Homework 7

Exercise 7.1. Prove, using the methods developed in class that the following subset of R2

X = {(x, y) : 4x 2 + 3y 2 = 1} ∪ {(x, 0) : x ∈ R, x ≥ 12 } ∪ {(− 12 − t, t ) : t ∈ R, t ≥ 0},

equipped with the subspace topology, is connected.

Solution. Write X = X 1 ∪ X 2 ∪ X 3 with

X 1 = {(x, y) : 4x 2 + 3y 2 = 1}
X 2 = {(x, 0) : x ∈ R, x ≥ 12 }
X 3 = {(− 12 − t, t ) : t ∈ R, t ≥ 0}.

We first show that X 1 , X 2 , and X 3 are connected. For this, let f : [0, 2π ] R2 be defined by

f (t ) = ( 12 cos t, √13 sin t ).

Then f is continuous since each of its component functions is and f ([0, 2π ]) = X 1 . Therefore, X 1 is connected
since intervals in R are connected. Now, X 2 = [ 12 , ∞) × {0} is homeomorphic to the interval [ 12 , 0) ⊂ R which
is connected. Therefore, X 2 is connected as well. Furthermore, let д : [0, ∞) R2 be the function defined
by д(t ) = (− 2 − t, t ). This function is continuous and f ([0, ∞)) = X 3 . Hence, X 3 is connected as well.
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Note that ( 12 , 0) ∈ X 1 ∩ X 2 and (− 21 , 0) ∈ X 1 ∩ X 3 . This means that X 1 ∩ X 2 , ∅ and therefore X 1 ∪ X 2 is

connected. Also, (X 1 ∪ X 2 ) ∩ X 3 ⊃ X 1 ∩ X 3 , ∅, so X 1 ∪ X 2 ∪ X 3 = X is connected as well.
Exercise 7.2. Let f : X Y be a continuous function between the topological spaces X and Y . The graph
of f is the subset
Γf = {(x, y) ∈ X × Y : y = f (x )}
of the product X × Y . Endow X × Y with the product topology, and Γf ⊂ X × Y with its subspace topology.
(i) Show that the function д : X Γf defined by д(x ) = (x, f (x )) is a homeomorphism.
(ii) Assume in addition that the topological space Y is Hausdorff. Show that the graph Γf is a closed subset
of X × Y .
(iii) Show that the hypotheses that Y is Hausdorff is necessary in the previous question. That is, give a
example of a continuous function f whose graph Γf is not closed in X × Y .
Solution.
(i) First, since f : X Y and the identity function X X are both continuous and Γf ⊂ X × Y
carries the subspace topology, by the definition of the product topology, д : X Γf is a continuous
function. Consider the projection π : X × Y X and restrict it to a function π : Γf X . Again this
is continuous and furthermore

π (д(x )) = π (x, f (x )) = x and д(π (x, f (x ))) = д(x ) = (x, f (x ))

for all (x, f (x )) ∈ Γf . We conclude that д : X Γf is a homeomorphism with inverse π : Γf X.

(ii) We show that Γfc = X × Y r Γf is open. Suppose that (x, y) ∈ Γfc , that is, y , f (x ) ∈ Y . Since Y
is Hausdorff there are disjoint open sets U and V containing y and f (x ) respectively. Because f is
continuous the preimage f −1 (V ) ⊂ X is open. Consequently. f −1 (V ) ×U ⊂ X ×Y is open. Furthermore,
if z ∈ f −1 (V ), then f (z) ∈ V and therefore f (z) < U , that is (z, f (z)) < f −1 (V ) × U . This means that
f −1 (V ) × U ⊂ Γfc . We conclude that Γfc is open and therefore Γf is closed.
(iii) Let X = {a, b} be endowed with the indiscrete topology and consider the identity function id : X X.
Since the product topology on X × X is also the indiscrete topology and Γid , ∅, X × X this gives the
required counterexample.

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Exercise 7.3. Let Y ⊂ X be a connected subspace of a topological space. Let Z be any subset containing Y
and contained in the closure of Y ; so
Y ⊂ Z ⊂ cl(Y ).
Show, assuming that Y is connected, that Z is connected too.
Solution. Suppose for contradiction that there were open subsets A, B ⊂ X such that Z ⊂ A ∪ B, Z ∩ A , ∅,
Z ∩ B , ∅ and A ∩ B = ∅. Take x ∈ Z ∩ A. Then x ∈ cl(Y ) and therefore Y ∩ A , ∅ because A is open in X
and x ∈ A. Similarly, Y ∩ B , ∅. But this is impossible since Y is connected.
Exercise 7.4. Let Y once more be a connected subspace of a topological space X . By the previous problem,
cl(Y ) is connected, too. Are the following spaces connected too? Prove or disprove by counterexample.
(i) The boundary ∂Y .
(ii) The interior int(Y ).
Solution.
(i) The interval [0, 1] ⊂ R is closed, connected and int([0, 1]) = (0, 1). Therefore, ∂[0, 1] = {0, 1} and {0, 1}
is not connected.
(ii) Consider the closed set X = [0, 1]2 ∪ [−1, 0]2 ⊂ R2 . Both [0, 1]2 and [−1, 0]2 are connected and
[0, 1]2 ∩ [−1, 0]2 = {(0, 0)} , ∅. Hence, X is connected as well. But int(X ) = (0, 1) 2 ∪ (−1, 0) 2 is a
disjoint union of two nonempty open sets and therefore is disconnected.
Exercise 7.5. Show that (0, 1) and (0, 1], thought of as subspaces of R with its standard topology, are not
homeomorphic.
Solution. First, if f : X Y is a homeomorphism and x ∈ X . Then f |X r{x } : X r {x } Y r { f (x )} is
continuous and similarly f |Y r{f (x ) } : Y r { f (x )}
−1 X r {x } is continuous. Furthermore, these two maps
are inverses of each other, so we conclude that X r {x } and Y r { f (x )} are homeomorphic as well.
Now, suppose there were a homeomorphism f : (0, 1] (0, 1). Then we would conclude that (0, 1) and
(0, 1) r { f (1)} are homeomorphic as well. But 0 < f (1) < 1 and therefore (0, 1) r { f (1)} = (0, f (1)) ∪ ( f (1), 1)
is disconnected while (0, 1) is connected. So these spaces cannot be homeomorphic and we conclude that
(0, 1] and (0, 1) cannot be homeomorphic either.
Exercise 7.6. Suppose X = [0, 1] equipped with its subspace topology, and let f : X X be a continuous
function. Show that f has a fixed point; that is, a point x ∈ [0, 1] with f (x ) = x. Is this also true if X = [0, 1)
or (0, 1)?
Solution. Suppose that f does not have a fixed point. Then for any x ∈ X we would need to have either
f (x ) > x or f (x ) < x. That is to say that X = {x ∈ X : f (x ) > x } ∪ {x ∈ X : f (x ) < x } = A ∪ B. Observe that
the function д : X R with д(x ) = f (x ) − x is continuous and A = д−1 ((0, ∞)) = A and B = д−1 ((−∞, 0)).
Hence, A and B are open and disjoint. Also, f (0) ∈ (0, 1] and f (1) ∈ [0, 1) and therefore f (0) ∈ A and
f (1) ∈ B. But this would imply that [0, 1] is disconnected which is false. So f must have had a fixed point
after all.
For X = [0, 1) and X = (0, 1) not every continuous function f : X X must have a fixed point. For
example, suppose f (x ) = 12 (1 − x ) + x. Then f (x ) = x if and only if x = 1 and therefore f doesn’t have a
fixed point in X .
Exercise 7.7. Show that if U is an open connected subspace of R2 with its standard topology, then U is path
connected.
Solution. Suppose x 0 ∈ U and let P be the set of all points x ∈ U that can be connected to x 0 by a continuous
path. Suppose x ∈ P. Then there is some ε > 0 such that B(x, ε) ⊂ U because U is open. Let y ∈ B(x, ε)
and suppose that γ : [0, 1] U is a continuous path with γ (0) = x 0 and γ (1) = x. Consider the map
γ 0 : [0, 1] U with
γ (2t )
 t < 12
γ 0 (t ) = 
 (2 − 2t )x + (2t − 1)y t ≥ 1 .
 2

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First, this is well defined since γ (2t ) ∈ U for all t and

kγ 0 (t ) − x k = k(1 − 2t )(x − y)k = |1 − 2t |kx − yk < |1 − 2t |ε < ε

for 12 ≤ t < 1. Furthermore, γ 0 is continuous and in summary we have constructed a path from x 0 to y. Hence,
y ∈ P and since y ∈ B(x, ε) was arbitrary we conclude that B(x, ε ) ⊂ P. Consequently, P is a nonempty open
subset of U .
On the other hand, suppose x ∈ U r P. Again, there is some ε > 0 with B(x, ε) ⊂ U . Let y ∈ B(x, ε) and
suppose for contradiction that y ∈ P. Then there would be a path γ : [0, 1] U from x 0 and y. But then we
would again have a continuous map γ : [0, 1]
0 U with

γ (2t )
 t < 12
γ 0 (t ) = 
 (2 − 2t )y + (2t − 1)x
 t ≥ 21 .

That is, there would also be a path connecting x 0 and x. But x ∈ U r P, so this is impossible. Consequently,
B(x, ε ) ⊂ U r P and therefore U r P is open.
But now we have U = P ∪ (U r P ) with P , ∅ and P and U r P both open. Because U is connected we
must have U r P = ∅, i. e. U = P. But this means that U is path connected.