow property adds shadow to text.
<head>
<!DOCTYPE html>
<style> <html>
Example
<head>
p.l1 { <style>
h1 {
word-spacing: 12px; text-shadow: 2px 2px blue;
} }
</style>
</head>
p.l2 {

?
<body>
word-spacing: -3px;
} <h1> Albert </h1>

</body>
</style> </html>
</head>
<body>

<p class="l1"> Elsa Einstein was the second wife and cousin of Albert Einstein. </p>

<p class="l2"> Elsa Einstein was the second wife and cousin of Albert Einstein. </p>

</body>
</html>

# Output:

Elsa Einstein was the second wife and cousin of Albert Einstein.

ElsaEinsteinwasthe secondwifeandcousinofAlbertEinstein

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Font Awesome Text Icons

 fa-500px  fa-arrows
 fa-adjust  fa-arrows-alt

 fa-adn  fa-arrows-h

 fa-align-center  fa-arrows-v

 fa-align-justify  fa-asterisk

 fa-align-left  fa-at

 fa-align-right  fa-automobile

 fa-amazon  fa-backward

 fa-ambulance  fa-balance-scale

 fa-anchor  fa-ban

 fa-android  fa-bank

 fa-angellist  fa-bar-chart

 fa-angle-double-down  fa-bar-chart-o

 fa-angle-double-left  fa-barcode

 fa-angle-double-right  fa-bars

 fa-angle-double-up  fa-battery-0

 fa-angle-down  fa-battery-1

 fa-angle-left  fa-battery-2

 fa-angle-right  fa-battery-3

 fa-angle-up  fa-battery-4

 fa-apple  fa-battery-empty

 fa-archive  fa-battery-full

 fa-area-chart  fa-battery-half

 fa-arrow-circle-down  fa-battery-quarter

 fa-arrow-circle-left  fa-battery-three-quarters

 fa-arrow-circle-o-down  fa-bed

 fa-arrow-circle-o-left  fa-beer

 fa-arrow-circle-o-right  fa-behance

 fa-arrow-circle-o-up  fa-behance-square

 fa-arrow-circle-right  fa-bell

 fa-arrow-circle-up  fa-bell-o

 fa-arrow-down  fa-bell-slash

 fa-arrow-left  fa-bell-slash-o

 fa-arrow-right  fa-bicycle

 fa-arrow-up  fa-binoculars

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 fa-birthday-cake  fa-caret-right
 fa-bitbucket  fa-caret-square-o-down

 fa-bitbucket-square  fa-caret-square-o-left

 fa-bitcoin  fa-caret-square-o-right

 fa-black-tie  fa-caret-square-o-up

 fa-bluetooth  fa-caret-up

 fa-bluetooth-b  fa-cart-arrow-down

 fa-bold  fa-cart-plus

 fa-bolt  fa-cc

 fa-bomb  fa-cc-amex

 fa-book  fa-cc-diners-club

 fa-bookmark  fa-cc-discover

 fa-bookmark-o  fa-cc-jcb

 fa-briefcase  fa-cc-mastercard

 fa-btc  fa-cc-paypal

 fa-bug  fa-cc-stripe

 fa-building  fa-cc-visa

 fa-building-o  fa-certificate

 fa-bullhorn  fa-chain

 fa-bullseye  fa-chain-broken

 fa-bus  fa-check

 fa-buysellads  fa-check-circle

 fa-cab  fa-check-circle-o

 fa-calculator  fa-check-square

 fa-calendar  fa-check-square-o

 fa-calendar-check-o  fa-chevron-circle-down

 fa-calendar-minus-o  fa-chevron-circle-left

 fa-calendar-o  fa-chevron-circle-right

 fa-calendar-plus-o  fa-chevron-circle-up

 fa-calendar-times-o  fa-chevron-down

 fa-camera  fa-chevron-left

 fa-camera-retro  fa-chevron-right

 fa-car  fa-chevron-up

 fa-caret-down  fa-child

 fa-caret-left  fa-chrome

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 fa-circle  fa-crop
 fa-circle-o  fa-crosshairs

 fa-circle-o-notch  fa-css3

 fa-circle-thin  fa-cube

 fa-clipboard  fa-cubes

 fa-clock-o  fa-cut

 fa-clone  fa-cutlery

 fa-close  fa-dashboard

 fa-cloud  fa-dashcube

 fa-cloud-download  fa-database

 fa-cloud-upload  fa-dedent

 fa-cny  fa-delicious

 fa-code  fa-desktop

 fa-code-fork  fa-deviantart

 fa-codepen  fa-diamond

 fa-codiepie  fa-digg

 fa-coffee  fa-dollar

 fa-cog  fa-dot-circle-o

 fa-cogs  fa-download

 fa-columns  fa-dribbble

 fa-comment  fa-dropbox

 fa-comment-o  fa-drupal

 fa-commenting  fa-edge

 fa-commenting-o  fa-edit

 fa-comments  fa-eject

 fa-comments-o  fa-ellipsis-h

 fa-compass  fa-ellipsis-v

 fa-compress  fa-empire

 fa-connectdevelop  fa-envelope

 fa-contao  fa-envelope-o

 fa-copy  fa-envelope-square

 fa-copyright  fa-eraser

 fa-creative-commons  fa-eur

 fa-credit-card  fa-euro

 fa-credit-card-alt  fa-exchange

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 fa-exclamation  fa-file-video-o
 fa-exclamation-circle  fa-file-word-o

 fa-exclamation-triangle  fa-file-zip-o

 fa-expand  fa-files-o

 fa-expeditedssl  fa-film

 fa-external-link  fa-filter

 fa-external-link-square  fa-fire

 fa-eye  fa-fire-extinguisher

 fa-eye-slash  fa-firefox

 fa-eyedropper  fa-flag

 fa-facebook  fa-flag-checkered

 fa-facebook-f  fa-flag-o

 fa-facebook-official  fa-flash

 fa-facebook-square  fa-flask

 fa-fast-backward  fa-flickr

 fa-fast-forward  fa-floppy-o

 fa-fax  fa-folder

 fa-feed  fa-folder-o

 fa-female  fa-folder-open

 fa-fighter-jet  fa-folder-open-o

 fa-file  fa-font

 fa-file-archive-o  fa-fonticons

 fa-file-audio-o  fa-fort-awesome

 fa-file-code-o  fa-forumbee

 fa-file-excel-o  fa-forward

 fa-file-image-o  fa-foursquare

 fa-file-movie-o  fa-frown-o

 fa-file-o  fa-futbol-o

 fa-file-pdf-o  fa-gamepad

 fa-file-photo-o  fa-gavel

 fa-file-picture-o  fa-gbp

 fa-file-powerpoint-o  fa-ge

 fa-file-sound-o  fa-gear

 fa-file-text  fa-gears

 fa-file-text-o  fa-genderless

1236
 fa-get-pocket  fa-hdd-o
 fa-gg  fa-header

 fa-gg-circle  fa-headphones

 fa-gift  fa-heart

 fa-git  fa-heart-o

 fa-git-square  fa-heartbeat

 fa-github  fa-history

 fa-github-alt  fa-home

 fa-github-square  fa-hospital-o

 fa-gittip  fa-hotel

 fa-glass  fa-hourglass

 fa-globe  fa-hourglass-1

 fa-google  fa-hourglass-2

 fa-google-plus  fa-hourglass-3

 fa-google-plus-square  fa-hourglass-end

 fa-google-wallet  fa-hourglass-half

 fa-graduation-cap  fa-hourglass-o

 fa-gratipay  fa-hourglass-start

 fa-group  fa-houzz

 fa-h-square  fa-html5

 fa-hacker-news  fa-i-cursor

 fa-hand-grab-o  fa-ils

 fa-hand-lizard-o  fa-image

 fa-hand-o-down  fa-inbox

 fa-hand-o-left  fa-indent

 fa-hand-o-right  fa-industry

 fa-hand-o-up  fa-info

 fa-hand-paper-o  fa-info-circle

 fa-hand-peace-o  fa-inr

 fa-hand-pointer-o  fa-instagram

 fa-hand-rock-o  fa-institution

 fa-hand-scissors-o  fa-internet-explorer

 fa-hand-spock-o  fa-intersex

 fa-hand-stop-o  fa-ioxhost

 fa-hashtag  fa-italic

1237
 fa-joomla  fa-long-arrow-up
 fa-jpy  fa-magic

 fa-jsfiddle  fa-magnet

 fa-key  fa-mail-forward

 fa-keyboard-o  fa-mail-reply

 fa-krw  fa-mail-reply-all

 fa-language  fa-male

 fa-laptop  fa-map

 fa-lastfm  fa-map-marker

 fa-lastfm-square  fa-map-o

 fa-leaf  fa-map-pin

 fa-leanpub  fa-map-signs

 fa-legal  fa-mars

 fa-lemon-o  fa-mars-double

 fa-level-down  fa-mars-stroke

 fa-level-up  fa-mars-stroke-h

 fa-life-bouy  fa-mars-stroke-v

 fa-life-buoy  fa-maxcdn

 fa-life-ring  fa-meanpath

 fa-life-saver  fa-medium

 fa-lightbulb-o  fa-medkit

 fa-line-chart  fa-meh-o

 fa-link  fa-mercury

 fa-linkedin  fa-microphone

 fa-linkedin-square  fa-microphone-slash

 fa-linux  fa-minus

 fa-list  fa-minus-circle

 fa-list-alt  fa-minus-square

 fa-list-ol  fa-minus-square-o

 fa-list-ul  fa-mixcloud

 fa-location-arrow  fa-mobile

 fa-lock  fa-mobile-phone

 fa-long-arrow-down  fa-modx

 fa-long-arrow-left  fa-money

 fa-long-arrow-right  fa-moon-o

1238
 fa-mortar-board  fa-picture-o
 fa-motorcycle  fa-pie-chart

 fa-mouse-pointer  fa-pied-piper

 fa-music  fa-pied-piper-alt

 fa-navicon  fa-pinterest

 fa-neuter  fa-pinterest-p

 fa-newspaper-o  fa-pinterest-square

 fa-object-group  fa-plane

 fa-object-ungroup  fa-play

 fa-odnoklassniki  fa-play-circle

 fa-odnoklassniki-square  fa-play-circle-o

 fa-opencart  fa-plug

 fa-openid  fa-plus

 fa-opera  fa-plus-circle

 fa-optin-monster  fa-plus-square

 fa-outdent  fa-plus-square-o

 fa-pagelines  fa-power-off

 fa-paint-brush  fa-print

 fa-paper-plane  fa-product-hunt

 fa-paper-plane-o  fa-puzzle-piece

 fa-paperclip  fa-qq

 fa-paragraph  fa-qrcode

 fa-paste  fa-question

 fa-pause  fa-question-circle

 fa-pause-circle  fa-quote-left

 fa-pause-circle-o  fa-quote-right

 fa-paw  fa-ra

 fa-paypal  fa-random

 fa-pencil  fa-rebel

 fa-pencil-square  fa-recycle

 fa-pencil-square-o  fa-reddit

 fa-percent  fa-reddit-alien

 fa-phone  fa-reddit-square

 fa-phone-square  fa-refresh

 fa-photo  fa-registered

1239
 fa-remove  fa-sheqel
 fa-renren  fa-shield

 fa-reorder  fa-ship

 fa-repeat  fa-shirtsinbulk

 fa-reply  fa-shopping-bag

 fa-reply-all  fa-shopping-basket

 fa-retweet  fa-shopping-cart

 fa-rmb  fa-sign-in

 fa-road  fa-sign-out

 fa-rocket  fa-signal

 fa-rotate-left  fa-simplybuilt

 fa-rotate-right  fa-sitemap

 fa-rouble  fa-skyatlas

 fa-rss  fa-skype

 fa-rss-square  fa-slack

 fa-rub  fa-sliders

 fa-ruble  fa-slideshare

 fa-rupee  fa-smile-o

 fa-safari  fa-soccer-ball-o

 fa-save  fa-sort

 fa-scissors  fa-sort-alpha-asc

 fa-scribd  fa-sort-alpha-desc

 fa-search  fa-sort-amount-asc

 fa-search-minus  fa-sort-amount-desc

 fa-search-plus  fa-sort-asc

 fa-sellsy  fa-sort-desc

 fa-send  fa-sort-down

 fa-send-o  fa-sort-numeric-asc

 fa-server  fa-sort-numeric-desc

 fa-share  fa-sort-up

 fa-share-alt  fa-soundcloud

 fa-share-alt-square  fa-space-shuttle

 fa-share-square  fa-spinner

 fa-share-square-o  fa-spoon

 fa-shekel  fa-spotify

1240
 fa-square  fa-tasks
 fa-square-o  fa-taxi

 fa-stack-exchange  fa-television

 fa-stack-overflow  fa-tencent-weibo

 fa-star  fa-terminal

 fa-star-half  fa-text-height

 fa-star-half-empty  fa-text-width

 fa-star-half-full  fa-th

 fa-star-half-o  fa-th-large

 fa-star-o  fa-th-list

 fa-steam  fa-thumb-tack

 fa-steam-square  fa-thumbs-down

 fa-step-backward  fa-thumbs-o-down

 fa-step-forward  fa-thumbs-o-up

 fa-stethoscope  fa-thumbs-up

 fa-sticky-note  fa-ticket

 fa-sticky-note-o  fa-times

 fa-stop  fa-times-circle

 fa-stop-circle  fa-times-circle-o

 fa-stop-circle-o  fa-tint

 fa-street-view  fa-toggle-down

 fa-strikethrough  fa-toggle-left

 fa-stumbleupon  fa-toggle-off

 fa-stumbleupon-circle  fa-toggle-on

 fa-subscript  fa-toggle-right

 fa-subway  fa-toggle-up

 fa-suitcase  fa-trademark

 fa-sun-o  fa-train

 fa-superscript  fa-transgender

 fa-support  fa-transgender-alt

 fa-table  fa-trash

 fa-tablet  fa-trash-o

 fa-tachometer  fa-tree

 fa-tag  fa-trello

 fa-tags  fa-tripadvisor

1241
 fa-trophy  fa-vine
 fa-truck  fa-vk

 fa-try  fa-volume-down

 fa-tty  fa-volume-off

 fa-tumblr  fa-volume-up

 fa-tumblr-square  fa-warning

 fa-turkish-lira  fa-wechat

 fa-tv  fa-weibo

 fa-twitch  fa-weixin

 fa-twitter  fa-whatsapp

 fa-twitter-square  fa-wheelchair

 fa-umbrella  fa-wifi

 fa-underline  fa-wikipedia-w

 fa-undo  fa-windows

 fa-university  fa-won

 fa-unlink  fa-wordpress

 fa-unlock  fa-wrench

 fa-unlock-alt  fa-xing

 fa-unsorted  fa-xing-square

 fa-upload  fa-y-combinator

 fa-usb  fa-y-combinator-square

 fa-usd  fa-yahoo

 fa-user  fa-yc

 fa-user-md  fa-yc-square

 fa-user-plus  fa-yelp

 fa-user-secret  fa-yen

 fa-user-times  fa-youtube

 fa-users  fa-youtube-play

 fa-venus  fa-youtube-square

 fa-venus-double

 fa-venus-mars

 fa-viacoin

 fa-video-camera

 fa-vimeo

 fa-vimeo-square

1242
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/font-

awesome/4.7.0/css/font-awesome.min.css">
# Output:
</head>

<body>

<i class="fa fa-angle-right"></i>

> > >
<i class="fa fa-angle-right" style="font-size: 56px;"></i>

<i class="fa fa-angle-right" style="font-size: 70px; color: blue;"></i>

</body>

</html>

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/font-

awesome/4.7.0/css/font-awesome.min.css">

</head> The icon sizes can be increased in proportion to their container using

<body> the fa-lg (33% increase), fa-2x, fa-3x, fa-4x, or fa-5x classes.

<i class="fa fa-heart fa-lg"></i>

<i class="fa fa-heart fa-2x"></i>

# Output:
<i class="fa fa-heart fa-3x"></i>

♥
<i class="fa fa-heart fa-4x"></i>

<i class="fa fa-heart fa-5x"></i>

</body>
♥♥ ♥♥
</html>

1243
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>
JavaScript program to print the contents of the current window

<body>

<button onclick="window.print();"> Print this page </button>

</body>

</html>

let b = 5; a+b+c
semiperimeter of the triangle; that is, s =
2
let c = 9;

let s = (a + b + c)/2;

document.write(Math.sqrt(s*((s-a)*(s-b)*(s-c))));

// Output: 17.41228014936585
JavaScript program to find the area of a triangle where
</script>
lengths of the three of its sides are 7, 5, 9

// Prints the current website URL

document.write(document.URL);

</script> <script>

// Display the extension of a filename

console.log("1.txt".split('.').pop()); // Output: txt

console.log("2.pdf".split('.').pop()); // Output: pdf

</script>

1244
 Write a JavaScript program to calculate the sum of the two given numbers. If the two
numbers are equal, then return 2 times their sum.

Solution:

let x = 10;

let y = 10;

if (x == y) {

console.log(2 * (x + y));
# Output:
}
40
else {

console.log(x + y);

</script>

let x = 10;

let y = 20;

if (x == y) {

console.log(2 * (x + y)); # Output:

} 30
else {

console.log(x + y);

</script>

1245
<script>
JavaScript program to check 2 given numbers and return true if

let x = 70; one of the number is 25 or if their difference is 25

Albert

Total time taken : 4 milliseconds

1247
<script>

console.log(/^[a-z][a-z0-9+.-]*:/.test('https://google.com'));

// Output: true

console.log(/^[a-z][a-z0-9+.-]*:/.test('/temp/files'));

// Output: false
JavaScript program that will return true if the given string

</script> is an absolute URL, otherwise, it will return false

const distance = (a0, b0, a1, b1) => Math.hypot(a1 - a0, b1 - b0);

console.log(distance(2, 3, 4, 2));
JavaScript program to calculate the
// Output: 2.23606797749979 Euclidean distance between two points

</script>

let sum = 0;

for(var i = 0; i < 20; i++) {

if (i % 2 == 0 && i % 4 == 0) {

sum = sum + i;

}
JavaScript program to sum the
} multiples of 2 and 4 under 20
console.log(sum);

// Output: 40

</script>

1248
<script>

console.log(''.length==0); // Output: true

A field of research focuses on the

creation of computer-based technologies
based on the ideas of quantum theory

Challenges of quantum computing in the software sector:

 Locating substances capable of keeping a quantum state for prolonged enough to allow for computations
 Constructing a quantum computational model that can be expanded to carry out exceedingly challenging
calculations.
 Constructing methodologies that can utilize the quantum state to carry out computations more quickly
than traditional techniques

Time Series Forecasting:

A technique for forecasting future outcomes using data from the past. It

involves developing patterns through historical study, using them to make

judgments and influence rational decision in the future

Time series analysis Time series forecasting

Illustrates how data evolves over time Figure out which way the data is changing

1250
Data collection + Data cleaning → Data Engineer

Data cleaning + Exploratory data analysis → Data Analyst Data scientist

Building + deployment of model → Machine Learning Engineer

Statistical Interaction:

When 2 or more variables interact and this has an impact on a third

variable, this is referred to as a statistical interaction

PYTHON is used for data cleaning because it has modules like NumPy and

Pandas that facilitate it to remove incorrect data entries

Progressive rendering:

An idea that suggests presenting the most important stuff to the browser first and the
less important pieces afterwards, as needed by the user

HTTP ETag:

An HTTP header used by browsers to make constrained requests to

resources and validate Web cache

HTML5 Web Storage:

A web storage mechanism that, while being faster and considerably

more effective than cookies, allows users to save some data locally
on the user's computer

Cross-site scripting (XSS):

A hacker inserts malicious executable scripts into a reputable application or

website's source code. Attackers frequently provide a malicious attachment to a
user and encourage them to click on to start an XSS attack.

1251
<script>
<script>
function myfunc() {
var myfunc=function() {
console.log("Albert Einstein");
console.log("Albert Einstein");
}
}
myfunc();
myfunc();
</script>
</script>

# Output: Albert Einstein

myfunc();

function myfunc() {

Outputs "Albert Einstein" even when the

console.log("Albert Einstein");
function is declared after calling
}

</script>

function mult(x) { <script>

return function(y){ function myfunc(num) {

return x * y; console.log(num + 200);

} }

} myfunc(210);

console.log(mult(5)(3)); // Output: 410

// Output: 15 </script>

</script>

1252
<script>
We use the "return keyword" to return a
console.log(myfunc(14, 13)); value, the function execution is stopped as
soon as the return statement is invoked
function myfunc(x, y) {

return x + y;

console.log("Albert"); // This line of code does not get executed

}
# Output: 27
</script>

A Callback is a JavaScript function that is provided as an argument or a

parameter to a method. A function called the Callback must be run following

the completion of another function.

console.log(2 + "3" + "3"); console.log(11 < 12 < 13);

// Output: 233 // Output: true

console.log(2 + +"3" + "3"); 11 < 12 → true

true has value 1, so 1 < 13 → true

// Output: 53

console.log(2 + -"3" + "3"); console.log(13 > 12 > 11);

// Output: -13 // Output: false

console.log(+"2" + "3" + "3"); 13 > 12 → true

// Output: 233 true has value 1, so 1 > 11 → false

</script> </script>

1253
<script>

console.log(typeof 25);

// Output: number

console.log(typeof typeof 25);

// Output: string
typeof 25 will return "number" and typeof
</script> "number" will return string

const myfunc=()=> {

console.log("Albert Einstein");

myfunc();

// Output: Albert Einstein

</script>

Memorization:

A method of optimization that is largely used to speed up computer

programs by caching the output of complex function calls and returning it

when the same inputs are received again

Constructor functions

Functions that are used in JavaScript to construct objects. When we want

to build many objects with related properties and methods, we use it

1254
<script>

const names = ['John', 'Albert', 'James'];

const age = ['16', '25', '36'];

console.log([...names, ...age]);

// Output: [ 'John', 'Albert', 'James', '16', '25', '36' ]

</script>

Factors to be taken into account to avoid overfitting:

 Train with more data

 Assessing and comparing learning algorithms by splitting data into two sections for learning
or training a model and the other for model validation
 Defining an extremely significant number of training iterations and stop training when the model's
performance on a holdout validation dataset stops progressing

 Utilising a variety of techniques and strategies to create models that best match the data

Factors to be taken into account to avoid underfitting:

 Increasing the dataset's feature count

 Training the data using more robust and elaborate models

 The type of the project

Factors to be taken
 The data or information
into account to
 The time
choose an algorithm
 The difficulty of the algorithm and the project
 Efficiency of the Algorithm and the Objective

1255
<?php

$x = '6';

$y = &$x;
# Output: 26, 26
$y = "2$y";

echo $x.", ".$y;

function mult(x, y, z) {

return x * y * z;

console.log(mult(...[1, 2, 3]));

// Output: 6

// 1 × 2 × 3 = 6

</script>

var regex = /\d+/g;

var x = "Albert Einstein's 1905 Papers";

console.log(x.match(regex)); Using a regular expression, we can get

any numbers from a string
// Output: [ '1905' ]

</script>

1256
<style>

body * {

margin: 30px;

?
border: 2px solid orange;

</style>

<div onclick="alert('Albert Einstein')">Albert

<div onclick="alert('Elsa Einstein')">Elsa

<div onclick="alert('David Einstein')">David

</div>

const age = 50;

age >= 60 ? console.log("Senior citizen") : console.log("Not a senior citizen");

// Output: Not a senior citizen

</script>

document.write("Albert Einstein"); The <noscript> tag is used to recognize and

</script> respond to browsers with disabled JavaScript
<noscript>

JavaScript is not supported by your browser.

</noscript>

1257
<?php

# Print 2 PHP variables using single "echo" statement

$x = "Albert";

$y = "Einstein"; Output:
echo $x." ". $y; Albert Einstein

<?php

for($i=1;$i<=5;$i++) {
Output:
for($j=1;$j<=$i;$j++) {
*
echo "*";
**
} ***
****
echo "\n";
*****

Data Science Pipeline

A series of steps that transforms the unstructured and perplexing

data from many sources − such as surveys, reviews, comments,

suggestions, feedbacks, lists of sales, polls, etc.− into a format

that is easy to store and utilize for analysis

1258
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<style>

div {

background-color: yellow;

width: 200px; Output:

height: 65px; Albert Einstein was a German-
born theoretical physicist,
border: 1px solid; widely acknowledged to be
one of the greatest and most
overflow: visible;
influential physicists of all
} time.

</style>

</head>

<body>

<div> Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely

acknowledged to be one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all
time. </div>

</body>

</html>

1259
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<style>

div {

background-color: yellow;

width: 200px;

height: 65px;
Output:
border: 1px solid;

Albert Einstein was a German-

overflow: hidden;
born theoretical physicist,
widely acknowledged to be
}
one of the greatest and most

</style>

</head>

<body>

<div> Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely

acknowledged to be one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all
time. </div>

</body>

</html>

1260
<!DOCTYPE html>
The use of "calc()" function to calculate the width
<html> and height of a <p> element

<head>

</style>

</head>

<body>

<p id ="mytxt"> Alan Mathison Turing </p>

</body>

</html>

Output:

Alan Mathison Turing

1261
<?php

// PHP program to print letters from 'A' to 'Z'

for($i = ord('A'); $i <= ord('Z'); $i++)

echo chr($i);

# Output: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<style> Divide the text in the <div> element into 3 columns

.mytxt {

column-count: 3;

column-gap: 50px;
50 pixels gap between the columns
}

</style>

</head>

<body>

<div class="mytxt"> Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical

physicist, widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest and most
influential physicists of all time. Einstein is best known for developing
the theory of relativity, but he also made important contributions to the
development of the theory of quantum mechanics.

</div>

</body>

</html>

1262
# Output:

Albert Einstein was a influential physicists of all the development of the

German-born theoretical time. Einstein is best known theory of quantum
physicist, widely for developing the theory of mechanics.
acknowledged to be one of relativity, but he also made
the greatest and most important contributions to

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>  The color of the rule between columns is specified by the

column-rule-color attribute.
<head>
 The width of the rule between columns is specified by the
<style> column-rule-width attribute.
 The style of the rule between columns is specified by the
.mytxt {
column-rule-style attribute.
column-count: 3;

column-gap: 50px;

column-rule-style: solid;

column-rule-width: 5px;

column-rule-color: green;

</style>

</head>

<body>

<div class="mytxt"> Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical

</div>

</body>

</html>

1263
# Output:

Albert Einstein was a influential physicists of all the development of the

The Prediction Effect:

In business, a prediction with lower accuracy is better than a speculation

The data effect:

There is always something worthwhile to acquire from the data since it

always has a narrative to tell

The Induction Effect:

Machine learning is driven by creativity; when computer programs are used,

tactics created in part through informal human creativity and imagination

are successful in creating prediction models that work well on new cases

The Ensemble Effect:

Predictive models that are combined into an ensemble make up for one

another's shortcomings, increasing the likelihood that the ensemble will

forecast accurately as a whole over the individual models

Torch:

An open source machine learning library built on the Lua programming

language that offers a variety of deep learning algorithms

1264
How a data scientist operates?

 Recognize the business issue

 Browse and gather information
 Extract the data
 Clean the data
 Search for and add missing data
 Standardize data
 Evaluate data, look for patterns, and forecast the future
 Clearly communicate the outcome so that "enterprise organisation" may grasp it

Information regarding:

 What is typical?
 What can we predict?
 What is the standard?
 How likely is that?

can be obtained using statistics

An artificial neuron is referred to as a Perceptron. It is the most basic neural network

that is conceivable. Machine learning is built on neural networks. One of the most

important scientific achievements in Modern history is the neural network. Problems that

algorithms can't solve can be tackled by neural networks.

 Face Recognition
 Speech Recognition

Deep Learning is based on neural networks.

1265
TensorFlow.js

A well-known JavaScript library for machine learning is Tensorflow. We can train and

use machine learning in the web browser due to Tensorflow. We can incorporate

machine learning features into any web application using Tensorflow.

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

</head>

<body>

const x = tf.tensor([[6, 5], [4, 3], [2, 1]]);

const y = tf.tensor([[1,-2], [3,-1], [1,-1]]);

// Addition of 2 tensors using x.add(y) method

const z= x.add(y);

document.write(z); // Prints the result AWS TrustedAdvisor:

// Output: Tensor [[7, 3], [7, 2], [3, 0]]
A real-time, web-based suggestion
</script>
service that offers suggestions to help
</body> us adhere to AWS best practices
</html>

1266
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

</head>
Microservices architecture is a group of smaller,
<body>
independently deployable services as compared to a monolithic

application, which is constructed as a single integrated unit.

const x = tf.tensor([[6, 5], [4, 3], [2, 1]]);

const y = tf.tensor([[1,-2], [3,-1], [1,-1]]);

// Subtraction of 2 tensors using x.sub(y) method

const z= x.sub(y);

document.write(z); // Prints the result

// Output: Tensor [[5, 7], [1, 4], [1, 2]]

</script> The life cycle of a ML model comprises 3 stages:

</body>  Data Gathering

 Training
</html>  Conclusion

1267
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

</head> AWS Cloud Fargate:

A serverless, pay-as-you-go compute

<body>
platform that liberates us from server

administration so we can concentrate

on creating applications
<script>

const x = tf.tensor([[6, 5], [4, 3], [2, 1]]);

const y = tf.tensor([[1,-2], [3,-1], [1,-1]]);

// Multiplication of 2 tensors using x.mul(y) method

const z= x.mul(y);

document.write(z); // Prints the result

// Output: Tensor [[6 , -10], [12, -3 ], [2 , -1 ]]

</script>

</body>

</html>

1268
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

</head>

<body>

const x = tf.tensor([[6, 4], [4, 3], [2, 1]]);

const y = tf.tensor([[1,-2], [2,-1], [1,-1]]);

// Division of 2 tensors using x.div(y) method

const z= x.div(y);

document.write(z); // Prints the result

// Output: Tensor [[6, -2], [2, -3], [2, -1]]

</script> As a result of AI technology, computers may imitate mankind in:

 Speaking
</body>
 Reasoning
</html>  Studying
 Designing
 Knowing

1269
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

</head>

<body>

const x = tf.tensor([[6, 4], [4, 3], [2, 1]]);

// Square a tensor using x.square() method

const z= x.square();

document.write(z); // Prints the result

// Output: Tensor [[36, 16], [16, 9 ], [4 , 1 ]]

</script>

</body>
Brain.js

</html>

A JavaScript library that conceals the mathematics'

difficulty to make it simple to grasp neural networks

1270
The collection of information makes up to 80% of a ML project

 What information is needed?

 What information is readily available?

 How do we choose the information?

 How should information be gathered?

 How can the information be cleaned?

 How should the information be completely ready?

 What to do with the information?

Human vs Computing Machine

Human Computing Machine

Intelligent but imprecise and slow Foolish but precise and fast

Client-Server Model:

In a client-server model, a client communicates with and makes requests to a

computer server. The server completes tasks for the client and provides information.

Compute Optimized Instances: Memory Optimized Instances:

Designed for applications that require a lot of Designed for applications that require a lot of
computing power, like some scientific simulations storage power, like running Spark or Hadoop or
or high-performance web servers doing real-time big data analytics

1271
 Dynamic scaling: The ability to automatically change capacity depending on load or
other metrics
 Predictive scaling: The ability of changing capacity in response to anticipated demand

Load Allocation:

The service that distributes incoming traffic among the resources that is accessible.
It will divide up the resources according to their availability.

AWS Simple Notification:

A managed cloud service that enables us to mass-deliver

messages and send notifications to our customers

Amazon Simple Queue Service:

A fully managed message queuing service that allows us to

decouple and scale serverless applications, distributed systems,

and microservices

How AWS Lambda Functions?

 Upload your program to Lambda

 Prepare the code to launch an event
 Program only executes when provoked or triggered
 Pay only when your program is running

Amazon Elastic Kubernetes Service:

A managed service that enables us to create Kubernetes

clusters on AWS without manually installing the Kubernetes

on EC2 compute instances

1272
Did you know?

Ada Lovelace, a prominent female mathematician and the offspring of eminent

poet Lord Byron, created the first computer program in human history.

John Backus created the first high-level programming language called

FORTRAN for IBM in 1954. It was made available for purchase in 1957. Even

now, FORTRAN is used to program scientific and mathematical tools.

1273
30 Bash Scripts for Beginners

echo "Albert Einstein"

# Output: Albert Einstein

echo -n "\nAlan \t Mathison \t Turing\n"

# Output: \nAlan \t Mathison \t Turing\n

echo -e "\nAlan \t Mathison \t Turing\n"

# Output: Alan Mathison Turing

# multiply the numbers 2 and 3 # add the numbers 2 and 3

((x=2*3)) ((x=2+3))
# prints the result # prints the result
echo $x echo $x
# Output: 6 # Output: 5

: '

calculate the
Multiline comment
square value of the number: 4.

((y=4*4))

# prints the result

echo $y

# Output: 16

1274
x=true

i=0

while [ $x ]

do Output:
echo $i 0
if [ $i -eq 4 ]; 1
then 2
break 3
fi
4
((i++))

done

for ((i=5; i>0; i--))

for ((i=0; i<5; i++))
do do

echo -n "$i " echo -n "$i "

done
done
printf "\n"
printf "\n"
# Output: 0 1 2 3 4
# Output: 5 4 3 2 1

for ((i=0; i<5; i++))

Output:
do 0

echo "$i " 1

2
done
3
printf "\n"
4

1275
echo "Please enter your name:"

read x

echo "Welcome $x to Myw3schools.com"

# Output:

Please enter your name:

Manju # entered name

Welcome Manju to Myw3schools.com

i=5
i=5
if [ $i -lt 10 ];
if [ $i -gt 10 ];
then
then
echo "i is less than 10"
echo "i is less than 10"
else
else
echo "i is greater than 10"
echo "i is greater than 10"
fi
fi
# Output: i is less than 10
# Output: i is greater than 10

echo "Enter username:"

read x Output:
echo "Enter password:"
Enter username:
read y
manju # entered username
if [[ ( $x == "manju" && $y == "123" ) ]]; then
Enter password:
echo "user authentication passed"
123 # entered password
else

echo "user authentication failed" user authentication passed

1276
echo "Please enter a number:"

read i

if [[ ( $i -eq 25 || $i -eq 50 ) ]] Output:

then Please enter a number:

echo "You guessed it right" 25 # entered number

else You guessed it right

echo "You guessed it wrong"

echo "Please enter a number:"

read i

if [ $i -eq 2 ];

then
Output:
echo "You earned the first prize"
Please enter a number:
elif [ $i -eq 4 ];

then 2 # entered number

echo "You earned the second prize" You earned the first prize

elif [ $i -eq 8 ];

then

echo "You earned the third prize"

else

echo "Please try again later"

1277
echo "Please enter a number:"

read i

case $i in

2)
Output:
echo "You earned the first prize" ;;
Please enter a number:
4)

echo "You earned the second prize" ;; 5 # entered number

8) Please try again later

echo "You earned the third prize" ;;

echo "Please try again later" ;;

esac

read -p "Please enter a string: " x

read -p "Please enter a string: " y

if [ "$x" == "$y" ]

then

echo "Both strings are equal"

Output:
else
Please enter a string: john # entered string

echo "Both strings are not equal" Please enter a string: john # entered string

fi Both strings are equal

1278
read -p "Please enter a string: " x

read -p "Please enter a string: " y

if [ "$x" != "$y" ]
Output:
then
Please enter a string: john # entered string
echo "Both strings are not equal"
Please enter a string: alan # entered string
else
Both strings are not equal
echo "Both strings are equal"

a="Albert "

b=" Einstein"
Output:
echo "$a$b"
Albert Einstein
c=$a+$b
Albert + Einstein
c+=

echo $c

# The value 7 indicates the starting point from where the

# substring will start and 6 indicates the length of the substring

x="Master Python in 10 days"

i=${x:7:6}

echo $i

# Output: Python

1279
echo "Please enter a number:"

read x
Output:
echo "Please enter a number:"
Please enter a number:
read y
3 # entered number
((z=x*y)) Please enter a number:

echo "The product of $x and $y is: $z" 6 # entered number

The product of 3 and 6 is: 18

function AL()

echo 'Alan Turing was a brilliant British mathematician.'

# Output: Alan Turing was a brilliant British mathematician.

x() {

area=$(($1 * $2))

echo "Area of a rectangle is: $area"

x 60 10

# Output: Area of a rectangle is: 600

1280
x() {

volume=$(($1 * $2 * $3))

echo "Volume of a rectangle of length $1, breadth $2 and height $3 is: $volume"

x 12 16 18

# Output: Volume of a rectangle of length 12, breadth 16 and height 18 is: 3456

x=0

while [ $x -le 4 ] Output:

0
do
1
echo "$x"
2
let x++
3

done 4

# Infinite while loop

while true

echo "Albert" # Press CTRL + C to exit from infinite while loop

done

1281
function x() {

a="Howdy, $name"

echo $a

} Output:

echo "Please enter your name:" Please enter your name:

read name manju # entered name

i=$(x)
Howdy, manju

echo "$i"

echo "Enter the name of the directory:"

read x

`mkdir $x`

# Output:

Enter the name of the directory:

myfiles # entered directory name

# Create a directory named 'myfiles'

Output:
for names in Sham Mary John James Lawrence
Sham
do
Mary

echo "$names" John

James
done
Lawrence

1282
echo "Enter the name of the directory:"

read x

if [ -d "$x" ] Output:

then Enter the name of the directory:

echo "Directory exists" myfiles # entered directory name

else  Check for 'myfiles':

 If 'myfiles' exists:
`mkdir $x`  Prints Directory exists otherwise
 'myfiles' directory is created
echo "Directory is created"

for i in *

do
Read all files from
ls -l $i the current directory

done

x='1.txt'

while read line; do

Read the file '1.txt'
echo $line

done < $x

1283
echo "Enter the name of the file to remove:"

read x

rm -i $x

# Output:

Enter the name of the file to remove:

1.txt # entered file name

1.txt file is deleted

x=("Albert" "was" "a" "German-born" "theoretical physicist")

echo ${x[@]}

echo ${!x[@]}

# Output:

Albert was a German-born theoretical physicist

0 1 2 3 4

# Prints login name, current date, time, user name

# and current working directory

echo "Hello, $LOGNAME"

echo "Today's date is `date`"

echo "Username is `who i am`"

echo "Current directory is `pwd`"

1284
for PID in $$

do
Prints PID of the
echo $PID current shell

done

id=10
1.sh
x="Albert"

source 1.sh

echo "Hi $x"

echo "Your id is $id"

# Output:
Welcome Albert
Your id is 10

myfunc(){

echo $1 $2 $3 $4

myfunc 01. Alan Mathison Turing

# Output: 01. Alan Mathison Turing

1285
Year=`date +%Y`

Month=`date +%m`

Day=`date +%d`

Hour=`date +%H`

Minute=`date +%M`

Second=`date +%S`

echo `date` # Output: Wed 29 Jun 2022 05:53:06 PM UTC

echo "Current Date is: $Day-$Month-$Year" # Output: Current Date is: 29-06-2022

echo "Current Time is: $Hour:$Minute:$Second" # Output: Current Time is: 17:53:06

echo "Albert" > abc.txt

if [ $? -eq 0 ]; then

echo "The command executed successfully"

else

echo "Sorry, command execution failed"

# Output: The command executed successfully

# The command: echo "Albert" > abc.txt executed successfully

for ((x=-4; x<0; x++)) Output:

do -4

-3
echo "$x"
-2
done
-1

1286
for i in {1..10}; do echo -n "$i"; done

# Output: 12345678910

x="manju"

if grep ${x} /etc/passwd

then
Check whether or not the
echo "Hey! string found"
file '/etc/passwd' contains
else the string 'manju'

echo "Sorry, no matching string found"

echo "Please enter a number:"

read x

if [ $x -gt 0 ]

then
Output:
echo "Positive number"
Please enter a number:

elif [ $x -lt 0 ] 0 # entered number

then Neither Positive nor Negative number

echo "Negative number"

else

echo "Neither Positive nor Negative number"

1287
x=(1 2 3 4 5)

sum=0
printf 'Albert'
for a in ${x[@]}
printf '%s\n' 'Einstein'
do

sum=`expr $sum + $a` printf -- '-%.0s' {1..15}

done # Output:

echo $sum AlbertEinstein

# Output: 15

# 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15

x="Alan+Mathison+Turing"
i=1

a=($(echo $x | tr "+" "\n"))

until [ $i -gt 4 ]

for i in "${a[@]}"
do

do
echo 'Albert'

echo $i
((i++))

done
done

# Output:
# Output:

Alan Albert

Mathison
Albert

Turing
Albert

Albert

1288
30 Python Scripts for Beginners

import itertools

print(list(itertools.chain(range(0, 2), range(12, 14))))

# Output: [0, 1, 12, 13]

# ASCII value of C is 67

# ASCII value of D is 68

print({ord('C'): ord('D')})

# Output: {67: 68}

# ASCII value of A is 65

# ASCII value of B is 66

# ASCII value of C is 67

# ASCII value of D is 68

print(tuple(ord(i) for i in 'ABCD'))

# Output: (65, 66, 67, 68)

print(eval('11 + 11 == 22')) # Output: True

print(eval('11 + 11 != 22')) # Output: False

print(eval('"P" + "Q" + "R"')) # Output: PQR

print(eval('"DLBERT".translate({68: 65})')) # Output: ALBERT

print(eval('"DDD".count("D")')) # Output: 3

print(eval('["#"] * 2')) # Output: ['#', '#']

1289
i= 2

print(eval("i * 8", {"i": i}, {})) # Output: 16

print(eval("pow(2, 4)", {}, {})) # Output: 16

print(eval("import('math').sqrt(16)", {}, {})) # Output: 4.0

import numpy as np

print(np.sqrt(16)) # Output: 4.0

a = 'Alan Turing'

import io

x = io.StringIO(a)

print(x.read()) # Output: Alan Turing

a = 'Alan Turing'

import io

x = io.StringIO(a)

print(x.read(5)) # Output: Alan

a = 'Alan Turing'

import io

x = io.StringIO(a)

print(x.seek(15)) # Output: 15

1290
import sys
for x in range(3):
for x in range(3):
print('Albert')
sys.stdout.write('Albert\n')

import sys Output:

for x in range(3): Albert

Albert
sys.stderr.write('Albert\n')
Albert

from urllib.parse import urlencode

x = {'name': 'Albert Einstein'}

print(urlencode(x)) # Output: name=Albert+Einstein

print(repr(repr(1915) + ' Papers')) # Output: '1915 Papers'

print([x for x in (11, 12)]) # Output: [11, 12]

Output:
x = ['A', 'B', 'C','D', 'E'] A

a = 0 B

C
for a in range(0, len(x)):
D
print(x[a])
E

1291
x = ['A', 'B', 'C','D', 'E']
Output:
a = 0
C
for a in range(2, len(x)):
D

print(x[a]) E

x = {'A', 'B', 'C','D', 'E'}

x.add('D')

print(x) # Output: {'E', 'B', 'C', 'A', 'D'}

x = {'A', 'B', 'C','D', 'E'}

x.add('F')

print(x) # Output: {'E', 'B', 'C', 'A', 'F', 'D'}

import sys

print(sys.version_info)

print(sys.version)

# Output:

sys.version_info(major=3, minor=7, micro=3, releaselevel='final', serial=0)

3.7.3 (default, Mar 27 2019, 17:13:21) [MSC v.1915 64 bit (AMD64)]

print(b'unny' + b'rabbit') # Output: b'unnyrabbit'

1292
print('bunny' == 'bunny') # Output: True

print(b'unny' == 'bunny') # Output: False

print(b'unny %s' % b'rabbit') # Output: b'unny rabbit'

print('alan %s' % 'turing') # Output: alan turing

x = 'price'

y = 12.568

print('%-10s : $%.2f' % (x, y))

# Output: price : $12.57

book = [

('price: $', 8.77),

Output:
('price: $', 3.6),
0: price: $ 8.77
('price: $', 50),
1: price: $ 3.60
]
2: price: $ 50.00
for i, (x, y) in enumerate(book):

print('%d: %-12s %.2f' % (i, x, y))

p = 861.45891

print("{:5.2f}".format(p)) # Output: 861.46

q = 861.45891

print("%5.2f" % q) # Output: 861.46

1293
x = 1905

y = 'Papers'

print('{} {}'.format(x, y)) # Output: 1905 Papers

x = 1925

y = 'Dollars'

print('{:.2f} {:<10}'.format(x, y)) # Output: 1925.00 Dollars

print('%.2f%%' % 25.8) # Output: 25.80%

print('{} = {{}}'.format(1905)) # Output: 1905 = {}

x = 6

y = 4

print(f'{x:.{y}f}') # Output: 6.0000

x = ['Albert', 'Alan', 'James']

y = [len(i) for i in x]

print(y) # Output: [6, 4, 5]

for x in range(3): Output:

Hi
print('Hi')
Hi
else:
Hi

print('Albert') Albert

1294
for x in range(3):

print('Hi')
Output:
if x == 1:
Hi
break
Hi

else:

print('Albert')

for a in []:
while False:
print('Hi')
print('Hi')

else: else:

print('Albert') print('Albert')

# Output: Albert

x = iter(range(2, 4))

a, b = x

print(f'{a} & {b}') # Output: 2 & 3

x = {}

y = 'Alan'
Output:
z = []
{'Alan': []}
x.setdefault(y, z)
{'Alan': ['Turing']}
print(x)

z.append('Turing')

print(x)

1295
p = float(input("Enter the marks obtained in Practical: "))

q = float(input("Enter the marks obtained in Theory: "))

if (p >= 15 and q >= 35) or (p + q) >=50:

print("\n You are selected")

else:

print("\n Sorry, try next time")

# Output:

Enter the marks obtained in Practical: 26 # Entered marks

Enter the marks obtained in Theory: 36 # Entered marks

You are selected

# hello.py

print("Hello World!")

# Executes the hello.py file in the interpreter

import os

os.system('hello.py') # Output: Hello World!

p = "Alan\n"
Output:
q = "Turing"
Alan
print(p + q)
Turing

1296
from time import sleep

from datetime import datetime

Output:
def i(x, y=datetime.now()):
2022-06-30 18:51:33.611028: Albert
print(f'{y}: {x}')
wait for 2 seconds
i('Albert')
2022-06-30 18:51:33.611028: Einstein
sleep(2) # wait for 2 seconds

i('Einstein')

# python program to calculate the power of a number

# Assign values to x and n

x = 4

n = 3

# Method 1:

b = x ** n

print("%d to the power %d is %d" % (x,n,b)) # Output: 4 to the power 3 is 64

# Method 2:

b = pow(x,n)

print("%d to the power %d is %d" % (x,n,b)) # Output: 4 to the power 3 is 64

# Method 3:

import math

b = math.pow(x,n)

print("%d to the power %d is %5.2f" % (x,n,b)) # Output: 4 to the power 3 is 64.00

1297
# import getpass module

import getpass

# Take password from the user

x = getpass.getpass('Please enter your password:')

# Check the password

if x == "alan@123":

print("Authentication passed")

else:

print("Authentication failed")

# Output:

Please enter your password: alan@123 # entered password

Authentication failed

# List the numbers greater than 14 and divisible by 5

a = [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]

print([i for i in a if i > 14 if i % 5 == 0]) # Output: [15, 20]

import itertools

print(list(itertools.repeat('Alan', 4)))

# Output: ['Alan', 'Alan', 'Alan', 'Alan']

1298
import itertools

x = itertools.cycle([4, 5])

print([next(x) for _ in range (4)])

# Output: [4, 5, 4, 5]

import itertools

a, b = itertools.tee(['Alan', 'Turing'], 2)

print(list(a))
Output:
print(list(b))
['Alan', 'Turing']

['Alan', 'Turing']

import itertools

print(list(itertools.product([3, 4], repeat=1)))

# Output: [(3,), (4,)]

print(list(itertools.product([3, 4], repeat=2)))

# Output: [(3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 3), (4, 4)]

import itertools

print(list(itertools.product([6, 8], ['x', 'y'])))

# Output: [(6, 'x'), (6, 'y'), (8, 'x'), (8, 'y')]

1299
# Python program to list files in a directory

# Import os module to read directory

import os

# Set the directory path

x = os.listdir('C:/Users/Manju')

# Print the content of the directory

for i in x:

print(i)

import itertools

print(list(itertools.combinations([2, 4, 6], 1)))

# Output: [(2,), (4,), (6,)]

print(list(itertools.combinations([2, 4, 6], 2)))

# Output: [(2, 4), (2, 6), (4, 6)]

print(list(itertools.combinations_with_replacement([2, 4, 6], 1)))

# Output: [(2,), (4,), (6,)]

print(list(itertools.combinations_with_replacement([2, 4, 6], 2)))

# Output: [(2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (4, 4), (4, 6), (6, 6)]

print(list(itertools.permutations([2, 4, 6], 1)))

# Output: [(2,), (4,), (6,)]

print(list(itertools.permutations([2, 4, 6], 2)))

# Output: [(2, 4), (2, 6), (4, 2), (4, 6), (6, 2), (6, 4)]

1300
# Define the string

x = 'Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist'

# Define the search string

print(x)

# Output: [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

del x[4:6]

print(x)

# Output: [0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9]

print([['#'] * 2 for x in range(2)])

# Output: [['#', '#'], ['#', '#']]

print([['#'] * 2] * 2)

# Output: [['#', '#'], ['#', '#']]

x= ['#'] * 2
Output:
y = []
for i in range(2): [['#', '#']]
y.append(x)
[['#', '#'], ['#', '#']]
print(y)

1302
x = ['A', 'ABC', 'AB', 'ABCD']

print(sorted(x))

# Output: ['A', 'AB', 'ABC', 'ABCD']

print(sorted(x, key=len))

# Output: ['A', 'AB', 'ABC', 'ABCD']

print(sorted(x, key=len, reverse=True))

# Output: ['ABCD', 'ABC', 'AB', 'A']

from collections import deque

print(deque(range(5), maxlen=5))

# Output: deque([0, 1, 2, 3, 4], maxlen=5)

x = [15, 10, '1', 5, '123', '1234', 3, 45, '12', 21]

print(sorted(x, key=int))

# Output: ['1', 3, 5, 10, '12', 15, 21, 45, '123', '1234']

print(sorted(x, key=str))

# Output: ['1', 10, '12', '123', '1234', 15, 21, 3, 45, 5]

x= ['alan', 'albert', 'alan', 'albert']

print(set(x)) # Output: {'albert', 'alan'}

print(list(set(x))) # Output: {'albert', 'alan'}

1303
print(frozenset(range(5))) # Output: frozenset({0, 1, 2, 3, 4})

# List a set of Latin-1 characters with codes from 100 to 150

# that have the letter 'A' in their Unicode names

from unicodedata import name

print({chr(x) for x in range(100, 150) if 'A' in name(chr(x),'')})

# Output:

{'l', 'y', 'i', '|', '}', 'r', 'g', 'h', '{', 'u', 't', 'p',

'n', 'w', 'q', 'x', 'o', 'j', 'm', 'd', 'f', 'e', 's', 'v', 'z', 'k'}

# install PyPDF2 using the command: pip install PyPDF2

import PyPDF2

i = open('1.pdf', 'rb')

x = PyPDF2.PdfFileReader(i)

print("The numbers of pages in a PDF file: ", x.numPages)

i.close()

# Output: The number of pages in a PDF file: 33

import os

print(os.listdir(b'.'))

# Output: ['1.txt', '1.pdf','names.csv', 'test.py']

print(os.listdir(b'.'))

# Output: [b'1.txt', b'1.pdf', b'names.csv', b'test.py']

1304
# python program to open an image

from PIL import Image

x = Image.open(r"C:\Users\Manju\1.png")
x.show()

# Output:

1.png

from operator import methodcaller

print(methodcaller('upper')('albert')) # Output: ALBERT

print(methodcaller('lower')('ALBERT')) # Output: albert

from operator import mul

from functools import partial

print(partial(mul, 7)(8)) # Output: 56

1305
from operator import add

from functools import partial

print(partial(add, 7)(8)) # Output: 15

import math

print("The factorial of 6 is:", math.factorial(6))

# Output: The factorial of 6 is: 720

x = [14, [15, 16], (17, 18, 19)]

y = list(x)
x = {'Name': 'Albert', 'Died': 1955}

print(y == x) # Output: True

y = x

print(y is x) # Output: True print(y is x) # Output: False

y['born'] = 1979

print(x) # Output: {'Name': 'Albert', 'Died': 1955, 'born': 1979}

def f(x, y):

x += y x = (21, 22, 23)

return x y = tuple(x)

print(y is x) # Output: True

x = [12, 13]
z = x[:]
y = [14, 15]
print(z is x) # Output: True
print(f(x, y))

# Output: [12, 13, 14, 15]

1306
The insulation of data from direct access

Data security
Data hiding

After providing proper username and password only, we can access our Account information.

Abstraction

Hide internal implementation and just highlight the set of services

Encapsulation Data hiding

Deals with hiding the complexity of a program Deals with the security of data in a program
Focuses on wrapping the complex data in order Focuses on restricting the use of data − intending to
to present a simpler view for the user assure the data security.

Encapsulation = Datahiding + Abstraction

private protected
Accessible from own class ✓ ✓
Accessible from derived class × ✓

Advantages of abstraction:

 Reduces Complexity
 Avoid Code Duplication

1307
 Eases the burden of maintenance
 Increase Security and confidentiality

Single level Inheritance:

2 classes: A and B

Class B inherits from class A

Multi-level inheritance:

3 classes: A, B and C

Class C inherits from class B while Class B inherits from class A

Multiple Inheritance:

3 classes: A, B and C

C inherits from both class A and B

Hierarchical Inheritance:

3 classes: A, B and C

Class B and C inherits from class A

Hybrid Inheritance:

4 classes: A, B, C and D

B and C inherits from A while D inherits from B and C

1308
Inheritance → reusability

Polymorphism → flexibility Object oriented programming

Encapsulation → security

Method overloading Method overriding

Compile time polymorphism Run time polymorphism

may or may not require inheritance always need inheritance

class Dog{
public void bark(){
System.out.println("woof ");
}
 Same method name
}
class Hound extends Dog{  Same parameter
public void sniff(){
System.out.println("sniff ");
}

public void bark(){

System.out.println("bowl");
}
}
Method overriding

1309
class Dog{
 Same method name
public void bark(){
 Different parameter
System.out.println("woof ");
}

public void bark(int num){

for(int i=0; i<num; i++)
System.out.println("woof ");
}
} Method overloading

String String buffer String builder

Immutable Mutable Mutable

(once created cannot be changed ) (once created can be changed ) (once created can be changed )
Consumes more memory Consumes less memory Consumes less memory

Not thread safe Thread safe Not thread safe

Synchronized (✓) Synchronized (✓) Synchronized (×)

Very high performance Moderate performance Very high performance
(Fast) (Slow) (Fast)

Constructor Method

A Constructor's basic function is to create an instance A Method's basic function is to execute java code
of a class
Have no return type Have any valid return type or no return type

Have the same name as their class Have the name other than the class name

Constructors will start with a uppercase letter Methods will start with a lowercase letter

1310
DevOps isn't any single person's job. It's everyone's job.

Christophe Capel

Ideate, define, and describe features and

capabilities of the application

Plan

Workflow

Security and
Collaboration Application Compliance
Operate Develop

Continuous

improvement

Deliver

Maintain, monitor and

Deploy application into
troubleshoot application in Write, test, review and
production environment in a
production environment integrate code
consistent and reliable way

1311
Development (Software engineering) + Quality assurance + operations = DevOps

Development (Software engineering) + Quality assurance + operations + Security

DevSecOps

 Communication
 Collaboration
Dev  Integration Ops

(Software releases and updates) (Reliability, performance and scaling)

Sec

(Confidentiality, availability and integrity)

Agile CI/CD DevOps

Focuses on processes Focuses on software-defined Focuses on culture

highlighting change while life cycles highlighting tools highlighting roles that
accelerating delivery that emphasize automation emphasize responsiveness

1312
Commit source Continuous build
Developer Git Jenkins

Continuous delivery

Docker image push Ansible

Deployment
Docker

Docker image pull

Kubernetes

DevOps Flow

DevOps Tools

Git Version Control System tool

Jenkins Continuous Integration tool

Selenium Continuous Testing tool

Puppet, Chef, Ansible Configuration Management and Deployment tools

Nagios Continuous Monitoring tool

Docker Containerization tool

1313
DevOps

Agile
Development start Development end Release Production support

Development Operations

Testing

Cloud Service:

On-premise Infrastructure as a service

Applications Applications

Data Data
You
Runtime Runtime
manage
Middleware Middleware

You manage OS OS

Virtualization Virtualization

Servers Servers Others

Storage Storage manage

Networking Networking

Platform as a service Software as a service

Applications
Applications
You manage Data
Data
Runtime
Runtime
Middleware
Middleware
Others
OS
OS manage
Others Virtualization
Virtualization
manage
Servers
Servers
Storage
Storage
Networking
Networking

1314
Application Release Management

Application Deployment automation

Development Build Package Test Stage Production

repository environment environment environment

Stages of a typical DevOps delivery pipeline

How to Frame a Hypothesis?

Understand your users and frame a hypothesis

Craft an experiment

Test your hypothesis with users

Learn, adopt and correct

1315
# Basic Hello World program written in Groovy

class MyClass {
static void main(String[] args) {

println('Hello World');

}
}

6 Build Phases in Maven:

Validate → Compile → Test → Package → Install → Deploy

Command:

ifstat

Description:

Prints network interface statistics

1316
Processes

Parent processes Child processes

Processes that create other processes Processes that are created by other
during runtime processes during run-time

Command:

pidof bash

Description:

Display the process IDs of a specific running program (Bash)

# Display the process ID of the current shell

echo $$

# Display the parent process ID of the current shell

echo $PPID

1317
Command:

ps aux | awk '{print $6/1024 " MBtt" $11}' | sort -n

Description:

Display a list of most memory consuming processes

Github Fetch Github Pull

Fetches the required information only to local Fetches the required information not only to local
repository repository but also to the workspace that you are
currently working in

Github Pull = Github fetch + Merge

Combination of fetch and Fetch the content

merge the content

Docker registry Docker repository

Service for hosting and distributing docker images Collection of related Docker images

1318
Selenium supports 2 types of testing:

 Regression Testing → retesting a product around an area where a bug was fixed.

 Functional Testing → testing of software features (functional points) individually.

Command:

ps au

ps axu

Description:

Display all processes in BSD format

Command:

ps aux

Description:

Display all processes and their status and resource usage

Build Docker Commit Docker Push Docker Pull Docker Run Docker
Image Image Image Image container

Docker Registry / Hub

1319
# Takes in integer x and returns the binary representation of x in a string format

x = 15

print(bin(x))

0b1111

# Takes in integer x and returns the octal representation of x in a string format

x = 10

print(oct(x))

0o12

# Takes in integer x and returns the hexadecimal representation of x in a string format

x = 100

print(hex(x))

0x64

x="python\nlanguage"
print(x)

python
language

1320
x="python\tlanguage"
print(x)

python language

Operator Meaning Example

in True if value found in the 5 in x

sequence

not in True if value is not found in 5 not in x

the sequence

list_1=[1,2,3,4,5]

list_2=[6,7,8,9]

for item in list_1:

if item in list_2:

print("overlapping")

else:

print("not overlapping")

Output on the screen:

not overlapping

1321
x = 24

y = 20

list = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50 ];

if ( x not in list ):

print("x is NOT present in given list")

else:

print("x is present in given list")

if ( y in list ):

print("y is present in given list")

else:

print("y is NOT present in given list")

Output on the screen: 3-tier Applications consists of :

x is NOT present in given list  Web Layer

y is present in given list  Application layer

 Database layer
Applications

Desktop Apps Web Apps Mobile Apps

 Native
 1-tier  3-tier
 Web
 2-tier  N-tier
 Hybrid

1322
Java Design Patterns:

 Creational design patterns → Design patterns that deal with the way of creating objects.

 Structural design patterns → Design patterns that deal with how classes and objects can be composed to
form larger structures.

 Behavioral design patterns → Design patterns that deal with algorithms and the assignment of responsibilities
between objects.

 JEE Design Patterns → Design patterns that deal with providing solutions to the Java EE-based software
applications and frameworks.

 Automation → Reduces execution time

 Robotic Process Automation → Reduces the number of people and automate task just like a human being

A Machine Learning model is said to learn from:

 Actual problem that need to be solved Improves with experience

 Knowledge acquired from experience

 Performance as per expectation

 Robotic Desktop automation

Process driven
 Robotic Process automation

Despite being a well-liked and

effective programming language,
Python has a drawback in the form
 Machine learning
Data driven of a slow execution rate. Python
 Artificial intelligence
is an interpreted language; hence
its execution is slower than that
of compiled languages.

1323
Robotic Process Automation:

Identify → Analyze → Design → Develop → Test → Implement

Robotic process automation + Cognitive automation + Workforce Analytics → Intelligent Automation

Big Data Analytics Data Science

 Structured Data
Type of Data Processed Structured
 Unstructured Data
 Semi-structured Data

 Software-as-a-Service (SaaS)
3 Components of Cloud Computing:
 Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS)
 Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS)

 Label Encoding: A method for transforming labels of categorical data into numeric form so they may
be processed by a machine learning model

 Eager Learning: Putting more effort into training and less effort into prediction

 Lazy Learning: Putting more effort into prediction and less effort into training

Symbolic logic: rules engines,

Artificial intelligence expect systems, and knowledge

Machine Learning Self Learning and Adaptive

systems

1324
Data Mining Statistics
Simple regression model:
Methodology Inductive Deductive In this regression model, a single, univariate data
feature is used to derive the predictions
Variables Large Small

Used for Exploration Confirmation Multiple regression model:

In this regression model, multiple features of the data
Classification decision trees Regression decision trees are used to derive the predictions
The decision variable is The decision variable is
categorical continuous

Classification (Defined Labels)

Supervised Learning
 Fraud Detection

 Email Spam Detection

Applications
Types
 Diagnosis

 Image Classification

Regression (No Labels Defined)

 Risk Assignment
Applications
 Score Prediction

Unsupervised Learning
Dimensionality reduction

 Text Mining
Types
 Face Recognition
Applications
 Big Data Visualization

Clustering  Image Recognition

 Biology

 City Planning Applications

 Targeted Marketing

1325
 Gaming

 Finance Sector

 Manufacturing
Applications of Reinforcement Learning  Inventory

 Management

An approach to Machine Learning whereby a  Robot Navigation

software program engages with the environment and

learns how to react with it

Keras Tensorflow
A simple Python library for Deep Learning A set of libraries for Machine Learning

Easy to debug Complex to debug

Used for small datasets Used for massive datasets

A freely available distributed database Mean shift clustering algorithm:

system for managing and storing massive
volumes of data across commodity servers A Centroid-based technique that supports numerous unsupervised
learning application scenarios. It is one of the best algorithms for
computer vision and image processing. In essence, it iteratively
distributes the data points to the clusters by moving them toward the
Disadvantages of Cassandra:
cluster Centroid, which has the maximum density of data points

 No support to Data Integration

 Large outputs must be physically paged

Manual Testing Automated Testing

Less accurate Highly reliable
Needs lots of time Very fast
Test cases are run once or twice Test cases are run repeatedly
Human intervention No Human intervention

1326
The main phases of risk analysis are:  Identification of Risk
 Analyzing the Risk
 Evaluating the Risk
The process of identifying, analyzing, evaluating and  Treat the Risk
treating the risks that could cause the failure of the project  Review the Risk

 SQL → A query language that manages relational database management system

 MYSQL → A relational database management system that uses SQL

Data Science Life Cycle

Differential privacy
Step 1: Define the Problem

Step 2: Collect the Data

A set of frameworks and practices that assist in getting
Step 3: Process the Data the useful information from the databases containing
individual's personal information − without revealing
Step 4: Explore the Data
the personal identification about individuals

Step 5: Analyze the Data

Neuromorphic Computing: Computing that imitate closely
Step 6: Consolidate the Result the human brain or the way the human brain operates

Open-source software library that

provide an uncomplicated approach to
Tensorflow architecture consists of three parts: solve complex calculations of machine
learning with the help of graphs

𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐨
 Data preprocessing (Unstructured raw data → Structured useful and efficient data)

 Model building
Quantum Computer: A machine that harnesses
 Model training and evaluation the properties of quantum mechanics to store data
and perform computations

1327
Data fusion
9 Interesting Python Facts
In python we can return multiple values:
def XYZ():
p = 3 The process of combing information
q = 2
return p, q from numerous data sources to produce
a, b = XYZ() more appropriate, authentic and useful
print(a, b)
information than that provided by any

Output on the screen: individual data source

3 2

Allows Negative Indexing: Data consolidation

my_list = ['apple', 'orange', 'grapes']
print(my_list[-2])

Collection and integration of information

Output on the screen:
from multiple data sources into a single

repository
orange

Combine Multiple Strings:

Data federation
my_list = ['I', 'Love', 'Python']
print(''.join(my_list))

Output on the screen: A technology that allows 2 or more

databases to function as one

ILovePython

We can swap two objects in Python:

681
1328
a = 3
b = 2
Polymorphic malware
print('Before Swapping')
print(a, b)

a, b = b, a
print('After Swapping')
print(a, b)

Output on the screen:

Malicious software that gradually changes its identifiable
features in order to make it difficult for anti-malware
software to prevent, detect and remove it
Before Swapping

3 2

After Swapping

2 3

We can know about Python version:

import sys
print("My Python version Number: {}".format(sys.version))

Output on the screen:

My Python version Number: 3.7.3 (default, Mar 27 2019, 17:13:21) [MSC v.1915 64 bit (AMD64)]

We can Store all values of List in new separate variables:

x = [1, 2, 3]
a, b, c = x
print(a)
print(b)
print(c)

AI Transparency
Output on the screen:
Understanding, explaining and
1
interpreting how AI systems
2
make decisions and use data
3

681
1329
We can convert nested list into one list:
Risk-based testing: A method of
import itertools
x = [[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6]] software testing that is based on the process
print(list(itertools.chain.from_iterable(x)))
of analyzing the risks associated with the

Output on the screen: testing Project

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

We can transpose a Matrix:

import numpy as np Data Privacy Data protection
x = np.matrix('[5, 1; 14, 2]')
y = x.transpose()
print(y)

Output on the screen: Defines who has Legal control over

access to information access to and use of
[[ 5 14] information
[ 1 2]]

We can create small anonymous function:

x = lambda a, b, c : a + b + c

print(x(5, 6, 3)) AI Traceability

Output on the screen:

14 Identifying and tracing the processes involved

in the production of an AI model

Responsible AI

{The ethical development and use of AI systems}

AI which is explainable, monitorable, reproducible, secure,

human-centered, unbiased and justifiable

681
1330
C++ Exercises

 Intra-personal intelligence: The ability to interpret and recognize our feelings and emotions
 Interpersonal intelligence: The ability to interpret and recognize other people's feelings and emotions

Question 1

Question: Auditory Learning: Learning by

hearing and listening
Write a program to print Hello World!.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
int main() Heuristic Knowledge: Practice knowledge,
{ precise reasoning, and one's capability to
std::cout<<"Hello World!"; analyze and guess
return 0;
}

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std; Phonology: The study of sound
int main()
patterns found in languages
{
cout<<"Hello World!";
return 0;
}

1331
Question 2

Question:

Write a program to find the area of a circle.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() Data Stack: A bunch of technologies and
{
services that an enterprise organization use to
float r, area;
store, manage and access information
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>>r;
area = 3.14 * r * r;
cout<<"The area of the circle = "<< area;
return 0;
}

Question 3 Hypothesis Testing

The process of checking whether a hypothesis is true or not

Question:

Write a program to find the sum of two numbers.

Solution:

1332
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() May or may not happen evenly

{
float a, b, sum; Not probable to happen Probable to happen
cout<<"Enter any two numbers:"; P(E) = 0 P(E) = 1
cin>>a; Cannot happen P(E) = 0.5 Certain to happen
cin>>b;
sum = a+ b;
cout<<"The sum of a and b = "<< sum;
return 0;
}

Question 4

Question:

Write a program to find the square of a number.

Solution: Forecasts
Real world Probability theory
#include<iostream> (The branch of
using namespace std; mathematics concerned
Data with the possibility of the
int main()
occurrence of events)
{
int a, b;
a=2; Rules of
b = a * a; inference
cout<<"The square of a = "<< b; Modeling

return 0;
}

1333
Question 5

Question:

Write a program to find the greatest of two numbers.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std; Code coverage: Number of lines of source code that is actually tested
int main()
Number of lines of source code that is actually tested
Code Coverage % = × 100
{ Total number of lines of source code

int a, b;
a = 2;
b = 3; Helps in
if(a>b)  Increasing the quality of source code

{  Elimination of bad, dead and unused code

cout<<"a is greater than b";

 High test coverage → A lower chance of containing unidentified software bugs
}
 Low test coverage → A higher chance of containing unidentified software bugs
else
{ If the software application we are testing contains a total of
cout<<"b is greater than a"; 500 lines of code and the number of lines of source code that is

} actually tested is 10, then the code coverage percentage of this

software application will be 2 percent.
return 0;
It means that 98% of the application source code is not
}
being tested at the moment

Code coverage is a measure of how much of application source code is

tested while test coverage is a measure of how well the software application

is tested when it comes to its requirements

1334
Question 6

Question:

Write a program to print the average of the elements in the array.

Solution:
Number of lines of source code increases
#include<iostream>
using namespace std; Code length increases
int main()
{
Execution time increases
int i, avg, sum = 0;
int num [5] = {16, 18, 20, 25, 36};
Code performance decreases
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
sum = sum + num [i];
avg = sum/5;
cout<<"Sum of the Elements in the array = "<< sum <<endl;
cout<<"Average of the elements in the array= "<< avg<<endl;
return 0;
}

Question 7

Question:

Write a program such that a Switch (case) allows to make a decision from the
number of choices, i.e., from the number of cases.

1335
Solution: Extreme Programming

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() Software development methodology
{
specifically designed to improve software
char ch;
quality and increase customer satisfaction by
cout<<"Enter any character:";
cin>>ch; allowing development team to respond to
switch(ch)
changing customer requirements
{
case 'R':
cout<<"Red";
break;
case 'W':
Fail Fast Philosophy
cout<<"White";
break;
case 'Y':
cout<<"Yellow"; If it is possible to learn from failure then the quickly
break; the failure occurs, the quickly the learning begins
case 'G':
cout<<"Green";
break;
default:
cout<<"Error"; Vertical scaling Horizontal scaling
break;
Increasing instance size Adding more instances
}
return 0;
}

Degauss:

A methodology for de-magnetizing computer monitors

1336
Question 8

cin>>M;
cout<<"ch= "<< M;

1339
return 0;
}

Question 12

Question:

Write a program to print the multiplication table of a number.

3 principles that every developer should be aware of:

Solution:
YAGNI Principle
#include<iostream> "You Aren't Gonna Need It"

using namespace std;

Implementation of only required functionalities
int main()
{ KISS Principle
int n, i; "Keep It Simple, Stupid"

cout<<"Enter any number:";

Avoid unnecessary complexity in the code
cin>>n;
for( i=1; i<=5; i++) DRY Principle
cout<< n <<" * "<< i <<" = "<< n*i <<endl; "Don't Repeat Yourself"
return 0;
Don't write the same code repeatedly
}

Value Proposition

A promise of value specified by a company that answers why customers should choose their
products or services

1340
Question 13

Question:

Write a program to print the product of the first 10 digits.

Solution: Blogosphere

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() All of the blogs or bloggers on the internet
{
int i, product = 1;
for( i=1; i<=10; i++)
product = product * i;
cout<<"The product of the first 10 digits = " << product;
return 0;
}

RSS
Question 14
(Rich Site Summary)

Question: An XML-based summary of a website

Write a program to print whether the given number is positive or negative.

Solution: Netizen: A user of the internet

1341
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
Bits-Per-Second
int main()
{
int a; A measure of the rate at which data is sent
a = -35; from one location to another
if(a>0)
{
cout<<"Number is positive";
}
CDMA
else
(Code Division Multiple Access)
{
cout<<"Number is negative";
}
return 0; A wireless data and voice communication protocol
}

Question 15

Question:

Write a program to check the equivalence of two numbers.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() Cyberspace: The entire set of information resources
{ accessible via computer networks
int x, y;
cout<<"Enter any number:";

1342
cin>>x;
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>>y; Imputation: The process of filling in
if(x-y==0)
missing data values in a dataset
{
cout<<"The two numbers are equivalent"; Devalue the performance of data

} analytics leading to a wrong prediction

else
{
cout<<"The two numbers are not equivalent";
}
return 0;
}

Question 16

Question:

Write a program to print the remainder of two numbers.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{ Data-directed decision making: The
int a, b, c; process of using data to support making
cout<<"Enter any number:"; crucial business decisions
cin>>a;
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>>b;

1343
c = a % b;
cout<<"The remainder of a and b = "<< c;
return 0;
}

Question 17

Question:

Write a program to print the given number is even or odd.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int a;
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>>a; Descriptive statistics Inferential statistics
if(a%2 = = 0)
{
cout<<"The number is even";
} Describe the data Generalize the data
else
{
cout<<"The number is odd";
}
return 0;
}

1344
Question 18

Question:

Write a program to print the characters from A to Z.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
Bounce rate:

{
char a = 'A'; The percentage of visitors to a website who
while (a<='Z') leave without browsing around
{
cout<<" \n"<< a++;
}
return 0;
}

Question 19

Question:

Write a program to find the incremented and decremented values of two

numbers.

1345
Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
• 1 Brontobyte = 1027 bytes
int main()
• 1 Yottabyte = 1024 bytes
{
• 1 Exabyte = 1018 bytes
int a, b, c, d, e, f; • 1 Zettabyte = 1021 bytes
a = 10; • 1 Terabyte = 1012 bytes
b=12; • 1 Petabyte = 1015 bytes
c=a+1; • 1 Gigabyte =109 bytes
d=b+1; • 1 Megabyte =106 bytes

e=a-1;
f=b-1;
cout<<"The incremented value of a = "<< c << endl;
cout<<"The incremented value of b = "<< d << endl;
cout<<"The decremented value of a = "<< e << endl;
cout<<"The decremented value of b = "<< f << endl;
return 0;
}

Question 20

Question:

Write a program to calculate the simple interest.

Solution:

#include<iostream>

1346
using namespace std;
int main()
{ Correlation analysis: A method of statistical data analysis
int P,T, R, SI;
that determines whether there is a negative or positive
cout<<"Enter principal amount:";
relationship between variables
cin>>P;
cout<<"Enter time:"; A correlation of + 0.9 indicates a strong positive relationship

cin>>T; between 2 variables − whereas a correlation of −0.2

cout<<"Enter rate of interest:"; indicates a weak negative relationship

cin>>R;
SI = P*T*R/100;
cout<<"the simple interest = "<<SI;
return 0;
}

Question 21

Question:

Write a program to Find the largest of three numbers.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() • Failover: Automatic workload transfer from a failed primary server to a backup

{ server

int a, b, c; • Failback: The process of returning back the work load to the primary server after

cout<<"Enter any number:"; the failure has been resolved

cin>>a;
cout<<"Enter any number:";

1347
cin>>b;
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>>c;
if(a>b&&a>c)
{ Global Positioning System
cout<< a<<" is greater than "<< b<<" and "<<c;
}
Location data: GPS data that describes a specific
else if (b>a&&b>c)
geographical location
{
cout<< b<<" is greater than "<< a <<" and "<<c;
}
else
{
cout<< c<<" is greater than "<< b<<" and "<< a;
}
return 0;
}

Question 22

Question:

Write a program to print the factorial of the entered number.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std; Multi-Dimensional Database: A database designed for data warehousing and online
int main() analytical processing applications that provide a multidimensional view of data
{
int i, n, fact=1 ;

1348
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>>n; Object Database: A database system in
for(i=1; i<=n; i++) which data is stored as objects
fact = fact *i;
cout<<"\n Entered number is: "<< n;
cout<<"\n The factorial of the entered number "<< n <<" is: "<< fact;
return 0;
}

Question 23

Question:

Write a program to print the length of the entered string.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
#include<string.h> Optimization analysis
using namespace std;
int main()
{ A method through which an enterprise organization improves the
char ch[4]; efficiency of a process by evaluating the optimization of the process

cout<<"Enter any word: "; under a variety of predefined constraints

cin>>ch;
cout<<"The length of the string = "<< strlen(ch);
return 0;
}

1349
Question 24

Question:

Write a program to print the ASCII value of the entered character.

Solution:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std; Data Efficient Learning: A kind of machine
int main() learning that is capable of understanding complex
{ challenges to draw logical conclusions without
char c; relying on enormous amounts of data
cout << "Enter a character: ";
cin >> c;
cout << "ASCII Value of " << c << " is " << int(c);
return 0;
}

Question 25

Question:

Write a program to check whether the entered character is a lower case letter or
not.

1350
Solution: Data Analysis

#include<iostream> Collect the Data → Analyze the Data → Visualize and share your findings
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char ch = 'a';
Decorators
if(islower(ch))
cout<<"you have entered the lower case letter";
else
Functions which modify the
cout<<"you have entered the upper case letter";
functionality of other functions
return 0;
}

Question 26

Question:

Write a program to check whether the entered character is a upper case letter or
not.

Solution: Data Infrastructure

#include<iostream> A collection of servers and networks that enable

using namespace std;  data consumption
int main()  data storage
{
 data sharing
char ch = 'a';
if(isupper(ch))
cout<<"you have entered the upper case letter";

1351
else
cout<<"you have entered the lower case letter";
return 0;
}

Question 27

Question:

Write a program to convert the lower case letter to upper case letter.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
Frame language: A technology used for
int main()
{
knowledge representation in AI

char ch = 'a';
char b = toupper(ch);
cout<<" lower case letter "<<ch<<" is converted to upper case letter "<<b;
return 0;
}

Eager Learning Lazy Learning

ML algorithm builds a model ML algorithm does not build a model

based on a training data before immediately after receiving the

receiving a test data training data rather waits until it

receives the test data

1352
Ebert test
Question 28

Question:
Whether a computer-based synthesized voice
Write a program to print the output:
can tell a joke with sufficient skill to make an
Einstein [0] = E
audience laugh
Einstein [1] = I

Einstein [2] = N

Einstein [3] = S
Existential risk
Einstein [4] = T
Einstein [5] = E
AI progress could someday result in human extinction or some other
Einstein [6] = I
irrecoverable global disaster
Einstein [7] = N

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std; Machine perception: The ability of a machine
int main() to simulate − the way that human beings perceive
{ the world around them
int i;
char name [8] = {'E' , 'I', 'N', 'S', 'T', 'E', 'I', 'N'};
for(i=0; i<8; i++)
cout<<"Einstein ["<< i <<" ] = "<< name[i] << endl;
return 0;
}

1353
Question 29 Error-driven learning

Question:

Write a program to print the output: The difference between the value

Name of the book = B predicted by ML model and the actual

Price of the book = 135.00 value is the prediction error and it is

Number of pages = 300 this error that drives learning

Edition of the book = 8

using structures.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
Intelligence Amplification: The effective use of AI
int main()
methods in enhancing human intelligence
{
struct book {
char name;
float price;
int pages; Machine vision
int edition;
};
struct book b1= {'B', 135.00, 300, 8};
The ability of a machine to
cout<<"Name of the book = "<< b1.name<< endl;
cout<<"Price of the book = "<< b1.price<<endl; identify and evaluate images
cout<<"Number of pages = "<< b1.pages<<endl;
cout<<"Edition of the book = "<< b1.edition<< endl;
return 0;
}

1354
Question 30

Question:

Write a program to find square of a number using functions.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int square();  Correlation → how strongly two variables are related

int main()  Covariance → how the two variables differ

{
int answer;
answer = square();
cout<<"Square of the given number = "<< answer;
return 0;
}
int square() Case-based reasoning: A method for solving a new
{ problem based on the solutions of similar past problems
int x;
cout<<"Enter any integer:";
cin>>x;
return x*x;
}

Blackboard system: AI application based on and similar to a gathering of specialists situated in a

room with a large blackboard functioning collectively to solve a common problem

1355
Question 31 Protheses: A mechanical device with computer assistance that
substitutes or enhances some basic human functionality

Question:

Write a program To print "hello world" 10 times.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
Merge/purge: The technique of combining

{ records from one or more data sources and

int i; deleting duplicate entries
for (i =1; i<=10; i ++)
cout<<"\n hello world";
return 0;
}

Question 32

Question:

Write a program to print first 5 numbers using do while loop statement.

Solution:

#include<iostream>

1356
using namespace std;
int main()
Merge/Purge Problem:
{
int i =1;
do
A common problem involves the merging of data from
{
numerous sources with different representations in the
cout<<" \n i= "<< i++;
most effective and efficient manner possible while
} while (i<=5);
improving the correctness of the outcome
return 0;
}

Question 33

Question:
Missing data Sparse data
Write a program to print the output:
A large number of data All of the data points are
body [b] = b
points are unknown known − but the majority of
body [o] = o
them have zero value
body [d] = d
body [y] = y

Solution:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
Machine Discovery
int main()
{ Automated processes that make an effort to

char i; find patterns or features in data

char body [4] = {'b', 'o', 'd', 'y'};

1357
for(i=0; i<4; i++)
cout<<"\n body ["<<body[i] <<" ] = "<< body[i] << endl;
return 0;
}

Question 34

Question:

What will be the output of the below program:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
 Class: A label assigned to a group of records sharing
{
similar characteristics
cout<<"linux\n";
exit (0);
 Epoch: The number of times a learning algorithm visits

cout<<"php\n"; a given training dataset

return 0;
}

Solution:

linux

1358
Question 35 Abduction: A form of reasoning where
assumptions are made to explain observations

Question:

Write a program to check whether a character is an alphabet or not.

Solution:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
Neural Machine Translation
{
int a =2;
if(isalpha(a))
{ The use of neural network
cout<<"The character a is an alphabet";
models to translate words
}
else from one language to

{ another
cout<<"The character a is not an alphabet";
}
return 0;
}

Open Mind Common Sense

AI project based at the MIT Media Lab whose aim is to build a large
commonsense knowledge base from the contributions of the general public
over the web
A database holding all the general
knowledge that most people possess

1359
Question 36

Question:

Write a program to calculate the discounted price and the total price after

discount
Given:

If purchase value is greater than 1000, 10% discount

If purchase value is greater than 5000, 20% discount

If purchase value is greater than 10000, 30% discount.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{ Rule-based AI
double PV;
cout<<"Enter purchased value:";
cin>>PV;
if(PV>1000)
A system created to achieve AI via a
{
cout<<"Discount = "<< PV* 0.1 << endl;
model merely based on predetermined

cout<<"Total= "<< PV - PV* 0.1 << endl; instructions encoded by humans

}
else if(PV>5000)
{
cout<<"Discount = "<< PV* 0.2 << endl;
cout<<"Total= "<< PV - PV* 0.2 << endl;
}
else

1360
{
cout<<"Discount = "<< PV* 0.3 << endl;
cout<<"Total= "<< PV - PV* 0.3 << endl;
}
return 0;
}

Question 37

Question:

Write a program to print the first ten natural numbers using while loop statement.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() nouvelle AI

{
int i = 1;
while (i<=10) A sub field of AI that aims to produce robots
{ with intelligence levels alike insects
cout<<"\n "<< i++;
}
return 0;
}

Data Stewardship:
The process of guaranteeing an Enterprise organization's information is

accessible, usable, safe and credible

1361
Question 38 Symbolic AI: The clear embedding of human knowledge and
behavior rules into computer programs

Question:

What will be the output of the below program:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() Model checking: The method of checking whether
{
the model meets a given specification
int i;
for (i=1; i<=5; i++)
Self-management
{
if (i==3)
{ The process by which machines
continue;
manage their own operations
}
cout<<"\n "<< i; without human intercession
}
return 0;
}

Swarm intelligence: Biologically-inspired AI based on the behavioral

Solution: models of a large or dense group of flying insects

1
2
4
5

1362
Machine vision
Question

Question: The ability of a machine to identify and

evaluate images
Write a program to find the size of an array.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
#include <iostream>
int main() {
using namespace std;
int num [] = {11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66};
int n; int main() {
n = sizeof(num) / sizeof(num[0]); int a = 25; // Now a is 25
cout<<"Size of the array is:"<<n; a = 50; // Now a is 50

return 0; cout << a;

return 0;
}
}
Assigning a new value
#include <iostream>
Output: to an existing value
using namespace std;
50
int main() {

// single-line comment before a line of code

cout << "Albert"<<endl;

/* Multi-line

Comment */

cout << "Einstein"<<endl; // single-line comment at the end of a line of code

return 0;

Recommendation system

Information filtering system aimed at predicting what the users may like (based on
their previous activity or explicit feedback) and recommend products or services
that quite likely are interesting for them

1363
Question
1364

Question:

What would be the output of the following programs:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
Reasoning system
int main()
{
int i;
for (i=1; i<=5; i++) AI system that draws conclusions from available
{ knowledge using logical techniques such as
if (i==3) deduction and induction
{
break; idea → observation observation → idea
}
cout<<"\n "<< i;
}
return 0;
}

Solution:

1
2

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
Data Relevancy: The degree to
int age;
which the content of data is helpful
age=20;
for the goal for which it is gathered
if(age > = 60)
{
cout<<"Senior citizen";
}
if(age<60)
{
cout<<"Not a senior citizen";

1368
}
return 0;
}

Question 42

Question: Pandas: An open-source software library

written for the Python programming language −
Write a program to compute inverse of tan x. used for manipulation and analysis of data

Solution:

#include<iostream>
#include<math.h>
using namespace std; Timeliness of data: The information is
int main() available and accessible when required
{
int x = 20;
cout<<"Inverse of tan x = "<< atan(x); #include <iostream>
return 0; using namespace std;
} int main() {
int x = 2, y = 3;
double i;
i = (double)x/y;

Question 43 cout << i << endl;

return 0;
}
Question: // Output: 0.666667

Write a program to find the highest value of 2 numbers

1369
#include <iostream>
Solution: using namespace std;
int main() {
#include <iostream> string x, a("Alan"), b(" "), c("Turing");
using namespace std; x = a + b + c;
cout<<x;
int main() { return 0;
cout << max(25, 20); }
return 0;
} // Output: Alan Turing

Personality Insights
Question 44

Individual personality characteristics, needs, and philosophies can

Question: be predicted by analyzing email, social posts, etc.

Write a program to find the lowest value of 2 numbers

#include <iostream>
Solution:
using namespace std;
#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>
int main() {
using namespace std;
cout << min(25, 20);
return 0; Output:
int main() {
} cout << sqrt(4) << "\n";
2

cout << round(5.8) << "\n"; 6

Longitudinal Study: cout << log(1) << "\n"; 0

return 0;
An observational research design in
}
which the same variables are
examined repeatedly over a short or
long period of time

1370
Question 45
 x += 5; is equivalent to x = x + 5;
 x *= y + 4; is equivalent to x = x * (y+4);
Question:

Write a program to call a function multiple times

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
void myFunc() {
int main() {
cout << "Albert\n";
cout.put('A');
}
return 0;
}
int main() {
myFunc();
myFunc(); // Output: A

myFunc();
return 0;
}

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
cout << "\nAlbert Einstein\t was a\n\t\t"
"German \"born\" theoretical physicist.\n";
return 0;
}

Output:

Albert Einstein was a

German "born" theoretical physicist.

1371
#include <iostream>
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
using namespace std;
int main() {
int main() {
double b = 15.569635;
double b = 15.569635;
cout.precision(4);
cout.precision(3);
cout << " " << b;
cout << " " << b;
return 0;
return 0;
}
}

// Output: 15.57
// Output: 15.6

#include <iostream>
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
#include <iomanip>
using namespace std;
using namespace std;
int main() {
int main() {
double b = 15.569635;
double b = 15.569635;
cout << setprecision(4) << b;
cout << setprecision(3) << b;
return 0;
return 0;
}
}

// Output: 15.57
// Output: 15.6

#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
using namespace std;
int main() {
int main() {
cout << setfill('*') << setw(4) << 15 <<endl;
float x(7.0);
cout << setfill('*') << setw(6) << 15 <<endl;
cout << x++ - 15.0/3.0;
return 0;
return 0;
}
}
// Output: 2
// Output:
**15
****15

1372
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
using namespace std;
int main() {
string x("Albert");
cout << right << setfill('?') << setw(12) << x;
return 0;
}
#include <iostream>
// Output: ??????Albert using namespace std;
int main() {
string x("AL"), y("BERT");
#include <iostream>
x += y;
#include <iomanip>
cout<<x;
using namespace std;
return 0;
int main() {
}
string x("Albert");
cout << left << setfill('?') << setw(12) << x;
// Output: ALBERT
return 0;
}

// Output: Albert??????

#include <iostream>
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
using namespace std;
int main() {
int main() {
int x(24), y(73);
int x = -16;
cout << x++ << endl; // Output: 24
cout << -x;
cout << x << endl; // Output: 25
return 0;
cout << y-- << endl; // Output: 73
}
cout << --y << endl; // Output: 71
// Output: 16
return 0;

1373
#include <iostream> #include <iostream>
using namespace std; using namespace std;
int main() { int main() {
int x = 0; int x = 0;
while( x < 5) while( x < 5)
cout << ++x << endl; cout << x++ << endl;
return 0; return 0;
} }

// Output: // Output:
1 0
2 1
3 2
4 3
5 4

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x = 3;
#include <iostream>
for (int i = -6; i < x; i++)
using namespace std;
cout << i << endl;
int x = 0;
return 0;
} namespace Special { int x = 50; }

int main() {
// Output:
cout << x << endl; // Output: 0
-6
cout << ++ ::x << endl; // Output: 1
-5
cout << -- ::x << endl; // Output: 0
-4
-3 cout << Special::x * 4 << endl; // Output: 200

-2 return 0;
-1
}
0
1
2

1374
#include <iostream>
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
#include <list>
int main() { using namespace std;
int main(){
string x( 5, '+');
list<int> x = { 100, 200, 300, 400, 500 };
cout<< x;
cout<<"First element in the list is: "<< x.front() << endl;
return 0; cout<<"Last element in the list is: "<< x.back() << endl;
return 0;
}
}
// Output: +++++

// Output:
First element in the list is: 100

Last element in the list is: 500

#include <iostream>
#include <list>
using namespace std;

Image restoration: The method of

int main() {
getting a high quality image from a
list<int> x{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };
corrupted image
for (auto i = x.begin(); i != x.end(); ++i)
cout << ' ' << *i;
return 0;
}

// Output: 1 2 3 4 5

Computer Vision:

A branch of AI that deals with enabling machines to visualize, identify and derive meaningful

information from images and videos in the same way that a human being does

1375
Goodness of Fit
Dummy variable:

A variable that takes values of 0 and 1, where

0 indicate the absence of something and 1

How well a set of actual values match those
indicate presence of something
predicted by the ML model

#include <iostream>
Amdahl's law:

#include <list> Execution time without enhancement

Speedup =
using namespace std; Execution time with enhancement

int main() { Tells us how much faster a task will be

completed using the enhanced machine
list<int> x{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };
over the original machine
for (auto i = x.begin(); i != x.end(); ++i)
cout << ' ' << *i; // 1 2 3 4 5

x.remove(2);
cout<<'\n';
for (auto i = x.begin(); i != x.end(); ++i)
cout << ' ' << *i; // 1 3 4 5
return 0;
}

// Output:
1 2 3 4 5

1 3 4 5

Frequentist Statistics:

An statistical approach that tests whether an event occurs or not

Predicate Calculus

A formal logical framework for displaying and reasoning with logical statements

1376
#include <iostream>
using namespace std; #include <iostream>
using namespace std;
void message()
{ int main()
cout << "Albert Einstein is waiting." << endl; {
} int x[] = { 20, 40, 60, 80 };
int main(){
message(); for (int i : x)
return(0); cout<< i <<" ";
}

}
// Output: Albert Einstein is waiting.

// Output: 20 40 60 80

Question 46

Question:

Write a program to check if the vector container is empty or not.

#include <iostream>
#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
using namespace std;
using namespace std;

int main()
int main() {
{
vector<int> x{11, 12, 13, 14, 15};
int x[] = { 20, 40, 60, 80 };
if (x.empty()) {
cout << "True";
for (auto i : x)
}
cout<< i <<" ";
else {
cout << "False";
}
}
return 0;
// Output: 20 40 60 80
} Output: False

1377
#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
using namespace std; #include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() { #define concat(x, y) x ## y
vector<int> x{};
if (x.empty()) { int main() {
cout << "True"; int ab = 125;
}
else { cout << concat(a, b);
cout << "False"; return 0;
} }
return 0;
} // Output: 125

// Output: True

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main () {
cout << __LINE__ << endl; // Line number: 4
cout << __FILE__ << endl; // File name: main.cpp
cout << __DATE__ << endl; // Date: Jul 20 2022
cout << __TIME__ << endl; // Time: 16:58:55
return 0;
}

Neuromorphic chip: A kind of computer chip that imitate closely in an uncomplicated

way how neurons and neurotransmitters work in the human cerebrum

AI Adoption:

The ability of an enterprise organization to effectively adopt AI in its

business cycle to tackle issues and accomplish objectives

1378
Question 47

Question:

Write a program to demonstrate multiple cases with unique labels

Solution:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

Soft Robotics: A branch of robotics that

int main() {
concentrates on advanced technologies that is
char x='c';
more physically similar to the physical
switch(x) {
case 'a':
characteristics of living organisms

case 'b':
cout<<"Albert Einstein\n";
break;
P-hacking: The inappropriate

case 'c': usage of information that yields

case 'd': misleading statistical results

cout<<"Max Born\n";
break;

Data Exhaust:
default: cout<<"Wolfgang Pauli\n";
break; The unstructured data generated as a
} byproduct of the online activities of internet
return 0;
users. For Example: cookies, log files and
temporary internet files are generated and
}
deposited by web browsers and their plugin in
the user's computer
// Output: Max Born

1379
#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;

int main() {
vector<string> i{ "Albert",
// Output:
"James",
"Alan"}; Albert
James
for (const auto& b : i) { Alan
cout << b << '\n';
}
return 0;
}

extern "C" {
int printf(const char* format, ...);
#include <iostream>
}

int main(int argc, char* argv[]) {

int main() {
std::cout << "Albert Einstein";
printf("Albert Einstein");
return 0;
return 0;
}
}

// Output: Albert Einstein

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
do{ Infinite Loop
cout << "Hi....\n";
} while(1);
return 0;
}

1380
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
char ch;
cout << "Please enter a character: ";
cin >> ch;
cout <<"Integer equivalent of " << ch << " is: " << static_cast<int>(ch) << endl;
return 0;
}

// Output:
Please enter a character: A # entered character
Integer equivalent of A is: 65

#include <iostream>
using namespace std; // Output:
int main() {
????
int i = 1;
while (i <= 6) { #######

cout << (i % 2 ? "????" : "#######") << endl; ????

++i; #######
} ????
return 0; #######
}

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int a = 5, b = 15;
if (a < 12) {
if (b > 12) // Output:
cout << "??????" << endl;
} ??????
else {
cout << "********" << endl;
cout << "#######" << endl;
}
return 0;
}

1381
Question 48 • Qualitative Data: Data that can be described, categorized and expressed in terms of

descriptive words rather than numerical values

Question: • Quantitative Data: Data that can be measured, counted and easily expressed using numbers

Write a program to Access Elements of an Array Using Pointer

#include <iostream>

Solution: using namespace std;

int main() {
int x =6;
#include <iostream>
switch (x % 2) {
using namespace std;
case 0:
int main() { cout << "x is even" << endl;
int x[3]; break;
cout << "Enter any three numbers: " << endl; case 1:
for(int i = 0; i < 3; ++i) cout << "x is odd" << endl;

cin >> x[i]; break;

cout << "You entered: "; }

return 0;
for(int i = 0; i < 3; ++i)
}
cout << endl << *(x + i);
return 0;
// Output: x is even
}

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int b = 28, a =25;
if (b == 28) // Output:
if (a == 25) {
cout << "+++++++\n"; } +++++++
else {
*******
cout << "-------\n";
} @#@#$$$$
cout << "*******\n";
cout << "@#@#$$$$\n";
return 0;
}

1382
// C++ program print the sum of the odd numbers from 1 to 25

#include<iostream>
Data generalization: The process of deriving
using namespace std;
conclusions from a small amount of data

int main() {
int n, x, sum = 0;

cout << "\n Please enter a number = ";

cin >> x;

cout <<"\n Odd numbers between 1 and " << x << " is: ";
for(n = 1; n <= x; n++){
if ( n % 2 != 0 ) {
cout << n << " ";
sum = sum + n;
}
}

cout << "\n The sum of the odd numbers from 1 to " << x << " = " << sum;

return 0;
}

// Output:

Please enter a number = 25 # entered number

Odd numbers between 1 and 25 is: 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
The sum of the odd numbers from 1 to 25 = 169

Data Profiling: The process of evaluating, exploring, analyzing, reviewing the data

available from an existing information source and producing useful summaries of data to

acquire understanding into the quality of data

1383
#include<iostream>
using namespace std; // Output:

Please enter a string: ALAN # entered string

int main() {
ASCII value of A : 65
int i, sum = 0;
ASCII value of L : 76
char ch[20];
ASCII value of A : 65
ASCII value of N : 78
cout << "Please enter a string: ";
The sum of all ASCII values: 284
cin.getline(ch, 20);

for(i = 0; ch[i] != '\0'; i++) {

cout << "\n ASCII value of "<< ch[i] << " : " << (int)ch[i];
sum = sum + ch[i];
}

cout << "\n The sum of all ASCII values: " << sum;

return 0;
}

Traditional Machine Learning:

Input → Feature extraction → Classification → Output

Deep Learning:

Input → (Feature extraction + Classification) → Output

Python code:
Multithreading: A method of simultaneously handling

for a in range(5): multiple requests from the same user

x=0
x=x+a Long Polling: A web application development strategy for
print(x) # Output: 4 pushing data as soon as possible from servers to clients

1384
CORS Utterance:
(Cross-Origin Resource Sharing): Any human user's input into a Chabot

An HTTP-header based method that allows

Everything as a Service:
regulated access to resources outside of a
specific domain
The delivery of a wide variety of software

Analogical reasoning: applications, tools and technologies to the users as a

service via the internet whenever they need them
2 things are compared and conclusions are made
based on their similarities or dissimilarities

Java Exercises
Admissibility: An algorithm's ability
to always discover the best solution

Question 1
Handwriting Recognition: A computer machine's

Question: capability to receive and translate handwritten letters

or words into a format that it recognizes

Write a program to print Hello World!.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
Linguistic intelligence: The ability to effectively use
System.out.println("Hello, World!");
and interpret spoken and written language
}
}

1385
Question 2 Logical mathematical intelligence: The ability to
think logically about problems and solve them using
logical and mathematical methods
Question:

Write a program to find the area of a circle.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

Episodic Learning: Learning by
public static void main (String [] args) {
int r, area;
recalling sequences of witnessed or

r = 2; experienced events
area = 3.14 * r * r;
System.out.println("The area of the circle = " + area);
}
}

Question 3

Question:

Write a program to find the sum of two numbers.

Observational Learning: Learning

Solution:
by observing and mimicking others
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String [] args) {

1386
int a, b, sum;
a=1;
b=2;
C++ Program:
sum = a + b;
System.out.println("The sum of a and b = " + sum); #include <iostream>
} using namespace std;
} int main() {
string x("Alan "),y("Turing");
cout << x + y << endl;
// Output: Alan Turing
x += y;
cout <<x << endl;
// Output: Alan Turing
Question 4 x += "!";
cout <<x;
// Output: Alan Turing!
Question: return 0;
}

Write a program to find the square of a number.

Solution: The null hypothesis

A theoretical hypothesis based on incomplete
public class MyClass {
proof − which requires further testing to pr ove
public static void main(String [] args) {
whether it is true or false
int a, b;
a=2;
b = a * a;
System.out.println("The square of a = " + b);
}
}

Cognitive Computing: Simulating human

Cognitive System: A system that can
thought processes in machines to make
demonstrate the behavior of a human brain
decisions and solve complex problems

1387
# Python code to print the minimum and maximum values present in a tuple
Question 5
tuple=(4,5,6,7,8)
Output on the screen:
4
print(min(tuple))
8
Question: print(max(tuple))

Write a program to find the greatest of two numbers.

Solution: #include <bits/stdc++.h>

using namespace std;
public class MyClass {
int main() {
public static void main(String [] args) {
array<int, 5> x = { 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 };
int a, b; cout << "The element at index 3 is: " << x.at(3) << endl;
a=2; // Output: The element at index 3 is: 14

b =3; cout << "The element at index 3 is: " << x[3] << endl;
// Output: The element at index 3 is: 14
if(a>b)
return 0;
{
}
System.out.println("a is greater than b");
} x.at(i) is equivalent to x[i]
else
{
System.out.println("b is greater than a");
}
}
}

Question 6

Question:

Write a program to print the average of the elements in the array.

1388
Solution:

their squares and cubes.

1392
Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {
int i;
for( i=1; i<=10; i++)

System.out.println(" \n number = " + i + " its square = " + i*i + " its cube = " +i*i*i);
}

Question 10

Question: # Python code to reverse the string

# Python code to print a 2*2 Numpy array with only zeroes

Question 16 import numpy as np

a=np.zeros((2,2))
Output on the screen:
print(a)
[[0. 0.]
Question: [0. 0.]]

Write a program to print the given number is even or odd.

1396
Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String [] args) {
int a;
Thrashing:
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter a number: "); A situation in which there are a lot of paging operations
a = scan.nextInt();
if(a%2 == 0)
{
System.out.println("The number is even"); A storage technique that allows the operating system to fetch
} processes in the form of pages from secondary storage and
else store them in the main memory
{
System.out.println("The number is odd");
}
}
}

Question 17 Bug leakage: The testing team is ignorant

of the bug during testing, which is later
found by the customer or end-user
Question:

Write a program to print the characters from A to Z.

Bug Release:
Solution:
With the understanding that a bug exists, a software
public class MyClass { application is delivered to the testing team

1397
Mean Substitution:

public static void main(String [] args) { The method of replacing missing values with
char a; mean of other available values
for( a='A'; a<='Z'; a++)
System.out.println("\n " + a);
}
} #include <iostream> #include <iostream>
using namespace std; using namespace std;
int main() { int main() {
string x("Albert"); string x("Albert");
x.erase(3); x.insert(3, "Mary");
cout<<x; // Output: Alb cout<<x; // Output: AlbMaryert

Question 18 return 0; return 0;

} }

Question:

Write a program to find the incremented and decremented values of two

numbers.

Dispersion: The spread of data

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
int a, b, c, d, e, f;
a = 10;
b=12; Translational invariance
c=a+1;
The ability of a algorithm to successfully
d=b+1;
e=a-1; classify images even when the position
f=b-1; of objects within the image changes
System.out.print("The incremented value of a = "+ c);
System.out.print("The incremented value of b = "+ d);
System.out.print("The decremented value of a = "+ e);
System.out.print("The decremented value of b = "+ f);
}

1398
}

#include <iostream>
Question 19 using namespace std;
int main() {
string x("Albert Einstein");
Question: x.erase(2,4);
cout<<x; // Output: Al Einstein

Write a program to calculate the simple interest. return 0;

}

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
Autoencoders
int P,T, R, SI;
P = 1000;
Simple learning networks that target to transform
T = 2;
inputs into outputs with the minimum possible error
R = 3;
SI = P*T*R/100;
System.out.println("The simple interest = " + SI);
}
}

Naive Bayes theorem:

Question 20
Likelihood ∗Prior probability
Posterior probability =
evidence
Question:

Write a program to Find the largest of three numbers.

1399
Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String [] args) {
int a, b, c;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter any number:");
a = scan.nextInt();
System.out.println("Enter any number:");
b = scan.nextInt(); Data Ecosystem: A platform
System.out.println("Enter any number:"); that collect, analyze and store data
c = scan.nextInt();
if(a>b&&a>c)
{
System.out.println("a is greater than b and c");
}
else if(b>a&&b>c)
Data Hygiene: The process of ensuring
{
that an enterprise organization has error-free,
System.out.println("b is greater than a and c");
updated, consistent and accurate data
}
else
{
System.out.println("c is greater than b and a");
}
}
}

BYOD

(Bring Your Own Device)

A policy that allows employees in an enterprise organization to use their personal smartphones,
laptops and tablets to access enterprise data from anywhere

1400
Question 21 Crystal Methodology: An agile software development strategy
that prioritizes individuals and their interactions rather than
techniques and methodologies when working on a project
Question:

Write a program to print the factorial of the entered number.

Product quality Identify how well a product fits client

Solution: requirements, fulfils its objective, and complies

with industry benchmarks

import java.util.Scanner; Process quality Identify inefficiencies in the production process

that result in bad products
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String []args){ Usability How simple the software application is to use
or manage
int i, n, fact=1 ;
Portability The ability of a software application to run on
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
different operating systems
System.out.println("Enter any number:");
User View How successfully the software application
n = scan.nextInt();
meets the user's requirements
for(i = 1; i <= n; i++) Value-based View How many customers are ready to buy the
{ software application
fact = fact * i;
}
System.out.println("Factorial of " + n + " is: " + fact);
}
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
}
'A' 'l' 'b' 'e' 'r' 't' '' 'i' 's' '' 'a' '' 't' 'e' 'c' 'h' 'i' 'e'

#include <iostream>

Question 22 using namespace std;

int main() {
string x("Albert is a techie");

Question: int first = x.find("tec");

cout<<first;
// Output: 12
Write a program to print the length of the entered string. return 0;
}

1401
Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass { Control program: A computer
public static void main(String[] args) { program that controls and manages
String a; the operation of a computer
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("Enter Your Name : ");
a = scan.nextLine();
System.out.println("The length of the String is: " + a.length());
}
}

Question 23

Question: Commerce service provider: An organization that

provides businesses with application tools to enable
Write a program to print the output: them sell their services and products to customers all
over the world over the internet.
Einstein [0] = E

Einstein [1] = I
Einstein [2] = N
Einstein [3] = S Compile time

Einstein [4] = T

Einstein [5] = E
The time it takes for a computer program to be built
Einstein [6] = I into an executable file
Einstein [7] = N

1402
Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception{
int i; Data communication: The
char [] num = {'E' , 'I', 'N', 'S', 'T', 'E', 'I', 'N'}; transmission of data through the
for(i=0; i<8; i++) internet between a source and a
System.out.println("Einstein [" + i + " ] = " + num[i]); recipient
}
}

A brute force attack: A cryptographic attack that

use a trial-and-error method to guess all possible

Question 24 combinations until the user passwords, login details,

cryptographic keys and PINs are revealed

Question:

Write a program to find square of a number using method.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {
Concurrent server: A server that can
public static void main(String[] args) {
handle multiple clients at once
int x;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter a number: ");
x = scan.nextInt();
System.out.println("Square of the number = " + square (x));
}
public static int square (int x){
return x*x;
}

1403
}

Question 25

Question: Data check: An operational activity

that verifies the quality, correctness,

Write a program To print "hello world" 10 times. completeness and consistency of data

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
Connectivity: A device's capacity
int i;
to be connected to other devices
for (i =1; i<=10; i ++)
System.out.println("\n hello world");
}
}

Question 26

Question:

Write a program to print first 5 numbers using do while loop statement.

Solution:

1404
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String [] args) {
int i =1;
Cryptographic algorithm: A collection
do
of rules describing the mathematical steps
{
needed to encrypt and decrypt
System.out.println(" \n " + i++);
} while (i<=5);
information

}
}

Question 27

Question:
Cryptography

Write a program to print the output:

body [b] = b
A branch of computer science concerned with
body [o] = o
converting information into formats that cannot
body [d] = d be identified by unauthorized users
body [y] = y

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception{
int i;
char [] body = {'b', 'o', 'd', 'y'};
for(i=0; i<4; i++)
System.out.println("body [" + body [i] + " ] = " + body [i]);
}

1405
}

Question 28

Question:

Write a program to print the first ten natural numbers using while loop statement.

Data Science Operationalization

Solution:

public class MyClass {

Moving data science models into production
public static void main(String [] args) {
int i = 1; and then managing them
while (i<=10)
{
System.out.println("\n " + i++);
}
}  Low bias machine learning algorithms include: Decision Trees, k-nearest neighbors, Support Vector Machine

}  High bias machine learning algorithms include: Linear Regression and Logistic Regression

Question 29

Question: Data Screening

What will be the output of the below program:

Checking data for errors and

fixing the errors

1406
Data Strategy
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String []args) {
The method of defining how to collect, store,
int i;
manage, share and use data in support of business
for (i=1; i<=5; i++) {
and technology objectives
if (i==3) {
continue;
}
System.out.println("" + i);
}
} • Interpolation → Predicting values that are inside the range of data taken (Reliable)
} • Extrapolation → Predicting values that are outside the range of data taken (Unreliable)

Solution: Data verification Data validation

Ensure that the data is accurate Ensure that the data is correct
1
2
4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5 'H' 'i' ' ' 'A' 'l' 'b' 'e' 'r' 't' '!'

'A' 'l' 'a' 'n'

Question 30
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
Question: int main() {
string x("Hi Albert!"),
Write a program to find the size of an array. y("Alan");
x.replace(3, 6, y);
cout<< x; // Output: Hi Alan!
return 0;

Solution: }

1407
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int num [] = {11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66};
System.out.println("Size of the array is: " + num.length);
}
} 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
'A' 'l' 'b' 'e' 'r' 't' '' 'J' 'o' 'h' 'n'

Question 31 The string y replaces 4 characters,

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
"John", starting at position 7 in the
int main() {
string x. After this operation x
Question: contains the string "Albert Einstein"
string x("Albert John"),
y("Einstein");
int i = x.find("John");
What would be the output of the following programs: if( i != string::npos )
x.replace(i, 4, y);
cout<<x;
// Output: Albert Einstein
return 0;
public class MyClass {
}
public static void main(String []args) {
int i;
for (i=1; i<=5; i++) {
if (i==3) {
Data aggregation Data disaggregation

break; The process of gathering and The process of breaking down the
} combing data from various sources aggregated data into smaller units
System.out.println("" + i); and presenting it as a whole for of data to elucidate trends and
} statistical analysis patterns that are masked by
} aggregated data
}

Data Aggregation: Collect the data → Process the data → Present the data
Solution:

1
2

1408
Denial-of-Service: A malicious attempt in which
public class MyClass { the perpetrator bring a system or network to a halt,
public static void main(String [] args) { making it unavailable to its intended users
int x = 2;
System.out.println(" Square of a number = " + Math.pow((x), 2));
#include <iostream>
}
using namespace std;
}
int main() {
string x = "Alberg";
x[x.length() -1] = 't';
cout<<x;

Solution: // Output: Albert

return 0;

Square of a number = 4.0 }

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) { Timeboxing: A time management
int i = 54;
approach for limiting the amount
int y = i<<1;
of time spent on a task
System.out.println("The value of y = " + y);
}
}

Solution:

The value of y = 108

Application security: The process of preventing

public class MyClass {
public static void main(String [] args) { harmful attacks on software applications

int i = 54;

1409
int y = i>>1;
System.out.println("The value of y = " + y); Network security: the technique for
} protecting a computer network from
} unauthorized access and malicious attacks

Solution:

The value of y = 27

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass { Clickjacking: A malicious technique of scamming website

public static void main(String [] args) { visitors to click on user interface components that perform

String m; operations on another website. For example: A website that offers an

outstanding prize may entice a user. When a user clicks a button to accept
Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
a prize, their click is instead used to make an e-commerce purchase
System.out.print("Enter the name: ");
m = in.nextLine();
System.out.println("The name you entered = " + m);
}
}

Solution: Identity management: The procedure by which an

Question 34 cout<< endl;

cout<< !((a < 6) || (b >= 8)); // Output: 1
return 0;

Question: }

Write a program to Swap Two Numbers.

Inconsistency management
Solution:

public class MyClass {

• Recognize inconsistency
public static void main(String[] args) {
• Manage inconsistency

1413
float first = 12.0f, second = 24.5f;

System.out.println("Before swap:");
System.out.println("First number = " + first);
System.out.println("Second number = " + second);

Shoulder surfing: An unlawful action in which one individual

first = first - second;
monitors the screen and keyboard of another person's computer or
second = first + second;
mobile device in order to gather sensitive information
first = second - first;

System.out.println("After swap:");

System.out.println("First number = " + first);

System.out.println("Second number = " + second);
}
} #include <iostream>
using namespace std;
#include <iostream> int main() {
using namespace std; int a = 6, b = 2, c = 3, d = 11;
int main() { cout<< !((a <= 9) && (b > 5)); // Output: 1
int x = 5, y = 5, z = 7; cout << endl;
cout<< !(x == y) || !(z != 7); // Output: 0 cout<< !((a <= 9) || (b > 5)); // Output: 0
cout<< endl; cout << endl;
cout<< !((x == y) && (z != 7)); // Output: 1 cout<< !((c > 5) || (d <= 7)); // Output: 1
return 0; cout << endl;
} cout<< !((c > 5) && (d <= 7)); // Output: 1
return 0;
}
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) { public class MyClass {
String a = "52"; public static void main(String[] args) {
int b = 20; int a = 20, b =19;
String c = a + b;
System.out.println(c); // returns true because the value of a is equal to 20

} System.out.println(a == 20); // Output: true

}
// returns true, because 20 is greater than 19
System.out.println(a > b); // Output: true
// Output: 5220
}
}

1414
Question 35

Question:

Write a program to remove All Whitespaces from a String.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String x = "A lbert Ei n ste in";
System.out.println(x);
x = x.replaceAll("\\s", "");
System.out.println(x);
}
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x =6;
System.out.printf("%d + %d%d + %d%d%d\n", x, x, x, x, x, x);
}
}
// Java program to display the Current Date time

// Output: 6 + 66 + 666 public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.format("%tc%n", System.currentTimeMillis());
}
} // Output: Sun Jul 24 08:59:05 GMT 2022

1415
import java.util.*;

public class MyClass {

System.out.println("\n");

System.out.println("\n Numbers divisible by 4: ");

for (int x=1; x<50; x++) {
if (x%4==0) System.out.print(x + " ");
}

System.out.println("\n");

System.out.println("\n Numbers divisible by 2 and 4: ");

for (int x=1; x<50; x++) {
if (x%2==0 && x%4==0) System.out.print(x + " ");
}
System.out.println("\n");
}
}

1418
Question 39

Question:

Write a program to Count Number of Digits in an Integer.

public class MyClass {

Solution:
public static void my2(int... i) {
System.out.println("Albert");
public class MyClass {
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
public static void main(String[] args) {
my2();

int i = 0, x = 5496; my2(1);

// Output:
my2(1,2,3);

while(x != 0) { }
Albert
}
x /= 10;
Albert
++i;
Albert
}

System.out.println("Number of digits: " + i);

}
}

// Java program to print the first half of a string of even length

import java.lang.*;

// Output:
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Eins
String x = "Einstein";
System.out.println(x.substring(0, x.length()/2));
}
}

1419
Question 40 public class MyClass {
static {
System.out.println("Albert Einstein");
Question: }
public static void main(String[] args) {

Write a program to compare two strings. System.out.println("Alan Turing");

}
}

// Output:

Solution: Albert Einstein

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x=0;
do { // Output:
System.out.println("Alan");
Alan
}
Albert
while (false);
System.out.println("Albert");
}
}

public class MyClass {

public class MyClass {
static int i=50;
static int i=50;
public static void main(String[] args) { public static void main(String[] args) {
MyClass x = new MyClass();
System.out.println(MyClass.i);
System.out.println(x.i);
}
}
} }

// Output: 50
// Output: 50

1424
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) { // Output:
int[] x={1,2,3,4};
1
for(int y:x) {
2
System.out.println(y);
3
}
4
}
}

public class MyClass {

public class MyClass { public static void main(String[] args) {

public static void main(String[] args) { StringBuffer x=new StringBuffer("Albert");

int[] x=new int[3]; System.out.println(x.deleteCharAt(1));

x[0]=5; // Output: Abert

x[1]=10; }

x[2]=15; }

// prints the length of the array

System.out.println(x.length); // Output: 3

for (int a=0;a<x.length;a++ ) { import static java.lang.System.*;

System.out.println(x[a]); public class Main {
} public static void main(String[] args) {
// Output: out.println("Alan Turing");
// 5 }
// 10 }
// 15 // Output: Alan Turing
}
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String x[]={"Alan", "Mathison", "Turing"}; // Output:

for(String i : x) { Alan
System.out.println(i); Mathison
} Turing
}
}

1425
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
char[] x={'A','J','o','h','n','l','b'}; public class MyClass {
String y=new String(x,1,4); public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(y); StringBuffer x=new StringBuffer("Albert");
} System.out.println(x.delete(1,4));
} // Output: Art
}
// Output: John }

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) { Character ASCII code
byte[] x={97,98,99,100,101,102}; a 97

String y=new String(x,2,4); b 98

c 99
System.out.println(y);
d 100
}
e 101
} f 102

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Albert Einstein"); // Output:
System.exit(0);
System.out.println(500/0); Albert Einstein
}
}

1427
import java.util.*;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Stack x=new Stack();
x.push("Einsteinian"); // Output:

x.push(1905);
x.push("Papers"); [Einsteinian, 1905, Papers]

System.out.println(x);
}
}

import java.util.*;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
HashSet x=new HashSet();
// Output:
x.add("Albert");
x.add("Papers");
[null, 1905, Papers, Albert]
x.add(1905);
x.add(null);
System.out.println(x);
}
}

import java.util.*;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
HashSet x=new HashSet();
x.add("Albert");
x.add("Albert");
x.add("Papers"); // Output:
x.add(1905);
x.add(1905); [null, 1905, Papers, Albert]
x.add(null);
System.out.println(x);
}
}

1428
import java.util.*;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
TreeSet x=new TreeSet();
x.add(35);
x.add(15);
x.add(25);
x.add(10);
x.add(30);

System.out.println(x); // Output: [10, 15, 25, 30, 35]

SortedSet a=x.headSet(35);
System.out.println(a); // Output: [10, 15, 25, 30]

SortedSet b=x.tailSet(25);
System.out.println(b); // Output: [25, 30, 35]

SortedSet c=x.subSet(15,35);
System.out.println(c); // Output: [15, 25, 30]

}
}

import java.util.*;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

HashMap x=new HashMap();

x.put("Albert", 1978);

x.put("John", 1965);
// Output:
x.put("James", 1945);
{James=1945, John=1965, Albert=1978}
System.out.println(x);

1429
import java.util.*;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Hashtable x=new Hashtable();

x.put("Albert", 1978);

x.put("John", 1965);

x.put("James", 1945);

System.out.println(x);

// Output: {James=1945, John=1965, Albert=1978}

System.out.println(x.contains(1945));

// Output: true

System.out.println(x.containsValue(1988));

// Output: false

// Java program to display all the multiples of 5 within the range 15 to 25

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
for(int x=15;x<=25;x++) {
if(x%5==0)
System.out.println(x); import java.lang.*;
} public class MyClass {
} public static void main(String[] args) {
} String x = "John";
String y = "Turing";
System.out.println(x.substring(1) + y.substring(1));
}
Java program to remove the
first character of each string }
and concatenate the 2 strings

1430
Question 41

Question:

Write a program to print the sum of even numbers from 1 to 10 using for loop

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {
char ch;
Solution:
ch = 'A';
public class MyClass {
System.out.println(ch); // Output: A
public static void main(String[] args) {
ch++;
int sum=0;
System.out.println(ch); // Output: B
for(int x=1;x<=10;x++) {
}
if(x%2 == 0){
sum = sum + x; }

}
}
System.out.println("The sum of even numbers from 1 to 10 is: "+sum);
}
}

// Output: The sum of even numbers from 1 to 10 is: 30

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int sum=0;
for(int x=1;x<=10;x++) {
if(x%2 != 0){
sum = sum + x;
}
}
System.out.println("The sum of odd numbers from 1 to 10 is: "+sum);
}
}

// Output: The sum of odd numbers from 1 to 10 is: 25

1431
Question 42 public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("20 > 19 is " + (20 > 19));
// Output: 20 > 19 is true
Question: }
}

Write a program to remove HTML Tags from a string

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String x= "<p>Stephen William Hawking</p>";
x = x.replaceAll("\\<.*?>", "");
System.out.println(x); public class MyClass {
} public static void main(String args[]) {

} for(int i=1; i<5; i=i+1)

import java.lang.*;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] x = {50, 10, 0, 20, 30, 40, 50};
System.out.println (x.length >= 2 && x[0] == x[x.length-1]);
// Output: true
}
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
for(int i=1; i<3; i++) {
public class MyClass {
int a = 1905;
System.out.println(a); public static void main(String[] args) {

a = 1915; byte i = 25;

System.out.println(a);
i = (byte)(i * 3);
}
} System.out.println(i);
// Output:
} }
1905
1915 }
1905 // Output: 75
1915

1435
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int x[] = { 31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31 };
System.out.println("February has " + x[1] + " days.");
}
}
// Output: February has 28 days.

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

for(int i=1; i<6; i++)

switch(i) { public class MyClass {

case 1: public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
case 2:
while(i > 0) {
System.out.println("i>3"); System.out.println(i);
i--;
break;
}
case 3:
}
case 4: }

System.out.println("i<5");
// Output:
break;
5
default: 4

System.out.println("i=5 or i>5"); 3
2
}
1
// Output:
}
i>3
}
i>3
i<5
i<5
i=5 or i>5

1436
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 10, y = 20;
while(++x < --y) ;
public class MyClass {
System.out.println(x);
public static void main(String[] args) {
}
int x = 5;
}
do {
System.out.println(x);
// Output: 15 // Output:
} while(--x > 0);
} 5
} 4
3

Question 46 2
1

Question:

Write a program to add all the digits of a given positive number until the result has a single digit

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 1264;
if (x>0) {
System.out.print((x == 0 ? 0 : (x % 9 == 0 ? 9 : x % 9)));
}
System.out.println("\n");
}
}

// Output: 4

// 1 + 2 + 6 + 4 = 13

// 1 + 3 = 4

1437
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int x;
x = 'C';
System.out.write(x);
System.out.write('\n');
}
}

// Output: C

import java.io.*;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String args[]) {
PrintWriter x = new PrintWriter(System.out, true);
x.println("Albert Einstein");
}
}

// Output: Albert Einstein

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {

Double x = new Double(1/0.);

Double y = new Double(0/0.);

System.out.println(x.isInfinite()); // Output: true

System.out.println(x.isNaN()); // Output: false

System.out.println(y.isInfinite()); // Output: false

System.out.println(y.isNaN()); // Output: true

1438
import java.util.*;
78
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Formatter x = new Formatter();
x.format("%s spends between $%d and $%f annually for books" , "John", 100, 198.6);
System.out.println(x);
}
}

// Output: John spends between $100 and $198.600000 annually for books

import java.util.*;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Formatter x = new Formatter();
x.format("|%f|%n|%10f|%n|%010f|",54.98765, 54.98765, 54.98765);
System.out.println(x);
} public class MyClass {

} static void x(String i) {

System.out.println(i);

// Output: }

|54.987650| public static void main(String args[]) {

| 54.987650| x("Albert Einstein");

|054.987650| }
}

import java.util.*; // Output: Albert Einstein

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {
for(int a=1; a <= 4; a++) {
Formatter x = new Formatter(); // Output:
x.format("%3d %3d %3d", a, a+a, a+a+a);
1 2 3
System.out.println(x); 2 4 6
} 3 6 9
4 8 12
}
}

1439
import java.io.*;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Console con;
con = System.console();
con.printf("Albert Einstein");
}
}

// Output: Albert Einstein

import java.util.regex.*;

public class MyClass { // Output:

public static void main(String args[]) {
Albert
Pattern x = Pattern.compile("[ ,.!]");
String y[] = x.split("Albert, 1905! Papers."); 1905

for(int a=0; a < y.length; a++) Papers

System.out.println(y[a]);
}
}

import java.util.regex.Matcher;
import java.util.regex.Pattern;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Pattern pattern = Pattern.compile("turing", Pattern.CASE_INSENSITIVE);
Matcher matcher = pattern.matcher("Alan Turing was a brilliant British mathematician.");
if(matcher.find()) {
System.out.println("Text found");
} else { // Output:
System.out.println("Text not found");
Text found
}
}
}

1440
// Java program to print the Unicode of the first character in a string
// The Unicode value of "A" is 65

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String x = "Albert";
System.out.println(x.codePointAt(0));
}
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String x = "Alan";
// The Unicode value of "A" is 65
System.out.println(x.codePointBefore(1)); // Output: 65
// The Unicode value of "l" is 108
System.out.println(x.codePointBefore(2)); // Output: 108
// The Unicode value of "a" is 97
System.out.println(x.codePointBefore(3)); // Output: 97
// The Unicode value of "n" is 110
System.out.println(x.codePointBefore(4)); // Output: 110
}
}

public class MyClass {

public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String x = "Albert Einstein";
String x = "Albert";
System.out.println(x.contains("bert"));
String y = "";
}
System.out.println(x.isEmpty());
}
// Output: false
System.out.println(y.isEmpty());
// Output: true // Output: true
}
}

1441
// Java program to print the hash code of a string

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String x = "Albert";
public class MyClass {
System.out.println(x.hashCode());
public static void main(String[] args) {
}
char[] x = {'A', 'l', 'a', 'n'};
}
String y = "";
System.out.println(y.copyValueOf(x, 0, 4));
// Output: 1963655312
}
}
public class MyClass {
private String x = "John"; // Output: Alan
private String y = "Alan";
private String z = "[email protected]";
private int i = 49; // Output:

Name: John Alan

public static void main(String[] args) {
Email: [email protected]
MyClass my2 = new MyClass();
Age: 49
System.out.println("Name: " + my2.x + " " + my2.y);
System.out.println("Email: " + my2.z);
System.out.println("Age: " + my2.i);
}
}

public class MyClass {

static void my2() {
System.out.println("Albert Einstein");
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

my2();
}
}

// Output: Albert Einstein

1442
public class MyClass {
int i;

public MyClass(int i) {
this.i = i;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

MyClass my2 = new MyClass(1905);
System.out.println(my2.i);
public class MyClass {
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
}

{ int i = 50;
// Output: 1905
System.out.println(i); }

}
public class MyClass {
}
static int my2(int i) {
return 5 * i;
// Output: 50
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println(my2(12));
}
}

// Output: 60

final class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println("Albert");

// Output: Albert

1443
public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

String x = "Albert", y = "albert";

System.out.println(x.contentEquals("Albert")); // Output: true

System.out.println(y.contentEquals("Albert")); // Output: false

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 3>2 ? 10 : 5;
System.out.println(x); // Output: 10
int y = 1>2 ? 10 : 5;
System.out.println(y); // Output: 5

}
}

// Java program to print the total number of lines from a string

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String x = "1.Alan\n2.John\n3.Mary\n4.Albert";
// Output:
// 1.Alan
// 2.John
// 3.Mary
// 4.Albert
System.out.println(x);
int i = x.split("[\n]").length;
System.out.println("Total number of Lines: "+ i);
// Output: Total number of Lines: 4
}
}

1444
import java.util.*;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {
// Create an empty Stack
Stack<String> x = new Stack<String>();

// Use push() to add elements into the Stack

x.push("Alan Turing");
x.push("was");
x.push("a");
x.push("brilliant");
x.push("British mathematician");

// Display the Stack

System.out.println(x);
// Output: [Alan Turing, was, a, brilliant, British mathematician]

// Fetch the element at the head of the Stack

System.out.println(x.peek());
// Output: British mathematician

} // Java program to delete the file

} import java.io.File;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// File to be deleted
File file = new File("C:/Users/Manju/1.txt");
// Deletes the file
boolean x = file.delete();
if(x) {
System.out.println("1.txt is successfully deleted.");
}
else {
System.out.println("1.txt doesn't exist.");
}
}
}

1445
import java.util.*;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {
// Create an empty Stack
Stack<String> x = new Stack<String>();

// Use push() to add elements into the Stack

x.push("Alan Turing");
x.push("was");
x.push("a");
x.push("brilliant");
x.push("British mathematician");

import java.util.*;
// Check for the emptiness of stack public class MyClass {
// Is the stack empty ? public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(x.empty()); System.out.println("Time to wake-up: ");

// Output: false System.out.println(new Date());

}
}
// Pop out all the elements
x.pop();
// Output:
x.pop();
Time to wake-up:
x.pop(); Tue Jul 26 11:00:20 GMT 2022
x.pop();
x.pop();

// Check for the emptiness of stack

// Is the stack empty ?
System.out.println(x.empty());
// Output: true

}
}

1446
public class MyClass {
// Output:
public static void main(String[] args) {
1
for(int x = 1; x <= 20; x += 2) { 3
5
System.out.println(x);
7
} 9
11
}
13
} 15
17
19

public class MyClass { public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) { public static void main(String[] args) {

String x = "ALBERT".toLowerCase( ); String x = "Books";

String y = "Pencils";
System.out.println(x); // Output: albert
System.out.println(x.concat(" and ").concat(y));
String y = x.toUpperCase( );
}
System.out.println(y); // Output: ALBERT
}
}
} // Output: Books and Pencils

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Which is the best place in the World to visit?");
int x = 0;
do { The user is given a menu of options by
System.out.println("1. Machu Picchu, Peru"); the program. Since there are only 3

System.out.println("2. The Grand Canyon"); possibilities, it then verifies that the

user's entered number is not larger than
System.out.println("3. Colosseum, Rome");
3. The user gets shown the menu again
System.out.println("Please select one: ");
until they choose a number from 1 to 3 if
x = in.nextInt();
the number is more than 3, which causes
} while(x > 3);
the condition to evaluate to true.
System.out.println("You selected: " + x);
}
}

1447
Two-factor authentication (2FA): Perimeter-based Cybersecurity:

Users authenticate their identification using two-step The idea of securing data and IT resources from
verification steps in this security mechanism hackers by putting security measures in place at the
network's perimeter

Network Sniffing: A method for analyzing

Intrusion detection system (IDS):
packets of data sent via a network

A system that checks network traffic for malicious

Intrusion Prevention Systems (IPS): activity and sends out alerts when it is detected

A system that checks network traffic for malicious activity

and takes appropriate security measures to prevent it
Python code:

Dark data: Any data that typically is print(*range(1,4))

not used to obtain business insights or for # Output: 1 2 3 4

decision making

Autonomic Computing

The ability of a computing system to operate independently of user input

Information Theory: The mathematical study of determining how much information there is in a message

Product personalization

The customization of products and services according to the needs or desires of the customers

1448
Moore's Law

Roughly every 2 years, the number of transistors on

silicon microchips will double

Domain Name System hijacking:

Network analytics: The
A type of cybercrime in which cybercriminals take advantage of collection and analysis of network
flaws in the Domain Name System to route website visitors to data to improve the performance,
malicious websites and steal data from computers reliability and security of the network

// calling a method multiple times

public class MyClass {

static void my2() {

System.out.println("Albert Einstein");

public static void main(String[] args) {

// Output:
my2();
Albert Einstein
my2(); Albert Einstein

my2(); Albert Einstein

Polymorphic virus:

A type of malware that is hazardous, destructive, or disruptive and that can

change itself, making antimalware solutions difficult to detect it

1449
public class MyClass {

static void my2(int x, String y) {

System.out.println(x + " " + y);

public static void main(String[] args) {

// Output:
my2(1905, "Papers");
1905 Papers
my2(1915, "Papers");
1915 Papers

Usability Testing: A software testing technique used to evaluate the software's usability

Data Ingestion: The process of collecting raw Project data analytics: The collection and
data from various sources and bringing it into a analysis of past and current project data to make
data processing system where it can be stored, worthwhile decisions on project delivery
examined and accessed

public class MyClass {

static int my2(int a) {

return a + 2 * a;

}
// Output:

12
public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println(my2(4));

1450
Security Testing: A sort of software testing that identifies security flaws, cyber-attacks
and potential risks in a software application and guards against hacker attacks

Active reconnaissance Cross-browser testing:

Comparing and evaluating how a web-based

In this type of cyber attack: an attacker application or website behaves in various browser
engages with the target device or a system environments such as Google Chrome, Mozilla
to acquire information about vulnerabilities Firefox, Opera, Chromium, Safari etc.

End to End testing: The entire process of testing a software application from beginning to end

A necessary condition A sufficient condition

One that must exist for an event to take place One that will cause the event to occur

Data Mining Query Language

(DMQL):

A SQL-based query language developed for data mining activities

 Fan-in: The largest number of digital inputs a single logic gate can receive

 Fan-out: The largest number of digital inputs that a single logic gate's output can sustain

Implementation Design Description:

A detailed explanation of all the data required to build a working system from

one or perhaps more functional designs

1451
public class MyClass {

// Create a checkMarks() method with an integer parameter called marks

static void checkMarks(int marks) {

// If marks is less than 35, print "You are Failed"

if (marks < 35) {

System.out.println("You are Failed...");

// If marks is greater than or equal to 35, print "You are Passed"

} else {

System.out.println("You are Passed...");

public static void main(String[] args) {

checkMarks(35); // Call the checkMarks method and pass along an marks of 35

} // Output:

You are Passed...

Soft state:
Even without input, the status of the system may vary with time

API testing: The method of testing that verifies A critical bug:

that the APIs used by the software application

A bug that has a significant impact on the
perform as intended application's main functionality

1452
Latent defect: A type of flaw or bug that has been present in a software application
for so long but has only now been detected

Database administrator: A person who is in charge of

Data store: A location where
performing all activities related to controlling, security,
information is held
maintenance, performance and recovery of database

enum names {

Albert,

James,

Mary

public class MyClass {

// Output:
public static void main(String[] args) {
Albert
for (names i : names.values()) {
James
System.out.println(i);
Mary
}

Data encrypting key: A key that can be used to Data streaming: The continuous transmission
encrypt, decrypt and authenticate data of data at a high speed

Human-in-the-loop: The process of Ground Truth:

inserting humans into ML process to create
Checking the results of the ML algorithm for accuracy
effective ML algorithms
against the accurate data gathered from the real world

1453
Traditionally,

ML algorithms rely on large amounts of data in order to reach logical conclusions

Data Efficient Learning

ML algorithms rely on smaller data sets in order to reach logical conclusions more quickly

public class MyClass {

enum names {

Albert,

James,

Mary
// Output:
}
Albert
public static void main(String[] args) {
James
for (names i : names.values()) {
Mary
System.out.println(i);

Deep computing
(High-speed computing + Complicated analytical programs)

Allows business decision makers to evaluate, detect patterns in and act on gathered data in order to generate
significant solutions to extremely complex and tough problems

1454
Delta: The differences between 2 programs Down: Not working

Disable: Make it nonfunctional

Direct access storage device: A fixed or
removable storage device on which a
Disk operating system: A computer operating
computer system stores information
system that runs from a hard disk drive

enum names {

Albert,

James,

Mary

// Output:
public class MyClass {
Mary
public static void main(String[] args) {

names i = names.Mary;

System.out.println(i);

Display: A visual presentation of information Display station: A device with a

display screen and a keyboard
connected that enables a user to send
Docking station: A hardware component that allows a
and receive data from the system
mobile device to function as a desktop

Downtime: The period during which

Down-level: Software with limited functionality a system is unavailable to users due
to maintenance, upgrades, resets and

Dump: A location where all available data about a other technical issues
problem is stored in piles

1455
Artificial Neuron

A digital construct that imitate closely the behavior of a biological neuron in the human brain

Pruning:

The process of removing unnecessary and inaccessible code so as to make the code more readable, easily
maintainable and to eliminate unwanted solutions

Dashboard: A visual representation of all of the

Apache Spark: An open-source data processing
company's business data that allows stakeholders to
platform for big data analysis and modeling
evaluate where the company stands in real time and
make important decisions
Complex Event Processing: A method for
combining, processing and evaluating enormous

Unified Data Analytics amounts of data concerning things that happen in

real time to get real-time insights

Data Vault: A data modeling methodology for

The process of combining data science and data
implementing a highly business-focused data
engineering to make AI more accessible to businesses
warehouse successfully and efficiently
and allow the businesses to speed their AI activities

Model Risk Management: The supervision of

Demand Forecasting: The process of analyzing
the negative outcomes of decisions made using
historical data and other information to make future
inaccurate or misused models
forecasts about customer demand for a product or service

Early stopping: A feature that allows the Computational Linguistics: The discipline of
training to be stopped automatically when a linguistics concerned with the analysis and synthesis
given metric stops progressing of language and speech using computers

1456
enum names {

Albert, Data Consumer: A person who consumes data

professionals' data insights and analytics to make
Alan,
data-driven decisions
Hilbert

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Clickstream analytics
names i = names.Alan;

switch(i) {

case Albert: The tracking and analysis of

visits to websites
System.out.println("Albert Einstein");

break;

case Alan:

System.out.println("Alan Turing");

break;

case Hilbert:

System.out.println("David Hilbert");

break;
// Output:

Alan Turing
}

Continuous Application: An end-to-end application that reacts in real time to data

1457
Data flow testing: The data flow is examined in relation to the variables used in the software program

Testbed: A piece of software equipment that is Test report: A report that contains a concise
used for testing of a software application in a overview of the testing goals, methods,
precise, transparent, and consistent manner procedures and findings

Test deliverables: The reports or documents generated during the testing process

public class MyClass {

Metric: A measurement
public static void main(String[] args) {
unit used to evaluate and
System.out.println(-6 + 9 * 7); // Output: 57 track performance over a
period of time
System.out.println((77+8) % 10); // Output: 5

System.out.println(55 + -13*6 / 5); // Output: 40

System.out.println(65 + 75 / 6 * 3 - 9 % 2); // Output: 100

System.out.println((35.6 * 4.6 - 4.7 * 2.8) / (56.1 - 6.7));

// Output: 3.048582995951417

} Browser automation:

Test matrix: A software testing equipment A method of automatically evaluating the functioning of a
that records the overall quality, resources, web application in a browser, in which a software program
concentrated effort, strategy, and time spent opens the web browser, traverses to the application, and
on each phase of software testing performs actions, much like a normal user would

A use case

Describes how a machine will execute a particular task if particular conditions are met

1458
Data Engineer: A data professional in Data Pipeline: A method of automating data
charge of getting the appropriate data into flow across an enterprise organization by
the hands of data scientists and analysts extracting, transforming and loading data to a
destination for storage and analysis

Random Forest
Blockchain: A data storage technology that
A supervised learning approach that combines
makes it extremely difficult or impossible to
the outputs of several decision trees into a single
edit, hack or fake the data − thereby making the
model and is commonly employed in regression
data secure and unchangeable
and classification issues

Mixed Reality: A blend of physical and

Guided analytics virtual worlds

Summary Statistics: A branch of applied

mathematics that provide a summary and
A developer-created analytics solution tailored to
explanation of your sample data
a specific business requirement

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println(" +\"\"\"\"\"+ ");

System.out.println("+********+ ");

System.out.println("[| @ @ |]"); +"""""+

System.out.println(" ( <> ) "); +********+

[| @ @ |]
System.out.println(" { '=' } ");
( <> )
System.out.println("+#######+ ");
{ '=' }
}
+#######+
}

Mobile Testing: The technique for evaluating mobile

applications for functionality, accessibility, efficiency,
reliability, security, consistency, and other factors

1459
Market Mix Modeling:
Solution requirements: Specific
A technique for determining how various features that a product must have in
promotional strategies influence a product's
order to meet business requirements
business Key performance metrics

Watson

A question-answering supercomputer system developed by IBM's DeepQA project and named

after IBM founder Thomas J Watson

Cluster Analysis: The statistical method of finding Gorilla Testing:

similar groups of objects in order to form clusters

A software testing technique in which

Endurance testing: A kind of performance testing a software module is repeatedly
used to evaluate the system's performance that is evaluated using random inputs to
always in usage confirm that it is working properly
and that it has no flaws
Localization testing

Monkey testing:
Guarantees that the software application is suitable for
use in that particular region A type of software testing technique that
evaluates the behavior of the software
application and validates whether it crashes
Benchmark Testing: The practice of evaluating an
or not based on certain random inputs
application's performance against an industry standard set
without any predefined test cases
by another enterprise organization

Baseline Testing: A kind of non-functional testing in Pesticide paradox: Every bug-prevention or

which a series of tests are performed in order to gather bug-finding method leaves a residue of more
software application's performance metrics sophisticated bugs against which the
methods are ineffective

1460
Python Exercises Data Refinement: The method of
standardizing, categorizing, tagging
and streamlining data to empower
necessary business decisions
print("A 6'2\" tall object")
Question 1
# Output: A 6'2" tall object
print('A 6\'2" tall object')

Question: # Output: A 6'2" tall object

Write a program to Add Two Numbers.

Solution:
a = 1
b = 2
c= a+b
print(c)

a = int(input("enter a number: "))

b = int(input("enter a number: "))
c= a+b
print(c)

ELIZA Effect

The tendency to unconsciously presume computer behaviors are comparable to human behaviors

1461
Question 2

Question:

Write a program to find whether a given number (accept from the user) is even or
odd, print out an appropriate message to the user.

Solution:
Biometrics
a = int(input("enter a number: "))
if a % 2 == 0: People are identified and authenticated using technology
print("This is an even number.") based on their distinct physical and behavioral features
else:
print("This is an odd number.")

Question 3

Question:

Write a program to check whether a number entered by the user is positive,

negative or zero.

Solution:

a = int(input("Enter a number: "))

if a > 0:

1462
print("Positive number")
elif a == 0: Comparative analysis: The process of comparing
print("Zero") and contrasting 2 or more data sets in order to

else: uncover and discover new insights about them

print("Negative number")

Question 4

Question:

Write a program to display the calendar of a given date.

Solution:
Data aggregation tools

import calendar
Tools for combining data from numerous sources into a single
yy = int(input("Enter year: "))
location in order to prepare the combined data for data processing
mm = int(input("Enter month: "))
print(calendar.month(yy, mm))

Question 5

Question:

Write a program to ask the user to enter the string and print that string as output
of the program.

1463
Solution:

string = input("Enter string: ") from string import Template

print("You entered:",string) x = Template("$ab Turing")

print(x.substitute(ab="Alan"))

# Output: Alan Turing

Question 6 print(x.substitute(ab="John"))

# Output: John Turing

Question:

Write a program to Concatenate Two Strings.

Solution: Data custodian: A person who is in charge of

the administrative and operational aspects of a
string1 = input("Enter first string to concatenate: ") technical environment where data is stored

string2 = input("Enter second string to concatenate: ")

string3 = string1 + string2
print("String after concatenation = ",string3)

Reporting Performance
Question 7
The system's ability to generate reports
quickly and effectively in response to
Question: queries from end users

Write a program to check if an item exists in the list.

Key-value Database: A NoSQL database that stores data

Solution: using a simple key-value method

1464
list_of_items = ["ball", "book", "pencil"]
item = input("Type item to check: ")
Data feed: A way of getting updated information
if item in list_of_items:
from data sources such as a Twitter feed or RSS
print("Item exists in the list.")
else:
print("Item does not exist in the list.")

Question 8

Question: Grid computing: A group of computing machines that

collaborate to do a task that would be impossible for a single
computing machine to complete
Write a program to Join two or more lists.

Solution:

list1 = ["This" , "is", "a", "sample", "program"]

list2 = [10, 2, 45, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10] Deidentification: The process for preventing the

finalList = list1 + list2 disclosure of a person's personal information

write a program that prints out all the elements of the list that are less than 5.

Decision automation: The use of software to

Solution:
automate the decision-making process
a = [1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]
for i in a:
if i < 5:
print(i)

Algorithmic learning theory

(Math about computer programs learning from experience)

A branch of statistical learning theory which aims to examine ML problems and algorithms

1467
Algorithmic AI bias
Question 13

AI algorithms are trained using biased data

Question:

Let's say I give you a list saved in a variable: a = [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100].

Write one line of Python that takes this list 'a' and makes a new list that has only
the even elements of this list in it.

Solution:

a = [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]

b = [number for number in a if number % 2 == 0]
print(b)

Question 14

Question:

Ask the user for a string and print out whether this string is a palindrome or not (A

palindrome is a string that reads the same forwards and backwards).

Solution:

a=input("Please enter a word: ")

c = a.casefold()
b = reversed(c)

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if list(c) == list(b):
print("It is palindrome")
else:
print("It is not palindrome")

Question 15

Question:

Take two lists, say for example these two: a = [1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89] b =
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13] and write a program that returns a list that

contains only the elements that are common between the lists (without
duplicates). Make sure your program works on two lists of different sizes.

Solution:

a = [1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]

b = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]
result = [i for i in set(a) if i in b]
print(result)

Question 16

Question: Haptics: The science of transmitting and

understanding information via touching

Write a program to add a string to text file.

1469
Solution:

file = open("testfile.txt","w")
file.write("Hello World")
file.write("This is our new text file")
file.write("and this is another line.")
file.write("Why? Because we can.")
file.close()

Question 17

Question:

Write a program to read a file and display its contents on console.

Solution: Abnormal end:

with open('testfile.txt') as f:
Abnormal termination of the execution of
line = f.readline()
while line:
a program prior to completion

print(line)
line = f.readline()

Data Curation: The organization and integration of data collected from various sources

to address the needs and interests of a specific group of people

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Question 18
Data Machine Learning Predictive model

Question:

Take two sets, say for example these two: a = {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89} b =

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13} and write a program that returns a set that

contains only the elements that are common between the sets.

Solution:

a = {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89}

b = {1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13}
c = set(a) & set(b)
print(c)

Question 19

Question:

Write a program to split the characters of the given string into a list.

Solution:
Programmatic Advertising:
s = "mystring"
l = list(s) The automated process of buying and
print (l) selling of online advertising

1471
Question 20

Question:

Create a program that asks the user for a number and then prints out a list of all
the divisors of that number.

Solution:

n=int(input("Enter an integer: "))

print("The divisors of the number are: ") Mobile Device Testing: A testing technique
for i in range(1,n+1): for evaluating hardware, software and overall
if(n%i==0): quality of a mobile device
print(i)

Question 21

Question: Block bugs: Bugs that prevent

other bugs from being fixed
Write a program to Find the largest of three numbers.

Solution:

a = int(input("Enter first number: "))

b = int(input("Enter second number: "))

1472
c = int(input("Enter third number: "))
if (a > b) and (a > c):
largest = a Installation Testing: A Testing that is carried out to ensure that the
elif (b > a) and (b > c): software application has been installed properly with all of its inherent
largest = b features and that the software application is functioning as intended
else:
largest = c
print("The largest number is", largest)

Question 22 Jailbreaking: A way to bypass all of

Apple's restrictions and customize your
iPhone whatever you like
Question:

Write a Program to Find Absolute value of a Number.

Solution: Storage Testing: A kind of software testing that verifies

if the software application saves necessary data in the
num = int(input("Enter a number: ")) appropriate folders and has enough space to avoid abrupt
if num >= 0: termination due to disc space constraints
print(num)
else:
print(-num)

Sampling bias:

Imagine that there are 10 individuals in a bakery and if you are asked to survey whether they like
butter or jam. If you only surveyed the 3 individuals and concluded that the majority of
individuals like butter, you'd have exhibited a sampling bias

1473
Question 23

Question:

Write a program to Find the length of a String.

Solution:

list1.remove("ball") A database in which data is stored in XML format
print(list1)

Question 30

Question:

Write a program To print the number of elements in an array.

Solution:

1477
list1 = ["pen", "book", "ball"]
a = len(list1)
print(a)

Question 31

Question:

Write a program To calculate the variance and standard deviation of the elements

of the list.

Solution:

import numpy as np
a= [2,6,8,12,18,24,28,32] Performance testing: The process of determining how well
variance= np.var(a) a computing machine performs in terms of speed,
std = np.std(a) responsiveness and stability under a specified workload
print(variance)
print(std)

Question 32

Question:

a = input("What's your name? ")

Multiple methods can be called on the same object
print(a.upper())
print(a.lower())

Write a program to check a triangle is equilateral, isosceles or scalene.

Confabulation
Solution:

Making an intuition-based conclusion generally rely on data

1481
print("Enter lengths of the triangle sides: ")
a = int(input("a: ")) • Hot data storage: The storage of data that is accessed frequently.
b = int(input("b: ")) • Warm data storage: The storage of data that is accessed less frequently
c = int(input("c: "))
• Cold data storage: The storage of data that is rarely accessed
if a == b == c:
print("Equilateral triangle")
elif a==b or b==c or c==a:
print("isosceles triangle")
else: Prometheus
print("Scalene triangle")
A freely available tool created to support
tracking and reporting in cloud-native
platforms, such as Kubernetes
Question 39

Question:

Write a program to sum of two given integers. However, if the sum is between 15
to 20 it will return 20.

Solution: CRUD
(Create, Read, Update, Delete)
a = int(input("enter a number: "))
b = int(input("enter a number: "))
c= a+b
if c in range(15, 20): The four basic operations for manipulating the stored data
print (20)
else:
print(c)

Incident Response

The procedure used by an enterprise organization to deal with a data leak

or hack, as well as how the enterprise organization attempts to control the
attack's or breach's effects

1482
Question 40 Cross-channel analytics: The process of collecting, evaluating and presenting
data from a wide range of marketing channels in one location in order to
investigate how customers are impacted to purchase a product or service
Question:

Write a program to convert degree to radian.

Solution: Database as a service

pi=22/7
degree = int(input("Input degrees: "))
A cloud-based database that is rented on a per-use basis
radian = degree*(pi/180)
print(radian)

Log Aggregation
Question 41
Collecting and aggregating

Question: various event log files from

numerous services, applications
and other sites
Write a program to Generate a Random Number.

Solution: Demographic data: Information on a human

population's traits
import random
print(random.randint(0,9))

IIS Log Viewer

An application that makes it easier to view log files from an IIS web server

1483
Question 42 Distributed cache: A data cache that is distributed over numerous
computer systems but functions as a single entity

Question:

Write a Program to find the semi-perimeter of triangle.

Solution:

a = int(input('Enter first side: '))

b = int(input('Enter second side: '))
Event analytics: The process of collecting and

c = int(input('Enter third side: ')) analyzing an event that occurs when a visitor to your
s = (a + b + c) / 2 website performs an action
print(s)

Question 43

Question:

Given a list of numbers, Iterate it and print only those numbers which are divisible

of 2.

Solution:

Solution:

# Import os module to read directory

import os
Amazon Web Service Device Farm:
# Set the directory path
path = 'C:/Users/Manju/.spyder-py3/' A mobile application testing service that assists
in ensuring the quality of mobile applications by
# Read the content of the file evaluating them across a variety of desktop
files = os.listdir(path) browsers and real mobile devices

# Print the content of the directory

for file in files:
print(file)

Question 47

Question:

Write a program to Read and Write File.

1486
Solution:

#Assign the filename

filename = "languages.txt"
# Open file for writing
fileHandler = open(filename, "w")

# Add some text

fileHandler.write("Bash\n") # hex() – converts integer to hexadecimal
fileHandler.write("Python\n") a=hex(14)
Output on the screen:
fileHandler.write("PHP\n") print(a)
0xe

# Close the file # oct() – converts integer to octal

fileHandler.close() a=oct(14)
Output on the screen:
print(a)
# Open file for reading 0o16

fileHandler = open(filename, "r")

# Read a file line by line a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

for line in fileHandler: b = a[::-1]
print(line)
print(b)
Output on the screen:
# Close the file
[5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
fileHandler.close()

Question 48

Question:

Write a program to add and search data in the dictionary.

1487
Solution:

# Define a dictionary
customers = {'1':'Mehzabin Afroze','2':'Md. Ali',
'3':'Mosarof Ahmed','4':'Mila Hasan', '5':'Yaqub Ali'}

# Append a new data Test stubs

customers['6'] = 'Mehboba Ferdous' (A top-down testing strategy)

print("The customer names are:")

# Print the values of the dictionary Testing of upper-level code while
for customer in customers:
lower-level code is still being created
print(customers[customer])

# Take customer ID as input to search

Test drivers
name = input("Enter customer ID:")
(A bottom-up testing approach)

# Search the ID in the dictionary

for customer in customers:
if customer == name: Testing of lower-level code while upper-level
print(customers[customer]) code is still being created
break

Question 49 Multiplexing:

Question: Over a single Transmission Control Protocol

connection, numerous requests are delivered
between browsers and servers at the same time
Write a program to add and search data in the set.

Solution:

1488
# Define the number set
numbers = {23, 90, 56, 78, 12, 34, 67}
Low code development No-code development
platform platform
# Add a new data
A software development A software development
numbers.add(50)
platform that enables platform that enables
# Print the set values
developers to create new developers to create new
print(numbers)
business applications visually business applications visually
and with little coding without writing a single line
message = "Number is not found"
of code

# Take a number value for search

search_number = int(input("Enter a number:")) Decision Science:
# Search the number in the set
for val in numbers:
if val == search_number: A set of analytical and behavioral methodologies for
message = "Number is found" making decisions based on data with the goal of
break
solving business challenges

print(message)

Question 50

Question:

Write a program to demonstrate throw and catch exception.

Metadata repository
Solution:

# Try block
A software tool designed to store and share metadata
try:

1489
# Take a number
number = int(input("Enter a number: "))
if number % 2 == 0:
print("Number is even") Statistical power
else: (The power of a hypothesis test)
print("Number is odd")

If the entered value

# Exception block is not a number
The probability of correctly rejecting the null
except (ValueError):
hypothesis when the null hypothesis is false
# Print this message
print("Enter a numeric value")

Question 51

Question: Weka: A set of ML algorithms and

tools for data mining
Write a program to illustrate password authentication.

Solution:

# import getpass module

import getpass

Data observability: An enterprise

# Take password from the user
organization's ability to monitor, record and
passwd = getpass.getpass('Password:')
make suggestions about what's going on
inside its data systems in order to keep them
# Check the password
healthy and minimize downtime
if passwd == "python":
print("You are authenticated")
else:

1490
print("You are not authenticated")

Question 52

Question:

Write a program to calculate the average of numbers in a given list.

Solution:

n=int(input("Enter the number of elements to be inserted: "))

a=[]
for i in range(0,n): Data onboarding: The process of collecting and
Data onboarding: the process of co llecting
x=int(input("Enter element: ")) uploading offline data for marketing purposes
and uploading offline data for marketing
a.append(x) into an online environment
purposes into an online environ ment
avg=sum(a)/n
print("Average of elements in the list: ",round(avg,2))

Question 53

Question:

Write a program to exchange the values of two numbers without using a

temporary variable. Convergence: A point at which extra data training

will no longer improve the ML model

1491
Solution:

a=int(input("Enter value of first variable: "))

b=int(input("Enter value of second variable: "))
a=a+b
Automated testing:
b=a-b
a=a-b
print("a is:",a," b is:",b) The process of using an automation tool to
check a software application for bugs

Question 54
Manual testing:

Question: The method of manually checking

software application for bugs
Write a program to reverse a given number.

Solution:

n=int(input("Enter a multi-digit number: "))

rev= str(n)[::-1]
print("Reverse of the number:", rev)

Role-Based Access Control

A technique for limiting network access depending on the functions of specific

individuals within an enterprise organisation

1492
Question 55

Question:

Write a program to take in the marks of 5 subjects and display the grade.

Solution:

sub1=int(input("Enter marks of the first subject: "))

sub2=int(input("Enter marks of the second subject: "))
sub3=int(input("Enter marks of the third subject: "))
sub4=int(input("Enter marks of the fourth subject: "))
sub5=int(input("Enter marks of the fifth subject: "))
avg=(sub1+sub2+sub3+sub4+sub4)/5
if(avg>=90):
print("Grade: A")  Absolute error = (Experimental value − Theoretical value)
elif(avg>=80 and avg<90):
print("Grade: B") (Experimental value − Theoretical value)
 Relative error =
elif(avg>=70 and avg<80): Theoretical value
print("Grade: C")
elif(avg>=60 and avg<70): (Experimental value − Theoretical value)
 Percent error = × 100
print("Grade: D") Theoretical value
else:
print("Grade: F")

Law of large numbers

The percentage difference between the experimental and theoretical values goes to zero − if we repeat the
same experiment a large number of times

1493
Question 56 General Availability

The time at which software product is made widely accessible

Question: for purchase by anyone who wants it

Write a program to print all numbers in a range divisible by a given number.

Solution:

lower=int(input("Enter lower range limit:")) Enable: Make it functional

upper=int(input("Enter upper range limit:"))
n=int(input("Enter the number to be divided by:"))
for i in range(lower,upper+1):
Function key: A button on a computer keyboard that
if(i%n==0):
print(i) performs a specific set of actions when it is pressed

Question 57

Question:

Write a program to read two numbers and print their quotient and remainder.

Solution: Flag: Selecting an information item for

further processing by marking it

a=int(input("Enter the first number: "))

1494
b=int(input("Enter the second number: "))
quotient=a//b File server: A computer that stores and manages data
remainder=a%b files so that they can be accessed by other computers
print("Quotient is:",quotient) on the same network
print("Remainder is:",remainder)

Question 58

Question:

Write a program to accept three distinct digits and print all possible combinations
from the digits.

Solution: Upstream

a=int(input("Enter first number:"))

b=int(input("Enter second number:")) Data sent from local computer to the server
c=int(input("Enter third number:")) (Uploading)
d=[]
d.append(a)
d.append(b) Downstream
d.append(c)
for i in range(0,3):
for j in range(0,3):
Data sent from server to the local computer
for k in range(0,3):
(Downloading)
if(i!=j&j!=k&k!=i):
print(d[i],d[j],d[k])

1495
Question 59

Question: Escalate: Take a disputed matter to a higher level of management for settlement

Write a program to print odd numbers within a given range.

Write a program to read a number n and print and compute the series
"1+2+…+n=".

Solution:

Facsimile machine: A machine which

n=int(input("Enter a number: ")) transmits and receives documents over the

a=[] telephone system using fax machines
for i in range(1,n+1):
print(i,sep=" ",end=" ")
if(i<n): Fault: An unintentional condition in which a
print("+",sep=" ",end=" ") system fails to accomplish its intended function
a.append(i)
print("=",sum(a))

print()
Output:
Enter a number: 4 # entered number

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10

Question 63 Graphical interchange format: A digital

format for compressing and transferring

Question: graphical data via computer networks

Write a program to read a number n and print the natural numbers summation

pattern.

1498
Solution:

n=int(input("Enter a number: "))

for j in range(1,n+1): Fault Management
a=[]
for i in range(1,j+1):
1. Detect the Fault
print(i,sep=" ",end=" ")
if(i<j): 2. Isolate the Fault
print("+",sep=" ",end=" ") 3. Notify the administrators about the Fault
a.append(i)
4. Identify the root cause of the Fault
print("=",sum(a))
5. Resolve the Fault

print()

Output:

Enter a number: 4 # entered number

1 = 1

Question 64 1 + 2 = 3
1 + 2 + 3 = 6
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10
Question:

Write a program to read a number n and print an identity matrix of the desired

size.

Solution: Forum: An online discussion site where people can

share their thoughts and opinions on a specific topic

n=int(input("Enter a number: "))

for i in range(0,n):

1499
for j in range(0,n):
if(i==j):
print("1",sep=" ",end=" ")
else:
print("0",sep=" ",end=" ")
print()

Question 65

Question:

Write a program to read a number n and print an inverted star pattern of the

desired size.

Solution:

n=int(input("Enter number of rows: "))

for i in range (n,0,-1):
print((n-i) * ' ' + i * '*')

Applied Intelligence

(AI + Automation + Data analytics)

To find, analyze and resolve complex business problems more quickly

1500
Question 66

Question:

Write a program to print prime numbers in a range using Sieve of Eratosthenes.

Solution:

n=int(input("Enter upper limit of range: "))

sieve=set(range(2,n+1))
Chinese Room Argument
while sieve:
prime=min(sieve)
print(prime,end="\t")
sieve-=set(range(prime,n+1,prime)) Strong AI can never be achieved

print()

Question 67

Question:

Write a program to find the largest number in a list.

Solution:

1501
Operational effectiveness: The plan of action
a=[]
n=int(input("Enter number of elements:")) that a company puts in place in order to arrive at
for i in range(1,n+1):
a better final product or service
b=int(input("Enter element:"))
a.append(b)
a.sort()
print("Largest element is:",a[n-1])

Question 68

Question:

Write a program to find the second largest number in a list.

Solution:

a=[]
n=int(input("Enter number of elements:"))
for i in range(1,n+1):
b=int(input("Enter element:"))
a.append(b)
a.sort()
print("Second largest element is:",a[n-2])

Perplexity = 𝟐−𝐜𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐲

A measure of how well a model is accomplishing its goal

1502
Question 69 Appropriateness Recognizability: The extent to which users can

identify whether a product is suitable for their needs

Question:

Write a program to put the even and odd elements in a list into two different lists.

Solution:

a=[]
n=int(input("Enter number of elements:"))
for i in range(1,n+1):
b=int(input("Enter element:"))
Hyperautomation
a.append(b)
even=[]
odd=[] (Robotic Process Automation + ML + AI)
for j in a:
if(j%2==0): The organizations use to rapidly automate
even.append(j)
complex business and IT processes
else:
odd.append(j)
print("The even list",even)
print("The odd list",odd)

Question 70

Question:

Write a program to sort the list according to the second element in the sublist.

1503
Solution:

a=[['A',34],['B',21],['C',26]]
for i in range(0,len(a)):
for j in range(0,len(a)-i-1): SnowBall: A data transport service
if(a[j][1]>a[j+1][1]):
that allows us to move terabytes of
temp=a[j]
data both inside and outside of the
a[j]=a[j+1]
AWS cloud
a[j+1]=temp

print(a)
Output:

[['B', 21], ['C', 26], ['A', 34]]

Question 71

Question:

Write a program to find the second largest number in a list using bubble sort.

The simplest sorting algorithm, which

continuously swaps nearby elements if
Solution:
they are out of sequence

a=[]
Geo-Targeting: A method for advertisers
n=int(input("Enter number of elements:"))
to define geographical location where
for i in range(1,n+1):
their advertising should appear
b=int(input("Enter element:"))
a.append(b)
for i in range(0,len(a)):
for j in range(0,len(a)-i-1):

1504
if(a[j]>a[j+1]):
temp=a[j]
a[j]=a[j+1] # Output:

a[j+1]=temp
print('Second largest number is:',a[n-2]) Enter number of elements:4 # entered number

Enter element:15 # entered number

Enter element:8 # entered number

Enter element:6 # entered number

Question 72 Enter element:9 # entered number

Second largest number is: 9

Question:

Write a program to sort a list according to the length of the elements.

Solution: # Output:

Enter number of elements:4 # entered number

a=[]
n=int(input("Enter number of elements:")) Enter element:10 # entered number

for i in range(1,n+1): Enter element:8 # entered number

b=input("Enter element:")
Enter element:6 # entered number
a.append(b)
Enter element:11 # entered number
a.sort(key=len)
print(a) ['8', '6', '10', '11']

Pair Testing

Software testing practice in which 2 individuals test the same feature at the same time on the
same computer by continuously interchanging ideas and feedback

1505
Conversational AI
Question 73
(Natural Language Processing + ML)

Question: Makes machines capable of understanding, processing and responding to human

language

Write a program to create a list of Tuples with the first element as the number and

the second element as the square of the number.

Solution:
Conversational UI: A user interface
that enables computers to interact with
l_range=int(input("Enter the lower range:")) humans using voice or text
u_range=int(input("Enter the upper range:"))
a=[(x,x**2) for x in range(l_range,u_range+1)]
print(a)
# Output:

Enter the lower range:2 # entered number

Enter the upper range:6 # entered number

[(2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25), (6, 36)]

Question 74 Call Attribution:

Linking details of certain marketing campaigns to phone calls

Question:

Write a program to create a list of all numbers in a range which are perfect
squares and the sum of the digits of the number is less than 10.

Solution:

1506
l=int(input("Enter lower range: "))
u=int(input("Enter upper range: "))
a=[]
a=[x for x in range(l,u+1) if (int(x**0.5))**2==x and sum(list(map(int,str(x))))<10]
print(a)
# Output:

Enter lower range: 2 # entered number

Enter upper range: 6 # entered number

Question 75
[4]

Question:

Write a Program to check whether the given number is valid mobile number or

not.

Solution:

import re
num=input("Enter a mobile number:")
x=re.fullmatch("[7-9]\d{9}",num)
if x!= None: Conversion Attribution
print("mobile number is valid")
A method of determining the channel
else:
through which a user entered a
print("mobile number is not valid")
website or application and carried
out the desired action

Connection String:

A string that describes a data source's details and how to connect to it

1507
Cognitive Automation: Robotic Process Automation
Question 76
Automating repetitive manual
The process of extracting information from unstructured
tasks like data entry
Question: data and deriving meaningful conclusion

Write a program to generate random numbers from 1 to 20 and append them to

the list.

Marketing Qualified Lead

Solution:
A lead that the marketing team
believes has a higher chance of
import random
becoming a customer than the others
a=[]
n=int(input("Enter number of elements:"))
for j in range(n):
a.append(random.randint(1,20))
print('Randomized list is: ',a) # Output:

Enter number of elements:6 # entered number

Randomized list is: [19, 14, 3, 13, 6, 7]

Question 77

Question:

Write a Program to check whether the given mail id is valid Gmail id or not.

Solution:

1508
import re
x=input("Enter your Gmail address:")
i=re.fullmatch("\w[a-zA-Z0-9_.]*@gmail[.]com", x)
if i!=None:
print("A valid email address");
else:
print("A invalid email address")

# Output:

Enter your Gmail address:[email protected] # entered mail address

A valid email address

x = -2
Question 78 while x < 0:
print(x)
x = x + 1
Question: print('Python!')

Write a program to Convert Bytes to a String. # Output:

-2
-1
Python!

Solution:

print(b'Python \xE2\x9C\x85'.decode("utf-8"))

# Output: Python ✓

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat hello.py

print('Hello world!')
[manju@localhost ~]$ python hello.py
Hello world!

a = 6
b = 0
print(a >= 2 and b != 0 and (a/b) > 2)
# Output: False

1509
Churn Prediction Model
Question 79
predicts

How high the risk is of losing the customers in the future

Question:

Write a program to remove the duplicate items from a list.

Solution:

a=[]
n= int(input("Enter the number of elements in list:"))
for x in range(0,n):
element=int(input("Enter element" + str(x+1) + ":"))
a.append(element)
b = set()
unique = []
Brain-computer interface: Technology
for x in a:
if x not in b: that sends and receives signals between the
unique.append(x) human brain and a computer
b.add(x)
print("Non-duplicate items:")
print(unique)

# Output:

Enter the number of elements in list: 4 # entered number

Enter element [1]:5 # entered number

Enter element [2]:5 # entered number

Enter element [3]:4 # entered number

Enter element [4]:2 # entered number

Non-duplicate items:
[5, 4, 2]

1510
Question 80 (Digital Transformation + Design strategy)

Question: Experience Transformation

Write a program to take input from the user until they type alan.

Solution:

while True:
x = input('>> ')
if x == 'alan':
break
print(x)
print('Done!')

Output:

>> albert (# entered)

albert

>> alan (# entered)

Done!

Cybernetics: The science of studying

• how information is communicated in the machine

• how information is communicated in the human brain

Comparing the way machine and human brain works and creating
machines that perform task or think like humans

1511
Question 81

Question:

Write a program to only count digits that are either 0 or 2 in a positive integer

Solution:

x = 2896510
i = 0
while x > 0:
a = x % 10
if a == 0 or a == 2:
i = i + 1
x = x // 10
print(i)

Hard error: An error that corrupts system files Handheld device: Any portable computing
and causes a failure of an operating system without device that can be carried and held in one's hand
providing any recovery options
i = 0
while i < 3:
Hook: A location in a software program where an
print(f"index {i}")
instruction for performing a certain function is inserted i = i+1

i = 0 # Output:
while True: index 0
print(f"index {i}") index 1
if i > 2: index 2
break Output:
i= i + 1 Net Promoter Score
index 0
index 1 An evaluation of customer satisfaction and loyalty that
index 2 is based on a 0 –10 scale that asks clients whether they
index 3 would suggest your goods or services to others

1512
Question 82

Question:

Write a program to print the multiples of 3 all on one line

Solution:

for x in range(1, 6):

print(3 * x, end=" ")
print()

# Output: 3 6 9 12 15

for x in [22, 24, 27, 28, 30]:

if x % 2 == 1: # If the number is odd
break # ... immediately exit the for loop
print(x)
for x in [23, 25, 28, 29, 30]:
print("Done!")
if x % 2 == 0: # If the number is even
break # ... immediately exit the for loop
# Output:
print(x)
22
print("Done!")
24
Done!
# Output:
23
Hover help: Help information
25
that pop-ups when a mouse
Done!
pointer hovers over a specific
area of a computer screen for
a predetermined amount of time

1513
print("Hi", "Alan Turing", sep="---")

# Output: Hi---Alan Turing

x = 0
while True:
i = input("\n Enter a number: ")
if i == "0" or i == "-1":
break
x = x + int(i)
print("The sum of the numbers you entered is: ", x)

# Output:
Enter a number: 2 # entered number
Enter a number: 3 # entered number
Enter a number: 0 # entered number
The sum of the numbers you entered is: 5
2 + 3 + 0 = 5

Hung terminal
Immediate access storage: A storage
If the previous work session is still visible on the device that houses all of the data and
display screen but the terminal does not respond programs that the CPU is currently using
to keyboard input, it is termed 'hung'

for x in [13, 16, 19, 14, 39, 40]:

if x % 2 == 0: # If the number is even
continue # Skip the number and continue
print(x)
print("Done!")

13
# Output:
19
39
Done!

1514
Hand off: Get rid of an unwanted task
Question 83

Question:

Write a program to check if there is an odd number in a given list of numbers

Solution:

n = [18, 26, 28, 4, 6]

i = 0
for n in n:
if n % 2 == 1:
i = i+1 # Count the odd numbers
if i > 0:
print(True)
else:
print(False)

# Output: False

• If data is being put onto the server, it's inbound transfer Information appliance:
• If data is being requested from the server, it's outbound transfer

Any portable computing device with

print(max(2 * 22, 5**2, 420 - 10, 5026**0)) the ability to transfer information to
# Output: 410 and from another device

print(abs(13 - 100) + 20)

x = "Albert"
# Output: 107
print(len(x)) # Output: 6
print(x[len(x)-1]) # Output: t
x = "XYZ" print(x[len(x)-2]) # Output: r
Output:
y= "ohn" print(x[len(x)-3]) # Output: e
Xohn print(x[len(x)-4]) # Output: b
for i in x: Yohn print(x[len(x)-5]) # Output: l
print(i + y) Zohn print(x[len(x)-6]) # Output: a

1515
x = "Alan"
print("O" + x[1:])
# Output: Olan

print("bert" in "albert") # Output: True

print("" in "albert") # Output: True

Question 84 x=len(["albert einstein", 6, ["1905", "1915", "Papers"], [4, 5, 8]])

print('The length of the list is: ', x )
# Output: The length of the list is: 4

Question:

Write a program to measure the time elapsed in executing a code.

Solution:

import time

x = time.time() # start time

print("Hello") # code
y = time.time() # end time
print(y - x) # prints the execution time

Task force: A team of experts and support staff

Transcoding: The process of conversion of a
brought together to solve a specific problem or
video or an audio file from one format to another
achieve a specific objective

print("%.3f" % 2.58967) # Output: 2.590

print("|{0:>10}||{0:<10}|".format('A','L'))
# Output: | A||A |
print("|{0:*>10}||{0:#<10}|".format('A','L'))
# Output: |*********A||A#########|

1516
Question 85 x=["albert einstein", 6, ["1905", "1915", "Papers"], [4, 5, 8]]
print(x[2])
# Output: ['1905', '1915', 'Papers']
Question:

Write a program to print all the multiples of 4 between 0 and 20.

Output:
Solution:
0

for i in range(21): 4

if i % 4 == 0: 8

print(i) 12
16
20

Value add: A enhancement in functionality or Wallet: Software application that allows a

performance of a software application user to make accepted payments to verified
merchants over internet – as well as manage
payment card accounts and purchases
x = {} Output:
for i in "Alan": 4
from math import sqrt
print(x.get(i, 4)) 4
4
print(sqrt(4))

4 # Output: 2.0

print ("Albert", 5 + 3 / 2)
# Output: Albert 6.5

x = {} Output:
print ("What is 2 + 16?", 2 + 16)
for i in "Ala": 4
# Output: What is 2 + 16? 18
print(x.get(i, 4)) 4
4
print("Is it greater?", 15 >13)
# Output: Is it greater? True

1517
x = False
y = "Is -5 greater than 3? %r"
print(y % x)
# Output: Is -5 greater than 3? False

Volatile storage: A computer

Stored data is lost when
memory that requires power to
power is switched off
preserve stored data

x = 'Albert'
y = 'Einstein'
print(x+y) # Output: AlbertEinstein
print(x, y) # Output: Albert Einstein

Wild duck: An individual who is creative and technical and does unusual things
Question 86
x = "%r %r %r"
print(x % (11, 12, 13)) # Output: 11 12 13
Question: print(x % ("A", "B", "C")) # Output: 'A' 'B' 'C'

Write a program to compute simple interest given all the required values.

Solution:

x=float(input("Enter the principal amount:" ))

y=int(input("Enter the time in years:")) Well-behaved application program: An
z=float(input("Enter the rate of interest:"))
application program that runs without
simple_interest=(x*y*z)/100
causing network disruption
print("The simple interest is:", simple_interest)

1518
Nice to have: It's a good idea, but it's not required
Question 87
print(list(range(3, 0, -1)))
# Output: [3, 2, 1]
Question:

Write a program to check whether a given year is a leap year or not.

Solution:

x=int(input("Enter a year:"))
if(x%4==0 and x%100!=0 or x%400==0): Workaround: Making something
print("The year is a leap year!")
operate despite the problem without
else:
completely solving it
print("The year isn't a leap year!")

Question 88 Roll out: Introduce a new print(2,000,000)

product or service # Output: 2 0 0

Question:

Write a program to print out all the positions in a list where it finds negative numbers.

a = [21, 23, -27, 24, -29, -25, 24]

for x in range(len(a)):
if a[x] < 0:
print("Found a negative number at index: ", x)

# Output: Found a negative number at index: 2

Found a negative number at index: 4
Found a negative number at index: 5

1519
Predictive Analytics
(What will happen?)

Collect data → Clean data → Identify patterns → Make predictions

# python program to print out the reciprocal of each number in the list

a = [2.0, 4.0, 6.0]

Output:
for i in a:
print(1 / i) 0.5
0.25
0.16666666666666666

Mobile analytics: A technique especially created to track and

Question 89
comprehend how users engage with a mobile application in order to
better understand their behavior and the functionality of the application
Question:

Write a program to generate all the divisors of an integer.

Solution:

Output:
x=int(input("Enter a number: "))
Enter a number: 4
print("All divisors of", x, "are:")
All divisors of 4 are:
for i in range(1,x+1):
1
if(x%i==0):
2
print(i)
4

1520
Question 90
print("Main(\\return)")
# Output: Main(\return)
Question:

Write a program to print the table of a given number.

print("Alan \" Turing")

Solution: # Output: Alan " Turing

a=int(input("Enter a number:"))

for i in range(1,11):
Protocol analyzer: A hardware or software tool that allows recording
print(a,"x",i,"=",a*i)
of network traffic and analyzing it in order to detect network traffic
issues or suspected fraudulent activity

Omnichannel Retailing:
Question 91
The process through which many platforms are combined
and used to impact a customer's decision to buy
Question:

Write a program to check if a number is an Armstrong number.

Solution: Network troubleshooting: A technique for detecting,

diagnosing, and resolving problems in a computer
network and improving network performance
n=int(input("Enter a number: "))
a=list(map(int,str(n)))
b=list(map(lambda x:x**3,a))
if(sum(b)==n):

1521
print("The number is an Armstrong number. ")
else:
print("The number isn't an Armstrong number. ")

Output:

Enter a number: 153 # 13 + 53 + 33 = 153

Question 92 The number is an Armstrong number.

Enter a number: 370 # 33 + 73 + 03 = 370

Question: The number is an Armstrong number.

Write a program to print the real and imaginary parts of a complex number.

Solution:

a = (5+10j)
print(a.real)
# Output: 5.0
print(a.imag)
# Output: 10.0

Cloudstorming: The gathering of

multiple cloud computing environments a = [21, 22, 23, 24]
a[:0] = [-11, 0]
print(a)
print(int(2e2))
# Output: [-11, 0, 21, 22, 23, 24]
# Output: 200
print(int(2.0e-8))
a = [21, 22, 23, 24]
# Output: 0
a[1:-1] = []
print(float(2.0e-8))
# Output: 2e-08 print(a)
# Output: [21, 24]
a = [21, 22, 23, 24] a.insert(0, "1905 Papers")
a[len(a):] = [25, 26, 27] print(a)
print(a) # Output: ['1905 Papers', 21, 24]
# Output: [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]

1522
Self-service business intelligence
Question 93
A methodology of data analytics that makes it possible for business consumers to
connect and use business data even if they lack experience with business

Question: intelligence, data mining or statistical analysis

Write a program to check if a number is a Perfect number.

Solution: • Veracity → The quality of data

• Variability → The inconsistency of the data

x = int(input("Enter a number: "))
• Variety → The type and nature of the data
sum = 0
for i in range(1, x):
if(x % i == 0): a = [21, 22, 23, 24]

sum = sum + i a.insert(-2, "1905 Papers")

if (sum == x): print(a)

print("The number is a Perfect number!") # Output: [21, 22, '1905 Papers', 23, 24]

else:
print("The number is not a Perfect number!")

i = 'A B C D'
print(i.split(' ', 1))
p = "~a ^ (b % c)"
# Output: ['A', 'B C D']
i = p.maketrans("~^()", "!&[]")
print(i.split(' ', 2))
Question 94 # Output: ['A', 'B', 'C D']
print(p.translate(i))
# Output:!a & [b % c]
print(i.split(' ', 3))
# Output: ['A', 'B', 'C', 'D']
Question:

Write a program to find the LCM of two numbers.

1523
Solution:

a=int(input("Enter the first number:")) print('albert'.capitalize())

b=int(input("Enter the second number:"))
print('Einstein1905'.isalnum())
if(a>b):
print('1905'.isdigit())
min=a
else: print('1905'.isnumeric())
min=b
Output on the screen:
while(1):
Albert
if(min%a==0 and min%b==0):
True
print("LCM is:",min)
True
break
min=min+1
True

a = "www.snapdeal.com"
print(a.strip("w"))
# Output: .snapdeal.com
Question 95 print(a.strip("com"))
# Output: www.snapdeal.
print(a.strip(".wmoc"))
Question: # Output: snapdeal

Write a program to find the GCD of two numbers.

Solution:

print("alan".replace("a", "+*&"))
import math
# Output: +*&l+*&n
a=int(input("Enter the first number:"))
b=int(input("Enter the second number:"))
print("The GCD of the two numbers is", math.gcd(a,b))

1524
a = [2, 4, 6, 8]
b = []
a = [2, 4, 6, 8]
for i in a:
Question 96 b.append(i * i)
b = [i * i for i in a]
print(b)
print(b)

Question:
# Output: [4, 16, 36, 64]
# Output: [4, 16, 36, 64]

Write a program to keep count of the list:

["Alan", "Thomas", "Rider", "Albert", "James"] starting from 11.

Solution:

x = ["Alan", "Thomas", "Rider", "Albert", "James"]

# set the start index to 11
for a,b in enumerate(x,11):
Output:
print (a,b)
11 Alan
12 Thomas
13 Rider
14 Albert
15 James

x = ['Einsteinian', 1915, "Papers"]

print("The %s: %s" % ("Albert", x))

# Output:
import os Print out which directory
The Albert: ['Einsteinian', 1915, 'Papers']
print(os.getcwd()) we are currently in

b = {11: 'Eleven', 12: 'Twelve'}

Output a = {0: 'zero', 11: 'eleven'}
a.update(b)

C:\Users\Manju print(a)

# Output:
{0: 'zero', 11: 'Eleven', 12: 'Twelve'}

1525
Big Data Visualization: The graphical representation of
Question 97
big data to give the individual the capability to understand

Question: trends, define plans and make better decisions

Write a program to check if two numbers are amicable numbers.

Solution:

x=int(input('Enter a number: '))

Divisors of 220 = 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55, 110
y=int(input('Enter a number: '))
1+2+4+5+10+11+20+22+44+55+110=284
sum1=0
sum2=0 Divisors of 284 = 1, 2, 7, 71, 142

for i in range(1,x): 1+2+7+71+142=220

if x%i==0:
sum1+=i 2 numbers are said to be "Amicable numbers" if each is

for j in range(1,y): equal to the sum of the divisors of the other

if y%j==0:
sum2+=j
if(sum1==y and sum2==x): Streaming analytics:
print( x, 'and', y, 'are Amicable numbers')
else: The processing and analysis of data from
print(x, 'and', y, 'are not Amicable numbers')
sources

# Output:
Enter a number: 220 # entered number
Enter a number: 284 # entered number
that continuously sends data
220 and 284 are Amicable numbers

Voice Assistant:
The digital assistant that uses

(Natural Language Processing + Voice Recognition + Voice Synthesis)

to perform a variety of actions after hearing a wake word or command from the end user

1526
Question 98 a = [0] a = [0]
b = [a, 1] b = [a, 1]
print(a is b[0]) print(a == b[0])
Question: # Output: True # Output: True

Write a program to find the area of a triangle given all three sides.

import math
a=int(input("Enter first side: "))
b=int(input("Enter second side: "))
c=int(input("Enter third side: "))
s=(a+b+c)/2
area=math.sqrt(s*(s-a)*(s-b)*(s-c))
print("Area of the triangle is: ",round(area,2))

Theoretical probability:

Number of favorable outcomes

P (event) =
Total Number of possible outcomes

For example:
Experimental probability:
When a coin is tossed:
1
• P (head) = Number of times event occurs
2 P (event) =
Total number of trails
1
• P (tail) =
2 For example:
When a coin is tossed 7 times: A head is recorded 5 times and a tail 2 times
5
• P (head) =
7
2
• P (tail) =
7

# prints a list of names of all the files present in the current directory

import os
print(os.listdir(os.curdir))

1527
print(r"Alan" == "Alan")

Question 99 # Output: True

print(r"\Turing" == "\\Turing")
# Output: True

Question: print(r"\Turing" == "\Turing")

# Output: True

Write a program to find the gravitational force acting between two masses.

Solution:

M=float(input("Enter the first mass: "))

m=float(input("Enter the second mass: "))
r=float(input("Enter the distance between the centers of the masses: "))
G=6.673*(10**-11)
F=(G*M*m)/(r**2)
print("Hence, the gravitational force is: ",round(F,2),"N")

Question 100 A foreground service → Performs some operation that the user is aware of
A background service → Performs some operation that the user is unaware of

Question:

Write a program to replace a, t with 2, 6 respectively in a given string.

x = 'alanalbertjohn'
y = x.maketrans('ab', '26')
print(x)
# Output: alanalbertjohn
print(x.translate(y))
# Output: 2l2n2l6ertjohn

1528
import re
print(re.compile(r"\\alan")) x= 0

# Output: re.compile('\\\\alan') if x % 2 == 0 :
if x == 0 :
print ("x is even but zero" )
def myfunc(x= "Albert" ):
else :
print (x)
print ("x is even" )
myfunc()
else :
# Output: Albert print ("x is odd" )

# Output: x is even but zero

Question 101

Question:

Suppose we have a text with three numbers in it. Write a program to filter these out

and print them separately.

Solution:

import re
x = '''
Prince Albert died on 14 December 1861 Output:
at the age of 42
['14', '1861', '42']
'''
print (re.findall( r'\d{1,4}' , x))

Cohort analysis: A kind of behavioral analytics where users are grouped based
on shared characteristics to help us better monitor and analyze their activity

1529
import re
x = '''
Prince Albert died on 14 December 1861 # Output:
at the age of 42
''' Prince Albert died on 76 December
print (re.sub( r'\d{1,4}', "76" , x)) 76
at the age of 76

Yield management
Question 102
A marketing approach that focuses on reaching the right
customer at the right moment and at the right price
Question:

Write a program to create a 2×4×3 matrix which is filled with eights

# Output:
Solution:
[[[8 8 8]
import numpy as np [8 8 8]
print (np.full(( 2 , 4 , 3 ), 8 )) [8 8 8]
[8 8 8]]

[[8 8 8]
import numpy as np
[8 8 8]
print (np.linspace( 0 , 50 , 5))
[8 8 8]
# Output: [ 0. 12.5 25. 37.5 50. ]
[8 8 8]]]
print(np.arange( 1 , 10 , 3 ))
# Output: [1 4 7]
import numpy as np

a = 2
First In, First Out: A data structure processing print(np.exp(a))
method in which the first element is handled first # Output: 7.38905609893065
and the newest element is handled last print(np.log(a))
# Output: 0.6931471805599453

1530
Question 103
x= 4

Question: for i in range(1,x+1):

for j in range(1,x+1):
print(j, end=" ")
Write a program to print:
print()
****

**** # Output:
**** 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
****
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
x= 4
Solution:
for i in range(1,x+1):
print("* "*x) x= 4
for i in range(1,x+1):
for j in range(1,x+1):

Question: print(chr(64+i),end=" ")

print()

Write a program to print:

# Output:
1111
A A A A
2222 B B B B
3333 C C C C
D D D D
4444

Solution: x= 4
for i in range(1,x+1):
for j in range(1,x+1):
print(i, end=" ")
print()

1531
x= 4 x= 4
for i in range(1,x+1): for i in range(1,x+1):
for j in range(1,x+1): for j in range(1,x+1):
print(chr(64+j),end=" ") print(x+1-i, end=" ")
print() print()

# Output: # Output:
A B C D 4 4 4 4
A B C D 3 3 3 3
A B C D 2 2 2 2
A B C D 1 1 1 1

x= 4 x= 4
for i in range(1,x+1): for i in range(1,x+1):
for j in range(1,x+1): for j in range(1,x+1):
print(x+1-j, end=" ") print(chr(65+x-i),end=" ")
print() print()

# Output: # Output:
4 3 2 1 D D D D
4 3 2 1 C C C C
4 3 2 1 B B B B
4 3 2 1 A A A A

x= 4
# Output:
for i in range(1,x+1):
D C B A
for j in range(1,x+1):
D C B A
print(chr(65+x-j),end=" ") D C B A
D C B A
print()

1532
x= 4 x= 4
for i in range(1,x+1): for i in range(1,x+1):
for j in range(1,x+2-i): for j in range(1,x+2-i):
print("*",end=" ") print(i, end=" ")
print() print()

# Output: # Output:
* * * * 1 1 1 1
* * * 2 2 2
* * 3 3
* 4

x= 4 x= 4
for i in range(1,x+1): for i in range(1,x+1):
for j in range(1,x+2-i): for j in range(1,x+2-i):
print(j, end=" ") print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
print() print()

# Output: # Output:
1 2 3 4 A A A A
1 2 3 B B B
1 2 C C
1 D

x= 4
for i in range(1,x+1): # Output:

for j in range(1,x+2-i): A B C D
print(chr(64+j),end=" ") A B C
A B
print() A

1533
x= 4
x= 4
for i in range(1,x+1):
for i in range(1,x+1):
print(" "*(x-i),"*"*i, end=" ")
print(" "*(x-i),end="")
print()
for j in range(1,i+1):
print("*",end=" ")
# Output:
print()
*
**
# Output:
***
*
****
* *
* * *
* * * *
x= 4
for i in range(1,x+1):
print(" "*(x-i),(str(i)+" ")*i) x= 4

print() for i in range(1,x+1):

print(" "*(x-i),end="")

# Output: for j in range(1,2*i):

1 print(j, end=" ")

print()

2 2
# Output:

3 3 3 1
1 2 3

4 4 4 4 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

x= 4
for i in range(1,x+1): # Output:
print(" "*(x-i),end="") 1
for j in range(2*i-1,0,-1): 3 2 1
print(j, end=" ") 5 4 3 2 1
print() 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

1534
Question 104
print(str(6) == '6')
# Output: True
Question:

Write a program to find the sum of first N Natural Numbers.

Solution:

x=int(input("Enter a number: "))

sum = 0
while(x > 0):
sum = sum + x
x=x-1
print("The sum of first N natural numbers is: ",sum)

Question 105 print([i.lower() for i in ['ALAN', 'TURING']])

# Output: ['alan', 'turing']

Question:

Write a program to find the sum of series: 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + ….. + 1/N.

x=int(input("Enter the number of terms: "))

Solution:
sum=0
for i in range(1,x+1):
sum = sum +(1/i)
print("The sum of series is: ", round(sum,2))

1535
Question 106 print([(a, b) for a in range(2) for b in range(2)])
# Output:
[(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1)]
Question:

Write a program to find whether a number is a power of two.

Solution:

def myfunc(x):

# returns True if x is a power of two.

if x <= 0:
return False
else:
return x & (x - 1) == 0

x = int(input('Enter a number: '))

if myfunc(x):

print('{} is a power of two.'.format(x))

else:
print('{} is not a power of two.'.format(x))

Question 107

Question:

Write a program to replace all occurrences of 'a' with '$' in a string.

Solution:

1536
x=input("Enter a string: ")
x=x.replace('a','$') # Output:

x=x.replace('A','$') Enter a string: Alan # entered string

print(x) $l$n

Question 108
2 strings are said to be anagrams if they have the same characters
but are arranged differently. For example: "keep", "peek"
Question:

Write a program to detect if two strings are anagrams

Solution:
# Output:
x=input("Enter the first string: \n")
Enter the first string:
y=input("Enter the second string: \n") keep # entered string
if(sorted(x)==sorted(y)): Enter the second string:
print("The 2 strings are anagrams.") peek # entered string
else:
The 2 strings are anagrams.
print("The 2 strings aren't anagrams.")

salary = [("Mary", 24000),

("Ram", 12000),
("Alan", 10000),
("Sony", 84000)]

# prints the names of the employees whose salaries are above 20000
i = [a for a, b in salary if b>20000]
print(i)

# Output: ['Mary', 'Sony']

1537
Question 109

Question:

Write a program to modify a string where the first character and the last character

have been exchanged.

Solution:

def myfunc(x):
return x[-1:] + x[1:-1] + x[:1] # Output:
x=input("Enter a string: ") Enter a string: james # entered string
print("Modified string: ") Modified string:
print(myfunc(x)) samej

Question 110

Question:

Write a program to count the number of vowels in a string.

Solution:

1538
x=input("Enter a string:")
v=0
for i in x:
if(i=='a' or i=='e' or i=='i' or i=='o' or i=='u' or i=='A' or i=='E' or i=='I' or i=='O' or i=='U'):
v=v+1
print("Number of vowels: ")
print(v)

# Output:
Enter a string: albert # entered string
Number of vowels:
2

Question 111

Question:

Write a program to take a string and replace every blank space with a Plus symbol.

Solution:

# Output:
x=input("Enter a string: ")
x=x.replace(' ','+')
Enter a string: alan turing # entered string
print("Modified string: ")
Modified string:
print(x)
alan+turing

1539
# contents of 1.txt
print([line.strip() for line in open("1.txt")])
John
# Output: ['John', 'Mary', 'James', 'Albert']
Mary
James
Albert

Question 112

Question:

Write a program to calculate the length of a string without using library function.

Solution:

x=input("Enter a string: ")

b=0 # Output:
for i in x: Enter a string: Albert # entered string
b=b+1 Length of the string:
print("Length of the string: ")
6
print(b)

x = 'Alan Mathison Turing'

print(x[6:3:-1]) # Output: aM

print(x[4:8:2]) # Output: a

1540
x = ['Albert Einstein was a theoretical physicist.',
'Albert Einstein grew up in Munich.',
'One of the greatest physicists of all time.']

a = map(lambda s: (True, s) if 'Albert' in s else (False, s), x)

print(list(a))

# Output:

[(True, 'Albert Einstein was a theoretical physicist.'), (True, 'Albert Einstein

grew up in Munich.'), (False, 'One of the greatest physicists of all time.')]

x = ['Albert Einstein was a theoretical physicist.',

'Albert Einstein grew up in Munich.',
'One of the greatest physicists of all time.']

a = map(lambda s: (True, s) if 'time' in s else (False, s), x)

print(list(a))

# Output:

[(False, 'Albert Einstein was a theoretical physicist.'), (False, 'Albert

Einstein grew up in Munich.'), (True, 'One of the greatest physicists of all
time.')]

1541
Question 113

Question:

Write a program to calculate the number of words and characters present in a

string.

Solution:
# Output:

x=input("Enter a string: ") Enter a string: Alan Turing # entered string

character=0 Number of words in the string:

word=1 2

for i in x: Number of characters in the string:

character=character+1 11

if(i==' '):
word=word+1
print("Number of words in the string:")
print(word)
print("Number of characters in the string:")
print(character)

y = [[2.9, 2.8, 2.8, 2.4, 2.5, 2.7],

[3.5, 3.4, 3.4, 3.3, 3.2, 3.1],
[4.4, 4.9, 4.9, 4.1, 4.0, 4.0]]
x = [i[::2] for i in y]
print(x)

# Output:
[[2.9, 2.8, 2.5], [3.5, 3.4, 3.2], [4.4, 4.9, 4.0]]

1542
x = '''
Python is a high-level, interpreted,
general-purpose programming language.
Its design philosophy emphasizes code
readability with the use of significant indentation
'''

find = lambda i, b: i[i.find(b)-10:i.find(b)+10] if b in i else -1

print(find(x, 'the'))

# Output: lity with the use of

x = '''
Python is a high-level, interpreted,
general-purpose programming language.
Its design philosophy emphasizes code
readability with the use of significant indentation
'''

find = lambda i, b: i[i.find(b)-17:i.find(b)+17] if b in i else -1

print(find(x, 'the'))

# Output: readability with the use of signif

names = ['Alan', 'Albert', 'John', 'Mary',

'Joseph', 'David', 'Mendel', 'Watson']
names[1::2] = names[::2]
print(names)

# Output: ['Alan', 'Alan', 'John', 'John', 'Joseph', 'Joseph', 'Mendel', 'Mendel']

1543
Question 114

Question:

Write a program to count number of lowercase characters in a string.

Solution:

x=input("Enter a string:")
c=0 Enter a string: Alan

for i in x: The number of lowercase characters:

if(i.islower()): 3
c=c+1
print("The number of lowercase characters: ")
print(c)

Question 115

Question:

Write a program to count the number of lowercase letters and uppercase letters

in a string.

Solution:

1544
x=input("Enter a string: ")
c=0
d=0
for i in x:
if(i.islower()):
c=c+1
elif(i.isupper()):
d=d+1
print("The number of lowercase characters: ")
print(c)
print("The number of uppercase characters: ")
print(d)

import numpy as np
Question 116 x = np.array([31, 32, 33, 34], dtype=np.int16)
print(x) # Output: [31 32 33 34]

Question:
print(x.dtype) # Output: int16

Write a program to check if a substring is present in a given string.

Solution:

x=input("Enter a string: ")

y=input("Enter the substring: ")
if(x.find(y)==-1):
print("A substring is not present in a string.")
else:
print("A substring is present in a string.")

1545
import numpy as np

x = np.array([11, 12, 13, 14])

print(x.ndim)
# Output: 1 (one-dimensional array)

y = np.array([[12, 11, 12], [13, 12, 13], [14, 13, 14]])

print(y.ndim)
# Output: 2 (two-dimensional array)

z = np.array([[[11, 12, 13], [12, 13, 14], [13, 14, 15]],

[[11, 12, 14], [12, 13, 15], [13, 14, 16]]])
print(z.ndim)
# Output: 3 (three-dimensional array)

import numpy as np
x = np.array([2] * 4)
print(x) import numpy as np

# Output: [2 2 2 2] print(np.abs(np.array([21, -21, 22, -52])))

x[1::] = [21] * 3
# Output: [21 21 22 52]
print(x)
# Output: [ 2 21 21 21]
x[1:3:2] = 8
print(x)
# Output: [ 2 8 21 21]

print([(x,y) for x in range(4) for y in range(x+1,3)])

# Output: [(0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 2)]

1546
Question 117

Question:

Write a program to concatenate two dictionaries into one dictionary.

x={'A':1,'B':2}
y={'C':3}
x.update(y)
print(x)
# Output: {'A': 1, 'B': 2, 'C': 3}

Question 118

Question:

Write a program to check if a given key exists in a dictionary or not.

x={'A':1,'B':2,'C':3}
key=input("Enter a key to check: ")
if key in x.keys():
print("Key is present and value of the key is:")
print(x[key]) # Output:
else: Enter a key to check: A
print("Key isn't present!") Key is present and value of the key is:
1

1547
Question 119

Question:

Write a program to find the sum of values in the dictionary

x={'A':100,'B':540,'C':239}
print("The sum of values in the dictionary: ")
print(sum(x.values()))
# Output:
The sum of values in the dictionary:
879

x = 3
Question 120
fact = lambda x: x * fact(x-1) if x > 1 else 1
print(fact(x))

Question: # Output: 6 (!3=3×2×1=6)

Write a program to find the product of values in the dictionary

x={'A':10,'B':10,'C':10}
# Output:
a=1
The product of values in the dictionary:
for i in x:
1000
a=a*x[i]
print("The product of values in the dictionary: ")
print(a)

1548
Unsorted array
10 6 8 2 5 4 9 1
Unsorted array indices
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Sorting algorithm

sort()
argsort()

Sorted array
1 2 4 5 6 8 9 10
Sorted array indices
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

import numpy as np
x = np.array([10, 6, 8, 2, 5, 4, 9, 1])

print(np.sort(x))
# Output: [ 1 2 4 5 6 8 9 10]

print(np.argsort(x))
# Output: [7 3 5 4 1 2 6 0]

import re
x = 'Albert Einstein profoundly changed physics and ideas about space and time'

print(re.findall('p.*?c.*?s', x))

# Output: ['profoundly changed phys']

1549
import re
x = 'Albert Einstein profoundly changed physics and ideas about space and time'
print(re.findall('a.d', x))
# Output: ['and', 'and']

import re
x = 'Albert Einstein profoundly changed physics and ideas about space and time'
print(re.findall('A.*n', x))
# Output:
['Albert Einstein profoundly changed physics and ideas about space an']

import re
print(re.findall('a{2,4}b', 'ab')) from sympy import sqrt
# Output: [] print(sqrt(16))
print(re.findall('a{2,4}b', 'aaab')) # Output: 4
# Output: ['aaab']
print(re.findall('a{2,4}b', 'aaaaab'))
# Output: ['aaaab']
print(re.findall('a{2,4}b', 'aaaaaab'))
# Output: ['aaaab']

import re
x = 'Albert profoundly changed physics and ideas about space and time'
print(re.sub("Albert(?!')", 'Einstein', x))
# Output:
Einstein profoundly changed physics and ideas about space and time

is_anagram = lambda a, b: sorted(a) == sorted(b)

print(is_anagram("peek", "keep"))

# Output: True

1550
# check whether a given number x is prime or not

def myfunc(x):

for i in range(2,x):
import sympy
if x % i == 0:

return False print(sympy.isprime(13))

# Output: True
return True

print(sympy.isprime(178))

print(myfunc(13)) # Output: False

# Output: True

print(myfunc(178))

# Output: False

# prints all prime numbers <= a

a = 10
print([x for x in range(2,a+1) if myfunc(x)])

# Output: [2, 3, 5, 7]

from sympy import Float

print(Float(7.54)) from sympy import Integer

# Output: 7.54000000000000 print(Integer(5.4))

print(Float('1.44E5')) # Output: 5

# Output: 144000.000000000 print(Integer(3/8))

print(Float(1.55555,2)) # Output: 0

# Output: 1.6

1551
import sympy x = set('abc')
print(x)
# prints the SymPy version
# Output: {'b', 'a', 'c'}
print(sympy.__version__)
x = {'a', 'b', 'c'}
print(x)
from sympy import FiniteSet
# Output: {'b', 'a', 'c'}
x=[1,3,5,2,8]

y=[12,10,8,7,1]
from sympy import FiniteSet, Complement
print(FiniteSet(*x))
x=[1,3,5,2,8]
# Output: {1, 2, 3, 5, 8}
y=[12,10,8,7,1]
print(FiniteSet(*y))
a=FiniteSet(*x)
# Output: {1, 7, 8, 10, 12}
print(a)

# Output: {1, 2, 3, 5, 8}
from sympy import FiniteSet
b=FiniteSet(*y)
x="alan"
# Output: {1, 7, 8, 10, 12}
y="jonny"
print(b)
print(FiniteSet(*x))
print(Complement(a,b), Complement(b,a))
# Output: {a, l, n}
# Output: {2, 3, 5} {7, 10, 12}
print(FiniteSet(*y))

# Output: {j, n, o, y}

from sympy import FiniteSet, SymmetricDifference

x=[13,11,15,17]
y=[19,17,12,11]
a=FiniteSet(*x) # {11, 13, 15, 17}
b=FiniteSet(*y) # {11, 12, 17, 19}
print(SymmetricDifference(a,b))
# Output: {12, 13, 15, 19}

1552
for i in ['Alan', 'Albert', 'James', 'John']:
print('Mary ' + i)
x = 'Alan'

# Output: y = 'Albert'

Mary Alan z = 'John'

Mary Albert print(x, y, z)

Mary James # Output: Alan Albert John

Mary John

x = [[11, 12, 13], [14, 15, 16], [17, 18, 19]]

print([x[s][s] for s in [0, 1, 2]])

# Output: [11, 15, 19]

# Repeat characters in a string

print([i * 3 for i in 'mary'])

# Output: ['mmm', 'aaa', 'rrr', 'yyy']

x={'a': 1, 'c': 3, 'b': 2}

x['e'] = 4 print(11 > 12, 11 < 12)
print(x)
# Output: False True
# Output: {'a': 1, 'c': 3, 'b': 2, 'e': 4}
x['a'] = 4
print(x)
# Output: {'a': 4, 'c': 3, 'b': 2, 'e': 4}
x = 1.0 / 3.0

if not 'd' in x:
print('%e' % x)
print('Missing!') # Output: 3.333333e-01
# Output: Missing! print('%4.2f' % x)
# Output: 0.33
print(x.get('a')) # Output: 4
print('{0:4.2f}'.format(x))
# Output: 0.33
print(x['d'] if 'd' in x else 'Missing!')
# Output: Missing!

1553
import decimal
decimal.getcontext().prec = 3
print(decimal.Decimal('2.00') / decimal.Decimal('6.00'))
# Output: 0.333

decimal.getcontext().prec = 2
print(decimal.Decimal('2.00') / decimal.Decimal('6.00'))
# Output: 0.33

print('%.1f' % 9.496, '{0:.2f}'.format(9.496))

# Output: 9.5 9.50
text = """
print((2.5).as_integer_ratio()) Albert %(name)s was born on

# Output: (5, 2) March 14, %(year)s

"""
# 5/2 = 2.5
x = {'name': 'Einstein', 'year':
1879}
x = {'A', 'B', 'C', 'D'}
print(text % x)
print({'A', 'C'} < x)
# Output: True # Output:
Albert Einstein was born on
print('apple\'s', "apple\"s") March 14, 1879
# Output: apple's apple"s

print(str('alan'), repr('alan'), int("16"))

# Output: alan 'alan' 16

x = 'David'
print(x[:5] + 'Hilbert' + x[-1])
# Output: DavidHilbertd

i = 5.987654321
print('%e | %f | %g' % (i, i, i))
# Output: 5.987654e+00 | 5.987654 | 5.98765

1554
Question 121

Question:

Write a program to count the frequency of words appearing in a string using a

dictionary.

x=input("Enter a string: ")

i=[]
i=x.split()
print(dict(zip(i, [i.count(s) for s in i])))

# Output:
Enter a string: alan alan is # entered string
{'alan': 2, 'is': 1}

Question 122 for ((x, y), z) in [([21, 22], 23), ['AB', 26]]: print(x, y, z)

# Output:

Question:
21 22 23
A B 26

Write a program to check common letters in the two input strings.

x=input("Enter the first string: ")

# Output:
y=input("Enter the second string: ")
Enter the first string: alan' # entered string
a=list(set(x)&set(y))
Enter the second string: albert # entered string
print("The common letters are: ")
The common letters are:
for i in a: a
print(i) l

1555
Question 123

Question:

Write a program to display which letters are in the first string but not in the
second string.

x=input("Enter the first string: ")

y=input("Enter the second string: ")
a=list(set(x)-set(y))
print("The letters in the first string but not in the second string are: ")
for i in a:
print(i)
print(list(range(-3, 3)))
# Output: [-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2]
print(str([41, 42]) + "44")
Question 124 # Output: [41, 42]44
print([41, 42] + list("44"))
# Output: [41, 42, '4', '4']
Question:

Write a program to display which letters is present in both the strings

x=input("Enter the first string: ")

y=input("Enter the second string: ")

a=list(set(x)|set(y))

print("The letters present in both the strings are: ")

for i in a:

print(i)

1556
M = {}
M[(12, 13, 14)] = 78
M[(17, 18, 19)] = 64
X = 12; Y = 13; Z = 14
print(M[(X, Y, Z)])
# Output: 78
print(M)
# Output: {(12, 13, 14): 78, (17, 18, 19): 64}

if (12,13,16) in M:
print(M[(12,13,16)])
else:
print('Missing!')

# Output: Missing!

x = {'name': 'John',
'courses': ['python', 'java'],
'email': '[email protected]',
'address': {'state': 'Canada', 'zip':54600}}
print(x['name']) # Output: John
print(x['courses']) # Output: ['python', 'java']
print(x['courses'][1]) # Output: java

print(dict.fromkeys(['x', 'y'], 1))

# Output: {'x': 1, 'y': 1}

print({i: i * 3 for i in 'ALAN'})

# Output: {'A': 'AAA', 'L': 'LLL', 'N': 'NNN'}

print({i.lower(): i + '!' for i in ['ALAN', 'JOHN', 'MARY']})

# Output: {'alan': 'ALAN!', 'john': 'JOHN!', 'mary': 'MARY!'}

print({i:11 for i in ['x', 'y', 'z']})

# Output: {'x': 11, 'y': 11, 'z': 11}

print(dict(x=21, y=22, z=23))

# Output: {'x': 21, 'y': 22, 'z': 23}

1557
x = [11, ('i', 13)]
y = [11, ('i', 12)]
print(x < y, x == y, x > y)
# Output: False False True
x = '1988'
y= 'max'
x = {'p':11, 'q':12}
print(x.isdigit(), y.isdigit())
y = {'p':11, 'q':13}
# Output: True False
print(x == y)
# Output: False

x= [11, 12, 13]

y = ['A', x, 'D']
print(y)
# Output: ['A', [11, 12, 13], 'D']

while True:
x = input('Enter a string: ')
if x == 'END': break
print(x.lower())

# Output:
Enter a string: Alan # entered string
Enter a string: END # entered string
end

x = 'ALAN'
a, b, c, d = x
print(a, d) # Output: A N

a, b, c = x[0], x[1], x[2:]

print(a, b, c) # Output: A L AN

a, b, c = list(x[:2]) + [x[2:]]
print(a, b, c) # Output: A L AN

1558
while True:
x = 'ALAN'
x = input('Enter a number: ') a, b = x[:2]
if x == 'end': break c = x[2:]
print(int(x) ** 2) print(a,b,c)
print('Have a Good Day!') # Output: A L AN
(a, b), c = x[:2], x[2:]

# Output: print((a, b), c)

# Output: ('A', 'L') AN
Enter a number: 5 # entered number
25
((a, b), c) = ('AL', 'AN')
Enter a number: end # entered string
print(((a, b), c))
Have a Good Day! # Output: (('A', 'L'), 'AN')

while True:
x = input('Enter a number: ') # Output:

if x == 'end': break Enter a number: 5

elif not x.isdigit(): 25
print('Wrong Entry ' * 2) Enter a number: max
else: Wrong Entry Wrong Entry
print(int(x) ** 2) Enter a number: end

print('Have a Good Day!') Have a Good Day!

while True:
x = input('Enter a number: ') # Output:
if x == 'end': break
try: Enter a number: 5
25
i = int(x)
Enter a number: max
except:
Wrong Entry Wrong Entry
print('Wrong Entry ' * 2)
Enter a number: end
else:
Have a Good Day!
print(int(x) ** 2)
print('Have a Good Day!')

1559
while True:
x = input('Enter a number: ')
# Output:
if x == 'end': break
elif not x.isdigit(): Enter a number: 5
Enter a number > 25
print('Wrong Entry ' * 2)
else: Enter a number: 36
1296
i = int(x)
if i < 25: Enter a number: max
Wrong Entry Wrong Entry
print('Enter a number > 25')
else: Enter a number: end
Have a Good Day!
print(i ** 2)
print('Have a Good Day!')

Question 125

Question:

Write a program to implement birthday dictionary.

if __name__ == '__main__':

birthdays = {
'Albert Einstein': '03/14/1879',
'Benjamin Franklin': '01/17/1706',
'Ada Lovelace': '12/10/1815',
'Donald Trump': '06/14/1946',
'Rowan Atkinson': '01/6/1955'}

print('Welcome to the birthday dictionary. We know the birthdays of:')

for name in birthdays:
print(name)

print('Who\'s birthday do you want to look up?')

name = input()
if name in birthdays:
print('{}\'s birthday is {}.'.format(name, birthdays[name]))
else:
print('Sorry, we don\'t have {}\'s birthday.'.format(name))

1560
# Output:
11 [12, 13, 14]
12 [13, 14]
13 [14]
14 []
# Solution:
x = [11, 12, 13, 14] x = [11, 12, 13, 14]
while x: while x:
Or
i, x = x[0], x[1:] i, *x = x
print(i, x) print(i, x)

x = [11, 12, 13, 14]

x = 'alan'
x += [15, 16]
if 'al' in 'albert':
print(x)
print(x * 2)
# Output: [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]
x += 'einstein'
if x.endswith('einstein'):
a = 'Einsteinian'
x *= 2
b = 1905
print(x)
c = ['Papers']
print(a, b, c)
# Output:
# Output: Einsteinian 1905 ['Papers']
alanalan
alaneinsteinalaneinstein
print('%s: %-.4f, %05d' % ('x', 6.98768, 12))
# Output: x: 6.9877, 00012

import sys

sys.stderr.write(('Alan ' * 2) + '\n')

# Output: Alan Alan

print('Albert ' * 2, file=sys.stderr)

# Output: Albert Albert

1561
x=0; y=5
while x < y:
print(x, end=' ')
x += 1

# Output: 0 1 2 3 4

i = 'apple'
while i:
print(i, end=' ')
i = i[1:]

# Output: apple pple ple le e

while True:
x = input('Enter a string: ')
if x == 'einstein': break
y = input('Enter a number: ')
print(x, '=>', int(y) ** 2)

# Output:
Enter a string: alan # entered string
Enter a number: 5 # entered number
alan => 25
Enter a string: einstein # entered string

print(list(range(0, len('albert'), 2)))

# Output: [0, 2, 4]

for x in range(0, len('albert'), 2): print('albert'[x], end=' ')

# Output: a b r

1562
# Output:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np

plt.pie(np.array([25, 15, 25, 35]))

plt.show()

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np

plt.pie(np.array([25, 15, 25, 35]), labels = ["Indians", "Germans", "Americans", "Arabs"])

plt.show()

# Output:

Indians

Arabs

Germans

Americans

x = [1, 2, 3, 4]
[11, 2, 3, 4]
for s in range(len(x)): [11, 12, 3, 4]
x[s] += 10 [11, 12, 13, 4]
print(x) [11, 12, 13, 14]

1563
x = [1,2,3,4]
print([i + 10 for i in x])

# Output: [11, 12, 13, 14]

x, y, z = (1,2,3), (4,5,6), (7,8,9)
print(z)
a = [15,16,17,18]
# Output: (7, 8, 9)
b = [25,26,27,28]
print(list(zip(x, y, z)))
for (x, y) in zip(a, b): # Output: [(1, 4, 7), (2, 5, 8), (3, 6, 9)]
print(x, y, '...', x+y)

# Output:
15 25 ... 40
16 26 ... 42
17 27 ... 44
18 28 ... 46

John
Mary
Contents of 1.txt
James
Albert

print([line.upper() for line in open('1.txt')])

# Output: ['JOHN\n', 'MARY\n', 'JAMES\n', 'ALBERT']

print([line.rstrip().upper() for line in open('1.txt')])

# Output: ['JOHN', 'MARY', 'JAMES', 'ALBERT']

print([line.split() for line in open('1.txt')])

# Output: [['John'], ['Mary'], ['James'], ['Albert']]

print([line.replace('n', '!') for line in open('1.txt')])

# Output: ['Joh!\n', 'Mary\n', 'James\n', 'Albert']

print([('Alb' in line, line[0]) for line in open('1.txt')])

# Output: [(False, 'J'), (False, 'M'), (False, 'J'), (True, 'A')]

1564
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np

a = np.array([2,4,5,9,11,6,8,15])
b = np.array([92,94,95,99,101,96,98,115])
plt.scatter(a, b)
plt.show()

# Output:

140

120

100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

import pandas as pd

x= pd.DataFrame({
'names': ['Alan', 'John', 'James', 'Albert'], names ID

'ID':['ab15','ab17','ab19','ab20']}, 1 Alan ab15

index=[1,2,3,4]) 2 John ab17

3 James ab19

y = pd.DataFrame({ 4 Albert ab20

'names': ['Mary', 'Jessie', 'David', 'Sony'], 5 Mary mx40

'ID':['mx40','mx44','mx41','mx49']}, 6 Jessie mx44

index=[5,6,7,8]) 7 David mx41

8 Sony mx49

print(pd.concat([x,y]))

1565
print(list(filter((lambda i: i < 0), range(-4, 4))))
Question 126
# Output: [-4, -3, -2, -1]
print(list(filter((lambda i: i > 0), range(-4, 4))))
Question: # Output: [1, 2, 3]

Write a program to remove punctuations from a string.

# define punctuation
i = '''!()-[]{};:'"\,<>./?@#$%^&*_~'''

# take a input from the user

x = input("Enter a string: ")

# remove punctuation from the string

y = ""

# Output:
for s in x: Enter a string: Alan: Turing! # entered string
if s not in i: Alan Turing
y = y + s

# display the unpunctuated string

print(y)

print(list(range(-4, 4)))
# Output: [-4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3]
y, z = 11, 2
def myfunc():
ab = []
global x
for i in range(-4, 4):
x = y * z
if i > 0:
print(x)
ab.append(i)
print(ab)
myfunc()
# Output: 22 # Output: [1, 2, 3]

1566
Question 127

Question:

Write a program to get IP address of your computer.

import socket
x = socket.gethostname()
y = socket.gethostbyname(x)
print("My Computer Name is: " + x)
print("My Computer IP Address is: " + y)

# Output:
My Computer Name is: DESKTOP-68GI94H
My Computer IP Address is: 192.168.6.1

import random
minimum = 1
maximum = 6

x = "yes"

Python program to
while x == "yes" or x == "y": illustrate Dice
print ("Rolling the dice...") Roll Simulator
print ("The value is....")
print (random.randint(minimum, maximum))

x = input("Roll the dice again?")

1567
import re

x = 'Saint John was one of the 12 Apostles of Jesus.'

y = b'Saint John was one of the 12 Apostles of Jesus.'

print(re.match('(.) was (.) of (.*)', x).groups())

# Output: ('Saint John', 'one of the 12 Apostles', 'Jesus.')

print(re.match(b'(.) was (.) of (.*)', y).groups())

# Output: (b'Saint John', b'one of the 12 Apostles', b'Jesus.')

print('{0:,d}'.format(5000000))

# Output: 5,000,000

print('{0:12,.2f}'.format(5000000))

# Output: 5,000,000.00

print('{0:%} {1:,.2%}'.format(2.52, 5496))

# Output: 252.000000% 549,600.00%

print('{0}/{1}/{2}'.format('Users', 'Manju', '1.txt'))

# Output: Users/Manju/1.txt

print('{}/{}/{}'.format('Users', 'Manju', '1.txt'))

# Output: Users/Manju/1.txt

print('%s/%s/%s' % ('Users', 'Manju', '1.txt'))

# Output: Users/Manju/1.txt

print('{x} {i:s}'.format(x=1905, i="Papers"))

# Output: 1905 Papers

print('{i:.0E} => [{x:<6s}]'.format(**dict(i=10, x='albert')))

# Output: 1E+01 => [albert]

1568
from datetime import date, timedelta

print(date(2022, 11, 16) - date(2022, 10, 21))

# Output: 26 days, 0:00:00

print(date(2022, 10, 21) + timedelta(26))

# Output: 2022-11-16

print(date(2022, 11, 16) - timedelta(26))

# Output: 2022-10-21

from collections import OrderedDict

x = OrderedDict()

x['alan'] = 1
salary = {

x['Alex'] = 2
'Alan': 24000,

x['john'] = 3
'Albert': 5000,

x['mary'] = 4
'Mary': 2000,

for i in x:
}

print(i, x[i])
print(min(zip(salary.values(), salary.keys())))

# Output:
# Output: (2000, 'Mary')
alan 1
print(max(zip(salary.values(), salary.keys())))
Alex 2
# Output: (24000, 'Alan')
john 3

mary 4

import json

print(json.dumps(x))

# Output: {"alan": 1, "Alex": 2, "john": 3, "mary": 4}

1569
x = { x = 'data.csv'
'a' : 11, print(x[-4:] == '.csv')

'b' : 12, # Output: True

'c' : 13

} x = 'https://www.wikipedia.org'

print(x[:5] == 'http:' or x[:6] == 'https:' or x[:4] == 'ftp:')

y = { # Output: True

'd' : 10,

'a' : 11,
x = {'a': 1, 'c': 5 }
'b' : 12
y = {'b': 2, 'd': 4 }
}

from collections import ChainMap

# prints the keys in common z = ChainMap(x,y)

print(x.keys() & y.keys()) print(z['a']) # Output: 1

# Output: {'a', 'b'} print(z['b']) # Output: 2

# prints the keys in x that are not in y print(z['c']) # Output: 5

print(x.keys() - y.keys()) print(z['d']) # Output: 4

# Output: {'c'}

# prints the (key, value) pairs in common

print(x.items() & y.items())

# Output: {('b', 12), ('a', 11)}

x= 'Albert; Einstein, was, a, theoretical, physicist'

import re

print(re.split(r'[;,\s]\s*', x))

# Output: ['Albert', 'Einstein', 'was', 'a', 'theoretical', 'physicist']

1570
import re

x = 'https://www.wikipedia.org'

print(re.match('http:|https:|ftp:', x))

# Output: <re.Match object; span=(0, 6), match='https:'>

from fnmatch import fnmatch

print(fnmatch('1.csv', '*.csv'))

# Output: True

print(fnmatch('data.txt', '?ata.txt'))

# Output: True

print(fnmatch('file1.txt', 'file[0-9]*'))

# Output: True

x = ['file1.txt', 'file.pdf', 'file2.txt', 'file.doc']

print([i for i in x if fnmatch(i, 'fil*.txt')])

# Output: ['file1.txt', 'file2.txt']

x = 'Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist'

print(x=='Albert')

# Output: False

print(x.startswith('Albert'))

# Output: True

print(x.endswith('st'))

# Output: True

# prints the location of the first occurrence of 'or'

print(x.find('or'))

# Output: 30

1571
x = '12/29/1992'

y = 'Dec 29, 1992'

import re

if re.match(r'\d+/\d+/\d+', x):

print('Albert')
# Output: Albert
else:

print('Alan')

if re.match(r'\d+/\d+/\d+', y):

print('Einstein')
# Output: Turing
else:

print('Turing')

import re

x = 'Albert Einstein (3/14/1879 – 4/18/1955).'

print(re.compile(r'\d+/\d+/\d+').findall(x))

# Output: ['3/14/1879', '4/18/1955']

import re

x = 'Albert Einstein (3/14/1879 – 4/18/1955).'

print(re.sub(r'(\d+)/(\d+)/(\d+)', r'\3-\1-\2', x))

# Output: Albert Einstein (1879-3-14 – 1955-4-18).

print('Acia\u00f1o') # Output: Aciaño

̃o
print('Acya\u0303o') # Output: Acya

1572
import re

x = 'ALBERT EINSTEIN, albert einstein, Albert Einstein'

print(re.findall('einstein', x, flags=re.IGNORECASE))

# Output: ['EINSTEIN', 'einstein', 'Einstein']

print(re.sub('einstein', 'alan', x, flags=re.IGNORECASE))

# Output: ALBERT alan, albert alan, Albert alan

x = 'Albert' x = 987654321

y = 'Einstein' print(round(x, -1))

print(x + ' ' + y)
# Output: 987654320
# Output: Albert Einstein
print(round(x, -2))
print('{} {}'.format(x,y))
# Output: 987654300
# Output: Albert Einstein

print(','.join(str(i) for i in ['James', 19, 15])) print(round(x, -3))

# Output: James,19,15 # Output: 987654000

x = '''Alan Mathison Turing was an

English mathematician, computer scientist, logician,

cryptanalyst, philosopher and theoretical biologist.'''

Alan Mathison Turing was an English

import textwrap mathematician, computer scientist, logician,

print(textwrap.fill(x, 50)) cryptanalyst, philosopher and theoretical

print(textwrap.fill(x, 30)) biologist.

Alan Mathison Turing was an

English mathematician,

computer scientist, logician,

cryptanalyst, philosopher and

theoretical biologist.

1573
x = '''Alan Mathison Turing was an

English mathematician, computer scientist, logician,

cryptanalyst, philosopher and theoretical biologist.'''

import textwrap

print(textwrap.fill(x, 50))

print(textwrap.fill(x, 50, initial_indent=' '))

print(textwrap.fill(x, 50, subsequent_indent=' '))

# Output:
print(sum([1.23e+18, 1, -1.23e+18]))

# Output: 0.0
Alan Mathison Turing was an English

mathematician, computer scientist, logician,

import math
cryptanalyst, philosopher and theoretical
print(math.fsum([1.23e+18, 1, -1.23e+18]))
biologist.
# Output: 1.0

Alan Mathison Turing was an English

mathematician, computer scientist, logician,

cryptanalyst, philosopher and theoretical

biologist.

Alan Mathison Turing was an English

mathematician, computer scientist, logician,

cryptanalyst, philosopher and theoretical

biologist.

1574
import numpy as np
from fractions import Fraction
for i in np.arange(0, 4, 0.5): print(i)
x = Fraction(7, 2)
0.0
y = Fraction(9, 18)
0.5
z = x * y
1.0
print(z) # Output: 7/4 1.5
Output
print(z.numerator) # Output: 7 2.0

print(z.denominator) # Output: 4 2.5

3.0

3.5
import numpy as np

print(np.matrix([[11,-22,23],[0,54,65],[87,98,-19]]))

# Output: # prints the file size and modification date

[[ 11 -22 23] import time, os

print(os.path.getsize('C:/Users/Manju/1.txt'))
[ 0 54 65]
print(time.ctime(os.path.getmtime('C:/Users/Manju/1.txt')))
[ 87 98 -19]]

25
import numpy as np
Fri Jul 8 04:53:18 2022
for i in np.arange(0, 1, 0.125): print(i)

# Output:

0.0 x = [11, 12, 13, 14]

0.125 for i in reversed(x):

0.25
print(i, end=' ')
0.375

0.5 # Output:

0.625
14 13 12 11
0.75

0.875

1575
x = ['A', 'B', 'D']
x = ['A', 'B', 'D']
from itertools import permutations
from itertools import permutations
for i in permutations(x, 3):
for i in permutations(x, 2):
print(i)
print(i)

# Output:
# Output:
('A', 'B', 'D')
('A', 'B')
('A', 'D', 'B')
('A', 'D')
('B', 'A', 'D')
('B', 'A')
('B', 'D', 'A')
('B', 'D')
('D', 'A', 'B')
('D', 'A')
('D', 'B', 'A')
('D', 'B')

x = ['A', 'B', 'D']

x = ['A', 'B', 'D'] from itertools import combinations

from itertools import combinations for i in combinations(x, 2):

for i in combinations(x, 3): print(i)

print(i)

# Output:

# Output: ('A', 'B', 'D') ('A', 'B')

('A', 'D')

('B', 'D')

names = ['Albert', 'Alan', 'John']

age = [25, 56, 89]

# Output:
for x, y in zip(names, age):
Albert = 25
print(x, '=', y)
Alan = 56

John = 89

1576
print('Papers', 1905, 1915)

# Output: Papers 1905 1915

print('Papers', 1905, 1915, sep=',')

# Output: Papers,1905,1915

print('Papers', 1905, 1915, sep=',', end='!!\n')

# Output: Papers,1905,1915!!

import io

print(io.StringIO().write('Albert'))

# Output: 6

print(io.StringIO().write('Alan'))

# Output: 4

print(io.StringIO().write('Joe'))

# Output: 3

print(io.StringIO('Albert').read(4)) # list temporary directories

import tempfile
# Output: Albe
print(tempfile.gettempdir())
print(io.StringIO('Albert').read())

# Output: Albert

# create temporary files and directories using mkstemp() and mkdtemp()

import tempfile # Output:

print(tempfile.mkstemp()) (10, 'C:\\Users\\Manju\\AppData\\Local\\Temp\\tmpbsmjzodf')

C:\Users\Manju\AppData\Local\Temp\tmp3d75il4w
print(tempfile.mkdtemp())

1577
Last-In, First-Out: A data structure processing method in which the newest
element is handled first and the first element is handled last

Homogeneous data structures Heterogeneous data structures

Can only store a single type of data Can store more than one type of data

probability of success
Odds =
probability of failure

probability of success
Logit Function = log ( )
probability of failure

Sigmoid or Logistic Function →The inverse of the Logit Function

Normally distributed data

Data that defines with having Mean = Median = Mode

Suppose we have 25 samples, where 15 are positive and 10 are negative:

𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
Entropy = − log2 ( )− log2 ( ) ≈ 0.97
𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟓

A measure of uncertainty and the goal of

ML model is to reduce uncertainty

a = 'AlbertEinstein1905Papers'
print(a[:3] + a[3:])

# Output: AlbertEinstein1905Papers

1578
Prior probability

Number of Desired Outcomes

Total Number of Outcomes

Interpreted Language: Manifold Learning:

Does not require compilation before The geometry of the data is utilized to make the
execution algorithms more efficient

Change Data Capture

The process of identifying and tracking changes made to data in a database

Data as a service: Providing data to users on-demand via the cloud

A/B testing
(Split testing or bucket testing)

A method of comparing 2 versions of a web application against each other to figure out
which one is more effective
which one performs better

 Data in motion: Any digital information that is being moved over a network from

one location to another

 Data at rest: Any digital information that is not being moved over a network from

one location to another and resides in a database or a file system

1579
 In-memory database: Database that depends primarily on memory for data storage
 In-memory processing: Processing of data stored in an in-memory database
 In-memory computing: Running computer calculations entirely in computer memory

Documentation Development Life Cycle

Understanding the requirements

Design

Develop

Review

Finalize

Publish

Empirical Risk Minimization (ERM):

A learning method in which the model with the lowest average

error over the training set is chosen

Holdout data: A sample of categorized historical data completely separated

from the data sets used to train and test supervised ML models

Inter-rater agreement → The degree to which 2 or more persons agree

One hot encoding

A process of converting categorical variables to numerical values

so that the ML model can understand them

1580
Serial correlation: A pattern in which each value is influenced
directly by the value next to it or preceding it in a sequence

Machine learning

Teaching computing machines how to learn from data to make

predictions or decisions

Learning-to-Learn

The machines learning themselves how to learn

Loss = Actual value − Predicted value

The lower the loss, the better a model

GIGO
(Garbage In, Garbage Out)

The quality of output is determined by the quality of the input

Request-Response Model

HTTP
Request

Web Client Web Server Database

HTTP
Response

1581
a = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
b = {5,6,7,8,9}
Python code to print the common

print(a.intersection(b)) elements between the 2 sets

x,y=2,3
print("Alan") if x>y else print("Turing")

# Output: Turing

print('EINSTEIN'.isupper())
print('einstein'.islower()) Output on the screen:

True
True

 Binary classification → predicts one of 2 possible outcomes

Example: Is the condition true or false?

 Multi-class classification → predicts one of multiple possible

Example: Is this a picture of an apple, book, rat or mice?

Regression algorithms Classification algorithms

Used to predict: what will be the temperature Used to predict: will it be hot or cold
tomorrow? tomorrow?

1582
Jenkins Pipeline:

Start → Build → Test → Deploy → End

Ruby Program:

a = 26

unless a>=25

puts "a is less than 25" Output:

else a is greater than 25
puts "a is greater than 25"

end

variance between groups

t-value =
variance within groups

Larger t-value → different groups

Smaller t-value → similar groups

Single-value attribute Multi-valued attribute

Can have only one possible value Can have many different values

Student Student

Roll number Address

zip code, street address,

state, country, etc.

1583
Dialog Management Systems (DMS):

Systems that analyze and contextualize human-like discussions between

Chatbots and actual humans using natural language processing

Database Stress Testing:

One of the approaches for evaluating database

performance is to put it under a significant strain that
could cause the database system to fail at some time

 Cold Migration: The method of transferring a virtual machine that is shut down, together
with its configuration and data, from one host to other

 Hot Migration: The method of transferring a virtual machine that is powered on, together
with its configuration and data, from one host to other

Cross Site Request Forgery (CSRF):

A web security flaw that allows an attacker to persuade users to perform

unwanted actions on a web application that they did not intend to do

Negative Evidence:

Evidence that predict the non-occurrence of event

Non-linearity:

The output is not proportional to the input

1584
Prospective Data Analysis:

A mathematical approach for predicting future events based on

previous performance or characteristics

Programming Assistant:
If 2 sets have no elements in common, they are
said to be disjoint. For example: {2, 4, 5} and
A programming framework that assists a
{6, 7, 9} are disjoint sets, while {2, 4, 5} and
programmer to handle the non-clerical
{1, 5, 8} are not disjoint.
aspects of programming

Negative response

A request not processed successfully

 Mandatory entry field: A field in which a user must enter at least one character

 Mandatory-fill field: A field a user must fill in completely

Return code: A return statement that terminates a function's execution and

returns control to the calling function

Run time:
Run-time environment → Execution environment
The length of time that a
computer program is running
Network congestion: An undesirable overload
condition arises when a network is unable to
Nit: A minor flaw that can be
appropriately handle the traffic pouring through it
easily corrected

1585
Iterative server:

A server that can handle only one connection at a time

Lock: The method of ensuring data Maximize: An option that enlarges a

integrity by preventing several users window to its maximum size
from simultaneously accessing or
modifying the same data Metadata: Information that describes the
characteristics of a stored data
Foreground processes: Processes
that need a user to initiate them or to  Log off: Disconnect from a computer system, database or network
interact with them
 Log on: Connect to a computer system, database or network

Background processes:
Mapping: The process of transforming data
Processes that run without the
transmitted in one format by the sender into a
intervention of a user
format that the receiver can understand

Kludge Memory leak: An unintended kind of memory

(A quick-and-dirty fix) consumption occurs when a computer program fails to free

an allocated block of memory when it is no longer needed

Memory is allocated, but not deallocated

A quick awkward solution to a problem

c = lambda a,b: a+b Traditional programming approach:

print(c(3,6)) Input + Program → Output

# Output: 9
Data science approach:

Input + Output → Program

1586
Size of Test
(The probability of committing a type I error)

The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis

when the null hypothesis is true

• Error = (observed value − actual value)

• Residual = (observed value − predicted value)

Power of Test

(The probability of avoiding a type II error)

The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when

the null hypothesis is false

Data Literacy

An individual's ability to extract meaningful information from data

Uplift modeling: A ML technique which predicts how every customer is

likely to respond to marketing activities an organization does to boost
the selling of a product or service to customers

1587
Dependent Data Mart Independent data mart
constructed with the use of a central data constructed without the use of a central data
warehouse warehouse

Monolithic kernel: An operating system framework in which the entire operating system runs in kernel space

Microkernel: A small piece of software capable of providing the processes required to implement an operating system

S3 AWS Availability Zone: An Amazon data

(Simple Storage Service)
center's physical location

Allows developers and IT Teams to AWS Region: A group of

store and retrieve any volume of Amazon Data Centers
data from any location on the

internet at any time Data sparsity:

The concept of not perceiving

Can be used to learn an efficiently compressed
enough data in a dataset
and encoded representation of raw data

Enterprise Data Model:

Autoencoder: A type of artificial neural network with the A kind of data model that displays a
number of output units in the output layer is equal to the unified perspective of all data used by
number of input units in the input layer the enterprise firm

BLEU

(BiLingual Evaluation Understudy) The process of automatic translation of text from

one language to another without any human
intervention

A method for automatic evaluation of Machine Translation

1588
Cloud Enablement: The process of creating, deploying and operating

"the existing infrastructure, resources and services that a enterprise is currently using on-premises"

on the cloud

CAPTCHA
(Completely Automated Public Turing Test to tell Computers and Humans Apart)

A system that distinguishes humans from robotic computer

programs in order to detect fraudulent activities

Overheating

Most computer systems are configured to automatically

shut down or reboot if the integrated circuits, graphics
card, or other hardware components get too hot

DataOps
(Data Operations)

The data management techniques that enable an enterprise

organisation to quickly and precisely automate data flow between

managers and data consumers within the company

1589
Reverse ETL: A method of feeding data from a
Pivot table: A powerful tool for rearranging
data warehouse that has been cleansed and
huge lists of data, as well as summarizing
processed back into business applications for
and analyzing them
operations and forecasting

Calibration: A comparison of a system's actual output and its expected output

Class-imbalanced dataset: Any dataset containing an unbalanced distribution of classes

For example: A class-imbalance problem exists in a Covid 19

dataset in which 0.9997of cases have positive labels and 0.0003
cases have negative labels

ML pipeline: A series of automated steps for training and deploying a ML model

Bucketing → Data organizing technique

Given a weight survey data, weights of participants ranging from 50.0 to 60.0 are
grouped together in one bucket, 60.1 to 70.0 in another, and so on.

Output on the screen:

print('in' in 'Hawking')
True
print('al' not in 'Hawking')
print({1,2,3}=={1,2,3})
True

print({1,3,5}=={1,2,3}) True
False

1590
Go Program:
Ruby program:
package main
$x = 1
import "fmt"
$y = 4

Output:
func main() { while $x < $y do
puts("#$x") 1
fmt.Println(" ", 10 + 11)
$x = $x +1 2
} end
3

# Output: 21

from random import shuffle

a = ['Albert', 'Likes', 'To', 'Read', 'In', 'Garden']
shuffle(a)
print(a)

# Output:

['To', 'Garden', 'Read', 'In', 'Albert', 'Likes']

Android Asset Packaging Tool:

AndroidManifest.xml file
A development tool that allows developers to view,
generate and update APK, as well as zip and jar files

A XML file that contains information

about an Android application Proof of Concept: A strategy used by enterprise
organizations to test the viability of an idea or concept

Software prototype: A model of Feasibility study: A methodology of evaluating a

how an actual software product will software application in terms of how feasible software
function and appear development will be for the company

1591
SCD
(Slowly Changing Dimensions)

A dimension that saves and maintains data

over time in a data warehouse

Test Data Management: Data Analysis Platform:

The process for generating, maintaining, A platform that combines services and technologies to
and sending test data to application store, manage and analyze data to address the needs of
development teams large data-driven enterprise organizations

If we use height, weight and sweet intake to forecast the probability of Diabetes mellitus:

Height, weight and sweet intake represent features

Binomial Distribution: The discrete probability distribution that yields only 2

possible outcomes in an experiment.
For example:

 If we throw a coin, there are only two possible outcomes: head or tail
 If a test is taken, there are only two possible outcomes: either pass or fail

Manifest variable Latent variable

A variable that can be directly measured A variable that cannot be directly measured but
deduced through a mathematical model from other
variables (that are directly measured)

1592
Markov chain or Markov process: A stochastic model that predicts the
probability of a particular event based on previous events

Digital Twin: A software program that Dynamic model: A model that is trained
generates stimulation that precisely online with the constantly updated data
replicates a physical object based on
real-world data in order to predict how
a physical object would behave
Data downtime:

Duration during which data

Data blending: A method for
combining data from various sources is incomplete, wrong,

into a single dataset for data missing and unreliable

visualization and analysis

 Data Joining: Combining the data from different tables within the same data source
 Data fabric: An architectural design that allows access to data regardless of its location

Stress testing

(How well a system will perform under unfavorable conditions)

Evaluates whether or not the system is reliable and stable

A real-time operating system (RTOS):

An operating system with 2 main characteristics:

• Predictability: The ability to finish all tasks in a pre-determined time
• Determinism: The ability to predict how well a task will be completed

1593
Distributed Database:

Database

Network Database
Database

Database

A type of database which consists of multiple databases that

are connected with each other via network

Self-documenting code

Well-written code that can be easily understood by another

programmer or even by the original author and a developer
doesn't have to think about leaving comments for the
reader to understand what the code is doing and why the
code is written the way it is

1594
Symmetric Encryption Asymmetric Encryption
One key can be used for both encryption and decryption To encrypt and decode data, two keys are required

Statistical Bias: The difference between the

result obtained from the Statistics and the
actual fact

Used by
Training data ML Algorithm

Results in

ML Model

Routing analysis
Transactional data: The
unpredictably changing data
A kind of network analysis that discovers the most efficient path gathered during transactions
between two or more network locations

Parallel query: A query that runs on numerous system

Parallel data analysis
processes to improve performance
Breaking down an analytical
Parallel method invocation problem into smaller parts and

(PMI) simultaneously running algorithms

on each of them

Parallel processing: The

A programming concept that allows an application to
ability to perform numerous
simultaneously invoke numerous functions or methods
tasks at once

1595
The revenue generated by selling the
products and services

Output gained from the business

Operational Efficiency =
Input to run a business operation

The costs of producing the

products and services

NewSQL

A database language that combines and builds on the concepts and principles of both SQL and NoSQL

Mashup: A web application that combines data or functionality from

multiple sources to create a single new service

Mahout A data mining library

Location analytics: Associating geographic data with a

company's data assets in order to gain more meaningful insights
into spatial questions

Natural Language Processing

# Python code to print numbers ranging from 1 to 20
for i in range(1,21):
print(i)
Make machines understand human speech

SQL injection: A hacking technique that uses malicious SQL code to steal information from your database

1596
Go program:

package main
import "fmt"
Output:

func main() { Albert Einstein

for i := 0; i < 2; i++ { Albert Einstein

fmt.Printf("Albert Einstein\n")
}
}

Market basket analysis:

A data mining technique used by retailers to identify purchases that commonly happen together.
For example, customers who purchase pencil and rubber also purchase sharpener and scale. Or
customers who purchase shoes might also purchase socks.

// Go program to demonstrate the use of an infinite loop

NoSQL database: A database

technology that stores information in package main
JSON documents import "fmt"
JavaScript Object
Notation

func main() {
Atomicity
for {

If any operation is performed on the data, fmt.Printf("Albert Einstein\n")

either it should be performed completely or }

}
should not be performed at all

1597
Cache

A hardware or software component that stores data so that future requests

for that data can be served faster

Web browsers use a cache to store web pages so that the user may view them

again without reconnecting to the Web.

Request

Client browser Web server

Response

Store data for reuse

use Caching is a technique that stores a copy of files in a cache
[temporary storage location] so that they can be served
back more quickly when requested
Local browser cache

Data buffer

A region of a memory used to temporarily store data while it is being moved from one place to another

Computer cracker

A Person who attempts to access computer systems without authorization

Crash

An event wherein the operating system or a computer application stops functioning properly

1598
Streaming
Directory
Watching any video content or
listening to audio content that is A folder where all files are kept on a computer

stored on the World Wide Web

Firewall

A network security system that monitors incoming and outgoing network

traffic and prevents unauthorized access to a network

HTTP HTTPS

Hypertext Transfer Protocol Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure

Does not provide the security of the data Ensures the security of the data

Internet service provider HTTP

Company that provides Internet http://www.abc.com/ No password encryption

connections and services to
Password: xyz@123 Hacker sees "xyz@123"
individuals and organizations

HTTPS

https://www.abc.com/ Password encryption

Hacker cannot see "xyz@123"

Password: xyz@123

Multimedia

A Software program that combines text and graphics with sound, video and animation

Freeware: software that anyone can download from the Internet and use for free.

Shareware give users a chance to try the software before buying it

1599
Platform

An environment in which a piece of software is executed

Virus Secure Sockets Layer

(SSL)

Software that infects other software by modifying it

Encryption-based Internet
security protocol that allows
Internet users to send encrypted
User Normal HTTP messages across the Internet
Insecure connection

Help our website or piece of

User content rank higher on Google

Secure HTTPS
Encrypted connection

SEO
HTTP + SSL = HTTPS
(search engine optimization)

The process of improving our website

to increase its visibility when people
Spam
search for products or services related
Unwanted, unsolicited email messages that gets sent out to our business in major search engines
in bulk for marketing purposes

Wi-Fi
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
Wireless technology used to connect
A security protocol for Wi-Fi networks computers, tablets, smartphones and
other devices to the internet via a
Add security to Wi-Fi networks by encrypting data
wireless signal

Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA): security protocol designed to create secure wireless (Wi-Fi) networks. It provides better data
encryption and user authentication than Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)

1600
 DNS → Domain Name Service
 HTTP → Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
 SMTP → Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Post office protocol (POP)
 POP → Post Office Protocol
 FTP → File Transfer Protocol

Message request protocol in the Internet world that provides e-mail client (receiver) the ability
to fetch and receive email from an e-mail server

SMTP

Sender's Mail server Internet Receiver's Mail server

POP3
SMTP

POP3 → Post Office Protocol version 3

Sender Receiver

SMTP
Cloud migration

The transfer of organization's While sending the mail message, SMTP

is used 2 times:
data, IT resources, digital Internet standard communication protocol used for
assets, services and other sending the emails efficiently and reliably over the internet  Between the sender and the
business elements into a cloud sender's mail server
computing environment  Between the sender's mail server
Cloud Computing and the receiver's mail server

Based on deployment: Based on service model:

 Private  Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) Advantages:

 Public  Platform as a service (PaaS)  Easy Scalability

 Enhanced Security
 Hybrid  Software as a service (SaaS)
 Easy Accessibility
 Cost Effective and Data is

Non SaaS Application SaaS Application routinely saved in the cloud

Application logic runs on user's computer Application logic runs in the cloud

1601
Data migration

The process of moving data from one storage system or computing environment to another

Data

Old system New system

Cloud Migration

Plan → Design → Migrate → Optimize → Assessment

Cloud portability

The ability to move applications and its associated data from one cloud

computing environment to another with minimal disruption and downtime

Cloud interoperability

The ability of the systems to work efficiently and collaborate effectively across different cloud platforms

Data orchestration

{Organize the data → Transform the data → Make the data available to the tools that need it}

The process of bringing data together from multiple data storage locations − combining and
organizing it − and preparing it for data analysis

1602
ETL ELT

[Extract, Transform and Load] [Extract, Load and Transform]

ETL:

𝐄𝐱𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭 Transform 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 Data warehouse 𝐀𝐧𝐚𝐥𝐲𝐳𝐞

Raw Data → → → Data Analytics Tools
→

Staging area
{Processing server}

 ETL transforms data on a separate processing server

 ELT transforms data within the data warehouse itself

ELT:

𝐄𝐱𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 Data warehouse

𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐀𝐧𝐚𝐥𝐲𝐳𝐞 Data Analytics Tools
Raw Data → → → →
[Transform]

 ETL does not transfer raw data into the data warehouse
 ELT sends raw data directly to the data warehouse

Automation Orchestration

Setting up one task to run on its own Automating many tasks together
{automating one task} {automation not of a single task but an entire IT-driven process}

Database Data Warehouse

Designed to record data Designed to analyze data

{Capture and maintain the data} {Explore the data}

1603
 Infrastructure as a service (IaaS): Renting servers, virtual machines, storage, networks and operating systems

 Platform as a service (PaaS): Supplying an on-demand environment for developing, testing, delivering and managing software applications

 Software as a service (SaaS): Delivering software applications over the Internet

Data redundancy Data exploration

Storing the same piece of data more than once in the database A way to get to know data
before working with it

Data Presentation

The organization of data into tables, graphs or charts so that an informed

decision can be made based on them

File transfer protocol (FTP) Data mapping

The process of modeling or illustrating

how data will move from a source
Used to transfer files via the internet from one host to another host data store to a target data store

Data cleaning

The process of correcting and deleting inaccurate records from a database or table

Data integration

The process of bringing data from different sources together to provide users with a unified view

Null: a character with no value or missing value. If $a= " " and $b= "1", $a possess a null value.

1604
Logical reasoning

Solving problems by using common sense and logic

Inductive research approach Deductive research approach

Aims at developing a theory Aims at testing an existing theory

Generalization
 Collect the information

 Analyze the information

A quick way of solving new problems based on
5 steps to draw a conclusion  Form conclusion
previous problems we have solved.
 Support conclusion

 Defend conclusion Version control

Procedure Function
The practice of tracking and
A block of code that is called to A block of code that is called to perform a task managing changes to software
perform a task and will return one or more values
code

Usability testing

A method used to evaluate how easy and user-friendly a software application is

Plan the test → Recruit the desired number of testers → Prepare → Set up testing environment → Conduct the test → Analyze data → Report results

1605
MEAN Stack MongoDB + Express.js + Angular.js + Node.js

MERN Stack MongoDB + Express.js + React.js + Node.js

MEVN Stack MongoDB + Express.js + Vue.js + Node.js

LAMP Stack Linux + Apache + MySQL + PHP

Pair programming

2 developers use just one machine to work − meaning they work simultaneously on
a single block of code. Person who writes code is called a driver and a person who
observes and checks each line of the code is called navigator.

Command line
Object oriented programming
A text interface that takes in commands and passes
on to the computer's operating system to run.  Polymorphism
 Inheritance
 Encapsulation and abstraction

Object-oriented database
+
Relational database
MVC
 Integrity [the overall accuracy, completeness and reliability of data]
[Model-View-Controller]
 Concurrency [the ability of the database to support multiple users]
 Query processing

An architectural pattern that separates an Cybersecurity

application into 3 main components:

1. data (model)
The practice of protecting systems, network data and
2. user-interface (view)
programs from unauthorized access
3. application logic (controller)

1606
Grayware Hypervisor
Hyperlink A crucial piece of software that
makes virtualization possible
A piece of text that when clicked
Malicious software that is not as
destructive as a virus − but can worsen takes the user to a webpage
the performance of computer and cause Software that creates and

security risks runs virtual machines

Internet Connection Sharing (ICS)

A Windows service that allows several computers to share one Internet connection on a local area network

IP address

[Internet Protocol address]

Software that creates and runs
virtual machines

A unique address that identifies a computer on the internet

Networking as a service (NaaS)

Renting of network services to customers who don't want to build their own networking infrastructure

Nameserver

A server that translate domain names into IP addresses

1607
 Network adapter → A device that connects our computer to a network
 SAN (storage area network) → A network of data storage devices

QoS (Quality of Service)

The technology that manage data traffic via the network

Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA)

An interface for transferring data between a computer's motherboard and storage devices

Virtual memory is created when a

computer is running many processes at
once and RAM is running low. Trojan horse

Malicious software that damage, disrupt,

Voice over Internet Protocol
steal − or in general inflict some other
(VoIP)
harmful action on your data or network
A technology that allows us to
make voice calls using a
broadband Internet connection

virtual hosting

The practice of hosting more than one website on a single server

1608
 Compression → A technique that reduces file size
 Software bug → An error or flaw in a computer program
 Word processor → A software that allows users to create, edit and print documents
 Modem → A hardware device that is used to transfer information between computers via a phone line

Rendering Speech recognition

[image synthesis] [speech to text]

The process of generating an image from the The ability of a program to process human
information contained in a file by means of a speech into a readable text
computer program.

Graphical User Interface

A graphics-based operating system interface that enables a person to communicate with a computer

by using icons, menus and a mouse (to click on the icon or pull down the menus)

Attributes

The characteristics of a file in the context of a file system

For example: if the file has a read-only attribute − the file cannot be modified and can only be read

Meta tags

Pieces of information that tell the search engine more about your webpage and the information it contains

1609
Plugin
Redirect
A piece of software that gives the
Automatic forward to a
browser additional functionality
different URL from the one
If we want to watch a video on a website, we may need a
we originally requested
plugin to do so. If the plugin is not installed, our browser
will not understand how to play the video.

Responsive design Sitemap

A web development approach that makes our web content adapt A blueprint of our website that help

to the different screen sizes and viewports. search engines find, crawl and index
our entire website's content.

Data Bus

The connection between the CPU and RAM – literally a collection of electrical wires − used to send information between CPU and RAM

The fetch-decode-execute cycle

The sequence of steps that the CPU follows to process instructions

Fetch instruction

Lossy Compression Lossless Compression

Reduces the quality Does not reduce the quality
Decode instruction Repeat until there are
Data reduction is higher Data reduction is lower
no more instructions

Embedded testing

The process of verification and validation of both

Execute instruction
software and hardware

1610
Anti-malware software

Software that detects and removes malicious code

Data Loss Prevention (DLP)

Authorization
The practice of detecting and preventing unwanted
The process of granting the permission to
destruction of sensitive data
user to access a system resource

Hardening

The process of making computer and network systems more

resistant to malicious software

Software Patch

A modification to a program to resolve functionality issues − improve security and performance − and add new features

Root access

Penetration test

Most privileged access to a computer system [ethical hacking]

allowing the use, change and deletion of any

Helps us stay ahead of hackers
and all configuration data

An authorized simulated cyber attack on a computer system to evaluate the security of the system

1611
Sensitive information

Data that must be protected from unauthorized access to safeguard the privacy and security of an organization

Data Synchronization
Computer worm
The integration of data between 2 or more devices
A malicious malware that reproduces itself
and spreads over network connections

Implementation model

A representation of how a system actually works Information Base

The main repository of information about the software

Interaction Diagram

A diagram that represent the interactive behavior of a system

Legacy system Middleware

Software that mediates between an

Outdated computing software or hardware that is still in use application program and a network

Process model Workflow

A graphical representation of a process A sequence of tasks that processes a set of data

Object-modeling technique (OMT)

An object modeling approach for software modeling and designing

1612
Software Architecture Software Design

(What we are building) (How we are building)

A detailed plan to produce a software design A detailed plan to implement software

Recursive self-improvement

The property of software to make improvements on its own ability of

making self-improvements

Technological singularity

A condition that could arrive in the near future where technological growth

would be out of control and irreversible − ordinary human intelligence would

be overtaken by artificial intelligence

Installer Bootstrap loader

A piece of software that installs The first piece of code that is executed

files such as applications, drivers when the computer system is started and

or other software − onto a is responsible for loading the rest of the

computer's hard disk operating system

Code refactoring

The process of restructuring computer code without changing its functionality

1613
Evolutionary Computation

An area of computer science that uses a class of algorithms to solve

computational problems with a process of trial and error

Heuristics

Problem-solving strategies derived from previous experiences with similar

problems − permits an individual to make a decision, come to a sensible

conclusion or solve a problem quickly and with minimal mental effort

Ambiguity

Information that can be understood in more than one way

Human-level hardware

Hardware that matches the Human brain's information-processing ability

Human-level software

Software that matches the Human brain's algorithmic efficiency for performing the

tasks the human brain performs

Computing overhang

A situation where new algorithms can make use of existing computing

power far more efficiently than before

1614
Hardware overhang

A situation where large amounts of hardware being used for other purposes

become available for AI

Intelligence explosion

A hypothesized event in which an Artificial intelligence rapidly improves and

machines will exceed human levels of intelligence and ability

Software Engineering Cycle:

Requirements Analysis Design

Development Testing

Acceptance

Deployment Maintenance and update

1615
Adversarial Machine Learning

A cyber-attack that aims to cause a machine learning model to make a

wrong prediction with deceptive input

 Black Box Attack: The attacker has no knowledge of the machine learning model
 Grey Box Attack: The attacker has partial knowledge of the machine learning model
 White Box Attack: The attacker has complete knowledge of the machine learning model

Data sanitization

The process of intentionally, permanently and irreversibly deleting or destroying the data
stored on a memory device − to ensure it cannot be recovered

Data corruption

The process of data becoming unreadable or invalid

Adversarial Example

A sample of input data which has been

adjusted somewhat in a manner that is planned

to cause an ML Model to misclassify it

1616
Artificial Superintelligence
Artificial General Intelligence

A computational system that can understand,

AI capabilities superseding
perform or learn any intellectual task that a
human intelligence
human being can

Custom Training

The process of training a model to make certain predictions

Facial recognition

The method of identifying or verifying the identity of a person using their face

False Positive False Negative

(Type I error) (Type II error)

ML Model predicts something is true ML Model predicts something is false

when it is actually false when it is actually true

True Positive True Negative

ML Model predicts something is true ML Model predicts something is false

when it is actually true when it is actually false

1617
Number of false positives
False positive rate =
Number of false positives+ Number of true negatives

Number of false negative

False negative rate =
Number of false negatives+ Number of true positives

Number of true positives

True positive rate =
Number of true positives+ Number of false negatives

Number of true negatives

True negative rate =
Number of true negatives+ Number of false positives

Feature Extraction

The transformation of raw data into the inputs that a particular Machine

Learning algorithm requires

Feature selection

The process of identifying and selecting the most appropriate information

from the raw data and removing the irrelevant or less important information

when developing a predictive model to reduce overfitting in the model

The model performs well on the training data but does not perform accurately on the test data

1618
Data augmentation

The process of enlarging a dataset with additional data

Cross-validation

A statistical method used to evaluate the performance, effectiveness

and accuracy of machine learning models

Regularization

A technique that is used to adjust machine learning model in order to

prevent overfitting or underfitting and improve the performance of

machine learning model

Ensembling

A technique that combines two or more machine learning models to produce one best predictive model

In Sample Error Out of Sample Error

The error we get on the same data with which The error we get on a unknown data

the machine-learning model was built

1619
Bias

The difference between the prediction of the values by the Machine learning model and the actual value

Variance

How much a model changes when we train it using a different dataset

Machine learning model with high variance will have the adjustability to match any dataset that is provided to it

Generative Adversarial Network

A machine learning model in which 2 neural networks contest with each

other to become more accurate in their predictions

Graphics Processing Unit

A specialized electronic circuit designed to render graphics for display on an electronic device

Image Recognition

The ability of software to identify objects in digital images or video

Optical character recognition: The ability of software to identify the text inside

images − such as scanned documents and photos

1620
Autonomous

Machines make their own decisions and potentially take their own actions to solve a
problem − without needing human intervention

Backward chaining Forward chaining

(Goal driven approach) (Data driven approach)

We have a decision and based on the We have some data and we make a

decision we fetch data decision based on the data

Decision Data
Data Decision

Big data

Massive collection of data that is too huge in volume or complex to be handled

and managed by traditional data processing softwares

Computational learning theory

A branch of artificial intelligence that is primarily concerned with the design

and analysis of machine learning algorithms

Corpus

A large collection of text and speech data that can be used to train AI and

machine learning systems to perform linguistic tasks

1621
Entity annotation

The process of labeling sentences lacking structure or organization

with some information so that a machine can read them

Entity extraction

Information extraction technique that identifies and classifies specific

data from unstructured text into predefined categories so that a

machine can read it

Natural language generation

The process by which a machine turns highly organized information into

text or speech that human beings can understand

Natural language processing

A branch of artificial intelligence that is concerned with giving computer program the ability to
understand text and speech in much the same way humans can

Natural language understanding

A branch of artificial intelligence that is concerned with giving computer

program the ability to understand and interpret human language

1622
Predictive analytics

A branch of statistics that deals with extracting information from data and

using it to make predictions about unknown future events

Sentiment analysis

(Emotion artificial intelligence)

The process of determining whether a given text contains negative, positive

or neutral emotions

Image Segmentation

The process of identifying and separating different objects in a 3D image

ImageNet

A large database of over 14 million images used for developing

computer vision algorithms

Number of incorrect predictions

Misclassification Rate =
Total number of predictions

 Misclassification Rate = 0 → zero incorrect predictions

 Misclassification Rate = 1 → completely incorrect predictions

Accuracy = (1 – Misclassification Rate)

1623
Reactive machines

The most basic functionality of AI where the machine can only react to the

input it receives − with no ability to use its past experience or previous data

to make decisions

Limited Memory

The ability of AI to store previous data and use it to make better predictions

Theory of mind

The ability of AI to understand human thoughts and emotions and use this to build

intermediating technology for machine-human interaction

Self-awareness

(Machine has its own consciousness)

The most advanced type of AI will be when we witness a

machine with human-level consciousness and intelligence

1624
Reinforcement Learning

Machine learning technique in which ML models learn to make better predictions

after repeated cycles of trial and error

Short Term Memory Long Term Memory

A type of memory in a computer that allows A type of memory in a computer that allows
storing data temporarily storing data permanently

(RAM) (Hard drive)

Recurrent Neural Networks

A class of artificial neural networks where the output from

previous step are fed as input to the current step

Supervised learning Unsupervised learning

(Task driven) (Data driven)

The output is known while training the ML model The output is unknown while training the ML model

Input and output data is given Only Input data is given

(Highly accurate and used for prediction) (Less accurate and used for analysis)

Transfer learning: Learning of a new tasks relying on the previous learned tasks

Faster, more accurate and need less training data

1625
AI Assurance

The process of testing the behavior of algorithms to protect AI applications

from attack or malfunction

Explainability Interpretability

The process of explaining why and how a machine The extent to which a human can understand the
learning model made a decision cause of a decision made by machine learning model

Commonsense Reasoning

A branch of AI that is concerned with giving computer the human

ability to make presumptions about the events and situations

humans encounter every day

Visual recognition

The ability of software to identify an object visually

Visual Search

The ability of software to search for

information using images

1626
Object Detection

A computer vision technique that identify and locate objects within

an image or video

Object Tracking

A computer vision technique that track the displacement of a particular object

across the entire video

Zero-shot learning

Teach machines to recognize something they have not seen

One-shot learning

Teach machines to do a lot more with a lot less

On-premises Software

The practice of installing and running software on

your own hardware on your company's premises

1627
Number of true positives A measure of how often a
Precision = model predicts something is
Number of true positives+ Number of false positives
true when it is actually true

The precision of a machine learning model will be low when

Number of true positives + Number of false positives > Number of true positives

The precision of a machine learning model will be high when

Number of true positives + Number of false positives < Number of true positives

Number of true positives

Positive Predictive Value =
Number of true positives+ Number of false positives
Number of true negatives
Negative Predictive Value =
Number of true negatives+ Number of false negatives

Search Query

A list of phrases and keywords users enter in search engines to find information about things of interest

Selective Filtering

A ML model ignores unwanted information to focus on valuable information

Target Function The end goal of an algorithm

1628
Student452A | Alan

Alan scored 90 Student452A scored A Student scored

out of 100 in his 90 out of 100 in his 90 out of 100 in his

board exam board exam board exam

Personal data Pseudonymized data Anonymized data

[Pseudonymization and anonymization of data]

Database Firewalls

A protection technology that effectively protects the sensitive information

stored in the databases from malware attacks, data loss and thievery

Augmented intelligence

A subfield of AI machine learning that is designed to enhance human

intelligence through the power of machine generated insights rather

than replacing it

1629
Edge computing

The method of capturing, processing, analyzing and storing information at or

near the physical location where that information is produced or consumed

Deepfake

The AI based technique of creating fake images and videos that we cannot

distinguish them from authentic ones

Deployed AI

The method of integrating an AI model into

an existing production environment to make

real-time business decisions based on data

1630
F1-score

A measure of the model's accuracy

Number of true positives

Number of false positives + Number of false negatives
Number of true positives +
2

 F1-score = 1 Model is considered perfect

 F1-score = 0 Model is a total failure

Bayes Theorem:

P(E|H) • P(H)
P (H | E) =
P(E)

H represents a hypothesis and E the evidence

 P (H | E) – the probability of H given E is true

 P (E | H) – the probability of E given H is true

 P (E) – the probability of E

 P (H) – the probability of H

Binarization

The process of transforming data into binary numbers

Data discretization

The method of converting a large number of data values into smaller ones so that
assessment and management of data becomes unchallenging

1631
Build-Measure-Learn cycle

(BML cycle)

Ideas

Learn
Build

Data Product

Measure

1. Build idea into product

2. Measure the response of the customers against the product

3. Learn from it to improve the product

Recommendation system

Collaborative Filtering Content-based filtering

Suggest a user the products or services Suggest a user the relevant products or
based on the likings of the other users with services based on their preferred features
similar tastes. For example, if you are of other products or services. For
watching a movie on Netflix, then it is example , if you search for white clothes
likely that the movie liked by the other frequently on Shopclues, then other
users with the similar taste will be clothes of the same colour will be
suggested to you suggested to you

1632
Data Preparation Process

Data collection → Data Preprocessing → Data Transformation

Serialization

Data structures A sequence of bytes

Deserialization

Rule-Based Approach

Approach to achieve AI via a model merely based on predetermined rules

Rule-Based Approach Machine Learning

High Precision Low Precision

Low Recall High Recall

1633
Number of true positives
 Precision =
Number of true positives + Number of false positives

Number of true positives

 Recall =
Number of true positives + Number of false negatives

Deduction:

Idea Observations Conclusion

(All viruses are acellular) (HIV is a virus) (HIV is acellular)

Induction:

Observations Analysis Theory

(I get cold from dust) (This is the symptom of (I am allergic

dust allergy) to dust)

Stages of Data Mining

Data source → Data exploration → Data modeling → Model deployment

AI winter

Periods of time [1974 –1980 and 1987–1993] during which AI experienced

reduced funding for researches and low interest from the people

1634
C → Consistency A → Availability P → Partition Tolerance

All users see the same data at System continues to function System continues to function even if
the same time even with node failures the communication fails between nodes

CAP Theorem: A distributed database system can only support 2 out of these 3 properties:
Consistency, Availability, and Partition Tolerance

 AP → Availability + Partition Tolerance

 CA → Consistency + Availability
 CP → Consistency + Partition Tolerance

Centralized Database

Data is stored, located as well as maintained at a single location only

✓ ✓
Structured data → Rules of Inference → Conclusion

× ×
Unstructured data → Rules of Inference → Conclusion

✓ ✓
Unstructured data Structured data → Rules of Inference → Conclusion

Deep Learning  CV → Computer Vision

(CV + NLP)  NLP → Natural Language Processing

1635
Social Network Analytics:

The use of network analytics to the study of

social networks such as Facebook

Action Learning Cycle:

PLAN

What will we do now?

How will we do that?

ACT

Take action to carry out plan

REFLECT

What happened?

What are the results?

LEARN

What went well?

What could be improved?

Active Experimentation Abstract Conceptualization

Trying out what we have learned

Learning from the experience

1636
 Dynamic Data: Data that change often Machine learning as a service
 Static Data: Data that does not change
Providing ML tools as a part of cloud computing services

Simpson's Paradox:
A huge storage of business information for
A>C the purpose of reporting and analysis

B>D
Data mart: The access layer of a data warehouse used
to provide information to users
But A + B < C+ D

PDSA
Binary Variable

Plan-Do-Study-Act

A variable that can only take

one of two values  Plan: What will be tested?
For example:
 Do: Carry out the test
 True or False
 Study: What did you learn?
 Yes or No
 0 or 1  Act: Take action based on what you learned
 Male or Female

Evaluation Metrics: A set of metrics used to evaluate the quality and performance of a ML model.
Examples of evaluation metrics are:
Number of true positives
 Recall =
Number of true positives + Number of false negatives
Number of true positives
 Precision =
Number of true positives + Number of false positives
Number of true positives +Number of true negatives
 Accuracy = Number of true positives + Number of true negatives + Number of false positives +Number of false negatives

2 × Precision × Recall
 F-measure =
Precision + Recall

1637
Decision-Tree:

Are you feeling hungry?

Yes No

Have 100 Rupees? Go to your home

Yes No

Go to Hotel Buy bread

1 2 3 + 4 5 6

A B

5 7 9

(A + B)

import numpy as np
Output on the screen:
A = np.array([1, 2, 3])

B = np.array([4, 5, 6]) [5 7 9]

print(A + B)

1638
1 2 3 × 4 5 6

A B

4 10 18

(A × B)

import numpy as np
Output on the screen:
A = np.array([1, 2, 3])

B = np.array([4, 5, 6]) [ 4 10 18]

print(A * B)

2 × 4 5 6

A B

8 10 12

(A × B)

import numpy as np
Output on the screen:
A = np.array([2])

B = np.array([4, 5, 6]) [ 8 10 12]

print(A * B)

1639
Code:

import numpy as np

A = np.array([1, 2, 3]) Output on the screen:

B = A.copy() [1 2 3]

print(B)

Code:

import numpy as np

A = np.array([1, 2, 3]) Output on the screen:

B = A.view() [1 2 3]

print(B)

Code:

import numpy as np

A = np.array([1, 2, 3])
Output on the screen:
A[0] = 6
[6 2 3]
B = A.view()

print(B)

Code:

import numpy as np

A = np.array([1, 2, 3])
Output on the screen:
A[1] = 6

B = A.view() [1 6 3]

print(B)

1640
Code:

import numpy as np

A = np.array([1, 2, 3])
Output on the screen:
A[1] = 6

B = A.copy() [1 6 3]

print(B)

Code:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

String a = new String("Albert"); Output on the screen:

String b = new String("Einstein"); false

System.out.println(a.equals(b));

Code:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

String a = new String("Albert");

Output on the screen:
String b = new String("Albert");
true
System.out.println(a.equals(b));

1641
Feature selection:

Set of all features → Selecting the best feature → ML Algorithm → Model performance

Hold-out method

Technique of splitting the data into

 Training Dataset → used for training the model

 Validation Dataset → used for validating the model
 Testing Dataset → used for evaluating the model

Imputation:

Name Age
Alan 21
Incomplete data: The second row contains a missing value
Stephen
Albert 25

Name Age
Alan 21 Complete data: The missing value is filled with mean of all ages
21+ 25
Stephen 23 i.e. = 23
2
Albert 25

1642
A metric used to assess the
 TP → Number of true positives
performance of a
classification model
 TN → Number of true negatives
 FP → Number of false positives
Matthews Correlation Coefficient (MCC):  FN → Number of false negatives

TP × TN –FP × FN
MCC =
√(TP+FP)(TP+FN)(TN+FP)(TN+FN)

The value for MCC ranges from −1 to 1 where:

 −1 indicates total disagreement between predicted values and actual values (inverse prediction)
 0 indicates average random prediction (completely random guessing)
 1 indicates total agreement between predicted values and actual values (perfect prediction)

Fowlkes-Mallows index (FMI):

TP TP Determine the similarity

FMI = √ ×
TP + FP TP+FN between 2 clusters

A high value indicates a good similarity between 2 clusters

Java code JavaScript code

public class MyClass { <script>

public static void main(String[] args) { document.write("Hello, World!");
System.out.println("Hello, World!"); </script>
}
}

Output on the screen:

Hello, World!

1643
Code:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

// Here str[0] points to String Alan

// Here str[1] points to String Albert

// Here str[2] points to String Hawking Output on the screen:

String[] str = { "Alan", "Albert", "Hawking" }; 6

// Print the length of the String Albert

System.out.println(str[1].length());

x = "100"

def myfunc():

print(x)
Global variable declaration

myfunc()

def myfunc():

x = "100"

print(x) Local variable declaration

myfunc()

1644
Name Height Weight

Alan 172 86 Wide format data

Albert 179 92

Name Attribute Value

Alan Height 172
Alan Weight 86 Long format data
Albert Height 179
Albert Weight 92

Confounder

A variable that falsely appears to be the cause of the

outcome instead of the true cause

Decision Null Hypothesis is true Null hypothesis is false

Reject the Null Hypothesis Type I error Correct Decision

Fail to reject Null Hypothesis Correct Decision Type II error

Pareto principle:
80% of results are produced by 20% of causes

Examples include:
20% of convicts commit 80% of offences
20% of bus drivers cause 80% of all road accidents

1645
Append Extend
x = [1,2,3,4,5,6] x = [1,2,3,4,5,6]
x.append(7) y = [7]
print (x) x.extend(y)
print (x)

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7] [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]

Python Code:

Output on the screen:

x = ['Stephen', 'William']
['Stephen', 'William', 'Hawking']
x.append('Hawking')
print (x)

Python Code:

x = ['Stephen', 'William']
x.extend('Hawking')
print (x)

Output on the screen:

['Stephen', 'William', 'H', 'a', 'w', 'k', 'i', 'n', 'g']

When a statistical model is overfed with data

Results in
Overfitting

1646
Bias and variance → prediction errors of a ML model

1
Bias ∝
variance

 An oversimplified model → High bias, Low variance

 A more complex model → Low bias, High variance

Low bias and Low variance → The goal of any supervised ML algorithm to achieve strong prediction performance

Therefore, a balance is maintained between the bias and variance and this is called the bias-variance trade-off

Total Sum of Squares = (Explained Sum of Squares + Residual Sum of Squares)

Python code:

Output on the screen:

x = lambda a,b,c : (a**b) +(c**a)
25
print (x (2,4,3))

Positive correlation

 High scores on A are associated with High scores on B If we want to study the diabetes among the
 Low scores on A are associated with Low scores on B people in South Africa and we study 500
people then those 500 became sample
Negative correlation whereas the all the people in the South
 High scores on A are associated with Low scores on B African country is the population

 Low scores on A are associated with High scores on B

Deep learning algorithm → performs

Machine learning algorithm → performs well
well on large datasets and needs much
on small or medium datasets and needs less time
more time to train
to train as compared to deep learning

1647
Python code:

Output on the screen:

x = [1,2,3,4]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
y= [1,2,5,6]

print(list(set(x+y)))

Python code:

Output on the screen:

x = [1,2,3,4]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]
y= [5,6,7,8]

print(list(set(x+y)))

Empirical Rule:

(68–95–99.7 Rule)

 68% of the observations in a normal distribution lie within (mean ± standard deviation)
 95% of the observations in a normal distribution lie within (mean ± 2 × standard deviation)
 99.7% of the observations in a normal distribution lie within (mean ± 3 ×standard deviation)

Fuzzy Matching

A technique of identifying 2 strings that are approximately

similar but are not exactly the same

1648
Confusion matrix

A table which contains information about predicted and actual values of a classification problem − used
for evaluating the performance of a classification model

It has four parts namely:

 True Positive: The actual value is positive and the model predicts a positive value
 True Negative: The actual value is negative and the model predicts a negative value
 False Positive (Type 1 error): The actual value is negative but the model predicts a positive value
 False Negative (Type 2 error): The actual value is positive but the model predicts a negative value

It can be used to calculate:

Number of true negatives + Number of true positives

 Accuracy = Number of true negatives + Number of true positives + Number of false negatives + Number of false positives

Number of true positives

 Precision =
Number of true positives + Number of false positives

Number of true positives

 Recall = Number of true positives + Number of false negatives

Python code:

import numpy as np
Output on the screen:
A = np.array([[2, 4, 8], [5, 7, 1]]) [[ 8 20 48]

B = np.array([[4, 5, 6], [2, 3, 4]]) [10 21 4]]

print(A * B)

Bagging Boosting Stacking

Goal to achieve Reduce variance Reduce bias Improve performance

1649
# Python code to convert uppercase string to lowercase

str = 'ALBERT'
print(str.lower())

# Python code to delete 1.pdf file

a = ["Stephen", "William", "Hawking"]

print(" ".join(a)) import os
os.remove("1.pdf")

Output on the screen:

Local variables Global variables
Stephen William Hawking

Variables that are defined Variables that are defined

within a function outside a function

# Python code to print the file path of imported modules

import os; Output on the screen:

import socket;
print(os)
<module 'os' from 'C:\\Users\\Manju\\Anaconda3\\lib\\os.py'>
print(socket) <module 'socket' from 'C:\\Users\\Manju\\Anaconda3\\lib\\socket.py'>

print(5//2)
print(5/2)
Output on the screen:
2
2.5

1650
Degree of fit
Divide and conquer technique

The extent to which the model

Problem
closely fits the training data

The algorithm divides the main

problem into 2 subproblems

Subproblem Subproblem

Each subproblem is solved separately by the algorithm

Solution to Solution to

Subproblem Subproblem

To produce the overall solution, the algorithm

combines the solutions to the subproblems

Solution to problem

∑
A metric for comparing observed results
(Observed –Expected)2
Chi squared = with expected results
Expected

1651
Selection Sort

3 4 1 5 2 Array to be sorted

index 0 index 1 index 2 index 3 index 4

3 4 1 5 2

Sorting at index 0

Smallest element at index 2

index 0 index 1 index 2 index 3 index 4
1 4 3 5 2
Swap them

index 0 index 1 index 2 index 3 index 4

3 4 1 5 2

index 0 index 1 index 2 index 3 index 4

1 2 3 5 4
Sorting at index 1

Smallest element at index 4

Swap them

index 0 index 1 index 2 index 3 index 4

1 4 3 5 2

Sorting at index 2

Smallest element at index 2 Leave it

index 0 index 1 index 2 index 3 index 4

1 2 3 5 4

1652
Sorting at index 3

Smallest element at index 4

1653
find . -mtime -1 -type f -print0 | xargs -0 tar rvf "12.tar"

# Backup each file or directory that have been modified within the last 24 hour

find . -type f -size +100000 -exec ls -al {} \;

# List all the files having more than 100000 bytes

Insertion Sort

1 2 8 10 17 6 Array to be sorted

1 2 8 10 17 6 17 > 6, swap

1 2 8 10 6 17 10 > 6, swap

1 2 8 6 10 17 8 > 6, swap

1 2 6 8 10 17 1 < 2 < 6 < 8 <10<17

(swaping is done)

Array is now sorted

1 2 6 8 10 17

1654
[manju@localhost ~]$ for i in 1 2 3 4 5 ; do echo "$i" ; done

[manju@localhost ~]$ for i in {1..5..1};do echo "$i" ; done

[manju@localhost ~]$ for i in {1..5..2};do echo "$i" ; done

[manju@localhost ~]$ for i in {1..5..3};do echo "$i" ; done

[manju@localhost ~]$ for i in {1..5..4};do echo "$i" ; done

[manju@localhost ~]$ for i in {1..5..5};do echo "$i" ; done

1655
[manju@localhost ~]$ for i in `seq 1 6`;do echo $i ;done

[manju@localhost ~]$ b="x y z"; for i in $b; do echo $i; done

[manju@localhost ~]$ b=(x y z); for i in ${b[@]};do echo $i; done

 while :; do echo "Hello World"; done

Infinite Loop
 while true; do echo "Hello World"; done

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat 2.txt [manju@localhost ~]$ cat 2.txt | while read LINE; do echo "${LINE}"; done

Hi Hi

Alan
Alan
John
John

1656
Linux command: ss -tunlp4

Description: Get statistics about your network connections

Linux command: netstat -anpl

Description: Check all the network connections

Linux command: find . -mtime +1

Description: Find files modified before 1 day

Linux command: find . -mmin -10

Description: Find files modified in the last 10 minutes

Linux command: find . -mmin +10

Description: Find files modified in the before 10 minutes

Linux command: find . -type f -mmin -40

Description: Find only the files (but not directories) modified in the last 40 minutes

Parameter Statistic

The whole population A sample of the population

Statistical significance

A finding is statistically significant when it is unlikely to have occurred by chance

1657
Alternative Data

Data gathered from non-traditional information sources

Blogs, social media and

unpublished websites

Continuous Improvement Cycle

 Plan the improvement

 Implement the improvement
 Evaluate the outcome of the improvement
 If the outcome of the improvement is successful
 If the outcome of the improvement is failure
Implement it on a wider scale

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls

1.txt Desktop Downloads empty2.txt Pictures Templates test.txt Videos

2.txt Documents empty1.txt Music Public test.php txt.pdf

[manju@localhost ~]$ find . -name "empty1.txt" -exec rm {} \;

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls

1.txt Desktop Downloads Music Public test.txt txt.pdf

2.txt Documents empty2.txt Pictures Templates test.php Videos

[manju@localhost ~]$ a=22; echo $a; # Prints 22

[manju@localhost ~]$ unset a; echo $a # Prints nothing

1658
Standard score

Observed value− Mean of the sample

Z-Score =
Standard deviation of the sample

If Z-Score = 0:
Observed value = Mean of the sample

Alpha value

The probability of making a Type I error in a statistical test

p value

The probability of the result obtained by chance

If p value > alpha value:

Result is not statistically significant

If p value < alpha value:

Result is statistically significant

Alpha value = 0.05 → 5%

which implies:

We are 95% confident that we won't make a Type I error

1659
Greedy Algorithmic Approach:

 If Sham is not in Bangalore, then he is not in India
statements

If X = {1, 2} and Y = {3, 5, 7}, then the Cartesian Product of X and Y is {(1, 3), (1, 5), (1, 7), (2, 3), (2, 5), (2, 7)}

The success rate given the classifier

Lift =
The normal success rate

Describe how a classifier improves prediction

True positive rate Sensitivity

Positive likelihood ratio = =
False positive rate (1−Specificity)

False positive rate (1−Sensitivity)

Negative likelihood ratio = =
True positive rate Specificity

1661
Akaike information criterion:

AIC = −2ln (L) + 2k Does not depends on sample size

Better at choosing predictive model

Schwarz Bayesian Criterion:

SBC = −2ln (L) + k ln (n) Depends on sample size

Better at choosing explanatory model

 L = likelihood function
 k = number of parameters to be estimated
 n = number of observations (sample size)

Negation ¬x If x is true, then ¬x is false

(not-x)

Double Negation ¬¬x If x is true, then ¬¬x is true

(not not-x)

Conjunction x ∧y x ∧ y is true only if x and y are both true

(x and y)

Disjunction x ∨y x ∨ y is true if any of x, y is true and also when

x or y (or both) both are true

1662
Exclusive Or x⊕ y x ⊕ y is true only if exactly one of x and y is

(either x or y, but true

not both)

Biconditional x ↔y x ↔ y is true only if both x and y are true or

(x if and only if y) if both x and y are false

Conditional x→y x → y is false only if x is true, and y is false;

(if x then y) otherwise, it is always true

 (42 < 0) → (2 < 4) is true because (42 < 0) is false and (2 < 4) is true
 (2 < 4) → (42 < 0) is false because (2< 4) is true and (42 < 0) is false

Text: "Einstein was the greatest physicist of the twentieth century. Einstein was German"

Tokenization: Breaking
 Sentence 1: Einstein was the greatest physicist of the twentieth century
the text into sentences
 Sentence 2: Einstein was German

Einstein was the greatest physicist of twentieth century German

Einstein was the greatest 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0

physicist of the twentieth
century
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Einstein was German

A bag of words

The number of times each word appears in each sentence

1663
Kolmogorov's 3 Axioms of Probability Every Data Scientist Should Know:

 Axiom 1:

0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1

P(A) → Probability of an event A

 Axiom 2:

The sample space is the set of all possible experiment outcomes

Experiment 1: When a coin is tossed: Experiment 2: When a dice is thrown:

Possible outcomes are head or tail Possible outcomes are the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6

sample space = {head, tail} sample space = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Probability of the sample space =1

 Axiom 3:

P(A U B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B)

If P(A ∩ B) = 0:

P(A U B) = P(A) + P(B)

 P(A) → The probability of event A occurring

 P(B) → The probability of event B occurring
 P(A U B) → P(A or B) → The probability of either one of the events A or B occurring
 P(A ∩ B) → P(A and B) → The probability of event A and event B occurring together

1664
R-Squared:

Total sum of square− Residual sum of square

R2 =
Total sum of square

Adjusted R-Squared:

(1−R2 ) (Number of samples−1)

Adjusted R2 = 1 –
Number of samples−Number of features used−1

Clustering Technique Associations Rule Technique

The technique for grouping The technique for finding the frequently

or clustering the dataset occurring items

Pre-Pruning Post-Pruning
Stop the growth of the decision tree before it Stop the growth of the decision tree after it
completely classifies the training set completely classifies the training set

Python Pandas package Python Numpy package Python Plotly package

Used for Used for Used for

Data analysis Numerical calculation Data visualization

Python Scikit-learn package

Used for

Modeling the ML Algorithms

1665
Blue-green deployment: A methodology for deploying software upgrades that minimizes
downtime by managing active traffic between 2 identical production environments

One (blue) Other (green)

Running the current version of application Running the new version of application

Box diagram:

A rectangle is subdivided to illustrate:

A 1 teraFLOPS computer
system can do one trillion
 if-then-else conditions
(1012) floating-point
 repetition and case conditions operations per second

in a control flow diagram

Data definition language (DDL) Data manipulation language (DML)

Modify the structure of the database Query or modify the data of the database

CREATE, ALTER, DROP statements SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

statements

Bandwidth:

The maximum amount of information that can be sent from one point to another

through an internet connection in a specific amount of time

1666
Over 95% of Linux is written in C language

[manju@localhost ~]$ for ((x=0,y=50; x<=5; x++,y-=1)); do printf "x=%03d y=%03d\n" $x $y; done

x=000 y=050

x=001 y=049

x=002 y=048

x=003 y=047

x=004 y=046

x=005 y=045

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls

1.txt ab.cpp ab.txt bc.txt CD.txt Downloads IO.txt Pictures testtxt

1.zip abc.txt AB.txt BC.txt Desktop files.txt log Public txt

abc.cpp ab.pdf bc.pdf cd.txt Documents io.txt Music Templates Videos

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls *

1.txt abc.cpp abc.txt ab.txt bc.pdf BC.txt CD.txt io.txt log txt

1.zip ab.cpp ab.pdf AB.txt bc.txt cd.txt files.txt IO.txt testtxt

Desktop:

Documents:

Downloads:

Music:

Pictures:

Public:

Templates:

Videos:

1667
[manju@localhost ~]$ ls .*

.bash_history .bash_logout .bash_profile .bashrc .esd_auth .ICEauthority

1.txt ab.cpp ab.txt bc.txt CD.txt Downloads IO.txt Pictures testtxt

1.zip abc.txt AB.txt BC.txt Desktop files.txt log Public txt

abc.cpp ab.pdf bc.pdf cd.txt Documents io.txt Music Templates Videos

..:

manju users

.cache:

abrt gstreamer-1.0

event-sound-cache.tdb.localhost.localdomain.x86_64-redhat-linux-gnu imsettings

evolution tracker

gdm webkit

gnome-shell

.config:

abrt gnome-initial-setup-done ibus run-welcome-tour yelp

dconf gnome-session imsettings tracker

evolution goa-1.0 nautilus user-dirs.dirs

gconf gtk-3.0 pulse user-dirs.locale

.local:

.mozilla:

extensions plugins

1668
[manju@localhost ~]$ ls

1.txt ab.cpp ab.txt bc.txt CD.txt Downloads IO.txt Pictures testtxt

1.zip abc.txt AB.txt BC.txt Desktop files.txt log Public txt

abc.cpp ab.pdf bc.pdf cd.txt Documents io.txt Music Templates Videos

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls a[a-z]c.txt

abc.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls -l d.txt

-rw-r--r--. 1 root root 0 May 29 19:33 cd.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ for i in a* b*; do md5sum $i; done

d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e abc.cpp

d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e ab.cpp

d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e abc.txt

d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e ab.pdf

d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e ab.txt

d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e bc.pdf

d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e bc.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ wc -l /etc/hosts || echo "The command wc -l /etc/hosts failed to read /etc/hosts"

2 /etc/hosts

[manju@localhost ~]$ names=( Albert Alan John Hawking Stephen Steve Balmer ); echo ${names[@]:0:1}

Albert

[manju@localhost ~]$ names=( Albert Alan John Hawking Stephen Steve Balmer ); echo ${names[@]:1:1}

Alan

[manju@localhost ~]$ names=( Albert Alan John Hawking Stephen Steve Balmer ); echo ${names[@]:2:1}

John

1669
date 00101000
BASH Linux Kernel
ls 10100001

cal 11100000

Linux shell

Binary code
Linux commands

Working of Shell when we type a command

[manju@localhost ~]$ expr 2 \* 13

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo `expr 2 + 13`

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo -e "\e[1;33m This is yellow text \e[0m"

This is yellow text

[manju@localhost ~]$ name=Albert; number=1905; echo "${name} Einstein's $number Papers"

Albert Einstein's 1905 Papers

[manju@localhost ~]$ date --date "Feb 20 2020" +%A

Thursday

[manju@localhost ~]$ touch file1.txt file2.txt FILE.txt

find . -print [manju@localhost ~]$ find . -iname "file*" -print
# Print the list of files and folders
./file1.txt

./file2.txt

./FILE.txt

1670
[manju@localhost ~]$ find . $ -name "*.cpp" -o -name "*.txt" $ -print

./.cache/tracker/db-version.txt

./.cache/tracker/db-locale.txt

./.cache/tracker/miner-applications-locale.txt

./.cache/tracker/last-crawl.txt

./.cache/tracker/first-index.txt

./1.txt

./ab.txt

./bc.txt
[manju@localhost ~]$ cat ab.txt
./cd.txt
56
./io.txt
66
./AB.txt
[manju@localhost ~]$ cat ab.txt | echo $[ $(tr '\n' '+' ) 0 ]
./BC.txt

./CD.txt 122

./IO.txt [manju@localhost ~]$ echo $[ 11+12+13+14+15+20 ]

./abc.txt
85
./abc.cpp

./ab.cpp

./files.txt

./file1.txt

./file2.txt

./FILE.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ find . -regex ".*$\.c\|\.java$$"

./ab.c

./ab.java

[manju@localhost ~]$ find . -iregex ".*$\.cpp\|\.c$$"

./abc.cpp

./ab.cpp

./ab.c

1671
find . -type f -atime -5 -print

# Print all the files that were accessed within the last five days

find . -type f -amin +15 -print

# Print all the files that have an access time older than 15 minutes

find . -type f -name "*.cpp" -delete

# Remove all the .cpp files from the current directory

find . -type f -perm 744 -print

# Print files having permission 744

[manju@localhost ~]$ find . -type f -name "*.pdf" -exec printf "PDF FILE: %s\n" {} \;

PDF FILE: ./bc.pdf

PDF FILE: ./ab.pdf

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "albert einstein" | tr 'a-z' 'A-Z'

ALBERT EINSTEIN

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo 45678 | tr '0-9' '9876543210'

54321

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo 54321 | tr '9876543210' '0-9'

45678

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "Albert 1905 Papers 1921" | tr -d '0-9'

Albert Papers [manju@localhost ~]$ echo Albert 1905 Einstein 1921 Alan 1933 | tr -d -c '0-9 \n'

1905 1921 1933

1672
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo albert einstein was a German | sed 's/\w\+/[&]/g'

[albert] [einstein] [was] [a] [German]

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo albert EINSTEIN | sed 's/$[a-z]\+$ $[A-Z]\+$/\2 \1/'

EINSTEIN albert

Physical Topology

The way the network is established

 how the cables are laid up

 how the computers are linked

Digital Subscriber Line

The number of bytes in the data packet

Transmission Delay =
Network Bandwidth
Used to send digital data via a
Transmission delay ∝ The number of bytes in the data packet phone connection

1
Transmission delay ∝ Handshake
Network Bandwidth

The process for connecting

two networking devices
Distance between sender and receiver
Propagation delay =
Transmission speed
MAC Address
Propagation delay ∝ Distance between sender and receiver (Media Access Control Address)

1
Propagation delay ∝
Transmission speed
The manufacturer's issued
unique identifier for a piece of
A piece of hardware that controls how data is transferred across a network
network hardware

1673
Selection Bias
The Law of Demeter

A situation in which a wrong

 Z is a friend of X data selection can inadvertently
 Y is a friend of Z but a stranger to X lead to imprecise predictions

Communication between X
and Y is discouraged since Y
is a stranger to X

X Z Y

Communication
between X and Z is
encouraged since Z is a
friend of X

sample standard deviation

Confidence interval = sample mean ± confidence level value
√sample size

The standard deviation of the sample determines the confidence interval. When outliers are introduced into
the sample, the standard deviation increases, and the confidence interval increases with it

With the introduction of outliers, the confidence interval will increase

Measurement Bias:

Bias is created when the information gathered isn't totally correct (imprecise)

1674
If a server-side web application contains multiple versions of the same function

Used thousands of times per day

Technical debt soon

Without Dependence Inversion Principle accumulates in the form of
poor performance and
wasted CPU time

Package X Package Z

An underweight person takes a new

weight-gain powder and the weight
Object X Object Z
gained is measured after 1 week

weight-gain powder

Object X refers Object Z

Explanatory variable

weight gained
With Dependence Inversion Principle

Response variable
Package X Package Z

Object X Object Z
Benchmarking
Object X refers Interface X

A method of determining the best

Object Z inherits from performance − whether in a specific
Interface X
Interface X organization, by a competitor company or
by a completely different enterprise sector

1675
Continuous Deployment Continuous Delivery
The deployment to the production environment is The deployment to the production environment is not
completely automated, requiring no human intervention automated, requiring manual or human intervention

Logical data warehouse: HTTP GET HTTP POST

HyperText Transfer Protocol HyperText Transfer Protocol

An architectural layer that sits on top of
method used to obtain data method used to used to send
persistent data and allows data to be viewed
from a specific server via data to a specific server
without having to be changed
specific URL

Spoofing Traits

A method in which a cybercriminal attempts to steal the original identity

of authorized users and then impersonates them
A method that allows developers to
You are a target of phone spoofing when a caller fraudulently create reusable code in PHP and
portrays himself as a representative of your bank and requests other languages that don't support
for your credit card details multiple inheritances

Cloud Elasticity Cloud Scalability

The ability of a cloud to expand or contract its The ability of a cloud to scale up or down its
infrastructure resources in response to an infrastructure resources in response to expected
unanticipated or abrupt increase in demand increase in demand

 Software Engineering → Practical approach required to create a software application

 Computer Engineering → (Practical + Theoretical) approach required to create a software application

1676
P(6, 2): (6) + (2) ≥ 7
True propositional statement
8≥7

P(4, 1): (4) + (1) ≥ 7 False propositional statement

5≥7

REST API Methods

GET Get information about API resource

POST Create API resource

PUT Update API resource

DELETE Delete API resource

Multitasking Multiprocessing

Uses a single processor to accomplish Uses multiple processors to accomplish

multiple tasks at once multiple tasks at once

More cost-effective and less Less cost-effective and more

efficient than multiprocessing efficient than multiprocessing

Node: Any device that can communicate via network

Link or edge: The connectivity between two communicating devices in the network

Node Node Node

Link Link Link Link

Node Node

1677
In Microsoft operating systems:

ipconfig

command is used to examine and configure network interfaces.

In MAC, Linux, UNIX operating systems:

ifconfig

command is used to examine and configure network interfaces.

IP address → Address Resolution Protocol → MAC address

A network-level protocol that is used to convert the IP address to the MAC address

Assists in the identification

of the device connectivity on
the network

Assists in the
identification of the device

Parametric Methods Non-Parametric Methods

Uses a fixed number of parameters to build the model Uses a flexible number of parameters to build the model

Epoch

The number of times the machine learning algorithm has passed through the entire training dataset

1678
dataset size × number of epochs = number of iterations × batch size

If batch size = dataset size:

The number of epochs equals the number of iterations

Number of N-gram in a text = T – (N − 1)

 T → The total number of words in a text

text = "Albert Einstein was a famous theoretical physicist"

If N = 1:

Number of 1-gram in a text = 7 – (1 − 1) = 7

(unigram)

If N = 2:

Number of 2-gram in a text = 7 – (2 − 1) = 6

(bigram)

If N = 3:

Number of 3-gram in a text = 7 – (3 − 1) = 5

(trigram)

1-gram 2-gram 3-gram

Albert Albert Einstein Albert Einstein was
Einstein Einstein was Einstein was a
was was a was a famous
a a famous a famous theoretical
famous famous theoretical famous theoretical physicist
theoretical theoretical physicist
physicist

1679
Number of defects rejected
 Defect -rejection ratio = × 100
Total number of defects of software

Number of defects missed

 Defect -leakage ratio = × 100
Total number of defects of software

Number of defects fixed

Fixed defects percentage = × 100
Total number of defects reported

Number of passed tests

Passed test cases percentage = × 100
Total number of tests

Number of failed tests

Failed test cases percentage = × 100
Total number of tests

Number of blocked tests

Blocked test cases percentage = × 100
Total number of tests

3 Types of Relationship in Database Table:

One to One Relationship When a single row in table A is linked to a single row in table B, this type of relationship is used

One to Many Relationship When a single row in table A is linked to many rows in table B, this type of relationship is used

Many to Many Relationship When many rows in table A is linked to many rows in table B, this type of relationship is used

1680
Ruby program:

a, b, c = 42, 20, 13 for x in 0..3

puts "The value of a is #{ a }."
puts "#{x}"
puts "The sum of a and b is #{ a + b }."
end
puts "The product of a, b and c is #{ a * b * c}."

Output: Output:
The value of a is 42. 0
The sum of a and b is 62. 1
The product of a, b and c is 10920. 2

Shallow neural network:

{Input Layer} {Hidden Layer} {Output Layer}

Deep neural network:

{Input Layer} {Hidden Layer 1} {Hidden Layer 2} {Hidden Layer 3} … {Hidden Layer N} {Output Layer}

Deep neural networks include multiple hidden layers between the input and output

layers, whereas shallow neural networks have only one hidden layer

1681
Armstrong number:

 13 + 53 + 33 = 153 → Three Digits Armstrong number

The sum of the cubes of each digit of 153 is equal to the number itself

 14 + 64 + 34 + 44 = 1634 → Four Digits Armstrong number

The sum of the fourth power of each digit of 1634 is equal to the number itself

Python code:

num = 153

sum = 0

d = num

while d > 0:

digit = d % 10

sum += digit ** 3

d //= 10

if num == sum:

print(num, "is an Armstrong number")

else:

print(num, "is not an Armstrong number")

Output:

153 is an Armstrong number

1682
num = 1634

sum = 0

d = num

while d > 0:

digit = d % 10

sum += digit ** 4

d //= 10

if num == sum:

print(num, "is an Armstrong number")

else:

print(num, "is not an Armstrong number")

Output:

1634 is an Armstrong number

IDL World readable files

(Interface Definition Language)

Any user can view files stored on a file system.

A language that allows a program written in one Files stored on web servers, for example, can only
language to interact with another program written be seen by Web users if their permissions are
in an unknown language set to global accessible.

Wrapper: An object that encapsulates and transfer control to another

object in order to change its interface or behavior

1683
print("hello"*3) hellohellohello repetition
print("hello"+"world") helloworld concatenation
print("hello"[0]) h indexing
print("hello"[-1]) o from end
print("hello"[1:4]) ell slicing
print(len("hello")) 5 size

The Law of Large Numbers:

Analytics Models:

Descriptive Analytics What happened?

The average outcome is likely to
Diagnostic Analytics Why did it happen? approach the value anticipated if, by
Predictive Analytics What will happen? chance, the number of trails in any
Prescriptive Analytics How can we make it happen? such random process increases

 Reduce development time Jeff Hammerbacher's Model

 Reduce code length  Identify problem
 Easy to learn and use Advantages of
 Instrument data sources
 Easy to understand codes Python
 Collect data
 Easy to do team projects
 Prepare data:
 Easy to extend to other languages
 Integrate
 Transform
 Clean
Mean  Filter
Signal to Noise Ratio =
Standard Deviation  Aggregate
 Build model
 Evaluate model

Raw Score = Mean + (Standard deviation × Z score)

Explained variance variance between groups

F statistic = =
Unexplained variance variance within groups

1687
∑ (x̅−xi )2
Standard deviation = √
(n−1)

x̅ : mean

xi: ith data value

n: number of data values

2, 4, 6 and 8

The mean of this data (x̅) is 5

(5 − 2) 2 + (5 − 4) 2 + (5 − 6) 2 + (5− 8) 2 = 20

20
Standard deviation = √(4−1) = √6.66666666667 = 2.5819

Python code:

print('Albert Einstein'.partition('E')) # Output: ('Albert ', 'E', 'instein')

print('Albert Einstein'.partition('abc')) # Output: ('Albert Einstein', '', '')

Output:
print('Alan'.rjust(10))
Alan
print('Mathison'.rjust(20))
Mathison
print('Turing'.ljust(10))
Turing

1688
print('Albert'.rjust(10, '/')) # Output: ////Albert

print('Albert'.ljust(10, '+')) # Output: Albert++++

print('Albert'.center(10, '*')) # Output: Albert

# prints the ASCII value of 'A'

print(ord("A"))

# Output: 65

# prints the ASCII value of 'C'

print(ord("C"))

# Output: 67

print(ord('A') < ord('C')) # Output: True

print((ord('A') + 5)) # Output: 70

# pip install pyperclip

import pyperclip

pyperclip.copy('Alan Turing')

print(pyperclip.paste()) # Output: Alan Turing

import re

x= re.compile(r'Chat(bot|room|man)')

print(x.search('Chatman is a surname').group()) # Output: Chatman

print(x.search('Chatman is a surname').group(1)) # Output: man

1689
# Create an iterator 'x' from iterable 'ALAN'

x = iter('ALAN')

while True:

try:

# To get the next item, repeatedly call next on the iterator

print(next(x))

# When there are no more items, the iterator 'x' raises the StopIteration

except StopIteration:
Output:

del x # delete the iterator 'x' A

break # exit the loop L

print(abs(50) + abs(-50)) # Output: 100

print(-50 + abs(-50)) # Output: 0

import time

year = time.localtime()[0]

month = time.localtime()[1]

date = time.localtime()[2]

print(year) # Output: 2022

print(month) # Output: 7

print(date) # Output: 5

1690
Dead code Unreachable code

(waste of time) (waste of space)

int foo (int a, int b) { int foo (int a, int b) {

int c = a*b; return a+b;
return a+b; int c = a*b;
} }
Cannot be executed
Executed but never used
(Unreachable)
(Dead)

Cyclomatic Complexity = E − N + (2 × P)
Start
 E = number of edges
 N = number of nodes
 P = number of nodes that have exit points x = 16

Yes No
y>z

A software statistic that measures program complexity

x=y x=z
Dark Launch

Print x, y, z

Delivering software features that are ready for

production to a small group of users in order to get
their opinion and then modify the features in response
Stop

Lead Time: The length of time from the The above graph shows seven shapes (nodes), seven lines (edges), hence
beginning of a process to its completion Cyclomatic Complexity = 7−7 + (2×1) = 2

1691
Python Code:

Case 1: If there is no exception

try:

print("Try") Output:

print(10/2) Try

except: 5.0
print("Exception") Finally
finally:

print("Finally")

Case 2: If there is an exception raised but handled

try:
Output:
print("Try")
Try
print(10/0)
Exception
except ZeroDivisionError:

print("Exception") Finally

finally:

print("Finally")

Case 3: If there is an exception raised but not handled

try:

print("Try") Output:
print(10/0)
print(10/0)
except NameError:
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
print("Exception")

finally:

print("Finally")

1692
import re

i="Alan Turing never described himself as a philosopher"

x=re.search("^Alan", i)

if x != None:

print("The given string starts with Alan")

else:

print("The given string does not start with Alan")

# Output: The given string starts with Alan

import re

i="Alan Turing never described himself as a philosopher"

x=re.search("philosopher$",i)

if x != None:

print("The given string ends with philosopher")

else:

print("The given string does not end with philosopher")

# Output: The given string ends with philosopher

Application Whitelisting:

The process of creating a list of trustworthy software applications and

allowing only those applications to run on authorized systems

ISP Performance Monitoring:

Observing and visualizing how internet services connect our webpages

with our viewers and cloud systems

1693
import re

i="Alan Turing never described himself as a philosopher"

x=re.search("Philosopher$", i)

if x != None:

print("The given string ends with philosopher")

else:

print("The given string does not end with philosopher")

# Output: The given string does not end with philosopher

import re

i="Alan Turing never described himself as a philosopher"

x=re.search("Philosopher$",i, re.IGNORECASE)

if x != None:

print("The given string ends with philosopher")

else:

print("The given string does not end with philosopher")

# Output: The given string ends with philosopher

Incident Management:

The methodology used by the DevOps and IT Operations staff to react to a

service interruption or outrage and return the service to working order

1694
Assignment statement

x=5+3

Expression
Variable name
Assignment operator

x='Albert'

print(x[0]) # Output: A A l b e r t String

print(x[1]) # Output: l 0 1 2 3 4 5 Indexes

print(x[2]) # Output: b
The string 'Albert' and its indexes

x='James'
J a m e s String
print(x[-1]) # Output: s -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 Negative indexes
print(x[-2]) # Output: e

The string 'James' and its negative indexes

print(x[-3]) # Output: m

print(x[-4]) # Output: a

print(x[-5]) # Output: J print(len('Alan')) # Output: 4

print(len('')) # Output: 0

print('Albert\'s 1905 Papers') print(len('Alan'+'Turing')) # Output: 10

print('Alan' == 'Alan') # Output: True

# Output: Albert's 1905 Papers
print('Alan' == 'ALAN') # Output: False
print('Albert\tEinstein')
print(43 == 43) # Output: True

# Output: Albert Einstein print(43 == '43') # Output: False

print(len('Alan') + len('Alan')) # Output: 8

print('Alan\\Turing')
print(len('Alan') *2) # Output: 8
# Output: Alan\Turing

1695
x = 'Albert Einstein grew up in Munich'
x = 0
y = ''
while x < 2:
i = len(x) - 1
while x < 4:
while i >= 0:
x = x + 1
y = y + x[i]
print(x)

i = i - 1 # Output:

print(y) 1

# Output: hcinuM ni pu werg nietsniE treblA 2

3
print(x)
4
# Output: Albert Einstein grew up in Munich

x = 0

while x < 2: i = 0

print('Alan') while i < len('Alan'):

x = x + 1 x = 'Alan'[i]

# Output:
print(x)
Alan
i = i + 1
Alan
# Output:
x = 0

A
y = 'Alan'

l
while x < 4:

a
y = y + y[x]

n
x = x + 1

print(y)

# Output: AlanAlan

1696
if 50 > 25:
if 14 != 14:
print('Albert')
if 12 < 14:
elif 50 > 25:

print('Alan') print('Einstein')
# Output: Einstein

# Output: Alan

if 14 != 14 or 50 > 25:
if 50 > 25 and 12 < 14:
print('Albert')
print('Alan')
# Output: Albert
# Output: Alan

import math

# Output:
x=16
Alan
for i in range(2, int(math.sqrt(x)) + 1):
Alan
print('Alan') Alan

x = {'name': 'Alan', 'salary': 9900}

x = {'albert': 1905}
for i in x:
y = x
print(i, x[i])
y['albert'] = 1915

# Output:
print(x)

name Alan # Output: {'albert': 1915}

salary 9900

1697
for x in range(2):
for x in range(2):
print(x)
print(x)
print('Alan')
continue
print('Alan')
# Output:
# Output:
0
Alan 0
1
1
Alan

x = [['alan', 'john'], [11, 12, 13]]

print(x[0]) # Output: ['alan', 'john'] x = 'Albert Einstein!'

print(x[0][0]) # Output: alan x= x[:6] + '+' + x[7:]

print(x[0][1]) # Output: john print(x)

print(x[1][0]) # Output: 11
# Output: Albert+Einstein!
print(x[1][1]) # Output: 12

def myfunc(x):

# Output:
print('David ' + x)
Albert Einstein
print('Albert Einstein')
David Bowman
myfunc('Bowman')
Stephen Hawking
print('Stephen Hawking')
David Hilbert
myfunc('Hilbert')
Robert Hess
print('Robert Hess')

1698
import itertools

print(itertools.product('XY', repeat=4))

# Output: <itertools.product object at 0x0000027760609750>

print(list(itertools.product('XY', repeat=2)))
# Output: [('X', 'X'), ('X', 'Y'), ('Y', 'X'), ('Y', 'Y')]

print(list(itertools.product(range(2), repeat=2)))
# Output: [(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1)]

print(31 % 6) # Output: 1

print((50 + 400) % 24) # Output: 18

print(60 % 60) # Output: 0

print(60 % 20) # Output: 0

x = "alan turing"
print(x.title())
# Output: Alan Turing
print(3 + 4*2) # Output: 11
print((3 + 4) * 2) # Output: 14

x = ['alan', 'john', 'mary', 'james']

print(x[0].title())
# Output: Alan
x = {'name': 'alan'}
print("My name is: " + x['name'] + ".")
x = 'Alan'
x['name'] = 'albert'
print(x.upper() == 'ALAN')
print("My name is changed to: " + x['name'] + ".")
# Output: True

# Output:
x = {}
My name is: alan.
x['name'] = 'alan'
My name is changed to: albert.
x['age'] = 35
print(x)
# Output: {'name': 'alan', 'age': 35}

1699
i = '1.txt'

with open(i, 'w') as x:

x.write("Albert Einstein\n")

x.write("Hans Albert Einstein\n")

# Output:

Albert Einstein
1.txt
Hans Albert Einstein

def myfunc(x):

print("Albert " + x.title() + "!")

myfunc('einstein')

# Output: Albert Einstein!

x = input("Please enter a number: ")

x = int(x)

if x % 2 == 0:

print("\nThe number " + str(x) + " is even.")

else:

print("\nThe number " + str(x) + " is odd.")

# Output:

Please enter a number: 2 # entered number

The number 2 is even.

1700
import pandas as pd
df = pd.read_csv('1.csv')
print(df.to_string())

Load the 1.csv into a DataFrame

import pandas as pd
df = pd.read_csv('1.csv')
print(df)

print(sorted({x//2 for x in range(5)}))

# Output: [0, 1, 2]

print({x:x//2 for x in range(4)})

# Output: {0: 0, 1: 0, 2: 1, 3: 1}

i = [0, 'albert', 4]
for i[2] in 'abc': print(i)
# Output:
[0, 'albert', 'a']
[0, 'albert', 'b']
[0, 'albert', 'c']

x= 'Church'

print('{place!r} is {b} km long'.format(place=x, b=len(x)))

# Output: 'Church' is 6 km long

print(f'{x!r} is {len(x)} km long')

# Output: 'Church' is 6 km long

1701
x = {'a':24, 'b':5.89}
x['d'] = 73
print(x)
# Output: {'a': 24, 'b': 5.89, 'd': 73}

def myfunc(a, b):

i = [11, 12, 13, 14]
b.append(55)
print(i[1:3]) # Output: [12, 13]
print(i[1:]) # Output: [12, 13, 14] x = 105

print(i[:2]) # Output: [11, 12] y = [100]

myfunc(x, y)

print(x, y)
i = [11, 12, 13, 14]
i[1:3] = [52, 53, 54] # Output: 105 [100, 55]

print(i) # Output: [11, 52, 53, 54, 14]

i[1:4] = [18, 19]
print(i) # Output: [11, 18, 19, 14]

i = [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]

del i[1]
print(i) # Output: [11, 13, 14, 15]
del i[::2]
print(i) # Output: [13, 15]

x = [
a = 15; b = 17
'Albert Einstein'.split(),
c = 18; d = 14
'was a German'.split(),
if a < b or c > d:
'born theoretical physicist'.split(),
print('Alan')
]
print(x, (19, 1, 5)) # Output: Alan

# Output:

[['Albert', 'Einstein'], ['was', 'a', 'German'], ['born', 'theoretical', 'physicist']] (19, 1, 5)

1702
for x in 4, 10:

for y in 6, 7, 8, 9:

print(f'{5.1459:{x}.{y}}') import re

x = re.compile(r'stand')
# Output:
if x.match('understand'):
5.1459
print('matched..')
5.1459
else:
5.1459
print('Failed to match..')
5.1459

5.1459 # Output: Failed to match..

5.1459

5.1459
# Contents of '2.txt '

Albert Einstein 1879

import re Hans Albert Einstein 1904

with open('2.txt') as x: Elsa Einstein

if re.compile(r'\d$', re.MULTILINE).search(x.read()): Pauline Einstein

print('Some lines end in numbers.')
else: A B
print('No lines end in numbers.')
0 alan 2

1 albert 2
# Output: Some lines end in numbers.
2 alan 4

3 albert 4

Output 4 alan 4

5 albert 6

6 albert 6

import pandas as pd

x = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['alan', 'albert'] * 3 + ['albert'], 'B': [2, 2, 4, 4, 4, 6, 6]})

print(x)

1703
# pip install click

import click

def myfunc():

click.echo("Albert Einstein")

if __name__=="__main__":

myfunc()
import shutil

# Output: Albert Einstein # create an archive of the directory 'Music'

# music.zip is created

shutil.make_archive('music','zip','Music')
# pip install fire
# unzip the file 'music.zip'
import fire
shutil.unpack_archive('music.zip')
def myfunc(x): # prints a list of supported archive formats

return "Alan " + x print(shutil.get_archive_formats())

# Output:
fire.Fire(myfunc("Turing"))
[('bztar', "bzip2'ed tar-file"), ('gztar', "gzip'ed tar-file"),

# Output: Alan Turing ('tar', 'uncompressed tar file'), ('xztar', "xz'ed tar-file"),

('zip', 'ZIP file')]

from random import choices

x = list(range(1,5))

y = ["Albert", "Einstein"]

for i in x:

print(f"{i} .... {choices(y)}")

# Output:

1 .... ['Albert']

2 .... ['Albert']

3 .... ['Albert']

4 .... ['Einstein']

1704
import pandas as pd

x = pd.Series([11, 13, -14, 16], index=['w', 'y', 'x', 'z'])

print(x)

y = x.reindex(['w', 'x', 'y', 'z'])

print(y)

# Output:
# prints the size of a list
w 11 import sys
print(sys.getsizeof([11, 12, 13, 14]))
y 13
# Output: 96

x -14 print(sys.getsizeof([11, 12]))

# Output: 80
z 16

dtype: int64

w 11

x -14

y 13

z 16

dtype: int64

import pandas as pd

import numpy as np a o m g

apple 0 1 2 3
x = pd.DataFrame(np.arange(16).reshape((4, 4)),
orange 4 5 6 7
index=['apple', 'orange', 'mango', 'grapes'],
mango 8 9 10 11
columns=['a', 'o', 'm', 'g'])
grapes 12 13 14 15

print(x)

1705
import pandas as pd

import numpy as np

x = pd.DataFrame(np.arange(16).reshape((4, 4)), apple 1

orange 5
index=['apple', 'orange', 'mango', 'grapes'],
mango 9
columns=['a', 'o', 'm', 'g'])
grapes 13
print(x['o'])
Name: o, dtype: int32

print(x[['m', 'a']]) m a

apple 2 0

orange 6 4

mango 10 8

grapes 14 12

print(x[:2])
a o m g

apple 0 1 2 3

orange 4 5 6 7

print(x[x['m'] > 5])

a o m g

orange 4 5 6 7

mango 8 9 10 11

grapes 12 13 14 15

# pip install PyYAML

import yaml
with open('1.yaml', 'r') as x:
x = yaml.safe_load(x)
print(x) # print the contents of '1.yaml'

1706
import bs4

x = bs4.BeautifulSoup('<h1>Alan', 'html.parser')

y = bs4.BeautifulSoup('<h1>Alan', 'xml')

z = bs4.BeautifulSoup('<h1>Alan', 'lxml')

w = bs4.BeautifulSoup('<h1>Alan', 'html5lib')

print(x, x.is_xml)

# Output: <h1>Alan</h1> False

print(y, y.is_xml)

# Output: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>

<h1>Alan</h1> True

print(z, z.is_xml)

# Output: <html><body><h1>Alan</h1></body></html> False

print(w, w.is_xml)

# Output: <html><head></head><body><h1>Alan</h1></body></html> False

print(bs4.BeautifulSoup('<h1>Alan', 'html.parser').prettify())

# Output:

<h1>

Alan

</h1>

import json
x = {
'name' : 'Alan',
'age' : 45,
'salary' : 54200
}
print(json.dumps(x))
# Output: {"name": "Alan", "age": 45, "salary": 54200}
print(json.dumps(True))
# Output: true

1707
Java Program:

import java.util.Arrays;

import java.util.HashSet;

import java.util.Set;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Set i = new HashSet();

for(int x = 1; x <= 5; x++) {

i.add(x * x);

System.out.println(Arrays.toString(i.toArray())); // Output: [16, 1, 4, 9, 25]

System.out.println(i.contains(25)); // Output: true

import static java.lang.System.out;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {

for(int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {

Output:
out.print("I've visited ");
I've visited 1 times.
out.print(i);
I've visited 2 times.
out.println(" times.");
I've visited 3 times.
}
I've visited 4 times.
out.println("4 times! Whoopee!");
4 times! Whoopee!
out.println("I am excited!");
I am excited!
}

1708
import java.util.ArrayList;
[manju@localhost ~]$ x=15; echo '$x' = $x
import java.util.LinkedList;
$x = 15

import java.util.List; [manju@localhost ~]$ echo albert einstein | tee -

import java.util.Vector; albert einstein

albert einstein
public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

List<String> planets = new ArrayList<>();

planets.add("Earth");

planets.add("Uranus");

planets.add("Jupiter");

planets.add(0,"Mars");

System.out.println(planets);

List<String> stars = new LinkedList<>();

stars.add("Polaris");
Output:
stars.add(1,"Sirius");
[Mars, Earth, Uranus, Jupiter]
stars.add("Betelgeuse");
[Polaris, Sirius, Betelgeuse]
System.out.println(stars);

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "11" >> 1.txt; echo "12" >> 1.txt; echo "13" >> 1.txt;

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat 1.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat 1.txt | echo $[ $(tr '\n' '+' ) 0 ]

36 #11+12+13=36

1709
import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {

Scanner keyboard = new Scanner(System.in);

String marks = keyboard.next();

switch(marks) {

case "85":

System.out.println("Distinction");

break;
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo $[ 11+12+13 ]
case "35":
36
System.out.println("Pass");

break;

case "25":

System.out.println("Fail");

break;
Output:
}
35 # entered number
} Pass

[manju@localhost ~]$ touch 1.py 2.py 3.py 1.sh

[manju@localhost ~]$ find . -iregex ".*$\.py\|\.sh$$"

./1.sh

./1.py

./2.py

./3.py

1710
import java.util.Scanner;

import static java.lang.System.out;

import static java.lang.System.in;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {

Scanner keyboard = new Scanner(in);

String x = "john";

out.print("Enter your password: ");

String i = keyboard.next();

out.print("You entered: ");

out.println(i);

out.print("But the password is: ");

out.println(x);

if (x == i) {

out.println("You are Permitted!");

} else {

out.println("Sorry, Try Again!");

}
Output:
keyboard.close();
Enter your password: alan # entered password

}
You entered: alan
}
But the password is: john

Sorry, Try Again!

1711
find . -type f -size +5M

# Find all files having size > 5 megabytes

find . -type f -size -5M

# Find all files having size < 5 megabytes

find . -type f -size 5M

# Find all files having size = 5 megabytes

find . -type f -size +5G

# Find all files having size > 5 gigabytes

find . -type f -size -5G

# Find all files having size < 5 gigabytes

find . -type f -size 5G

# Find all files having size = 5 gigabytes

find . -type f -name "*.txt" -delete

# Remove all the .txt files from the current directory

find . -type f -user manju -print

# Print the list of all files owned by the user manju

find . -type f -perm 644 -print

# Print files having permission 644

find . -type f -name "*.pdf" ! -perm 644 -print

# Print pdf files having permission 644

1712
find /usr -type f -size +4G -exec ls -lh {} \; | awk '{ print $9 "|| Size : " $5 }'

# Print the file paths which are greater than 4GB

import java.util.Random;

public class MyClass {

find . -type d -print public static void main(String args[]) {

# List only directories Random x = new Random();

int i = x.nextInt(5) + 1;

find . -type f -print if (i == 2 || i == 5 ) {

# List only regular files System.out.println("Albert Einstein");

find . -type l -print System.out.println(i);

}
# List only symbolic links
If Random number = 2 or 5
}
Output:
import java.io.File;
Albert Einstein
import java.io.FileNotFoundException;
2 or 5
import java.io.PrintStream;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) throws FileNotFoundException {

PrintStream diskWriter = new PrintStream(new File("1.txt"));

diskWriter.print ('H');

diskWriter.println('i');

diskWriter.close();

}
 Deletes existing 1.txt file on the hard drive.
 Creates an empty file named 1.txt.
 The print method call inserts the letter H into the 1.txt file.
 The println method call adds the letter i into the 1.txt file.
 So, after running the code, the 1.txt file contains 2 letters: the letters "H" "i".

1713
import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {

Scanner keyboard = new Scanner(System.in);

char x, y, z, w;

System.out.print("Enter a string: ");

x = keyboard.findWithinHorizon(".", 0).charAt(0);

y = keyboard.findWithinHorizon(".", 0).charAt(0);

z = keyboard.findWithinHorizon(".", 0).charAt(0);

w = keyboard.findWithinHorizon(".", 0).charAt(0);

System.out.print(w);

System.out.print(z);

System.out.print(y);

System.out.print(x);
Output:

System.out.println(); Enter a string: alan # entered string

keyboard.close(); nala

cat /proc/partitions

Lists out the partitions information

available on the system

1714
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "Albert Einstein." | tr 'a-zA-Z' 'n-za-mN-ZA-M'

Nyoreg Rvafgrva.

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo Nyoreg Rvafgrva. | tr 'a-zA-Z' 'n-za-mN-ZA-M'

Albert Einstein.

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "Albert Einstein ....." | tr -s ' '

Albert Einstein .....

for i in {1..5}.txt

do
Creates empty files: 1.txt, 2.txt,
touch $i 3.txt, 4.txt and 5.txt

done

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo -e "Alan Mathison \nTuring" | grep Mathison

Alan Mathison

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo Alan Mathison Turing. | egrep -o "[a-z]+\."

uring.

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo Alan Mathison Turing | grep -e "Alan" -e "Turing" -o

Alan

Turing

1715
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo -e "Math\nison" | awk 'BEGIN{ print "Alan" } { print } END { print "Turing" }'

Alan

Math

ison

Turing

[manju@localhost ~]$ seq 4 | awk 'BEGIN { getline; print"****", $0 } {print $0 }'

**** 1

f r-- = 4 # Read permission

f -w- = 2 # Write permission

f --x = 1 # Execute permission

f rw- = 4 + 2 = 6 # Read + write permission

f r-x = 4 + 1 = 5 # Read + execute permission

f rwx = 4 + 2 + 1 = 7

f rw- = 4 + 2 = 6

f r-- = 4

rwx rw- r-- is equal to 764

# setting the permission '764' to the file "myfiles.txt"

chmod 764 myfiles.txt

1716
C Program:

#include <stdio.h> Output:

#include <math.h> 7 6.6 6.64 6.643 6.642892 6.6428923068

int main() { 7e+00 6.6e+00 6.64e+00 6.6428923068e+00

double x = 6 * atan(2.0);

printf("%.0f %.1f %.2f %.3f %.6f %.10f\n", x, x, x, x, x, x);

printf("%.0e %.1e %.2e %.10e\n", x, x, x, x);

return 0;

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

printf("%.1g %.2g %.4g %.8g\n", 10/3.0, 10/3.0, 10/3.0, 10/3.0);

return 0;

// Output: 3 3.3 3.333 3.3333333

Python code:

Output:

import numpy as np i:

[[11 12 13]
i = np.array([[11, 12, 13], [14, 15, 16]])
[14 15 16]]

print("i:\n{}".format(i))

1717
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np

# Generate a sequence of numbers from -20 to 20 with 50 steps in between

a = np.linspace(-20, 20, 50)

# Create a second array using cosine

b = np.cos(a)

# The plot function makes a line chart of one array against another

plt.plot(a, b, marker="x")

Output:

Information Architecture:

The technique of logically and clearly arranging complex information

1718
import pandas as pd

# create a simple dataset of students

x = {'Name': ["James", "Mary", "Albert", "Alan"],

'Subject' : ["Physics", "Chemistry", "Maths", "Biology"],

'Marks' : [84, 53, 73, 93]

print(pd.DataFrame(x))

Minification:
// Output:
The practice of deleting unneeded or redundant
information without altering how the content is
Name Subject Marks handled by the browser, such as formatting and

0 James Physics 84 code comments, getting rid of useless code,

utilizing shorter variable and function names, etc.
1 Mary Chemistry 53

2 Albert Maths 73

3 Alan Biology 93

Mobile-first

A design approach that prioritizes the smallest screens and starts the design process with mobile
devices in consideration in order to improve customer experiences

Accessibility Conformance Testing

Define and record guidelines for determining whether web content complies with accessibility
standards like the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG)

1719
import sys

import pandas as pd

import matplotlib

import numpy as np

import scipy as sp

import IPython

import sklearn

print("Python version: {}".format(sys.version))

# Output: Python version: 3.7.3 (default, Mar 27 2019, 17:13:21) [MSC v.1915 64 bit (AMD64)]

print("Pandas version: {}".format(pd.version))

# Output: Pandas version: 0.24.2

print("Matplotlib version: {}".format(matplotlib.version))

# Output: Matplotlib version: 3.0.3

print("NumPy version: {}".format(np.version))

# Output: NumPy version: 1.16.2

print("SciPy version: {}".format(sp.version))

# Output: SciPy version: 1.2.1

print("IPython version: {}".format(IPython.version))

# Output: IPython version: 7.4.0

print("Scikit-learn version: {}".format(sklearn.version))

# Output: Scikit-learn version: 0.20.3

1720
Accessibility Object Model:

An accessibility tree for an HTML page can be altered and eventually examined by
programmers using a JavaScript API.

Agglomerative Clustering:

The most popular approach of hierarchical clustering that groups objects into
clusters according on how similar they are

import numpy as np

print("{}".format(np.linspace(-2, 2, 11)))

# Output: [-2. -1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0. 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2. ]

numpy.linspace(start, stop, num=11)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Convention over Configuration:

A method of writing computer programs that adheres to accepted programming rules

rather than the configurations that the programmer specifies. It enables quick and easy
software production while maintaining fundamental software requirements

1724
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np

x = np.array([0, 10])

y = np.array([0, 100])

# Draw a dashed line in a diagram from position (0,0) to position (10,100)

plt.plot(x, y, linestyle = 'dashed')

plt.xlabel("X AXIS")

plt.ylabel("Y AXIS")

Output:

120

100

60
Y AXIS

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
X AXIS

Duck Typing

A property of some modern computer languages that allows for dynamic data types

1725
Automatic Semicolon Insertion:

JavaScript does not need the use of a semicolon at the end of a statement, in contrast
to other C-like languages. Instead, the semicolon is optional, and when the JavaScript
interpreter runs the code, it will "sensibly" add them

Bad Neighborhood

A collection of websites that are connected and have bad reputations that
search engines have severely devalued

Command-Query Separation: A design approach that specifies a

method can only ever be either a COMMAND that executes an
operation OR a QUERY that gives information to the caller

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np

x = np.array([25, 25, 35, 15])

y = ["Indians", "Africans", "Germans", "Americans"]

z = [0.6, 0, 0, 0]

# Pull the "Indians" wedge 0.6 from the center of the pie

plt.pie(x, labels = y, explode = z)

Output:

1726
Africans

Indians

Americans
Germans

The law of conservation of complexity:

(Tesler's Law or Waterbed Theory)

A postulate in human-computer interaction that asserts that each application has a certain level of inherent

complexity that can be neither reduced nor hidden

First Contentful Paint:

(FCP)

The period of time it takes for a page to load completely − from the time the request is received until any
content appears on the screen. The content loads more slowly the higher the FCP score

IndexedDB:

Maintaining a NoSQL database of JSON objects with a JavaScript application programming

interface (API) offered by web browsers

1727
Self-supervised learning:

A new area of study that lies in between supervised learning and unsupervised
learning and uses automatically labelled data to eliminate the need for human
annotation. It is a method of machine learning where a ML model teaches
itself to learn one feature of the input from another feature of the input

Sentiment analysis:

A method based on natural language processing that aids in identifying human

emotions (positive, negative, neutral, etc.) in a document

Sequence to sequence:

The potential to train a model to translate input sequences from one domain (for example, an
English sentence) to output sequences in another domain (for example a sentence in Hindi)

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat names.txt

Albert

Alan

John

James

Mary

Yovan

Hawking

Stephen

1728
[manju@localhost ~]$ awk 'length($1) > 6 {print $0}' names.txt

Hawking
Print all names that are longer than 6 characters
Stephen

[manju@localhost ~]$ awk 'length($1) == 4' names.txt

Alan

John Print all names that have 4 characters

Mary

[manju@localhost ~]$ awk '!(length($1) == 4)' names.txt

Albert

James
Print all names that do not have 4 characters
Yovan

Hawking

Stephen

[manju@localhost ~]$ awk '(length($1) == 3) || (length($1) == 4)' names.txt

Alan

John

Mary

Shape of a tensor:

The number of elements in each dimension of the tensor

Siamese neural network: A group of neural network topologies that have

two or more subnetworks that are exactly the same

1729
[manju@localhost ~]$ awk 'length($1) > 0 {print $1, "has", length($1), "chars"}' names.txt

Albert has 6 chars

Alan has 4 chars

John has 4 chars

James has 5 chars

Mary has 4 chars

Yovan has 5 chars

Hawking has 7 chars

Stephen has 7 chars

Silhouette Coefficient:

A statistic used to determine the effectiveness of a clustering method. Its value is between -1 and 1

 1 → clusters are clearly distinguished and spaced far apart

 0 → clusters are undifferentiated or that there is no statistically significant difference across clusters
 -1 → clusters are assigned incorrectly

Similarity learning:

A domain of supervised machine learning where the objective is to develop a

similarity function that assesses the degree of resemblance or relationship between two
things and returns a similarity score. When the things are similar, the similarity score is
higher; when they are distinct, the similarity score is lower

The number of zero elements in a vector

Sparsity =
The total number of elements in the vector

A Sparsity of 18% means that 18% of elements in the vector contain zeros

1730
Spatial-temporal reasoning:

A branch of AI where the ultimate goal is to create a system with the ability to
manipulate objects, navigate through time and space, and solve issues

Stacking:

An ensemble machine learning technique that combines predictions from various effective
machine learning models in the most effective way possible

Strong classifier:

The classifier that is responsible for combining the findings from the weak
classifiers into a single appropriate result

Structural similarity:

The degree to which two or more objects' shapes overlap; the more
overlap there is, the more similar the objects are

Subsampling: Synthetic feature:

The outcome of 2 samplings, the first of A feature that was developed during data

which was taken from the population preparation but was not present in the

and the second from the sample input data at the time of the computation

Topic modeling

An approach for unsupervised machine learning that scans a collection of documents,

finds word and phrase patterns within them, and automatically classifies words and
expressions that best describe the collection

1731
[manju@localhost ~]$ cat marks.txt

Albert 95

Alan 65

John 92

James 66

Mary 77

Yovan 98

Hawking 56

Stephen 44

[manju@localhost ~]$ awk '$2 >= 60 { print $0 }' marks.txt

Albert 95

Alan 65

John 92 Print all names with marks ≥ 60

James 66

Mary 77

Yovan 98

Tensor Processing Unit (TPU):

An application-specific integrated circuit for neural network machine learning that Google
developed using its own Tensorflow software

Translational invariance:

A machine learning model's potential to disregard the translation of an image or

its content. In other words, the model can still identify an animal in an image even
if it is rotated or relocated to the top corner

1732
Trend analysis:

A method used in technical analysis that makes predictions about future changes in
stock prices using trend data that has just been observed

Universal function approximation theorem:

There is already a neural network available for any function that we want to
compute since neural networks have some kind of universality in them

Watson studio:

A data science platform developed by IBM that offers the environment and resources
necessary for us to work with others to solve business challenges using data

Weight sharing: XGboost:

A method of neural network model A free software package that offers a

compression that lowers the number of regularizing gradient boosting framework for

weights in a network that must be trained the programming languages C++, Java,
Python, R, Julia, Perl, and Scala

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls -l

total 4

-rw-rw-r--. 1 manju manju 0 Jul 31 07:49 1.c

-rw-rw-r--. 1 manju manju 0 Jul 31 07:49 1.cpp

-rw-rw-r--. 1 manju manju 47 Jul 31 10:03 1.html

-rw-rw-r--. 1 manju manju 0 Jul 31 03:56 1.pdf

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[manju@localhost ~]$ ls -l | awk '{print $6 " " $9}'

Jul 1.c

Jul 1.cpp

Jul 1.html

Jul 1.pdf

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat names.txt

Albert, Physicist, USA, M, 03/14/1879

Charles, Biologist, Great Britain, M, 02/28/1889

John, Chemist, Germany, M, 05/21/1890

Alan, Mathematician, Russia, M, 05/28/1905

[manju@localhost ~]$ awk -F, '{print $1 " is a" $2}' names.txt

Albert is a Physicist

Charles is a Biologist

John is a Chemist

Alan is a Mathematician

[manju@localhost ~]$ awk 'BEGIN {FS=","} {print $3}' names.txt

USA

Great Britain

Germany

Russia

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echo "1,2,3,4,5" | awk '{ split($0,x,",");for (i in x) {sum+=x[i]} } END {print sum}'

Go through the array elements and calculate their sum

# Output: 15 (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5)

"Simplicity is the soul of efficiency."

– Austin Freeman

1735
SAP stands for System Applications and Products in Data Processing. One of the world's top

software developers for business process management, SAP helps companies of all sizes manage their
finances, logistics, human resources, and other business areas.

1. Introduction:

SAP is a market leader in offering ERP (Enterprise Resource and Planning) solutions and

services to enterprises across industries for improved work and data management. In 1972, SAP was

established in Walldorf, Germany. It stands for Systems, Applications and Products in

Data Processing. It has developed and grown over time to become one of the two leading
competitors in the ERP software market as well as the leading global provider of client / server business
solutions, for which it is now renowned.

In 180 countries, SAP serves more than 335,000 clients, 80% of whom are small- and medium-sized

businesses, according to its 2016 corporate fact sheet. By assisting in better management of

customer needs and nurturing long-lasting and fruitful customer relationships, SAP is a German

multinational software company whose products enable businesses to track customer and
business interactions. SAP also builds a strong technical support for organizations. One of the basic goals
of all corporate companies is to satisfy their customers, and SAP is particularly well-known for its data
management tools that help them do this.

2. What is SAP?

The technological revolution of today is being led by SAP. SAP, the industry leader in
enterprise application software, supports businesses in overcoming the negative effects of complexity,
creating new chances for innovation and growth, and maintaining a competitive edge. This has helped
SAP rise to the top of the list of the biggest providers of ERP and other enterprise applications.

1736
3. History of SAP

In order to continuously transform the information technology industry, five former IBM employees
founded SAP in 1972 with the goal of developing standard application software for the business
potential of technology and real-time business processes. Since its founding, SAP has released a number
of versions, including SAP R/1, SAP R/2, and SAP R/3. The R in these releases stands for "Real-
Time" data processing. The number 3 in the R/3 stands for three-tier client-server architecture.

4. Features of SAP

 Monitors Human Costs

 Documents Progress of Process
 Process of Invoices
 Records External Employee's Services
 Confirms Service Management Orders
 Maintains Planning and Progress
 Collects Data Plans and Sheets

5. Technical details

ERP

The essential business operations of a firm are included in SAP ERP. Almost every functional area of a

company activity, including the purchase of products and services, sale and distribution, finance,

accounting, human resources, manufacturing, production planning, logistics, and warehouse

management, is supported and integrated by the ERP package. The most recent Enhancement

Package (EHP8) for SAP ERP 6.0 was released in 2016.

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SAP R/3

It is client / server version of the software and it is 3-tier architecture which includes 3 layers

installed in 3 separate servers. The 3 layers are:

 Presentation Layer: that contains the software components that make up the SAPGUI.

 Application Layer: that consists of one or more application servers and a message server.

 Data Base layer: that consists of a central database system containing all of the data in the R/3.

SAP R/2

It is a main frame version of software and it is 2-tier architecture in which 3 layers are installed in

2 separate servers.

SAP R/1

It is the first version and it is one-tier architecture in which 3 layers are installed in one server.

6. Functional modules of SAP include:

 FICO - Finance & Control

 PP - Production Planning

 MM - Material management

 SD - Sales and distribution

 HR - Human resource

 CRM - Customer Relationship Management

1738
7. How is SAP in terms of career growth?

SAP provides a faster career growth whether it is functional or technical area, provided the candidate has

good fundamental knowledge in IT domain and a very sound knowledge of SAP. Certification in SAP

can increase your job prospects. Fortune 500 Firms has implemented SAP R/3 and being
successful because of its process integrations among the different organizational functionalities in real
time data accessing under a single common database. There are various sub-modules of SAP

(such as Material Management (MM), Project System (PS), Sales and Distribution (SD), Advanced

Planner and Optimizer (APO), Quality Management (QM) etc.) and every module in SAP has its own
demand and uniqueness and has opened up new job opportunities to execute on an aggressive acquisition
strategy to fill the technology gaps. Owing to the various advantages, more and more organizations are
moving towards adopting SAP to impact business in an important and far-reaching way.

Non-parametric learning algorithm:

Algorithms that get their learning from data rather than a mathematical model

Linear Regression:

A regression is a technique for figuring out how one variable "y" and another variable "x" is related.

A linear regression is a method used to represent a linear relationship between the independent

variable "x" and the dependent variable "y" in statistics. In Machine Learning, a Linear

Regression is a supervised machine learning algorithm. When there is a linear relationship between
two variables, the dependent variable's value changes in response to changes in the independent variable's
value (increase or decrease). With the use of the following equation, the relationship can be
mathematically represented as:

y = mx + c

1739
where:

 The dependent variable "y" is what we are attempting to predict.

 "x" serves as the independent variable for our predictions.

 The slope of the regression line "m" shows how much of an impact "x" has on "y".

 "c" often known as the y-intercept, is a constant. "y" would be equal to m if "x" = 0.

Furthermore, the linear relationship can be positive or negative:

Positive Linear Relationship:

If both the independent and dependent variables increase, the linear relationship is said to
be positive. The following graph can help you understand it:

y
y

x x

Positive Linear Relationship Negative Linear Relationship

Negative Linear Relationship:

If both the independent and dependent variables decrease, the linear relationship is said to
be negative. The above graph can help you understand it:

1740
Random Forest Algorithm:

1. Choose the samples at random from the provided dataset.

2. The second step of this technique is to build a decision tree for each sample. The
forecast outcome from each decision tree will then be obtained.
3. Voting will be done for each predicted outcome in this step.
4. Finally, choose the prediction result that received the majority of votes as the final
prediction result.

Conducting feature selection before to data modeling will:

 Decrease overfitting
 Speed up training
 Improve model correctness

Epistemology: An exploration of the kind of knowledge needed to address global issues

Dempster Shafer's theory:

A logical theory of evidence based on credible arguments and

belief functions. It is used to calculate the likelihood of an

event by combining various pieces of evidence

Rule-Based Expert Systems:

The most basic type of Artificial Intelligence, which

follows predetermined knowledge-based rules to

address issues

1741
PL/SQL Code Block Structure:

[DECLARE]

declaration statements;

[BEGIN]
Defined by the keywords
execution statements;
DECLARE, BEGIN, EXCEPTION,
and END

[EXCEPTION]

exception statements;

END;

Data

Numerical transformation

Data analysis Transforming Data

into Visuals

Graphical interpretation

Human interaction

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Data flow diagram System flow chart

Graphical representation of the information system Graphical representation of the information system
by describing the process step-by-step

The reader of a data flow diagram cannot interpret the

result from it easily The reader of a system flow chart can easily
understand the process

Natural language

The speech recognition not only can understand the voice but also return answers to questions or other
queries that are being asked.

Structure Chart Flowchart

Represents the basic architecture of the software with Represents the graphical structure of an algorithm
the help of modules

Quite complex to understand and design Easier to construct and understand

Special purpose registers

(Contain specific information the CPU needs)

1743
 Instruction Register: contains the actual instruction which is currently being executed
by the CPU
 The program counter: contains the address of the next instruction to be executed by the
program

Memory

Buffer Memory Cache (high speed memory)

A temporary holding area for Stores the frequently used

data data by the CPU

Being part of dynamic RAM Being part of static RAM

aid in improving the speed of aid in improving the speed of
operations of the CPU operations of the CPU

Loses its stored information in a very short time Information remains stored as
(for milliseconds) even when power supply is on long as power supply is on

DOS (Disk Operating System) is an operating system that runs from a hard disk drive

1744
Napier bones

Numbers 0 to 9 were marked on a set of ivory

sticks in such a way that the product of any
number can be found by placing the sticks side
by side.

A programming language is like a natural, human language in that it favors certain metaphors, images,
and ways of thinking.

— Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas, Seymour Papert (1980)

0! = 1

n! = n × (n − 1)! if n > 0

Statement Token
(sentence) (word)

sequence of tokens (words) sequence of characters (letters)

1745
Kernel language Aid the programmer in reasoning and understanding

Foundational calculus Mathematical study of programming

Abstract machine approach Efficient execution on a real machine

Cache mapping A technique by which the contents of main memory

are brought into the cache memory

Record Operations Making changes to data at the record level

Variables

 local variable
 instance variable
 static variable

Local Variable: A variable declared inside the body of the method

Instance Variable: A variable declared inside the class but outside the body of the method

A variable that is declared as static is called a static variable.

Static binding in Java occurs during

compile time while dynamic binding

occurs during runtime.

1746
// syntax error

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int x = 23;
int y = 25;

printf("%d", (x, y)) // semicolon missed

return 0;
}

// run-time error

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n = 19, div = 0;

// wrong logic

// number is divided by 0,

// so this program abnormally terminates

div = n/0;

printf("result = %d", div);

return 0;
}

1747
// linker error
Occurs when the executable of the program
cannot be generated
#include<stdio.h>
int Main() // Here Main() should be main()
{
int a = 10;
printf("%d", a);
return 0;
}

// semantic error
Occurs when the statements written in the
program are not meaningful to the compiler
#include<stdio.h>
int Main()
{
int a, b, c;
a + b = c; // semantic error
return 0;
}

// logical error

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i = 0;

// logical error: a semicolon after loop

1748
for(i = 0; i < 3; i++);
{
printf("loop ");
continue;
}
getchar();
return 0;
}

Hashing Data Structure

List = [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]

Hash function H(x) = [x % 10]

Modulo operator

will be stored at positions {1,2,3,4,5} in the array or Hash table

1 2 3 4 5

11 12 13 14 15

11%10 12%10 13%10 14%10 15%10

Hash function

 h(11) = 11%10 = 1  h(14) = 14%10 = 4

 h(12) = 12%10 = 2  h(15) = 15%10 = 5
 h(13) = 13%10 = 3

1749
Class Object

Blue print from which objects are created Instance of a class

Declared once Created many times as per requirement

Allocates memory when it is created

Does not allocates memory when it is created

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
display(); //there is no object created here because display is a static method
}
public static void display(){
System.out.println("Call from static method");
}
}  A static method can access only static members
 A non-static method can access both static and non-static members

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
HelloWorld tc = new HelloWorld();
tc.display(); //object is created here because display is a non-static method
}
public void display(){
System.out.println("Call from non-static method");
}
}

1750
Plan your program Write code Test code

Find errors
Think of a solution

Debugging cycle: Identify the cause of errors

Find and remove the number of errors or

bugs or defects in a program

Input data testing:

A test phase that concentrates on the accuracy of the data utilized by Machine Learning models

during training and prediction

Correctness debugging Where is the bug?

Performance debugging Why is it so slow or fast?
Exploratory debugging What does it do? How does it do it?

Debugging Process:
Computer forensics:
1. Identify the error
The process of evaluating the
2. Identify the exact location of the error
3. Understand and analyze the type of bug or error damage produced by a security

4. Checks all the new errors in the program attack and figuring out how

5. Fix and validate the bug it was successful

6. Retest the program

1751
Android - Application Components

Which are the building blocks of android application?

The main components of the android application are:

 Activities
 Services
 Broadcast Receivers
 Content Providers
 Intent
 View
 Android Virtual Device (AVD)
 Android Emulator

Activities

If you open your phone application, you see number of activities such as received calls, dialed
calls, missed calls etc.
If you click on received calls, then another activity (i.e., screen showing the list of received calls)
is opened.
And if you click on one of the received call, then another activity showing the information about
the received call (such as the phone number of received call, the time at which it was received
etc.) is opened. And if you want to make a call, another activity showing the number keypad is
opened.

Services

If you want the music to play in the background or if you want some video to be downloaded
while you are browsing over the internet ‒ services provide feasibility for the music to play in
the background or video to be downloaded while you are browsing over internet.

1043

1752
Broadcast Receivers

Pop up notifications such as low battery, charging, Power got connected to the mobile device,
Power got disconnected from the mobile device, A headset was plugged in, A headset was
plugged out.

Your battery is very low [4%],

please plug in immediately

Popup notification
by broadcast
receiver

Content Providers

If you type a request for the meaning of a word in the search engine of user dictionary
application
User dictionary application sends the request to content resolver and the content resolver sends
the request to the content provider and the content provider fetches the information from the
database and directs it to the content provider and then from content provider to content resolver
and finally from content resolver to user application.

Intent

1044

1753
Activity 1 Activity 2

View photo

When you press view photo, intent (message) is sent to the android operating system
to open another activity (i.e., activity 2) which display the photo

View (apps user interface)

Android Virtual Device (AVD) & Emulator

Different android mobile devices possess different configurations. After running and testing your
android application on emulator (the component that allows the testing of android application
without the necessity to install the application on a physical Android based mobile device) you
need Android Virtual Device (AVD) to test whether the application is compatible with a
particular android mobile device configuration before installation of the app into that mobile
device.

1045

1754
Understand the problem
[Algorithmic Problem Solving]

Decide on computational means

Decide an algorithm

Prove correctness

Analyze the algorithm

Code the algorithm

Brute force algorithm finds a solution by trying all possible answers and picking the best one.

If there is a lock of four digit PIN. The digits to be chosen from 0-9 then the brute force will try all
possible combinations one by one like 0001, 0002, 0003, 0004, and so on until we get the right PIN. In
the worst case, it will take 10,000 tries to find the right combination.

1755
Divide-and-conquer technique

Problem of size n

n n
subproblem 1 of size subproblem 2 of size
2 2

solution to subproblem 1 solution to subproblem 2

solution to the original problem

Numerical stability refers to how errors introduced during the execution of an algorithm affect the result

1) Get the current instruction.

2) Determine the meaning of the instruction.
Functions of interpreter
3) Perform the action called for by the instruction.
4) Prepare for getting the next instruction.

1756
Persistent Data Structure Ephemeral Data Structure

Data structure that always preserves the Data structure that do not preserves the previous version
previous version of itself when it is modified of itself when it is modified

Modifications are nondestructive

A modification destroys the version which we modify

Packages

User defined Packages In Built Packages

The Reentrant program is a way to handle multitasking.

Backtracking

If the current solution is not suitable, then eliminate that and backtrack (go back)
and check for other solutions.

1757
Time complexity of an program Space complexity of an program

The amount of time taken by an program to The amount of memory space used by an
complete its execution as a function of the program to complete its execution as a function
length of the input of the length of the input

int d = a + b + c;
return(d);
}

Here, in the program above, a, b, c and d are 4 integers,

so each will take 4 bytes. So, the memory required will

be 4×4 = 16 bytes. In addition to this memory, while

returning value, d will take 4 bytes. Therefore, the total

memory requirement will be 16+4 = 20 bytes. This is the

space complexity of the above-program

C# C# Complier

C/C++ C/C++ Complier

Intermediate
Just-in-Time

language
Compiler
Prolog Prolog Complier
in

F# F# Complier Common
language runtime
Scheme Scheme Complier

Languages Compilers

Hardware
Microsoft's Visual Studio.Net programming environment or
Stimulator

1758
Declarative programming → specifies what is to be done rather than how to do it

SQL, HTML, XML and CSS (model-based programming)

Does not provide instructions on how to solve the problem

Imperative programming: provides step by step instructions on how to solve the problem

 Ada
 ALGOL
 Assembly language
 BASIC
 Blue
 C
 C#
 C++
 COBOL
 D  Easy to read and learn
 FORTRAN  Solution path is very easy for
 Go
 Groovy beginners to understand
 Java
 Julia
 Lua
 MATLAB  Optimization and extension is more
 Modula difficult
 MUMPS
 Nim  Higher risk of errors when editing
 Oberon
 OCaml
 Pascal
 Perl
 PHP
 PROSE
 Python
 Ruby
 Rust

1759
Imperative programming (PHP):

$participantlist = [1 => 'Peter', 2 => 'Henry', 3 => 'Sarah'];

$firstnames= [];
foreach ($participantlist as $id => $name) {
$firstnames[] = $name;
}

Declarative programming (PHP):

$firstnames = array_values($participantlist);

Imperative programming

 Structured Programming: the code is divided into modules or function and

include three basic elements:
 Sequence: Execute a list of statements in order.

x = 5

y = 11
z = x + y

WriteLine(z)

 Selection: Execute a block of code if a condition is true. The block of code

is executed at most once.
x = ReadLine()

If x Mod 2 = 0

WriteLine("The number is even.")

End If

1760
 Repetition: Repeat a block of code while a condition is true. There is no
limit to the number of times that the block can be executed.
x = 2

While x < 100

WriteLine(x)

x = x * x

End

 Procedural Programming: the use of code in a step-wise procedure to develop

applications
 Modular Programming: the process of subdividing a computer program into
separate sub-programs

Declarative programming

 Logic Programming: presentation of program in the form of symbolic logic

 Functional Programming: programs are constructed by applying and composing
functions

Imperative programming algorithms + data (good for decomposition)

Functional programming functions (good for reasoning)
Logic programming facts + rules (good for searching)
Object-oriented programming objects + messages (good for modeling)

Structured Programming Unstructured Programming

Code is divided into modules or function Code is considered as one single block

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Easy to read Hard to read
Easy to do testing and debugging Hard to do testing and debugging

Prolog program to print Hello World!

:- initialization(main).
main :- write('Hello World!').

Hello World!| ?- Output on the screen Some basic features of Prolog include:

 pattern-matching mechanism
For every input array of length n ≥ 1, the MergeSort  backtracking strategy that searches for possible
algorithm performs at most solutions

6nlog2 n + 6n  uniform data structures from which programs

are built
operations, where log2 denotes the base-2 logarithm.

Recursion Iteration

Uses Uses

selection structure
repetition structure
A program is called recursive when a statement A program is called iterative when a loop repeatedly
in a function calls itself repeatedly executes until the controlling condition becomes false
Reduces the size of the code Makes the code longer
Slow in execution Fast in execution

Consumes more memory Consumes less memory

1762
#include<stdio.h> #include<stdio.h>

int fact(int n){ int main() {

if(n == 0) int i, n = 5, fact = 1;

return 1; for(i = 1; i <= n; ++i)

else fact = fact * i;

return n * fact(n-1); printf("Factorial of 5 is %d", fact);

} return 0;

int main() { }

printf("Factorial of 5 is %d", fact(5));

return 0;

Factorial of 5 is 120

Stack Memory Heap Memory

Smaller in size Larger in size
It is not flexible because we cannot alter the It is flexible because we can alter the
allocated memory allocated memory

Memory allocation is continuous Memory allocated in random order

Procedural abstraction refers to using subprograms to hide information about how problems
are solved.

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Memory (RAM)

a=2 CPU Fetches the value of a

b=3
CPU Fetches the value of b
c=6 CPU multiplies a and b
and stores this value into c
c=a*b

c = a * b, where a, b, and c are the variables in a programming

language. CPU Instructions
If a = 2 and b = 3, the value of a and b are the input values that are
called literals.
We ask the computer to calculate the value of a*b, which results in
c, i.e. the expected output.

Start Decision Tree

Look for missing article

Yes

Did you find it? Do you want it?

Yes No

Stop looking for it

1764
Repeating patterns Loops
Directions Algorithms
Order of steps Sequence
Completed project Program
Problem solving Debugging
Paths to completion Conditionals
Break into steps Decompose
Amount Value

Programming Language Applications

Java Desktop GUI application (AWT or Swing api), Applets, online shopping
sites, internet banking, jar files for secured file handling, enterprise
applications, mobile applications, gaming software.
C Operating Systems, Embedded systems, Database management systems,
Compiler, gaming and animation.
Python Machine learning, Artificial Intelligence, Data analysis, face detection and
image recognition Software.
C++ Banking and trading enterprise software, virtual machines and compilers.
Visual Basic .NET Windows services, controls, control libraries, Web applications, Web
services.
C# Desktop applications like a file explorer, Microsoft office applications like
Word, Excel, Web browsers, Adobe Photoshop.
JavaScript Client side and server side validations, DOM handling, developing web
elements using jQuery (JS library).
PHP Static and dynamic websites and applications, Server side scripting.
SQL Querying database, CRUD operations in database programming, creating a
stored procedure, triggers, database management.
Objective – C Apple's OS X, iOS operating system and APIs, Cocoa and Cocoa Touch.

1765
A Prior Analysis A Posterior Analysis
Theoretical analysis of an algorithm Empirical analysis of an algorithm
It will give approximate answer and is independent It will give exact answer and is dependent on
of language of compiler and types of hardware language of compiler and type of hardware

Computational Design and analysis

Programming
problem to solve Algorithm
Program

encryption key

unencrypted message encryption algorithm encrypted message

decryption key

encrypted message decryption algorithm unencrypted message

1766
unencrypted message → 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1

encryption key → 4232

1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1

4 2 3 2 4 2 3 2 4 2 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1

+ 4 2 3 2 4 2 3 2 4 2 3
---------------------
5 4 6 6 9 8 8 6 7 4 4

54669886744 → encrypted message

decryption key → 4232

5 4 6 6 9 8 8 6 7 4 4

4 2 3 2 4 2 3 2 4 2 3

5 4 6 6 9 8 8 6 7 4 4

- 4 2 3 2 4 2 3 2 4 2 3
---------------------
1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1

1767
1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1 → unencrypted message

single key

unencrypted encryption encrypted decryption

message algorithm message algorithm

Algorithmic Trading

The use of algorithms to employ strategies for executing trades

Evaluates market situation dynamically

Develop
Programmer Code

Saves time for trader

1768
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main ( )
{
long long a = 123456789;
long long b = 987654321;
cout << a*b << "\n";
return 0;
}

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
typedef long long ll;
int main()
{
ll a = 123456789;
ll b = 987654321;
cout << a*b << "\n";
return 0;
}

Output on the screen:

121932631112635269

1769
Data Type

Numeric Char Boolean

(Represent numbers) (Represent characters) (Represent logical values)

Integer Floating point

(Represent whole numbers) (Represent real numbers)

byte

short

float double
int

long

double float

14 to 15 decimal places of accuracy 5 to 6 decimal places of accuracy

Size: 8 bytes Size: 4 bytes

Data type Size

byte 1 byte

short 2 bytes

1770
int 4 bytes

long 8 bytes

float 4 bytes

double 8 bytes

boolean Not applicable

char 2 bytes

int b = 20

Constant value (decimal literal)

Name of the variable (identifier)

Datatype (keyword)

public class MyClass {

static
{
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++)
System.out.println(i);
}
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("......hi......");
}
}

1771
Output on the screen:

......hi......

public class MyClass {

static
{
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++)
System.out.println(i);
System.exit(0); // it stops execution
}
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("......hi......");
}
}

1772
Output on the screen:

 Find problem

 Isolate problematic part of code

Debugging a program
 Fix it

The process of finding and resolving of errors in the code

1773
Mathematical theory

Syntactic rules Axioms Inference rules

(Rules governing the (Mechanisms for deducing new

(Basic theorems which
composition of well-formed theorems from axioms and
are accepted without
expressions in a programming previously proved theorems)
proof)
language)

Activation of a block → a time interval during which that block is being executed

Logic + Control = Algorithms

Imperative Programming Declarative Programming

Specify how it is to be done. Specify what is to be done.

Describes the control flow of computation. Expresses the logic of computation.

Domain failure Range failure

occurs when the input parameters of an operation do not

occurs when an operation is unable to produce a
satisfy the requirements of the operation
result for values which are in the range

1774
Fetch instruction

Decode instruction

Execute the instruction

Read address from memory

Instruction life cycle

Memory cycle

Memory allocation → Memory usage → Memory release

Python:

Create a list a = [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]

print(a)

Indexing a = [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]

# Accessing the item in the position 0

print(a [0])

# Accessing the item in the position 5

print(a [5])

1775
# Accessing the last item using negative indexing
print(a [-1])
Slicing a = [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
# printing a part of the list
print(a [0:3])
Concatenation a = [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
b =[11,12]
# adding and printing the items of two lists
print(a + b)
Repetition b =[11,12]
# create a multiple copies of the same list
print(b*3)
Updating a = [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
# updating the list using index value
a[2]=13
print(a)
Membership a = [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
# returns true if item is present in list. otherwise returns false

print (5 in a)
print (13 in a)
Comparison a = [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
b =[11,12]
# returns true if all items in both lists are same. otherwise returns false

print(a==b)

# list
a =[12, "John", "C++", 78.5]
print(a)

# tuple
b =(13, "Joseph", "Java", 88.5)
print(b)

# dictionary

1776
c ={"Roll no":15, "class":"Python", "percentage":98.50}
print(c)

Output on the screen:

[12, 'John', 'C++', 78.5]

(13, 'Joseph', 'Java', 88.5)

{'Roll no': 15, 'class': 'Python', 'percentage': 98.5}

Command:

yum search httpd

Description:

Search for a Package (apache) {CentOS}

Command:

yum check-update

Description:

Find how many of installed packages on your system have updates available {CentOS}

1777
Command:

yum grouplist

Description:

List all available Group Packages {CentOS}

Command:

yum repolist

(do not require any operator) (require operator)

 Widening: Converting a lower data type into higher data type

 Narrowing: Converting a higher data type into lower data type

 Automatic type conversion: Type conversion done by the compiler wherever required

Static Typing Dynamic Typing

Variables have types Variables have no types

Values have types Values have types

Variables cannot change type Variables change type dynamically

Narrowing Type Casting

double float long int short byte

Widening Type Casting

1780
 Mutable objects → The objects in which you can change the fields and states after the

object is created.

 Immutable objects → The objects in which you cannot change the fields and states after

the object is created.

Threads created by Java Virtual Machine → Daemon threads

Threads created by an application itself → User threads

Steps to create Java Database Connectivity Application:

 Import the packages

 Register the Java Database Connectivity driver

 Open a connection

 Execute a query

 Extract data from the result set

 Clean up the environment

Training data → Learn Algorithm → Build Model → Perform → Feedback

Machine Learning

1781
 Combines data from multiple sources
 Applies logic and mathematics to data to
provide insights for making better quick
decisions
Tableau → data visualization tool
 Analyze multiple independent datasets to gain
the combined insight
 Visualize and create interactive, shareable
dashboards.

6 steps involved in Software Testing Life Cycle:

 Requirement Analysis
 Testing strategy is defined
 Testing team prepares the test data for testing
 Set up the test environment
 Test analysts test the data and compare the expected and actual results.
 Note the summary of the bugs removed and errors found during the software development
life cycle.

A blockchain is a backlinked, decentralized and

distributed-database of encrypted records, called blocks,
which are linked and secured using cryptography.

1782
 bash (Bourne Again Shell)

 ksh (Korn Shell)

The most common Shells used in Linux are:
 csh (C Shell)

 zsh (Z Shell)

 fish (Friendly Interactive Shell)

 free -m
 vmstat
Commands for Checking Memory Usage in Linux
 top
 htop

3 kinds of permission in Linux:

 r – Reading permission: Allows a user to open and read the file

 w – Writing permission: Allows a user to open and modify the file
 x – Execution permission: Allows a user to run the file.

Defect density:
The process states in Linux:
The number of flaws that were identified during software

development divided by the size of the software

 The process is created
 The process is ready to run
 The process is running
 The process is waiting for input from the user
 The process has been stopped
 The process is dead but its information still exists in the process table

1783
Concept Description

Abstraction Hides the implementation details and only provides the functionality to the user
Encapsulation Wraps up the data and code together as a single unit
Inheritance Where one class acquires the properties of another
Polymorphism The ability of a variable, function or object to take multiple forms

2 types of polymorphism:

• Compile time polymorphism

• Run time polymorphism.

Used for
• Method Overriding
• Code Reusability

Constructor is basically a method that is automatically called to create an object.

2 types of Constructor:
• Default Constructor → can be called with no arguments.
• Parameterized Constructor → can be called with specific number of arguments.

Problem Occurs → Create Exception → Throw Exception → Handle Exception

Exception handling:

The process of having a software program react to unwelcome or unexpected

events. Without this process, these events would interfere with a program's
normal execution and cause it to crash

1784
Differences between C, C++ and Java:

C C++ Java

Programming Paradigm Procedural language Object-Oriented Programming Pure Object Oriented

(OOP) Oriented

Origin Based on assembly Based on C language Based on C and C++

language

Developer Dennis Ritchie in 1972 Bjarne Stroustrup in 1979 James Gosling in 1991

Translator Compiler only Compiler only Interpreted language

(Compiler + interpreter)

Platform Dependency Platform Dependent Platform Dependent Platform Independent

Code execution Direct Direct Executed by JVM (Java

Virtual Machine)

Approach Top-down approach Bottom-up approach Bottom-up approach

File generation .exe files .exe files .class files

Pre-processor directives Support header files Supported (#header, #define) Use Packages (import)

(#include, #define)

keywords Support 32 keywords Supports 63 keywords 50 defined keywords

Datatypes (union, structure) Supported Supported Not supported

Inheritance No inheritance Supported Supported except Multiple

inheritance

Overloading No overloading Support Function overloading Operator overloading is not

(Polymorphism) supported

Pointers Supported Supported Not supported

Allocation Use malloc, calloc Use new, delete Garbage collector

Exception Handling Not supported Supported Supported

Templates Not supported Supported Not supported

Destructors No constructor neither Supported Not supported

destructor

Multithreading/ Interfaces Not supported Not supported Supported

Database connectivity Not supported Not supported Supported

Storage Classes Supported ( auto, extern ) Supported ( auto, extern ) Not supported

1785
Write a python program to get all links from a webpage

from bs4 import BeautifulSoup

from urllib.request import Request, urlopen

soup = BeautifulSoup(urlopen(Request("http://www.scribd.com/")), "lxml")

urls = []

for url in soup.findAll('a'):

urls.append(url.get('href'))

print(urls)

Write a python program to Print all Integers that Aren’t Divisible by Either 2 or 3

# the maximum number to which you want to print

x = 20

# assign a value to a variable 'i'

i = 1

# run until it reaches maximum number 'x'

print("Numbers not divisible by 2 and 3:")
while i <= x:

# check if 'i' is divisible by 2 and 3

if i % 2 != 0 and i % 3 != 0:
print(i)

# incrementing 'i'
i = i+1

1786
Write a Python program which iterates the integers from 1 to 20. For multiples of
3 print "Albert" instead of the number and for the multiples of 5 print "Elsa".
For numbers which are multiples of both 3 and 5 print "Elsa Albert".

for i in range(21):
if i % 3 == 0 and i % 5 == 0:
print("Elsa Albert")
continue
elif i % 3 == 0:
print("Albert")
continue
elif i % 5 == 0:
print("Elsa")
continue
print(i)

Write a Python program to convert seconds into hours, minutes and seconds

# Python Program to convert seconds into hours, minutes and seconds

def convert(seconds):
seconds = seconds % (24 * 3600)
hour = seconds // 3600
seconds %= 3600
minutes = seconds // 60
seconds %= 60

return "%d:%02d:%02d" % (hour, minutes, seconds)

x = 98765
print(convert(x))

1787
Data Science

Statistics + Data Analysis + Machine Learning

(Evaluate the data to derive knowledge and insights and make future predictions)

 Better choices (What should we pick, X or Y?)

Aids in
 Analysis of the future (What will take place next?)

 The discovery of patterns (Search for patterns or any

concealed information in the data)

Conventional Programming:

Computing Data + Computer Algorithm → Conclusion

Machine Learning:

Computing Data + Conclusion → Computer Algorithm

 Population: A collection of people or things from which we want to gather data

 Census: A gathering of information on each person within a population

 Sample: Information on a particular segment of the population in order to represent all

"Machine Learning is a field of study that gives computers the

ability to learn without being programmed."

Arthur Samuel (1959)

1788
Azure Machine Learning (Azure ML):

A platform for building and managing machine learning applications in the cloud. It
is intended to assist data scientists and machine learning engineers in utilizing their current
model development and data processing skills and frameworks

 Bandits: A class of algorithms where users repeatedly select from or make judgments in
response to various options
 Box plot: A diagram that illustrates how the data vary in terms of pattern

 Causal modeling: Build a model to explain the connections between ideas connected to a
particular phenomenon
 Data Partitioning: The process of dividing data over several tables, drives, or locations in
order to speed up query processing or make databases easier to maintain
 Data Product: Any tool or software that processes data and produces output

 Dichotomous: A result with only two possible values. For example: a coin tossing
experiment's results are dichotomous ("head" or "tail")
 Discriminant Analysis: A statistical method that divides data into distinct groups
according to how well they perform on one or more quantitative predictor factors

Central Limit Theorem:

Irrespective of the probability distribution of the population from which the

sample is obtained, the sampling distribution of the mean reaches

normality as the sample size increases

 Endogenous Variable: A variable in a statistical model whose effect or significance is

affected by how it interacts with other variables in the model
 Exact Test: A test where all presumptions made during the distributional derivation of the
test statistic are fulfilled if the null hypothesis is true

1789
 Face validity: The degree to which a test is seen as covering the idea that it is meant to
measure
 Factor Analysis: A method for breaking down a large number of variables into a smaller
number of factors
 Family-wise Type I Error: The likelihood that we will incorrectly assume that at least one
pair of populations differs, even if all samples come from the same population
 Frequency Interpretation of Probability: When an experiment is repeated a very
large number of times, the probability of an event is the proportion of times the event takes place

Heteroscedasticity → unequal variation of data

Homoscedasticity → equal variation of data

 Likelihood Ratio Test: A statistical test that compares the likelihood ratios of two models
to assess the goodness of fit of the models
 Meta-analysis: An epidemiologic study design that is rigorous, systematic, and utilized to
methodically evaluate the findings of earlier research in order to draw conclusions about that
body of research
 Normality: A property of a random variable that follows the normal distribution

 Predictive Validity: An assessment of the degree of agreement between the outcomes

produced by the instrument under evaluation and those produced by more direct and objective
measurements
 Repeatability: The difference in results from experiments conducted under the same
circumstances
 Reproducibility: The variation of results of an experiment performed under conditions that
vary within a typical range, such as when measurement is performed by the same equipment by
various operators in various laboratories
 Sequential Analysis: A statistical analysis in which decisions are taken concerning the
size of the sample and the type of data to be gathered and updated as the investigation develops,
taking into account knowledge gained at prior iterations

1790
 Step-wise Regression: The iterative process of building a regression model step-by-step,
including choosing independent variables to be included in the final model
 Stratified Sampling: A kind of sampling procedure in which the entire population is split
up into smaller groups to finish the sampling process
 Systematic Error: The expected value of the overall error

 Test-Retest Reliability: A reliability score that is achieved by administering the same test
to a set of individuals twice over time
 Two-Tailed Test: A kind of hypothesis testing where the null hypothesis is disproved if the
observed sample statistic deviates significantly from the critical value in either direction (higher
than the positive critical value or lower than the negative critical value)
 MATLAB: A platform for programming and numerical computing used by millions of
engineers and academics to interpret data, construct algorithms, and make predictions
 Logic programming: A programming methodology in which calculation is performed

using a knowledge base of facts and regulations. LISP and Prolog are two logic programming
languages employed in the development of Artificial Intelligence
 H2O.ai: A powerful AI cloud platform designed to build, operate and innovate with AI in any
environment easier and faster

Tidyverse

A comprehensive set of R packages for exploratory data analysis, data visualization

and data manipulation that corresponds to a single design philosophy

 Complex structured data: Data that cannot be easily processed by structured query
languages and tools because they are made up of two or more intricate, interrelated parts
 Key-value Database: A kind of non-relational database that stores data via the simple
key-value approach
 Topological Data Analysis: A method that focuses on the structure of complex data
to find clusters and any statistical significance that may be present

1791
 Data Catalogue: A technique for organizing, categorizing, and documenting collections
of data in a data repository that simplifies searching and, frequently, also includes features
that enable users to review or remark on data-sets, benefiting future users' queries
 Data Democratization: A procedure for increasing Data accessibility within an
organisation, especially for non-specialist staff
 Operating Model: An organization's operating model that describes how an organization
operates, including the tasks it does, how they are carried out, and the individuals,
procedures, and technology involved
 Data Owner: The individual responsible for an organization's classification, protection,
utilization, and quality of one or more data sets
 Data Processor: An individual, corporation, or other entity that handles personal data
on behalf of the data controller
 Data Education: Inform individuals about the utilization of data and its significance to
the enterprise organisation
 Embedded BI: The incorporation of data visualizations, dashboards, and reports within
an application
 Management Information (MI): Any information obtained to support business
decisions
 Single Version of the Truth: The process of providing decision-makers with precise
data in the form of responses to extremely strategic questions
 Single Source of Truth: A technique for organizing information models and related
conceptual frameworks so that each piece of data is recorded exactly once
 Analysis Facility: A bundled-up collection of the tools and data required to perform a
certain set of analysis
 Chart (Graph): A method for organizing and displaying data with the ultimate goal of
making it simpler to interpret and, in particular, identify patterns
 Clickstream Analytics: The monitoring and evaluation of website traffic in terms of
page views, unique visitors, and repeat visitors
 Data Asset: A program output file, document, report, database, or webpage that business
organizations utilize to make money

1792
 Data Controller: An organization responsible for the gathering, storing, using, and
erasing of personal data
 Data Issue Management (DIM): A method of eliminating or lessening the effects
of barriers that limit the efficient use of data
 Data Maturity: A way to evaluate how effective an enterprise organization's data
analysis is
 Data Protection Officer (DPO): A senior manager in charge of making sure that
his/her company complies with the relevant data protection laws when handling the personal
information of its employees, clients, vendors, or any other individuals (also known as data

subjects)

 Data Roadmap: A broad vision or strategy for implementing a Data Strategy

 Data Sourcing: The procedure of obtaining Data from multiple Data Sources, including
Data Repositories, Databases supporting Transactional Systems, website logs or other flat-file
outputs, APIs, or external sources of data
 End User Computing (EUC): Platforms and computer systems that assist non-
programmers in developing applications
 Flat-file: A kind of database that saves information in plain text

 Operational Repository: A Data Repository that is primarily concerned with

facilitating the generation of Information and is an important component of a modern Data
Architecture
 Reference Data: Data that is used to describe and categorize other data

 Gamification: The design principles employed in the game to boost consumer interest in
non-game enterprises
 Apache Sqoop: A tool developed to move data between relational database servers and
Hadoop
 Weather Data: The data patterns and trends used to monitor the atmosphere

 Explanation-based learning: A machine learning method that allows intelligent

systems to learn from examples

1793
 Intelligent matching: A method of managing data in which a database's contents are
identified, indexed, and retrieved using a variety of artificial intelligence-based algorithms for
data matching and sorting.
 Expressiveness: The ability of a knowledge representation framework to communicate
the key characteristics of a given problem
 Parser: A program that determines one or more possible ways a sentence in a language
could have been constructed using the grammar rules
 Problem description: A summary of a problem that needs to be solved

 Problem reduction search: A method of problem-solving that involves iteratively

solving simpler subproblems first, then tackling more complex problems by breaking them
down into simpler ones
 Symbolic manipulation: Processing symbolic data to create new symbolic structures
or derived conclusions
 Theorem proving: The method of systematically deriving new formula using rules of
reasoning in order to prove a mathematical theorem or solve a predicate calculus challenge
 Trigram: A sequence of three words

 Uncertain reasoning: Reasoning under uncertainty

 Weak method: A method of problem-solving that can be used to solve a range of issues
but is not ensured to be effective or yield a solution
 Decision Aid: A software that facilitates decision-making by individuals, especially for
complicated issues where a high level of knowledge is required
 Human-Centered Computing: Computers and other devices should be constructed
to effectively meet user needs and expectations
 Plan Recognition: Prediction of an interactive system's top-level strategies from its
observed actions
 Programming by Demonstration: A set of end-user programming methods that

create code from examples that the user has provided

 Toy System: Small-scale use of an idea or methodology that works well for testing a few

key features but is inappropriate for solving difficult or real-world issues

1794
Black Box Algorithms:

An algorithm that has a black box structure prevents the user from seeing how it
functions within. The output of this algorithm is determined by correlating specific
data attributes across millions of input data points.

Cybernetic Organism:

A hybrid of human and machine

Friendly Artificial Intelligence:

A Superintelligence that would benefit people, at

the very least supports their interests, or otherwise

work to advance the humankind

Unfriendly Artificial Intelligence:

Superintelligence with an objective that makes it useful

for the AI to damage mankind and it could represent an

existential risk to humanity

Weight: The degree to which two neurons from two different layers of a neural network are connected

"First, solve the problem. Then, write the code. "

– John Johnson

1795
Big data

A collection of technologies and strategies needed to handle, evaluate, and preserve the large amount of
data. Big data operates under the assumption that the more one know about a topic, the more accurately
one can learn new things and make predictions about what's to come. Today, it is applied in a variety of
fields, including agriculture, environmental conservation, medicine, and sports.

Space analysis:

Analyzing, evaluating, and modeling geographical data features, such as

locations, traits, and their relationships, which expose the geometrical or
geographical properties of data, in order to understand entities.

Administrative data:

Data generally gathered for administrative, not research, objectives.

Null Hypothesis Research Hypothesis

There is no statistically significant difference There is statistically significant difference
between the sample means of two groups between the sample means of two groups

A hypothesis or idea supported by insufficient data. For

confirmation, more research and testing are needed. A hypothesis
may be found to be true or untrue through more testing and
experiments. It means that it might turn out to be false or true.

1796
Analogue data

Any information that is physically captured, whether it be through electrical or optical means, and stored

Anomaly:

A practice, procedure, or observation that deviates from what is common or usual

At-risk data: Information that could be lost.

Black box: Any device whose operations and functionality the user cannot access or understand.

Data Catalogue → A curated set of metadata regarding datasets and their data components.

Data dredging

Using a data collection to learn more information than it actually contains

 Derived research data: Research data that are produced by merging or analyzing 'raw' data,
frequently reproducible but intensive.
 E-Infrastructure: A system that brings together communications, computation, and digital
technologies to promote teamwork and research.
 Experimental research data: Research findings from experiments that is frequently
reproducible but intensive.
 Informatics: The discipline of gathering, classifying, storing, retrieving, and sharing information.

1797
Research Data Lifecycle

Reusing Data

Creating Data

Processing Data

Analyzing Data

Preserving Data

Making Data Accessible

Simulation research data:

Research data produced by test models, where the model and metadata may be
more significant than the model's output data.

Stream processing

The process of performing calculations on individual data elements as they pass through a system

Secondary Data:

Existing data that is being used for a different objective from the one for
which it was originally acquired

1798
Data quality checklist

A list of potential problems with a dataset

Data management plan:

A clear description outlining the management and documentation of research data

throughout a project as well as the conditions for the data's future deposit with a data
repository for long-term management and preservation

FAIR Data Principles

A group of researchers and research organizations came up with the FAIR Data Principles (Findable,
Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable), which were published in Scientific Data in 2016 and serve as a
set of guiding principles for the reuse of digital assets.

Digitisation Digitalisation
Information that is being transferred from a The method of utilizing digitization to enhance
physical format to a digital one business procedures

AI Literacy:

Knowledge of what artificial intelligence is and what it needs to function. With the aid of this
knowledge, it is feasible to assess AI technologies critically, interact with AI systems, work
with them, and use them as useful tools for one's own work.

1799
Customer analytics:

The analysis of a certain consumer base based on data. This makes it possible to identify valuable client
relationships and consumer interests in order to develop appropriate, unique offers

Datafication:

Explains the creation of data that results from the digitization of everyday activities
and aspects of existence

Data Thinking

To successfully create data products and data strategies, data thinking unites data
science and design thinking methodologies. Data Thinking takes into account and
addresses issues from the user's perspective.

 Keras: An open source library. Rapid neural network implementation is accomplished

using Keras. It is frequently a crucial building piece in deep learning applications.
 Matplotlib: A library for the Python programming language. It is very suitable for data
visualization.
 Pandas: A Python programming language application package that enables the data to be
managed, cleansed, and analyzed. Pandas' major feature, Data Frames, represents data as
a table with columns and rows.
 Predictive Maintenance: A maintenance procedure used to reduce the "downtime" of
manufacturing machinery. By assessing the likelihood of system breakdowns, it seeks to
optimize maintenance cycles.
 PySpark: The Python API for Apache Spark, a free and open-source framework and
collection of modules for processing massive amounts of data quickly and efficiently.
 Trend analysis: A method used in technical analysis that makes predictions about future
stock price movements using trend data that has just been observed. To predict the long-

1800
term direction of economic outlook, trend analysis makes use of previous data, such as
price fluctuations and transaction volume.

"Programming is about managing complexity: the complexity of the problem,

laid upon the complexity of the machine. Because of this complexity, most of
our programming projects fail."

― Bruce Eckel, On Java 8

1801
Best Linux Books that Every Superuser Should Read:

 How Linux Works: What Every Superuser Should Know

Book by Brian Ward

 The Linux Programming Interface

Book by Michael Kerrisk

 Linux pocket guide

Book by Daniel J. Barrett

 Linux for Beginners

Book by Jason Cannon

 How Linux Works: What Every Superuser Should Know

Book by Brian Ward

 Linux Kernel Development

Book by Robert Love

 Linux: The Complete Reference

Book by Richard Petersen

 Linux in a Nutshell

Book by Ellen Siever and Robert Love

 Linux Basics for Hackers: Getting Started with Networking, Scripting, and Security

in Kali

Book by OccupyTheWeb
 Linux Command Line and Shell Scripting Bible

Book by Christine Bresnahan and Richard BLUM

 Linux Administration: The Linux Operating System and Command Line Guide for

Linux Administrators

Book by Jason Cannon

 The Art of Unix Programming

Book by Eric S. Raymond

 The Linux Command Line, 2nd Edition: A Complete Introduction

Book by William Shotts

 Linux Bible

Book by Christopher Negus

 Linux System Programming: Talking Directly to the Kernel and C Library

Book by Robert Love

 A Practical Guide to Linux Commands, Editors, and Shell Programming

Book by Mark G. Sobell

 Linux for Beginners and Command Line Kung Fu

Book by Jason Cannon

 Linux Device Drivers

Book by Alessandro Rubini, Greg Kroah-Hartman, and Jonathan Corbet

 Advanced Linux programming

Book by Alex Samuel, Jeffrey Oldham, and Mark Mitchell

 Understanding the Linux Kernel

Book by Daniel Pierre Bovet and Marco Cesati

 Learn Linux Quickly: A Beginner-friendly Guide to Getting Up and Running with

the World's Most Powerful Operating System

Book by Ahmed Alkabary

 Linux administration

Book by Wale Soyinka

 Linux For Dummies

Book by Richard Blum

 Linux Essentials

Book by Christine Bresnahan and Richard BLUM

 The Linux Command Line Beginner's Guide

Book by Jonathan Moeller

 Linux All-in-One for Dummies

Book by Emmett Dulaney

 Learning the bash Shell

Book by Cameron Newham

 Linux for Developers: Jumpstart Your Linux Programming Skills

Book by William "Bo" Rothwell

 Lfm: Linux Field Manual

Book by Tim Bryant

 CompTIA Linux+ Study Guide: Exam XK0-005

Book by Christine Bresnahan and Richard BLUM

 sed & awk

Book by Arnold Robbins and Dale Dougherty

 Linux From Scratch

Book by Gerard Beekmans

Linux is a complex example of the wisdom of crowds. It's a good

example in the sense that it shows you can set people to work in

a decentralized way - that is, without anyone really directing

their efforts in a particular direction - and still trust that they're

going to come up with good answers.

− James Surowiecki
Best Programming Books that Every Programmer Should Read:

 The C Programming Language

Book by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie

 C Programming Absolute Beginner's Guide

Book by Dean Miller and Greg Perry

 Head First C

Book by David Griffiths and Dawn Griffiths

 Expert C Programming

Book by Peter van der Linden

 C Programming: A Modern Approach

Book by K. N King

 C: The complete reference

Book by Herbert Schildt

 Learn C the Hard Way: Practical Exercises on the Computational Subjects You Keep
Avoiding (Like C)

Book by Zed Shaw

 C in a Nutshell: The Definitive Reference

Book by Peter Prinz and Tony Crawford

 C Programming In Easy Steps

Book by Mike McGrath

 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

Book by Reema Thareja

 Hands-On Network Programming with C: Learn Socket Programming in C and Write

Secure and Optimized Network Code

Book by Lewis Van Winkle

 Let Us C

Book by Yashavant Kanetkar

 Low-Level Programming: C, Assembly, and Program Execution on Intel® 64 Architecture

Book by Igor Zhirkov

 Effective C: An Introduction to Professional C Programming

Book by Robert C. Seacord

 Data Structures Using C

Book by Reema Thareja

 A Book on C: Programming in C

Book by Al Kelley and Ira Pohl

 C Traps and Pitfalls

Book by Andrew Koenig

 C Interfaces and Implementations: Techniques for Creating Reusable Software

Book by David Hanson and David R. Hanson

 Mastering algorithms with C

Book by Kyle Loudon

 Extreme C: Taking You to the Limit in Concurrency, OOP, and the Most Advanced
Capabilities of C
Book by Kamran Amini

 Let Us C Solutions

Book by Yashavant Kanetkar

 Bare Metal C: Embedded Programming for the Real World

Book by Stephen Oualline

 Introduction to C Programming

Book by Reema Thareja

 C - In Depth

Book by Deepali Srivastava

 C How to Program

Book by Harvey Deitel and Paul Deitel

 The C answer book

Book by Clovis L. Tondo

 C Programming For Dummies

Book by Dan Gookin

 Understanding Pointers In C & C++: Fully Working Examples and Applications of Pointers

Book by Yashavant Kanetkar

C++:

 The C++ Programming Language

Book by Bjarne Stroustrup

 Effective Modern C++

Book by Scott Meyers

 C++ Primer

Book by Barbara E. Moo, Josée Lajoie, and Stanley B. Lippman

 A Tour of C++

Book by Bjarne Stroustrup

 Programming: Principles and Practice Using C++

Book by Bjarne Stroustrup

 C++ Concurrency in Action

Book by Anthony Williams

 Modern C++ Design

Book by Andrei Alexandrescu

 More Effective C++: 35 New Ways To Improve Your Programs And Designs

Book by Scott Meyers

 Accelerated C++: Practical Programming by Example

Book by Andrew Koenig and Barbara E. Moo

 C++ Templates: The Complete Guide

Book by David Vandevoorde, Douglas Gregor, and Nicolai M. Josuttis

 More Exceptional C++: 40 New Engineering Puzzles, Programming Problems, and

Solutions

Book by Herb Sutter

 C++ coding standards

Book by Andrei Alexandrescu and Herb Sutter

 C++ Template Metaprogramming: Concepts, Tools, and Techniques from Boost and
Beyond

Book by Aleksey Gurtovoy and David Abrahams

 Beginning C++ Game Programming

Book by Michael Dawson

 Beginning C++ Programming

Book by Richard Grimes

 C++ Programming

Book by D. S. Malik

 Sams Teach Yourself C++ in One Hour a Day

Book by Rao Siddhartha

 Professional C++

Book by Nicholas A. Solter and Scott J. Kleper

 Starting Out with C++

Book by Tony Gaddis

 C++: The Complete Reference

Book by Herbert Schildt

 Exceptional C++: 47 Engineering Puzzles, Programming Problems, and Solutions

Book by Herb Sutter

 C++ High Performance: Master the Art of Optimizing the Functioning of Your C++ Code

Book by Björn Andrist and Viktor Sehr

 The C++ Standard Library: A Tutorial and Reference

Book by Nicolai M. Josuttis

 Effective C++ Digital Collection: 140 Ways to Improve Your Programming

Book by Scott Meyers

 C++17 - The Complete Guide

Book by Nicolai M. Josuttis

 C++ Primer Plus

Book by Stephen Prata

 Data Parallel C++: Mastering DPC++ for Programming of Heterogeneous Systems using

C++ and SYCL

Book by James Brodman, Michael Kinsner, Xinmin Tian, Ben Ashbaugh, John Pennycook,

James Reinders

 Data Structures Using C++

Book by Varsha H. Patil

 The Design and Evolution of C++

Book by Bjarne Stroustrup

 Modern CMake for C++: Discover a Better Approach to Building, Testing, and Packaging

Your Software

Book by Rafał Świdziński

 Expert C++: Become a Proficient Programmer by Learning Coding Best Practices with

C++17 and C++20's Latest Features

Book by Shunguang Wu and Vardan Grigoryan

 Learn C++ Quickly: A Complete Beginner's Guide to Learning C++, Even If You're New to

Programming

Book by Code Quickly

 Memory Management Algorithms and Implementation in C/C++

Book by Bill Blunden

 Thinking in C++

Book by Bruce Eckel

 Modern C++ Programming Cookbook

Book by Marius Bancila

 Hands-On Design Patterns with C++: Solve Common C++ Problems with Modern Design

Patterns and Build Robust Applications

Book by Fedor G. Pikus

 A complete guide to programming in C++

Book by Ulla Kirch-Prinz

 C++ Crash Course: A Fast-Paced Introduction

Book by Josh Lospinoso

 C++ For Dummies

Book by Stephen Randy Davis

JAVA:

 Head First Java

Book by Bert Bates and Kathy Sierra

 Effective Java

Book by Joshua Bloch

 Thinking in Java
Book by Bruce Eckel

 Java Concurrency in Practice

Book by Brian Goetz

 Core Java

Book by Cay S. Horstmann and Gary Cornell

 Java: A Beginner's Guide

Book by Herbert Schildt

 Java: The Complete Reference

Book by Herbert Schildt

 Java 8 in Action: Lambdas, streams, and functional-style programming

Book by Alan Mycroft and Mario Fusco

 Beginning Programming With Java for Dummies

Book by Barry A. Burd

 Learn Java in One Day and Learn It Well

Book by Jamie Chan

 Modern Java in Action: Lambdas, Streams, Functional and Reactive Programming

Book by Alan Mycroft, Mario Fusco, and Raoul-Gabriel Urma

 Test Driven: Practical TDD and Acceptance TDD for Java Developers

Book by Lasse Koskela

 Java Puzzlers: Traps, Pitfalls, and Corner Cases

Book by Joshua Bloch and Neal Gafter

 Spring in Action

Book by Craig Walls and Ryan Breidenbach

 Java generics and collections

Book by Maurice Naftalin

 Core Java Volume I−Fundamentals

Book by Cay S. Horstmann

 Think Java: How to think like a computer scientist

Book by Allen B. Downey

 Java SE 8 for the Really Impatient

Book by Cay S. Horstmann

 Head First Object-Oriented Analysis and Design: A Brain Friendly Guide to OOA&D

Book by Brett McLaughlin

 Learning Java: An Introduction to Real-World Programming with Java

Book by Daniel Leuck, Marc Loy, and Patrick Niemeyer

 Core Java for the Impatient

Book by Cay S. Horstmann

 Java By Comparison: Become a Java Craftsman in 70 Examples

Book by Jorg Lenhard, Linus Dietz, and Simon Harrer

 High-Performance Java Persistence

Book by Vlad Mihalcea

 Java in a Nutshell: A Desktop Quick Reference

Book by Benjamin Evans and David Flanagan

 Spring Microservices in Action

Book by Edward John Carnell

 Optimizing Java: Practical Techniques for Improving JVM Application Performance

Book by Benjamin Evans, Chris Newland, and James Gough

 Java Performance: The Definitive Guide: Getting the Most Out of Your Code

Book by Scott Oaks

 Microservices Patterns: With Examples in Java

Book by Chris Richardson

 Functional Programming in Java: Harnessing the Power of Java 8 Lambda Expressions

Book by Venkat Subramaniam

 Mastering Java Machine Learning

Book by Krishna Choppella and Uday Kamath

 OCA: Oracle Certified Associate Java SE 8 Programmer I Study Guide: Exam 1Z0-808

Book by Jeanne Boyarsky and Scott Selikoff

 Let Us Java: Strong Foundation For Java Programming

Book by Yashavant Kanetkar

 Learn Java: A Crash Course Guide to Learn Java in 1 Week

Book by Timothy C. Needham

 Java Performance

Book by Binu John and Charlie Hunt

 The Java Language Specification

Book by Oracle Corporation

 Elements of Programming Interviews in Java: The Insider's Guide

Book by Adnan Aziz, Amit Prakash, and Tsung-Hsien Lee

PYTHON:

 Fluent Python

Book by Luciano Ramalho

 Learn Python the Hard Way: A Very Simple Introduction to the Terrifyingly Beautiful

World of Computers and Code

Book by Zed Shaw

 Python Cookbook: Recipes for Mastering Python 3

Book by Brian K. Jones and David M. Beazley

 Automate the Boring Stuff with Python: Practical Programming for Total Beginners

Book by Al Sweigart

 Python Crash Course: A Hands-On, Project-Based Introduction to Programming

Book by Jamie Chan

 Invent Your Own Computer Games with Python

Book by Al Sweigart

 Python Data Science Handbook: Essential Tools for Working with Data

Book by Jake VanderPlas

 Effective Python: 90 Specific Ways to Write Better Python

Book by Brett Slatkin

 Python Pocket Reference: Python In Your Pocket

Book by Mark Lutz

 Python 3 Object Oriented Programming

Book by Dusty Phillips

 How to think like a computer scientist: Learning with Python

Book by Allen B. Downey

 Python in a nutshell

Book by Alex Martelli

 Natural Language Processing with Python

Book by Edward Loper, Ewan Klein, and Steven Bird

 The Big Book of Small Python Projects: 81 Easy Practice Programs

Book by Al Sweigart
 Python Programming for the Absolute Beginner

Book by Michael Dawson

 Python Essential Reference

Book by David M. Beazley

 Deep Learning with Python

Book by François Chollet

 Dive into Python

Book by Mark Pilgrim

 Impractical Python: Projects Playful Programming Activities to Make You Smarter

Book by Lee Vaughan

 Object-Oriented Python: Master OOP by Building Games and GUIs

Book by Irv Kalb

 The Python Bible 7 in 1: Volumes One To Seven (Beginner, Intermediate, Data Science,

Machine Learning, Finance, Neural Networks, Computer Vision)

Book by Florian Dedov

 Coding for Kids: Python: Learn to Code with 50 Awesome Games and Activities

Book by Adrienne Tacke

 Learn More Python 3 the Hard Way: The Next Step for New Python Programmers

Book by Zed Shaw

 Artificial Intelligence with Python

Book by Prateek Joshi

 Python Programming: Using Problem Solving Approach

Book by Reema Thareja

 Django for Beginners: Build websites with Python and Django

Book by William S. Vincent

 Python for Dummies

Book by Aahz Maruch and Stef Maruch

 Beginning Programming with Python For Dummies

Book by John Paul Mueller

HTML:

 Learning Web Design

Book by Jennifer Niederst Robbins

 Head First HTML with CSS and XHTML

Book by Elisabeth Robson and Eric Freeman

 HTML5: The Missing Manual

Book by Matthew MacDonald

 Learn HTML for Beginners: The Illustrated Guide to Coding

Book by Jo Foster

 HTML5 for Web Designers

Book by Jeremy Keith

 HTML 4 for the World Wide Web

Book by Elizabeth Castro

 Introducing HTML5

Book by Bruce Lawson and Remy Sharp

 Core HTML5 Canvas: Graphics, Animation, and Game Development

Book by David M. Geary

 The Definitive Guide to HTML5

Book by Adam Freeman

 Html: Basic Fundamental Guide for Beginners

Textbook by M. G. Martin

 HTML5 in Easy Steps

Book by Mike McGrath

CSS:

 CSS Pocket Reference: Visual Presentation for the Web

Book by Eric A. Meyer

 CSS Secrets: Better Solutions to Everyday Web Design Problems

Book by Lea Verou

 CSS: The Missing Manual

Book by David McFarland

 CSS in Depth

Book by Keith Grant

 CSS mastery

Book by Andy Budd

 CSS: The Definitive Guide: Visual Presentation for the Web

Book by Eric A. Meyer and Estelle Weyl

 CSS Visual Dictionary

Book by Greg Sidelnikov

 Cascading Style Sheets: The Definitive Guide

Book by Eric A. Meyer

 The Book of CSS3: A Developer's Guide to the Future of Web Design

Book by Peter Gasston

 CSS3: The Missing Manual

Book by David Sawyer McFarland

 Learn CSS in One Day and Learn It Well: CSS for Beginners With Hands-On Project

Book by Jamie Chan

 CSS Master

Book by Tiffany A. Brown

 Basics of Web Design: HTML5 and CSS

Textbook by Terry A. Felke-Morris

 CSS for Babies

Book by John Vanden-Heuvel

 CSS in Easy Steps

Book by Mike McGrath

JAVASCRIPT:

 JavaScript: The Good Parts

Book by Douglas Crockford

 Eloquent JavaScript: A Modern Introduction to Programming

Book by Marijn Haverbeke

 JavaScript and JQuery: Interactive Front-End Web Development

Book by Jon Duckett

 You Don't Know JS: Scope and Closures

Book by Kyle Simpson

 A Smarter Way to Learn JavaScript

Book by Mark Myers

 Effective JavaScript : 68 specific ways to harness the power of JavaScript

Book by David Herman

 Head First JavaScript Programming: A Brain-Friendly Guide

Book by Elisabeth Robson and Eric Freeman

 JavaScript: The Definitive Guide: Master the World's Most-Used Programming Language

Book by David Flanagan

 Learn JavaScript Visually: With Interactive Exercises

Book by Ivelin Demirov

 The Principles of Object-Oriented JavaScript

Book by Nicholas C. Zakas

 Professional JavaScript for Web Developers

Book by Nicholas C. Zakas

 Speaking JavaScript: An In-Depth Guide for Programmers

Book by Axel Rauschmayer

 Programming JavaScript Applications: Robust Web Architecture with Node, HTML5, and

Modern JS Libraries

Book by Eric Elliott

 JavaScript Enlightenment

Book by Cody Lindley

 Learning JavaScript Design Patterns

Book by Addy Osmani

 Secrets of the JavaScript Ninja

Book by Bear Bibeault, John Resig and Josip Maras

 Beginning JavaScript

Book by Jeremy McPeak and Paul Wilton

 JavaScript Patterns

Book by Stoyan Stefanov

 Understanding ECMAScript 6: The Definitive Guide for JavaScript Developers

Book by Nicholas C. Zakas

 JavaScript for Kids: A Playful Introduction to Programming

Book by Nick Morgan

 High Performance JavaScript

Book by Nicholas C. Zakas

 Object-Oriented JavaScript

Book by Kumar Chetan Sharma and Stoyan Stefanov

 Maintainable JavaScript
Book by Nicholas C. Zakas

 Secrets of the JavaScript Ninja

Book by Bear Bibeault and John Resig

 Coding with JavaScript For Dummies

Book by Chris Minnick and Eva Holland

 DOM Enlightenment

Book by Cody Lindley

 JavaScript from Beginner to Professional: Learn JavaScript Quickly by Building Fun,

Interactive, and Dynamic Web Apps, Games, and Pages

Book by Laurence Lars Svekis and Rob Percival

 Testable JavaScript

Book by Mark Ethan Trostler

 You Don't Know JS: Up and Going

Book by Kyle Simpson

 JavaScript Allongé: A strong cup of functions, objects, combinators, and decorators

Book by Reginald Braithwaite

 You Don't Know JS Yet: Get Started

Book by Kyle Simpson

 JavaScript and JQuery: The Missing Manual

Book by David Sawyer McFarland

 The Recursive Book of Recursion: Ace the Coding Interview with Python and JavaScript

Book by Al Sweigart

 The Road to Learn React: Your Journey to Master Plain Yet Pragmatic React. Js

Book by Robin Wieruch

 Javascript In Easy Steps

Book by Mike McGrath

 Building JavaScript Games: For Phones, Tablets, and Desktop

Book by Arjan Egges

 High Performance Browser Networking

Book by Ilya Grigorik

 Learning TypeScript

Book by Josh Goldberg

 Pro JavaScript Techniques

Book by John Resig

 The Little Book on CoffeeScript

Book by Alex MacCaw

 Learning React: Functional Web Development with React and Redux

Book by Alex Banks and Eve Porcello

 Learn JavaScript Quickly: A Complete Beginner's Guide to Learning JavaScript, Even If

You're New to Programming

Book by Code Quickly

 Test-Driven JavaScript Development

Book by Christian Johansen

 Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, JavaScript Edition

Textbook by Gerald Jay Sussman and Hal Abelson

 Functional Programming in JavaScript: How to Improve Your JavaScript Programs Using

Functional Techniques

Book by Luis Atencio

 Pro JavaScript Design Patterns

Book by Dustin Diaz and Ross Harmes

 Java Script: The Complete Reference 2/E

Book by Thomas Powell

PHP:

 The Joy of PHP: A Beginner's Guide to Programming Interactive Web Applications with

PHP and MySQL

Book by Alan Forbes

 Learning PHP, MySQL, JavaScript, CSS and HTML5: A Step-by-Step Guide to Creating

Dynamic Websites

Book by Robin Nixon

 Programming PHP
Book by Rasmus Lerdorf

 PHP and MySQL Web Development

Book by Laura Thomson and Luke Welling

 Murach's PHP and MySQL

Book by Joel Murach and Ray Harris

 Head First PHP and MySQL

Book by Lynn Beighley and Michael Morrison

 PHP and MySQL: Novice to Ninja: Get Up to Speed With PHP the Easy Way

Book by Tom Butler and Kevin Yank

 PHP and MySQL: Server-side Web Development

Book by Jon Duckett

 Learning PHP, MySQL & JavaScript: With JQuery, CSS & HTML5

Book by Robin Nixon

 PHP and MySQL in easy steps, 2nd Edition: Updated to cover MySQL 8.0

Book by Mike McGrath

 PHP: A Beginner's Guide

Book by Vikram Vaswani

 Modern PHP: New Features and Good Practices

Book by Josh Lockhart

 Laravel: Up & Running: A Framework for Building Modern PHP Apps

Book by Matt Stauffer

 Mastering PHP 7

Book by Branko Ajzele

 PHP and MySQL

Book by Jon Duckett

 PHP and MySQL: The Missing Manual

Book by Brett McLaughlin

 PHP 8 Programming Tips, Tricks and Best Practices: A Practical Guide to PHP 8 Features,

Usage Changes, and Advanced Programming Techniques

Book by Cal Evans and Doug Bierer

 PHP for the Web: Visual QuickStart Guide

Book by Larry Ullman

 PHP and MySQL for Dynamic Web Sites

Book by Larry Ullman

 PHP: Learn PHP in One Day and Learn It Well. PHP for Beginners with Hands-on Project

Book by Jamie Chan

 PHP 7: Real World Application Development

Book by Altaf Hussain, Branko Ajzele and Doug Bierer

 PHP Cookbook

Book by Adam Trachtenberg and David Sklar

 Full Stack Web Development For Beginners: Learn Ecommerce Web Development Using

HTML5, CSS3, Bootstrap, JavaScript, MySQL, and PHP

Book by Riaz Ahmed

 Drupal 9 Module Development: Get Up and Running with Building Powerful Drupal

Modules and Applications

Book by Daniel Sipos

 Building Web Apps with WordPress: WordPress as an Application Framework

Book by Brian Messenlehner and Jason Coleman

 PHP and MySQL in easy steps

Book by Mike McGrath

 WordPress Complete

Book by Karol Król

 PHP, MySQL, and JavaScript All-in-One For Dummies

Book by Richard BLUM

 PHP in Action: Objects, Design, Agility

Book by Chris Shiflett, Dagfinn Reiersol, and Marcus Baker

 PHP Advanced and Object-Oriented Programming: Visual QuickPro Guide

Book by Larry Ullman

 Learning PHP 7

Book by Antonio Lopez

 PHP 7 Programming Cookbook

Book by Doug Bierer

 PHP: The Complete Reference

Book by Steven Holzner

 PHP and MySQL for Dummies

Book by Janet Valade

 PHP Beginner's Practical Guide

Book by Pratiyush Guleria

 Building RESTful Web Services with PHP 7

Book by Haafiz Waheed-ud-din Ahmad

 Mastering PHP Design Patterns

Book by Junade Ali

 PHP and MongoDB Web Development Beginner's Guide

Book by Rubayeet Islam

 PHP 7 Data Structures and Algorithms

Book by Mizanur Rahman

 Mastering The Faster Web with PHP, MySQL, and JavaScript: Develop State-of-the-art

Web Applications Using the Latest Web Technologies

Textbook by Andrew Caya

 Learning PHP: A Gentle Introduction to the Web's Most Popular Language

Book by David Sklar

 Learn PHP 8: Using MySQL, JavaScript, CSS3, and HTML5

Book by Steve Prettyman

 PHP Microservices

Book by Carlos Perez Sanchez and Pablo Solar Vilarino

 Professional CodeIgniter

Book by Thomas Myer

 Symfony 5: The Fast Track

Book by Fabien Potencier

 Practical PHP and MySQL Website Databases: A Simplified Approach

Book by Adrian W. West

 PHP Programming for Beginners: Key Programming Concepts. How to use PHP with

MySQL and Oracle databases (MySqli, PDO)

Book by Sergey Skudaev

ALGORITHMS:

 Introduction to Algorithms

Book by T Cormen, C Leiserson, R Rivest, C Stein

 The Algorithm Design Manual

Book by Steven Skiena

 Grokking Algorithms: An Illustrated Guide for Programmers and Other Curious People
Book by Aditya Bhargava

 Algorithms

Book by Robert Sedgewick

 Algorithm Design

Book by Jon Kleinberg and Éva Tardos

 Algorithms Illuminated: Algorithms for NP-hard problems

Book by Tim Roughgarden

 Algorithms in a nutshell

Book by George T. Heineman

 Data structures and algorithms made easy in Java: data structure and algorithmic puzzles

Book by Narasimha karumanchi

 A Common-Sense Guide to Data Structures and Algorithms: Level Up Your Core

Programming Skills

Book by Jay Wengrow

 Cracking the Coding Interview

Book by Gayle Laakmann McDowell

 Guide to Competitive Programming: Learning and Improving Algorithms Through

Contests

Book by Antti Laaksonen

 Algorithms Unlocked

Book by Thomas H. Cormen

 Problem Solving with Algorithms and Data Structures using Python

Book by Bradley N Miller and David L. Ranum

 Computer Science Distilled: Learn the Art of Solving Computational Problems

Book by Wladston Ferreira Filho

 Python Algorithms: Mastering Basic Algorithms in the Python Language

Book by Magnus Lie Hetland

 Advanced Algorithms and Data Structures

Book by Marcello La Rocca

 The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake

Our World

Book by Pedro Domingos

 Dive Into Algorithms: A Pythonic Adventure for the Intrepid Beginner

Book by Bradford Tuckfield

 Advanced Data Structures

Book by Peter Brass

 Algorithmic Thinking: A Problem-Based Introduction

Book by Daniel Zingaro

 Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs

Book by Niklaus Wirth

 Algorithms Illuminated (Part 2): Graph Algorithms and Data Structures

Book by Tim Roughgarden

 Introduction to the Design and Analysis of Algorithms

Book by Anany Levitin

 Automate This: How Algorithms Came to Rule Our World

Book by Christopher Steiner

 Think Like a Programmer: An Introduction to Creative Problem Solving

Book by V. Anton Spraul

 Spies, Lies, and Algorithms: The History and Future of American Intelligence

Book by Amy Zegart

 Algorithms Illuminated (Part 3): Greedy Algorithms and Dynamic Programming

Book by Tim Roughgarden

 Algorithms for Decision Making

Book by Kyle H. Wray, Mykel J. Kochenderfer and Tim A. Wheeler

 Fundamentals of Computer Algorithms

Book by Ellis Horowitz and Sartaj Sahni

 Information Theory, Inference and Learning Algorithms

Book by David J. C. MacKay

 9 Algorithms That Changed the Future

Book by John MacCormick

 The Art of Computer Programming

Book by Donald Knuth

 Data Structure and Algorithmic Thinking with Python

Book by Narasimha Karumanchi

 A Common-Sense Guide to Data Structures and Algorithms

Book by Jay Wengrow

 Hello World: How to be Human in the Age of the Machine

Book by Hannah Fry

 The Design and Analysis of Computer Algorithms

Book by Alfred Aho, Jeffrey Ullman, and John Hopcroft

 Designing Distributed Systems: Patterns and Paradigms for Scalable, Reliable Services

Book by Brendan Burns

 A Programmer's Guide to Computer Science: A virtual degree for the self-taught developer

Book by William M Springer

 Concrete Mathematics
Textbook by Donald Knuth, Oren Patashnik and Ronald Graham

 Understanding Cryptography: A Textbook for Students and Practitioners

Textbook by Christof Paar and Jan Pelzl

 Algorithms For Dummies

Book by John Mueller and Luca Massaron

DATA STRUCTURES:

 Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis in C++

Book by Clifford A Shaffer

 Purely functional data structures

Book by Chris Okasaki

 Open Data Structures: An Introduction

Book by Pat Morin

 Think Data Structures: Algorithms and Information Retrieval in Java

Book by Allen B. Downey

 Data Structures Using C

Book by Reema Thareja

 Data Structures Through C in Depth

Book by Deepali Srivastava and Suresh Kumar Srivastava

 C++ Plus Data Structures

Book by Nell B. Dale

 JavaScript Data Structures and Algorithms: An Introduction to Understanding and

Implementing Core Data Structure and Algorithm Fundamentals
Book by Sammie Bae

 Data structures using C and C++

Book by Yedidyah Langsam

 Algorithms and Data Structures: The Basic Toolbox

Book by Kurt Mehlhorn and Peter Sanders

 Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis in Java

Book by Clifford A Shaffer

 Handbook of Data Structures and Applications

Book by Dinesh P. Mehta and Sartaj Sahni

 Data structures with Java

Book by J. R Hubbard

 Java Structures

Book by Duane A. Bailey

LINUX:

 The Linux Command Line: A Complete Introduction

Book by William E. Shotts Jr. and William E. Shotts, Jr.

 The Linux Programming Interface

Book by Michael Kerrisk

 Linux bible

Book by Christopher Negus

 Linux pocket guide

Book by Daniel J. Barrett

 Linux for Beginners

Book by Jason Cannon

 How Linux Works: What Every Superuser Should Know

Book by Brian Ward

 Linux Basics for Hackers: Getting Started with Networking, Scripting, and Security in Kali

Book by OccupyTheWeb

 Linux Kernel Development

Book by Robert Love

 Linux Administration: The Linux Operating System and Command Line Guide for Linux
Administrators

Book by Jason Cannon

 Linux: The Complete Reference

Book by Richard Petersen

 Linux Command Line and Shell Scripting Bible

Book by Christine Bresnahan and Richard BLUM

 Linux in a Nutshell

Book by Ellen Siever and Robert Love

 The Art of Unix Programming

Book by Eric S. Raymond

 Linux System Programming: Talking Directly to the Kernel and C Library

Book by Robert Love

 A Practical Guide to Linux Commands, Editors, and Shell Programming

Book by Mark G. Sobell

 Learn Linux Quickly: A Beginner-friendly Guide to Getting Up and Running with the
World's Most Powerful Operating System

Book by Ahmed Alkabary

 Linux for Beginners and Command Line Kung Fu

Book by Jason Cannon

 The Ultimate Kali Linux Book: Perform Advanced Penetration Testing Using Nmap,
Metasploit, Aircrack-Ng, and Empire

Book by Glen D. Singh

 Understanding the Linux Kernel

Book by Daniel Pierre Bovet and Marco Cesati

 Linux for Developers: Jumpstart Your Linux Programming Skills

Book by William "Bo" Rothwell

 Learning the bash Shell

Book by Cameron Newham

 Linux Device Drivers

Book by Alessandro Rubini, Greg Kroah-Hartman, and Jonathan Corbet

 Mastering Linux Shell Scripting: A Practical Guide to Linux Command-line, Bash

Scripting, and Shell Programming

Book by Andrew Mallett and Mokhtar Ebrahim

 Efficient Linux at the Command Line

Book by Daniel J. Barrett

 Shell Scripting: How to Automate Command Line Tasks Using Bash Scripting and Shell

Programming

Book by Jaosn Cannon

 Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment

Book by W. Richard Stevens

 Lfm: Linux Field Manual

Book by Tim Bryant

 CompTIA Linux+ Certification All-in-One Exam Guide

Book by Ted Jordan and Sandor Strohmayer

 Advanced Linux programming

Book by Alex Samuel, Jeffrey Oldham and Mark Mitchell

 Linux Kernel in a Nutshell

Book by Greg Kroah-Hartman

 Linux Kernel Debugging: Leverage Proven Tools and Advanced Techniques to Effectively

Debug Linux Kernels and Kernel Modules

Book by Kaiwan N Billimoria

 Bash cookbook

Book by Carl Albing

 Linux for Beginners: A Practical and Comprehensive Guide to Learn Linux Operating

System and Master Linux Command Line.

Book by Ethem Mining

 Beginning Linux Programming

Book by Mathew Neil and Richard Stones

 The Linux Command Line Beginner's Guide

Book by Jonathan Moeller

 Linux System Programming

Book by Robert Love

 A Practical Guide to Fedora and Red Hat Enterprise Linux

Book by Mark G. Sobell

 Kali Linux Hacking: A Complete Step by Step Guide to Learn the Fundamentals of Cyber

Security, Hacking, and Penetration Testing

Book by Ethem Mining

 Kali Linux Revealed: Mastering the Penetration Testing Distribution

Book by Jim O'Gorman, Mati Aharoni and Raphael Hertzog

 Linux in Easy Steps

Book by Mike McGrath

 Bash Pocket Reference: Help for Power Users and Sys Admins

Book by Arnold Robbins

 Learn PowerShell in a Month of Lunches: Covers Windows, Linux, and macOS

Book by Travis Plunk, James Petty and Leon Leonhardt

 Linux From Scratch

Book by Gerard Beekmans

 Linux For Dummies

Book by Richard Blum

DATABASE:

 Database Systems: The Complete Book

Book by Héctor García-Molina, Jeffrey Ullman and Jennifer Widom

 Fundamentals of Database Systems

Book by Ramez Elmasri

 Database Design for Mere Mortals

Book by Michael J. Hernandez

 An Introduction to Database Systems

Book by Christopher J. Date

 SQL Antipatterns: Avoiding the Pitfalls of Database Programming

Book by Bill Karwin

 Designing Data-Intensive Applications: The Big Ideas Behind Reliable, Scalable, and

Maintainable Systems

Book by Martin Kleppmann

 Database System Concepts

Book by Avi Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth and S. Sudarshan

 Database Internals: A Deep Dive Into How Distributed Data Systems Work

Book by Alex Petrov

 Beginning Database Design Solutions

Book by Rod Stephens

 SQL Performance Explained

Book by Markus Winand

 Database Management Systems

Book by Johannes Gehrke and Raghu Ramakrishnan

 Oracle PL/SQL programming

Book by Scott Urman

 Database in Depth: Relational Theory for Practitioners

Book by Christopher J. Date

 Database Design and Relational Theory: Normal Forms and All That Jazz
Book by Christopher J. Date

 Database Systems: A Practical Approach to Design, Implementation, and Management

Book by Carolyn Begg and Thomas M. Connolly

 Introductory Relational Database Design for Business, with Microsoft Access

Book by Bonnie R. Schultz and Jonathan Eckstein

 Head First SQL: Your Brain on SQL − A Learner's Guide

Book by Lynn Beighley

 Readings in Database Systems

Book by Joseph M Hellerstein

 The art of SQL

Book by Stéphane Faroult

 The theory of relational databases

Book by David Maier

 The Data Warehouse Toolkit

Book by Ralph Kimball

 MongoDB: The Definitive Guide

Book by Kristina Chodorow and Michael Dirolf

 Learning SQL

Book by Alan Beaulieu

 Joe Celko's SQL puzzles and answers

Book by Joe Celko

 Foundations of databases

Book by Serge Abiteboul

 Pro SQL Server Relational Database Design and Implementation: Best Practices for

Scalability and Performance

Book by Louis Davidson

 Six-Step Relational Database Design: A Step by Step Approach to Relational Database

Design and Development

Book by Fidel A. Captain

 Databases, Types and the Relational Model: The Third Manifesto

Book by Christopher J. Date

 Seven Databases in Seven Weeks: A Guide to Modern Databases and the NoSQL Movement

Book by Eric Redmond and Jim R. Wilson

 Practical SQL: A Beginner's Guide to Storytelling with Data

Book by Anthony DeBarros

 Refactoring databases

Book by Scott Ambler

 SQL QuickStart Guide: The Simplified Beginner's Guide to Managing, Analyzing, and

Manipulating Data With SQL

Book by Walter Shields

 PHP and MySQL: Server-side Web Development

Book by Jon Duckett

 SQL Cookbook

Book by Anthony Molinaro

 Learn MongoDB 4.x: A Guide to Understanding MongoDB Development and

Administration for NoSQL Developers

Book by Doug Bierer

 Professional Azure SQL Managed Database Administration: Efficiently Manage and

Modernize Data in the Cloud Using Azure SQL

Book by Ahmad Osama and Shashikant Shakya

 PostgreSQL: Up and Running

Book by Leo S. Hsu and Regina O. Obe

 SQL All-in-One for Dummies

Book by Allen G. Taylor

 An Introduction to Relational Database Theory

Book by Hugh Darwen

 Transaction Processing: Concepts and Techniques

Book by Jim Gray

 Making Sense of NoSQL: A Guide for Managers and the Rest of Us

Book by Ann Kelly, Ann Marie Kelly and Dan McCreary

 A Practical Guide to Database Design

Book by Rex Hogan

 Database Development for Dummies

Book by Allen G. Taylor

 SQL Queries for Mere Mortals: A Hands-on Guide to Data Manipulation in SQL

Book by John Viescas and Michael J. Hernandez

 Pro SQL Server 2012 Relational Database Design and Implementation

Book by Jessica Moss and Louis Davidson

 SQL Performance Explained: Everything Developers Need to Know about SQL

Performance

Book by Markus Winand

 Refactoring Databases: Evolutionary Database Design

Book by Scott W Ambler and Pramod J Sadalage

 Designing Data-Intensive Applications

Book by Martin Kleppmann

Programming today is a race between software engineers striving to

build bigger and better idiot-proof programs, and the Universe trying to

produce bigger and better idiots. So far, the Universe is winning.

― Rick Cook, The Wizardry Compiled

"In some ways, programming is like painting. You start with a blank

canvas and certain basic raw materials. You use a combination of

science, art, and craft to determine what to do with them."

− Andrew Hunt
One final thought:

If you feel that this information has been useful to you, please take a
moment to share it with your friends on LinkedIn, Facebook and
Twitter. Consider writing a brief review on Google Play Books if you
feel that this book has helped you in your programming career and you
have learned something worthwhile.

Coding is both a science and creative art to me. It is both incredibly

fun and fascinating. I want to spread my passion to as many
individuals as I can. I also hope that this is not the end of your
learning.

Thank you!

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