BRICKWORK

ENGINEERING SCIENCE
ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING
SCIENCE
MIKE TOOLEY AND LLOYD DINGLE
Engineering Science will help you learn all you need to pass Foundation Degrees in Engineering
and BTEC Higher National Engineering.
This textbook helps students get to grips with the complicated scientific principles involved in engineering, focusing primarily upon
the core mechanical and electrical science topics needed at this level. Students enrolled on an Engineering Foundation degree, Higher
National Engineering qualification or on the first or second year of an engineering honours degree will find this book an invaluable aid to
their learning of the necessary fundamental engineering principles and applications. The subject matter covered includes sections on the
mechanics of solids, dynamics, thermodynamics, electrostatics and electromagnetic principles, and AC and DC circuit theory.

Knowledge-check questions, summary sections and activities are included throughout the book, and the necessary background

ENGINEERING
mathematics is applied and integrated alongside the appropriate areas of engineering being studied. The result is a clear, straightforward
and easily accessible textbook that encourages independent study and covers most of the scientific principles that students are likely to
meet at this level.

Designed to make learning easier, this book:

• c ontains full coverage of the core science units required for Foundation Degree and BTEC Higher National
courses in Engineering

SCIENCE
• is ideal for those wanting to learn the complicated scientific principles involved in engineering
• is closely linked to the author’s website www.key2engineeringscience.com, which is designed to support
students and lecturers on a wide range of engineering courses

Lloyd Dingle is a Chartered Engineer specialising in Aircraft Maintenance. Over the past 25 years he has held several posts in
engineering training and education at various levels, previously as the Associate Dean of Technology at Brooklands College, Surrey, UK,
and more recently as an engineering lecturer at Farnborough College of Technology, and Project Tutor at Kingston University.

Mike Tooley has over 30 years experience of teaching electrical principles, electronics and avionics to engineers and technicians. He
was previously Head of Engineering, Dean of Faculty and Vice Principal at Brooklands College, Surrey, UK, and currently works as a
consultant and freelance technical author.

TOOLEY | DINGLE
Also by Mike Tooley and Lloyd Dingle:

BTEC National Engineering Aircraft Engineering Principles

Third edition
ISBN 9780123822024
ISBN 9780080970844 MIKE TOOLEY AND
LLOYD DINGLE

www.routledge.com
Cover image: © Images
courtesy of istockphoto
Engineering Science
Page Intentionally Left Blank
Engineering Science

For Foundation Degree and Higher National

Mike Tooley and Lloyd Dingle

First published 2012
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2012 Mike Tooley and Lloyd Dingle

The right of Mike Tooley and Lloyd Dingle to be identified as authors of this
work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Tooley, Michael H.
Engineering science : for foundation degree and higher national / Mike
Tooley and Lloyd Dingle. – 1st ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
1. Engineering. 2. Engineering mathematics. I. Dingle, Lloyd. II. Title.
TA147.T659 2012
620–dc23 2011050168

ISBN: 978-1-85617-775-7 (pbk)

ISBN: 978-0-203-11496-4 (ebk)
Typeset in Times
by Cenveo Publisher Services
Contents
Preface ix 5 Concentrically loaded columns and struts 89
5.1 Slenderness ratio, radius of gyration and
PART I MECHANICS OF MATERIALS 1 effective length 89
5.2 Euler’s theory and the Rankine–Gordon
1 Fundamentals 3
relationship 93
1.1 Force 3
5.3 Chapter summary 97
1.2 Vector representation and combination
5.4 Review questions 98
of forces 4
1.3 Coplanar force systems 7 6 Introduction to strain energy 100
1.4 Resolution of forces for coplanar systems 10 6.1 Strain energy resulting from direct
1.5 Simple stress and strain 18 stress and pure shear stress 100
1.6 Compound bars 23 6.2 Strain energy in bending and torsion 104
1.7 Poisson’s ratio and two-dimensional 6.3 Castigliano’s theorem 106
loading 29 6.4 Chapter summary 108
1.8 Chapter summary 32 6.5 Review questions 110
2 Simply supported beams 34
7 Complex stress and strain 111
2.1 Revision of fundamentals 34
7.1 Stresses on oblique planes 111
2.2 Shear force and bending moment 37
7.2 Two-dimensional direct stress, shear
2.3 Engineers’ theory of bending 43
stress and combined stress systems 113
2.4 Centroid and second moment of area 46
7.3 Mohr’s stress circle 119
2.5 Beam selection 52
7.4 Strain 122
2.6 Slope and deflection of beams 54
7.5 Strain gauges 130
2.7 Chapter summary 63
7.6 Chapter summary 136
2.8 Review questions 66
7.7 Review questions 138
3 Torsion and shafts 68
3.1 Review of shear stress and strain 68 PART II DYNAMICS 141
3.2 Engineers’ theory of torsion 69
8 Fundamentals 143
3.3 Polar second moment of area 71
8.1 Newton’s laws 143
3.4 Power transmitted by a shaft 72
8.2 Linear equations of motion 144
3.5 Composite shafts 73
8.3 Angular motion 147
3.6 Chapter summary 75
8.4 Friction 150
3.7 Review questions 76
8.5 Energy 155
4 Pressure vessels 77 8.6 Momentum 159
4.1 Thin-walled pressure vessels 77 8.7 Power 161
4.2 Thick-walled pressure vessels 80 8.8 Circular motion and forces of
4.3 Pressure vessel applications 84 rotation 162
4.4 Chapter summary 87 8.9 Chapter summary 165
4.5 Review questions 88 8.10 Review questions 166
vi Contents

9 Kinematics of mechanisms 168 14 Perfect gas processes 252

9.1 Velocity and acceleration diagrams 168 14.1 Reversibility and work 252
9.2 Displacement, velocity and acceleration 14.2 Perfect gas non-flow processes 254
analysis of an engine slider-crank 14.3 Introduction to gas mixtures 260
mechanism 174 14.4 Chapter summary 262
9.3 Cam mechanisms 178 14.5 Review questions 264
9.4 Chapter summary 180
9.5 Review questions 181 15 Thermal cycles 265
15.1 Entropy 265
10 Power transmission systems 183 15.2 The Carnot cycle 268
10.1 Belt drives 183 15.3 The Otto cycle 270
10.2 Friction clutches 187 15.4 The diesel cycle 273
10.3 Gear trains 190 15.5 Constant pressure cycle 275
10.4 Balancing 195 15.6 Chapter summary 278
10.5 Flywheels 197 15.7 Review questions 280
10.6 Coupled systems 198
10.7 Chapter summary 203 16 Combustion engines 281
10.8 Review questions 204 16.1 The reciprocating piston internal
combustion engine working cycle 281
11 Oscillatory motion and vibration 206
16.2 Internal combustion engine
11.1 Simple harmonic motion 206
performance indicators 283
11.2 Free vibration 209
16.3 The gas turbine engine 287
11.3 Damped natural vibration 212
16.4 Aircraft propulsion 289
11.4 Forced vibration 215
16.5 The aircraft turbojet engine cycles and
11.5 Chapter summary 220 component efficiencies 291
11.6 Review questions 221 16.6 Chapter summary 298
16.7 Review questions 299
PART III THERMODYNAMICS 223
17 Introduction to heat transfer 300
12 Fundamentals 225
17.1 Introduction 300
12.1 Density and pressure 225
17.2 Conduction 301
12.2 Temperature, its measurement and
17.3 Convection 304
thermal expansion 230
17.4 Radiation 307
12.3 Heat, specific heat and latent heat 232
17.5 Chapter summary 310
12.4 Gases and the gas laws 236
17.6 Review questions 310
12.5 Chapter summary 240
12.6 Review questions 241
18 Introduction to fluid mechanics 312
13 Thermodynamic systems 242 18.1 Thrust force on immersed surfaces 312
13.1 System definitions and properties 242 18.2 Buoyancy 321
13.2 Closed and open systems 243 18.3 Momentum of a fluid 324
13.3 Closed systems and the first law of 18.4 The Bernoulli equation 326
thermodynamics 244 18.5 Application of Bernoulli to fluid flow
13.4 Open systems and the first law of measurement 328
thermodynamics 246 18.6 Fluid viscosity 330
13.5 Introduction to the second law of 18.7 Friction losses in piped systems 333
thermodynamics 249 18.8 Energy loss in plain bearings 336
13.6 Chapter summary 250 18.9 Chapter summary 338
13.7 Review questions 251 18.10 Review questions 339
 Contents vii

PART IV ELECTROSTATICS AND 22.8 Maximum power transfer theorem 412

ELECTROMAGNETISM 341 22.9 Chapter summary 413
22.10 Review questions 414
19 Electrostatics and capacitors 343
19.1 The nature of electric charge 343
PART VI TRANSIENTS 417
19.2 Permittivity, electric flux density and
field strength 344 23 Transients 419
19.3 Force between charges 347 23.1 Rate of change 419
19.4 Capacitors 350 23.2 C–R circuits 423
19.5 Energy storage 354 23.3 L–R circuits 428
19.6 Capacitors in series and parallel 354 23.4 Chapter summary 432
19.7 Chapter summary 356 23.5 Review questions 433
19.8 Review questions 357
24 Transients in R–L–C systems 434
20 Electromagnetism and inductors 359 24.1 First- and second-order systems 434
20.1 The nature of magnetic flux 359 24.2 Laplace transforms 435
20.2 Permeability and magnetic 24.3 Chapter summary 441
flux density 361 24.4 Review questions 441
20.3 Force between conductors 365
20.4 Inductors 368 PART VII ALTERNATING CURRENT 443
20.5 Energy storage 370
25 a.c. principles 445
20.6 Inductors in series 371
25.1 Alternating voltage and current 445
20.7 Magnetic circuits and reluctance 372
25.2 Reactance 450
20.8 Chapter summary 373
25.3 Impedance 455
20.9 Review questions 374
25.4 Chapter summary 459
25.5 Review questions 459
PART V DIRECT CURRENT 377
26 Complex impedance and admittance 461
21 Current, voltage and resistance 379
26.1 Complex notation 461
21.1 The nature of electric current 379
26.2 Series impedance 463
21.2 Ohm’s law 380
26.3 Parallel admittance 466
21.3 Resistance and resistivity 381
26.4 Complex networks 468
21.4 Conductance and conductivity 384
26.5 Chapter summary 470
21.5 Comparison of electric and magnetic
26.6 Review questions 471
circuits 385
21.6 Temperature coefficient of resistance 385 27 Resonant circuits 472
21.7 Internal resistance 387 27.1 Series resonant circuits 472
21.8 Power, work and energy 389 27.2 Parallel resonance 475
21.9 Chapter summary 391 27.3 Q-factor and bandwidth 478
21.10 Review questions 391 27.4 Using complex notation to analyse
resonant circuits 481
22 Circuit theorems 393
27.5 Chapter summary 483
22.1 Kirchhoff’s laws 393
27.6 Review questions 483
22.2 Series and parallel circuit calculations 395
22.3 The potential divider 398 28 Coupled magnetic circuits 485
22.4 The current divider 399 28.1 Mutual inductance 485
22.5 The constant voltage source 400 28.2 Coupled circuits 487
22.6 The constant current source 407 28.3 Transformers 489
22.7 Superposition theorem 410 28.4 Equivalent circuit of a transformer 493
viii Contents

28.5 Transformer regulation and 30 Complex waveforms and Fourier analysis 508
efficiency 495 30.1 Harmonics 508
28.6 Transformer matching 497 30.2 Fourier analysis 515
28.7 Chapter summary 498 30.3 Chapter summary 521
28.8 Review questions 498 30.4 Review questions 521

29 Power, power factor and power factor 31 Power in a complex waveform 523
correction 499 31.1 RMS value of a waveform 523
29.1 Power in a.c. circuits 499 31.2 Power factor for a complex waveform 525
29.2 Power factor 501 31.3 Chapter summary 526
29.3 Power factor correction 504 31.4 Review questions 526
29.4 Chapter summary 506
29.5 Review questions 507 Index 529
Preface
applying scientific principles to the analysis and solution
Introduction of real-world problems.

This book has been designed to provide you with a

About this book
thorough introduction to the core engineering science
that you will study as part of a Foundation Degree,
First Degree or Higher National engineering course. We have organised this book into seven main parts:
The two authors have many years of experience of
teaching engineering at this level and their principal Part I: Mechanics of materials
aim has been that of capturing, within a single volume, Part II: Dynamics
the core knowledge required of all engineering students
studying courses beyond level 3. Part III: Thermodynamics
Part IV: Electrostatics and electromagnetism
Part V: Direct current
What is engineering science? Part VI: Transients
Part VII: Alternating current
Engineering covers a vast field of disciplines ranging
from aeronautical engineering to shipbuilding and Each part has been divided into chapters and each
from biomedical engineering to telecommunications. chapter is devoted to a major topic. Each chapter is then
Although these sectors may be diverse, engineers need further sub-divided into decimal-numbered sections.
a common core of scientific knowledge in order to be Throughout this book we have provided worked
able to work effectively in them. No matter what branch examples that show how the ideas introduced in the
of engineering you choose to study (and eventually text can be put into practice. We have also included
work in), you will need a thorough grounding in the problems and questions at various stages in the text.
underpinning scientific principles. This common core of Depending on the nature of the topic, these questions
knowledge, based on physics and applied mathematics, take a variety of forms, from simple Test your knowledge
is what we refer to as ‘engineering science’. problems requiring short numerical answers to those that
Engineering science provides a thorough grounding in may require some additional research or the use of an
applied physics for all engineering specialisms includ- analytical software package in their solution. Your tutor
ing aeronautical engineering, electronics, civil engineer- may well ask you to provide answers to these questions
ing, marine engineering, nanotechnology, mechanical as coursework or homework but they can also be used
engineering, control engineering, etc. Engineering to help you with revision for course assessments. In
science is the key to understanding and solving many addition, a set of Review questions will be found at the
everyday problems, such as why some structures are end of each chapter. The answers to all of the questions
stronger than others, some materials conduct electricity and problems will be found on the book’s website. Some
more readily than others and why an airframe is able to additional information is also available for downloading
withstand the stresses imposed on it during high-speed from the site (see page xii).
flight. Engineering science provides us with a means Part I provides a study of the mechanics of materials
of bridging the gap between different disciplines by and the behaviour of solid bodies under the influence
x Preface

of loads. It examines the way in which a body behaves A companion chapter available for downloading from
as a result of the loads that are imposed, the stresses that the book’s website covers vapours, vapour processes and
they endure and the subsequent strains and deflections. systems.
This is of utmost importance to engineers involved with Chapter 12 reviews thermodynamic fundamentals
the design and application of engineering structures, including topics such as pressure, specific heat, latent
such as beams, columns, plates and catenaries and their heat and the gas laws. Once again, this introductory
use in applications such as airframes, boilers, bridges, chapter provides an essential foundation for the chapters
pressure vessels and the hulls of ships. that follow. Chapter 13 is concerned with closed and
Chapter 1 provides an introduction to fundamental open thermodynamic systems and an introduction to the
concepts for readers who may not have studied first and second laws of thermodynamics, whilst Chapter
mechanical engineering before. This chapter explains 14 looks at the perfect gas processes including constant
basic concepts such as the resolution of forces, coplanar pressure, constant volume, isothermal, isentropic and
forces, and the relationship between stress and strain. It polytropic processes. The concepts of reversibility and
provides essential background reading for the chapters reversible work are also covered.
that follow. The concept of entropy and its use in determining
Chapter 2 is devoted to an analysis of beams and end states for thermodynamic cycles is introduced in
bending, whilst Chapter 3 considers the concept of Chapter 15. The Carnot cycle, Otto cycle, diesel cycle
torsion in shafts used as power transmission. The forces and constant pressure cycles are covered, together with
and stresses acting on pressure vessels are considered their isentropic efficiencies. Chapter 16 is concerned
in Chapter 4, and Chapter 5 deals with concentrically with the practical cycles and efficiencies of combustion
loaded columns and struts. engines, whilst Chapter 17 provides an introduction
to the separate subject of heat transfer by conduction,
Chapter 6 provides an introduction to strain energy and convection and radiation.
an analysis of the deflection of beams from externally
loaded components. The last chapter in Part I provides Finally in Part V, Chapter 18 is devoted to fluid
an introduction to the analysis of complex stress and mechanics with an introduction to fluid statics (such as
strain. The chapter finishes with a section on the use of thrust forces on immersed bodies and the buoyancy of
various types of gauge used for strain measurement. immersed and floating bodies) and fluid dynamics (such
as fluid momentum, Bernoulli theory and applications,
Part II is concerned with the motion of bodies under fluid flow instruments, viscosity and energy losses in a
the action of forces. We begin our study of dynamics piped system).
in Chapter 8 by looking at fundamental concepts of
Part IV provides an introduction to electrostatics and
linear and angular motion and the forces that create
electromagnetism. These two chapters are essential
such motion. We next consider momentum and inertia,
background reading for the chapters that follow. Chapter
together with the nature and effects of friction that acts
19 begins by explaining the nature of electric charge
on linear and angular motion machines and systems.
and how it is quantified before describing the ways
In Chapter 9 we consider the motion of one or two single that it can be concentrated and stored in capacitors.
and multilink mechanisms before briefly considering The chapter also introduces the important concept of
the geometry and output motions of various types the electric dipole that exists where two charges of
of cam. Chapter 10 continues by looking at power equal magnitude but opposite polarity are placed in
transmission systems and their application in the form close proximity to one another. Chapter 20 examines the
of belt drives, friction clutches, gears, screw drives, comparable phenomenon that occurs when a magnetic
dynamic balancing, rotors and flywheels. Chapter 11 dipole is created by a bar magnet having north and
concludes our short study of engineering dynamics with south poles at its opposite extremities. The chapter also
a brief look at the nature and effects of mechanical explains the concepts of magnetic flux and how it is
vibration and oscillatory motion. quantified as well as describing ways in which it can be
Part III provides an introduction to thermodynamics shaped and concentrated.
and the relationship between heat and mechanical Part V provides an introduction to direct current
energy and the conversion of one to another. Our and the application of various theorems that can
study of thermodynamics in this part of the book is be used to solve electric and magnetic circuits. In
constrained to gases and liquids as the working fluid. Chapter 21 we introduce direct current electricity and
 Preface xi

the fundamental nature of electric current, potential concept that all waveforms, whether continuous or
difference (voltage) and opposition to current flow discontinuous, can be expressed in terms of a convergent
(resistance). We also compare electric and magnetic series. Finally, Chapter 31 concludes Part VII with
circuits, showing that magnetic flux is analogous to an investigation of the power contained in a complex
electric current, magnetomotive force is analogous waveform.
to electromotive force, and reluctance of a magnetic
circuit is analogous to resistance in an electric Essential mathematics
circuit.
Finally in Part V, Chapter 22 explains, with the aid of a The authors recognise that, for many engineering
number of worked examples, the use of circuit theorems students, mathematics can be challenging. In order
as an aid to the solution of even the most complex of to help with this we have provided three useful
series/parallel direct current circuits containing multiple introductions to key mathematical topics on the book’s
sources of electromotive force and current. companion website: Vectors and vector operations,
In Part VI we examine the behaviour of circuits in which Introduction to the calculus and an Introduction to
transient conditions exist when there is a change from differential equations. In addition, two further Essential
one steady-state condition to another, for example when mathematics topics can be downloaded from the book’s
a switch is opened or closed, when a supply voltage website. These include Algebraic fundamentals and
is first applied to a circuit or when it is disconnected. Trigonometric identities.
In Chapter 23 we investigate the growth and decay It is important to note that these brief Essential
of voltage and current in first-order circuits where mathematics sections are not designed to replace
resistance and capacitance or resistance and inductance conventional mathematics textbooks. Instead, they are
are present. Our analysis of transients continues in designed to provide a succinct and easily digestible
Chapter 24 when we develop an understanding of the reference at the point at which they are needed to support
behaviour of first- and second-order systems, using the the main text.
Laplace transform.
Part VII is dedicated to a study of alternating current. About SCILAB
Here again, an introductory chapter is provided for
readers who may not have studied this topic before.
Chapter 25 begins by explaining fundamental terms In order to simplify the mathematical content of Parts
and concepts. This chapter also explains the important IV to VII we have included a number of examples
concepts of reactance (both capacitive and inductive) that make use of open-source mathematical modelling
and impedance. software developed by the Institut national de recherche
en informatique et en automatique (INRIA). INRIA is
Chapter 26 provides an introduction to the use of a
a French research institute dedicated to technology
simple yet powerful method of solving even the most
transfer and is active in the computer science, control
complex of a.c. circuits by using complex numbers and
theory and applied mathematics sectors. INRIA is
j-notation. The phenomenon of resonance is explained in
organised in five key sectors:
Chapter 27. We examine the effects of series and parallel
resonance and introduce the relationship between • Aeronautics, defence and aerospace
Q-factor and bandwidth. We also explain the effects of • Software publishing and embedded systems
loading and damping on the performance of a resonant • Energy, transport and sustainable development
circuit. • Health, life sciences and biotechnology
Mutual inductance and the transformer principles are • Telecommunications, networks and multimedia
discussed in Chapter 28. This chapter also provides a INRIA’s mathematical modelling package, SCILAB,
discussion of transformer losses, regulation, efficiency is well documented and supported. The software is
and the effect of loads that are not purely resistive. applicable to a very wide range of scientific, control and
Chapter 29 takes this a stage further by providing an engineering applications and can be freely downloaded
introduction to power and power factor in a.c. circuits. from www.scilab.org. SCILAB is ideal for student
Chapter 30 is devoted to waveforms that are not purely use and has many features that are comparable with
sinusoidal. This chapter includes an introduction to the immensely popular (but not freely distributed)
Fourier analysis, a powerful technique based on the MATLAB package.
xii Preface

that it is a problem and then set about doing something

A few words of advice and about it. A regular study pattern and a clearly defined
encouragement set of learning goals will help you get started. In any
event, do not give up – engineering is a challenging and
This book has been designed to provide you with a demanding career and your first challenge along the road
thorough introduction to each of the main topics that to becoming a practising engineer is to master the core
you will study as part of your engineering science scientific knowledge that engineers use in their everyday
course. Despite this, you are advised to make use work. And that is what you will find in this book.
of other reference books and materials wherever and May we wish you every success with your engineering
whenever possible. You should also get into the habit studies!
of using all of the resources that are available to you.
These include your tutor, your college or university Mike Tooley and Lloyd Dingle
library, computer centre, engineering laboratories, and
other learning resources including the Internet (see the
book’s website for some useful web links). You should
also become familiar with selecting materials that are Acknowledgements
appropriate to the topics that you are studying. In
particular, you may find it useful to refer to materials
The authors would like to thank a number of people
that will provide you with several different views of a
who have helped in producing this book. In particular,
particular topic.
we would like to thank Gavin Fidler, Emma Gadsden
Finally, we would like to offer a few words of advice and all members of the team at Taylor & Francis for
and encouragement to students. At the beginning of their patience and perseverance. Last, but by no means
your engineering course you will undoubtedly find that least, we would like to say a big ‘thank you’ to Wendy
some topics appear to be more difficult than others. and Yvonne. But for your support and understanding this
Sometimes you may find the basic concepts difficult book would never have been finished!
to grasp (perhaps you have not met them before), you
may find the analytical methods daunting, or you might
have difficulty with things that you cannot immediately
visualise. Website
No matter what the cause of your temporary learning
block, it is important to remember two things: you would More information and resources, together with the
not be the first person to encounter the problem, and answers to questions and problems, are avail-
there is plenty of material available to you that will help able from the book’s companion website: www.
you overcome it. All that you need to do is to recognise key2engineeringscience.com
 Part I
Mechanics of materials

The study of the mechanics of materials is concerned is concerned with the forces and stresses created by
with the behaviour of solid bodies under the influence of and acting on pressure vessels, where both thick-
loads. The ways in which these bodies behave as a result walled and thin-walled pressure vessels are considered,
of the loads imposed on them, the stresses they endure, together with an application of the theory to the stress
their subsequent strains and deflections, together with design of pressure vessels for specific functions. In
their internal reaction to these externally imposed loads, Chapter 5 concentrically loaded columns and struts are
are of the utmost importance to engineers, particularly considered; topics covered include the determination of
with respect to the design and in-service endurance of parameters such as slenderness ratio, radius of gyration
engineering structures. and effective length, Euler theory and the Rankine–
In Chapter 1 some fundamental concepts are covered Gordon relationship. Chapter 6 provides an introduction
that may or may not be familiar to the reader but to strain energy, where strain energy is considered
which are designed to provide essential background as a result of direct stress, shear stress, torsion and
for the topics that follow. These topics include forces, bending. Castigliano’s theorem is introduced and its
resolution of forces, coplanar force systems, simple use for analysing deflection of beams from externally
stress and strain, and thermal stress and strain. Chapter 2 loaded components is covered. Finally, in Chapter 7,
is concerned with the analysis of beams and includes we analyse complex stress and strain, starting with the
topics on shear force and bending moment, engineers’ analysis of stresses on oblique planes that result from
theory of bending, centroid and second moment of area, direct tensile loading. Two-dimensional stresses acting
beam selection and the slope and deflection of beams. both directly and in shear are analysed, together with the
In Chapter 3 we consider the concept of torsion in use of Mohr’s circle. Complex strain is then analysed
shafts used as power transmitters; topics covered include and principal strains determined. The chapter finishes
engineers’ theory of torsion, polar second moments of with a section on strain gauging and the use of strain
area and the power transmitted by shafts. Chapter 4 gauge rosettes to determine principal strains.
Page Intentionally Left Blank
 Chapter 1
Fundamentals
Only rigid members of a structure have the capacity
We begin our study in this chapter with a reminder to act as both a strut and a tie. Flexible members, such
of the concepts of force, vectors, the analysis as ropes, wires or chains, can only act as ties.
of coplanar force systems and compound bars, Force cannot exist without opposition, as you will
followed by a study of one- and two-dimensional know from your previous study of Newton’s laws. An
stress and strain. This lays the foundation for the applied force is called an action and the opposing force
study of beams, shafts, pressure vessels, columns, it produces is called a reaction.
struts, strain energy and complex stress and strain,
that follow in the subsequent chapters of this, the Key Point. The action of a force always causes an
first part of Engineering Science. opposite reaction
Some of the fundamental concepts covered in
this first chapter may be unfamiliar to all readers, The effects of any force depend on its three characteris-
so readers with a particular area of weakness should tics: magnitude, direction and point of application.
ensure that they attempt and successfully complete In general, force is that which changes, or tends to
the ‘Test your knowledge’ (TYK) questions at the change, the state of rest or uniform motion of a body.
end of each section. For this particular chapter,
these TYK exercises have been designed not only m(v − u)
F = ma = (1.1)
to enable immediate revision and consolidation t
but also to act as review questions at the end of
each section, rather than at the end of the chapter This formula is a consequence of Newton’s second law,
which, you will find, is the normal format for many which you should already be familiar with. If not, you
of the subsequent chapters. should refer to Part II of this book, where Newton’s laws
are revised at the beginning of Chapter 8, Fundamentals
of Dynamics.
The SI unit of force is the Newton (N). The Newton
is defined as follows: 1 Newton is the force that gives a
1.1 Force mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m s−2 .

In its simplest sense a force is a push or pull exerted Key Point. Force = mass (m) × acceleration (a)
by one object on another. In a member in a static and is a vector quantity
structure, a push causes compression and a pull causes
tension. Members subject to compressive and tensile Note that weight force is a special case where the
forces have special names. A member of a structure that acceleration acting on the mass is that due to gravity, so
is in compression is known as a strut and a member in weight force may be defined as F = mg. On the surface
tension is called a tie. of the earth the gravitational acceleration is taken as

978-1-85617-775-7, Engineering Science, Mike Tooley & Lloyd Dingle

4 Part I

g = 9.81 m s−2 . This means, for example, that the weight

of a body (with the same mass) will vary from that on
earth if it is taken to a place such as the moon, where
vT
it is subject to the influence of the moon’s much lower v1
gravity.

Key Point. Weight = mass × acceleration due to

gravity and it is a vector quantity v2
(a)
Since forces have magnitude, direction and a point of
Figure 1.2 (a) Parallelogram law
application and are therefore vector quantities, they can
be represented graphically in two dimensions by scale
drawing. The resultant and/or equilibrant of coplanar
force systems may also be determined by resolving
forces using trigonometry or, in the case of three-
dimensional force systems, by use of position vectors Note: the plus sign in this equation refers to the
and vector arithmetic (see Essential Mathematics 1 – addition of two vectors, and should not be confused
Vector Operations on the book’s companion website). with ordinary scalar addition, which is simply the sum
of the magnitudes of these two vectors and is written as
VT = V1 + V2 in the normal way without emboldening
(see also Essential Mathematics 1 – Dot products).
1.2 Vector representation and Vectors may also be added head-to-tail using the
combination of forces triangle law as shown in Figure 1.2b. It can also be
seen from Figure 1.2c that the order in which vectors
You will be aware that a force may be represented on are added does not affect their sum.
paper as a vector quantity, provided an arrow is drawn
to a convenient scale representing its magnitude and the
arrow is offset at some angle θ representing its direction
(Figure 1.1). Please note that throughout this book all Key Point. Two vectors may be added using the
vector quantities will be identified using emboldened parallelogram rule or triangle rule
text.
In addition to possessing the properties of magnitude The vector difference V1 −V2 is obtained by adding
and direction from a given reference (Figure 1.1), vec- –V2 to V1 . The effect of the minus sign is to reverse
tors must obey the parallelogram law of combination. the direction of the vector v2 (Figure 1.2d).
This law requires that two vectors v1 and v2 may be The vectors v1 and v2 are known as the components
replaced by their equivalent vector vT which is the of the vector VT .
diagonal of the parallelogram formed by v1 and v2 , as In the two examples that follow we are asked to find
shown in Figure 1.2a. the resultant of the force systems, that is, the single
This vector sum is represented by the vector equation: equivalent force that can replace all the forces in the
VT = V1 + V2 . system.

Length of arrow
x drawn to scale
indicates magnitude Direction given
Reference axes
with respect to
reference axes

Figure 1.1 Graphical representation of force

 1. Fundamentals 5

v2

vT
v1

v2 15 N
(b)

120°
48°
vT 30°
v1 x x
30°

v2 v1 10 N
(b)
(c)
Figure 1.3 (b) Vector diagram
Figure 1.2 (b) Triangle law and (c) Reverse order
v2 v2

From the vector diagram the resultant vector R is

y 4.8 cm in magnitude and, from the scale, this gives
vT v1 the magnitude of the resultant R = 24 N at an angle
of 48◦ from the x-axis.
x
Reference axes
(d)
Note that a space diagram is first drawn to indicate the
Figure 1.2 (d) Vector subtraction orientation of the forces with respect to the reference
axes; these axes should always be shown. Also note
that the line of action of vector v1 , passing through
Example 1.1 Two forces act at a point as shown in the point 0, is shown in the space diagram and can
Figure 1.3. Find by vector addition their resultant. lie anywhere on this line, as indicated on the vector
y diagram.

v2 15 N
x Key Point. The resultant is the single equiva-
Scale: 1 cm 5N lent force that replaces all the forces in a force
system

60°
x x
30°
Example 1.2 Find the result of the system of
v1 10 N
forces shown in Figure 1.4, using vector addition.
From the diagram, the resultant = 6.5 cm = 6.5
(a)
× 10 N = 65 N acting at an angle of 54◦ from
Figure 1.3 Vector addition using the parallelogram law the x-reference axis. This answer may be written
(a) Space diagram mathematically as: resultant = 65 N 54◦
6 Part I

that lie in the adjacent spaces either side of the vector

35 N
arrow representing that force.
30 N y

x
50° Reference axes
60°
90°
50 N
15 N A
(a) B
C
15 N
Notice that all angles
are taken with respect
to the reference axis
(x in this case)
Resultant (i.e. equivalent 35 N Vector diagram
single force for the
system shown) 110°
b
65 N x

30 N
a c
54° 60°
Note that arrows are not normally required
x
50 N scale: 1 cm = 10 N but are shown here for clarity
(b)
Figure 1.5 Bow’s notation
Figure 1.4 Vector addition using polygon of forces
method (a) Space diagram (b) Vector diagram

The vectors representing the forces are then given the

corresponding lower case letters. Thus the forces AB,
BC and CA are represented by the vector quantities ab,
Key Point. Vector addition of two or more forces bc and ca, respectively. This method of labelling applies
acting at a point (concurrent coplanar forces) can be to any number of forces and their corresponding vectors.
achieved using the head-to-tail rule

Note that for the force system in Example 1.2 vector

Test your knowledge 1.1
addition has produced a polygon. Any number of forces
may be added vectorially in any order, provided the 1. For the system of two forces shown in
head-to-tail rule is observed. In this example, if we were Figure 1.6, determine, using a vector drawing
to add the vectors in reverse order, the same result would method, the resultant and equilibrant of the
be achieved. Also note that for any concurrent coplanar system.
force system the single force, the equilibrant, that brings
the system into static equilibrium is equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction to the resultant.
15 kN

Key Point. The equilibrant is opposite in direc- 35°

tion and equal in magnitude to the resultant and 20°
maintains the system of concurrent coplanar forces
in static equilibrium.
10 kN

Bow’s notation is a convenient system of labelling the Figure 1.6 Force system for TYK 1.1 question 1
forces for ease of reference when there are three or more
forces to be considered. Capital letters are placed in the 2. For the system of forces shown in Figure
space between forces in a clockwise direction, as shown 1.7, determine, using the polygon of forces
in Figure 1.5. Any force is then referred to by the letters
 1. Fundamentals 7

external force acting on a body will produce the same

method, the magnitude and direction of the effect, provided it acts anywhere along its line of action.
force that will put the system into equilibrium. Thus, in Figure 1.9, the external effects of the force F
on the two securing bolts (A, B) that rigidly support the
6 kN solid metal bracket will be the same, no matter whether
this force is applied at point P or point Q, along its line
of action.
7 kN

60° 20° Line of action of force ‘F ’

70° 45°
P Q
F F

10 kN
8 kN
A B
Figure 1.7 Force system for TYK 1.1 question 2 Same external reaction at A + B, no matter
whether force F is applied at P or at Q

Figure 1.9 Illustration of the principle of transmissibility

1.3 Coplanar force systems We may summarise and generalise the above situation
by the principle of transmissibility, that states:
Forces that act within a two-dimensional plane, such as A force may be applied at any point on its line of action
the plane of this paper, are referred to as coplanar forces. to a rigid body without altering the resultant effects of the
If all the lines of action of these forces pass through force external to the rigid body on which it acts.
the same point, known as the point of concurrence
The usefulness of this principle will become clearer
(Figure 1.8), then we have a concurrent coplanar force
later when we consider force systems in which forces
system.
act other than at a point.

Key Point. A force may be applied at any point

F1 along its line of action to a rigid body without
altering the resultant effects of the force external
Point of
concurrence to the rigid body on which it acts. This is known as
F2 the principle of transmissibility

All the force systems that we have considered so far,

that have been solved using vectors, have involved only
concurrent coplanar forces.
We now need to consider another system of coplanar
F4 forces, where the lines of action of the forces in the
F3 system do not pass through the same point. This system
(Figure 1.10a) is known as a non-concurrent coplanar
Figure 1.8 Concurrent coplanar force system force system. In this system there is not only a tendency
for the force to move the body in a certain linear
direction, but also to make it rotate. This system may
When dealing with forces that act on rigid structures again be represented by a single resultant force but,
and other rigid bodies, we ignore deformation within in addition, because the forces do not act through the
these bodies and concentrate only on the effects same point there must also be a turning moment created
of external forces that act on them. Under these between the line of action of the resultant and the point
circumstances it is not necessary to restrict the about which the rotation of the body takes place. This
application of these forces to one point. In fact, any idea is illustrated in Figure 1.10b.
8 Part I

F3

F4

(a)

B C

q
FR A D

Turning moment about D FR s

(b)

Figure 1.10 (a) Non-concurrent coplanar force system (b) A resultant force and turning moment

The concept of turning moments and equilibrium is If the line of action of the force passes through the
central to an understanding of non-concurrent coplanar turning point it has no turning effect and so no moment.
force systems and their resolution. For this reason, we Figure 1.11b illustrates this important point.
next revise the key concepts concerned with turning The resulting moment is the difference in magnitude
moments, equilibrium and couples. between the total clockwise moment and the total
anticlockwise moment. Note that if the body is in static
equilibrium this resultant will be zero.
1.3.1 Turning moments and equilibrium
A moment is a turning force, producing a turning effect. Key Point. For static equilibrium the algebraic
The magnitude of this turning force depends on the sum of the moments is zero
magnitude of the force applied and the perpendicular
distance from the pivot or axis to the line of action of When a body is in equilibrium there can be no resultant
the force (Figure 1.11a). force acting on it. However, reference to Figure 1.12
The moment of a force (M) is defined as the product shows that a body subject to two equal and opposite
of the magnitude of force (F) and its perpendicular non-concurrent coplanar forces is not necessarily in
distance (s) from the pivot or axis to the line of action equilibrium even when there is no resultant force acting
of the force. This may be written mathematically as: on it.
M = Fs, where the SI unit for a moment is the The resultant force on the body is zero but the two
Newton-metre (N m). forces would cause the body to rotate, as indicated.
Moments are always concerned with perpendicular Therefore, in the case illustrated, a clockwise restoring
distances. From Figure 1.11a, you should note that moment would be necessary to bring the system into
moments can be clockwise (CWM) or anticlock- equilibrium. This leads us to a second condition that
wise (ACWM). Conventionally, we consider clockwise must be satisfied to ensure that a body is in static
moments to be positive and anticlockwise moments to be equilibrium. This is known as the principle of moments,
negative. which states that when a body is in static equilibrium
 1. Fundamentals 9

Pivot Pivot

Positive CWM Negative ACWM

F F

s s

(a)

Pivot

(b)

Figure 1.11 (a) Definition of a moment (b) Line of action passing through a pivot point

reactions at the supports must balance the forces acting

down on the beam.

F
1.3.2 Couples
So far, with respect to force systems, we have been
restricted to the turning effect of forces taken one at
a time. A couple occurs when two equal forces acting in
F opposite directions have their lines of action parallel.

Example 1.3 Figure 1.13 shows the turning effect

Figure 1.12 Non-equilibrium condition for equal and oppo- of a couple on a beam of regular cross-section.
site non-concurrent coplanar forces acting on a body Determine the moment (turning effect) of the
couple.

30 N
under the action of a number of forces, the total CWM
about any point is equal to the total ACWM about
the same point. This principle may be represented 0.5 m
algebraically by the formula:

 
CWM = ACWM (1.2)
0.5 m
One other further necessary condition for static
equilibrium is that upward forces = downward forces. C of G
This further condition is necessary, for example, when 30 N
considering the static equilibrium of a beam with Figure 1.13 Turning effect of a couple
simple supports and a number of point loads, where the
10 Part I

Taking moments about the centre of gravity Key Point. The moment (turning effect) of a
(C of G), that is the point at which all the weight couple = force × distance between forces, and the
of the beam is deemed to act, we get: turning moment (torque) = force × radius

(30 × 0.5) + (30 × 0.5) = turning effect

So moment of couple = 30 N m.
1.4 Resolution of forces for
coplanar systems
Example 1.4 Figure 1.14 shows the turning effect
Graphical solutions to problems involving vector forces
of a couple on a beam of irregular cross-section
are sufficiently accurate for many engineering problems
that we will again try to resolve about its centre
and are invaluable for estimating approximate solutions
of gravity
to more complicated force problems. However, it is
30 N
sometimes necessary to provide more accurate results, in
which case a mathematical method will be required. One
such mathematical method is known as the resolution of
forces. We look at a number of examples of this method,
initially for concurrent coplanar force systems and then
for non-concurrent coplanar force systems.
Consider a force F acting on a bolt A (Figure 1.15).
The force F may be replaced by two forces P and Q,
acting at right angles to each other, which together have
0.75 m 0.25 m
the same effect on the bolt.
30 N C of G

Figure 1.14 Turning effect of a couple with irregular P

cross-section beam y

Again, taking moments about the C of G gives: F

90°
x
(30 × 0.75) + (30 × 0.25) = turning effect
Reference axes

So moment of couple = 30 N m Q
Bolt
It can be seen from the above two examples that the
moment is the same in both cases and is independent of Figure 1.15 Resolving force F into its components
the position of the fulcrum. Therefore, if the fulcrum is
assumed to be located at the point of application of one of
the forces, the moment of a couple is equal to one of the From your previous knowledge of the trigonometric
forces multiplied by the perpendicular distance between ratios you will know that:
them. Thus in both cases, shown in Examples 1.3 and
1.4, the moment of the couple = (30 N × 1 m) = 30 N m, Q
= cos θ and so Q = F cos θ
as before. F
Another important application of the couple is its P
turning moment or torque. The definition of torque is as Also, = cos(90 − θ) and we know that
F
follows: torque is the turning moment of a couple and is
cos(90 − θ ) = sin θ
measured in Newton-metres (N m), that is, torque T =
force F × radius r. The turning moment of the couple therefore P = F sin θ
given above in Example 1.3 is = F × r = (30 N × 0.5 m)
= 15 N m. Thus the formula for torque is: So, from Figure 1.15, P = F sin θ and Q = F cos θ and
the single force F has been resolved or split into its
T = Fr (1.3) two equivalent forces of magnitude F cos θ and F sin θ
 1. Fundamentals 11

acting at right angles to one another (they are said to

Then total horizontal component
be orthogonal to each other). F cos θ is known as the
horizontal component of F and F sin θ is the vertical
= 10 + 7 − 5.66 kN = 11.34 kN(→)
component of F.
and total vertical component
Key Point. Forces or loads that are orthogonal act = 0 + 12.22 − 5.66 kN = 6.46 kN(↑)
at right angles to one another
Since both the horizontal and vertical compo-
nents are positive, the resultant force will act
upwards to the right of the origin. The three original
Example 1.5 Three coplanar forces, A, B and forces have now been reduced to two that act
C, are all applied to a pin joint (Figure 1.16a). orthogonally. The magnitude of the resultant FR
Determine the magnitude and direction of the or the equilibrant may now be obtained using
equilibrant for the system. Pythagoras’s theorem on the right-angled triangle
obtained from the orthogonal vectors, as shown in
Figure 1.16b.
14 kN From Pythagoras we get R2 = 6.462 + 11.342
= 170.33 and so resultant FR = 13.05 kN, so the
magnitude of the equilibrant also = 13.05 kN.
+V

165° 60°
Vertical component
10 kN +H
Reference axes
Resultant
6.46 kN

8 kN
209°40 29°40
(a)

Figure 1.16 (a) Space diagram for force system 11.34 kN

Horizontal component
Equilibrant
+V
Each force needs to be resolved into its two
orthogonal components, which act along the vertical
and horizontal axes, respectively. Using the normal +H
algebraic sign convention with our axes, above Reference axes
(b)
the origin V is positive and below it is negative.
Similarly, H is positive to the right of the origin and Figure 1.16 (b) Resolution method
negative to the left. Using this convention, we need
only consider acute angles for the sine and cosine
functions; these are tabulated below. From the right-angled triangle shown in
Figure 1.16b, the angle θ that the resultant FR
makes with the given axes may be calculated using
the trigonometric ratios.
Magnitude Horizontal Vertical component
of force component
6.46 ◦
Then tan θ = = 0.5697 and θ = 29.67
10 kN + 10 kN (→) 0 11.34
◦
14 kN + 14 cos 60 kN (→) + 14 sin 60 kN ( ↑ ) therefore the resultant FR = 13.05 kN  29.67

8 kN – 8 cos 45 kN (←) – 8 sin 45 kN ( ↓ ) The equilibrant will act in the opposite sense and
therefore = 13.05 kN  209.67◦ .
12 Part I

Key Point. Pythagoras’s theorem may be used to resolution method, the magnitude of the force P
find the single resultant force of two orthogonal and the normal reaction R, ignoring the effects of
forces friction.

We consider one final example on concurrent coplanar

forces, concerned with equilibrium on a smooth plane. P
Smooth in this case implies that the effects of friction
may be ignored. A body is kept in equilibrium on a plane
by the action of three forces, as shown in Figure 1.17.
These are the:
1. weight W of the body acting vertically down;
30°
2. reaction R of the plane to the weight of the body.
(a)
R is known as the normal reaction, normal in this
sense meaning at right angles to the plane in this Figure 1.18 (a) Crate acted on by force P
case; and
3. force P acting in some suitable direction to prevent
the body sliding down the plane. P
Forces P and R are dependent on the:
• angle of inclination of the plane, y
• magnitude of W , and
• inclination of the force P to the plane.
x
It is therefore possible to express the magnitude of both
R Reference axes
P and R in terms of W and the trigonometric ratios
connecting the angle θ. W mg
30°

(b)
P
Figure 1.18 (b) Space diagram
Smooth
plane
friction Figure 1.18b shows the space diagram for the
ignored problem, clearly indicating the nature of the forces
R
acting on the body.

y
W mg
x
Figure 1.17 Equilibrium on a smooth plane R W cos
W

In the example that follows we consider the case when Note that it is sometimes more
the body remains in equilibrium as a result of the force P W sin convenient to have the reference
P being applied parallel to the plane. axes as indicated above when
(c) dealing with incline problems.

Example 1.6 A crate of mass 80 kg is held in Figure 1.18 (c) Vector components of force acting on
equilibrium by a force P acting parallel to the plane crate
as indicated in Figure 1.18a. Determine, using the
 1. Fundamentals 13

W may therefore be resolved into the two forces

P and R, since the force component at right angles F1 10 kN
to the plane = W cos θ and the force component 40 cm
parallel to the plane = W sin θ (Figure 1.18c).

30 cm
Equating forces gives:
F4 8 kN
W cos θ = R and W sin θ = P

So, remembering the mass/weight relationship, we

90 cm
have: F2 16 kN

40 cm
W = mg = (80)(9.81) = 784.8 N.
Then,
5 cm
◦
R = 784.8 cos 30 = 679.7 N and
F3 5 kN
◦
P = 784.8 sin 30 = 392.4 N.
Figure 1.19 Pivoted metal plate

We now consider examples involving non-concurrent find the resultant moment of the system by applying
coplanar force systems and see the subtle differences in the principle of moments and so, in this case, find
techniques that we must apply in order to solve such the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the
systems. In this first simple example, we consider forces resultant from the pivot. Thus a table of values of
acting horizontally and vertically on a body. forces and moments can be set up and these values
calculated, as shown below.
Please note:
Example 1.7 A flat metal plate is pivoted at its
geometric centre and is acted upon by horizontal 1) The use of the sign convention: positive
and vertical forces as shown in Figure 1.19. forces are to the right and upwards, clockwise
If the plate is free to rotate about the pivot, moments are positive, and vice versa.
determine the magnitude and direction of the 2) That for the moment of each component in
resultant of the coplanar forces acting on the system the table we ignore the sign of the component
and also find the perpendicular distance of its line as the moment itself is only dependent on
of action from the pivot. whether it is clockwise (positive) or anti-
Now, we remember that for non-coplanar systems clockwise (negative), so in row one of the
there may not only be a resultant force but also a table the anticlockwise moment of the vertical
resulting turning moment that acts on the system. component of the force F1 about the pivot is
Therefore, we must not only resolve forces but also negative, as required.

Force F (kN) Horizontal Vertical Moment of FH about Moment of FV about

component FH component FV pivot (kN m) pivot (kN m)
10 0 – 10 0 −(−10 × 0.2) = −2
16 – 16 0 (−16 × 0.2) = + 3.2 0
5 0 5 0 −(5 × 0.05) = −0.25
8 8 0 (8 × 0.3) = 2.4 0
Totals –8 –5 + 5.6 kN m –2.25 kN m
14 Part I

The magnitude of the resultant of the force Key Point. Non-concurrent coplanar force sys-
system is found using Pythagoras’s theorem and the tems can be reduced to a resultant force and a
angular direction of the resultant is found using the turning moment
trigonometric ratios, in the same way as before.
The sums of the horizontal and vertical forces
are both negative, therefore the line of action of the
resultant force will act down towards the left, as Key Point. The sign convention for non-
shown (Figure 1.20). concurrent coplanar force systems dictates that
upward forces and clockwise turning moments are
8 kN positive, and vice versa

In the next example we include two forces that are

5 kN not horizontal or perpendicular. We resolve these forces
R using the techniques you are already familiar with. Note
also that in Example 1.8 all angles are measured from
the horizontal, so that all the horizontal components
Figure 1.20 Resultant magnitude
of the forces will then be given by FH = F cos θ and
 all vertical components are given by FV = F sin θ . Do
√ Its magnitude will be: R = (−8) + (−5) =
2 2
remember that this is only applicable if the components
89 = 9.43 kN and the angle θ is found using the of the forces are measured in this way.
−5
tangent ratio, tan θ = = 0.625, therefore θ =
−8
−1 ◦
tan 0.625 = 32 . Example 1.8 Determine the magnitude and direc-
Now, from the table the sum of the moments tion of the resultant force and turning moment about
= 5.6 − 2.25 N m = 3.35 N m. Then, calling the point A for the force system shown.
perpendicular distance from the line of action of
the resultant to
the pivot point d, we get the sum of F1 15 kN
the moments M = R × d or 3.35 = 9.43 × d and
3.35
d= = 0.355 m. Now, because the resulting 1.5 m 45°
9.43 F4 4 kN
turning moment is positive the line of action of the
resultant must be below the pivot point, as illustrated
in Figure 1.21. 2m
F3 5 kN
30°
A

F2 3 kN

Figure 1.22 Non-concurrent force system

35.5 cm
From Figure 1.22 we tabulate the values as we
did before, noting that we have resolved F1 and F3
32°
into their horizontal and vertical components, giving
each their appropriate sign.
Note: When taking moments of the components
about A, take only the positive value (modulus)
R 9.43 kN of the components. The signs of the moments are
determined only by whether they are clockwise
(positive) or anticlockwise (negative). This rule can
be seen in operation for the vertical moment of the
Figure 1.21 Line of action of the resultant with respect
to the pivot
3 kN force and the horizontal moment of the 4 kN
force.
 1. Fundamentals 15

Force F (kN) Horizontal Vertical Moment of FH Moment of FV

component FH component FV about point A (kN m) about point A (kN m)
15 15 cos 45 = 10.6 15 sin 45 = 10.6 (10.6 × 2) = 21.2 −(10.6 × 1.5) = −15.9
3 0 −3 0 (−3 × 1.5) = 4.5
5 −5 cos 30 = −4.3 5 sin 30 = 2.5 0 0
4 −4 0 −(4 × 2) = −8 0
Totals +2.3 +10.1 +13.2 kN m −11.4 kN m

√ as before, we have R =
 Then, using Pythagoras
(2.3)2 + (10.1)2 = 107.3 = 10.36 kN and the
direction is found using the tangent ratio. Then
10.1
tan θ = = 4.391 and θ = tan−1 4.391 =
2.3
77.17◦ .
The turning moment about A is the sum F1 6 kN
of the clockwise and anticlockwise turning
moments
 given in the table; these are
130°
M = 13.2 − 11.4 = 1.8 kN m (clockwise). The
line of action is therefore upwards towards the
right.
A 50°

In Example 1.8 we could have gone on to find the

perpendicular distance from the line of action of the
resultant to point A if we so wished, in a similar manner F2 4 kN
to that given in Example 1.7.
In the next two examples you will meet a simple Figure 1.23 Pulley and cable assembly
engineering application of the resolution of forces
method for non-concurrent coplanar force systems Since the 6 kN force is horizontal, then the
and a final example where we introduce the use of total horizontal force components = 2.57 + 6.0 =
Varignon’s theorem. 8.57 kN and the total vertical force components
= −3.06 kN. Therefore, by Pythagoras, the mag-
nitude of the resultant force on the pulley is
Example 1.9 A pulley holds a cable that laps it by 
an angle of 130 degrees as shown in Figure 1.23. = (8.57)2 + (3.06)2 = 9.1 kN.
The tensions in either side of the cable are 6 kN Its direction, although not asked for, may be easily
and 4 kN as indicated. What is the magnitude of the found using the tangent ratio as before. Its line of
resultant force on the pulley? action will act down towards the right.
All that is required to solve this problem is to
resolve the tensile forces in the cable into their In the following final example we apply a very useful
horizontal and vertical components. The diagram theorem. In some text books it is given the name
shows these components for the 4 kN force. I hope Varignon’s theorem, and it states that: the moment of
you can see from the geometry of the situation that a force about any point is equal to the sum of the
the angle A = 50◦ . Then the horizontal and vertical moments of the concurrent components of that force
components of F2 are F2H = 4 cos 50 = 2.57 kN about the same point. This theorem or principle may
and F2V = −4 sin 50 = −3.06 kN, respectively. be represented by the moment of a force about a point
in terms of a vector cross product.
16 Part I

You already know from your previous study, and from

what has been said in this section, that the moment Key Point. Varignon’s theorem states that: the
of a force is given by the force F multiplied by the moment of a force about any point is equal to the
perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force sum of the moments of the concurrent components
from the point of reference; in symbols, M = Fd. By of that force about the same point
considering the situation in Figure 1.24, where we know
that the moment of the force F about A is given by
M = Fd, then we may also represent this moment by You may be wondering why we bother with a vector
the vector cross-product expression: approach to the solution of moments, where for simple
two-dimensional problems in which the vertical distance
M=r×F (1.4) d is easily calculated the conventional scalar approach is
simpler. However, for some two-dimensional problems
where F and r are not perpendicular but are easily
where r is a positive vector that runs from the point A
expressed in vector notation, and for more complex
to any point on the line of action of the vector force F.
three-dimensional problems such as mechanisms (in
Part II), the vector approach is often best.

M
Positive
direction of d Example 1.10 Figure 1.25 shows a flat metal
r signpost acted upon by a coplanar force of 1500 N
r×F A
at point A.

F
a) Calculate the magnitude of the moment about
the base B, using Varignon’s theorem.
b) Then calculate the magnitude of the moment,
Direction and sense M using the principle of transmissibility.
of M found using right-hand
screw rule

Figure 1.24 The vector cross-product situation for the 0.75 m

moment M about A
A
F1

50°
The magnitude of this cross product is given by:
F = 1500 N
M = Fr sin θ = Fd, 3m F2

noting that d = r sin θ.

Now the direction and sense of the moment M
may be found using the right-hand screw rule, which B
you may have already met and used in your study
of magnetic fields around current-carrying conductors. Figure 1.25 Signpost acted upon by a coplanar force
If the fingers of the right hand are curled towards
the positive direction of r and the positive direction
of F, then the thumb points in the positive sense of a) In this example you will note that the 1500 N
M (see Figure 1.24). Note also that the vector cross force F is non-concurrent with base B of
product r × F is not the same as F × r, where in the the signpost, but, from Varignon’s theorem, if
latter case the positive direction and sense of M are we find the horizontal and vertical concurrent
direct opposites. For a fuller explanation of vector cross components of the force (F1 , F2 ) about A, we
products and their applications, including Varignon’s will then be able to sum the moments of these
theorem, you should refer to Essential Mathematics 1 –
Vector Operations, on the book’s website.
 1. Fundamentals 17

forces about the base B, using vector cross 2. What is the sign convention for forces, and for
products, as required. Then the magnitude of moments?
the moment MB :
3. Find the magnitude and direction of the resul-
tant and the equilibrant for the concurrent
MB = r1 × F1 + r2 × F2 or
force system shown in Figure 1.27.
MB = (3)(1500 cos 50) + (0.75)(1500 sin 50)
= 3754.3 N m. 8 kN

b) By moving force F along its line of action,

the moment about base B may be calculated
by first eliminating the moment of one of the
50°
components F1 or F2 (see Figure 1.26), where 10 kN
45°
the force F has been moved back along its line
of action to align vertically (at point P) with
the base B, so eliminating the moment of the 20° 2000 N
force F2 .

P 6 kN
F1 = 1500 cos 50
50°
Figure 1.27 Concurrent force system

F2

4. A flat metal plate is acted upon by a system of

forces and is free to pivot about A, as shown
d
in Figure 1.28. Determine the magnitude and
direction of the resultant of the force system
F = 1500 N
and also find the perpendicular distance of its
line of action from the pivot.

B F3 5 kN 1m
F1 20 kN
Figure 1.26 Situation for finding the magnitude 30° 20°
of the moment MB using transmissibility
2m
A
Then d = 3 + 0.75 tan 50◦ = 3.8938 m and 1m
the magnitude of moment MB = (3.8938) Pivot point
(1500 cos 50) = 3754.33 N m, as before. Note: 70°
1.5 m 1.5 m
The force F could just as easily have been
moved down (transmitted) until the force F1
aligned horizontally with B and the moment F2 10 kN
found in a similar manner to the above.
Figure 1.28 Plate force system

5. A drive belt is wrapped around a pulley

Test your knowledge 1.2 assembly forming an angle of lap of 220◦ as
shown in Figure 1.29. If the tensions in the belt
1. With respect to the line of action of forces, are 10 kN and 8 kN, find the magnitude of the
what does the term orthogonal mean? resultant force.
18 Part I

now revise the nature of stress and strain in engineering

F1 10 kN components that are under load.

Key Point. Structure components designed to

carry tensile loads are known as ties, while
components designed to carry compressive loads
220° A
are known as struts.

F2 8 kN
1.5.1 Stress
Figure 1.29 Drive belt system If a solid, such as a metal bar, is subjected to an external
force (or load), a resisting force is set up within the bar
6. Figure 1.30 shows the situation for a coplanar and the material is said to be in a state of stress. There
force acting on a plate hinged at point P. are three basic types of stress that are described next:
Using Varignon’s theorem and/or the prin-
ciple of transmissibility, find the magnitude • Tensile stress – which is set-up by forces tending to
of the moment MP of the force F about the pull the material apart;
hinge P. • Compressive stress – produced by forces tending to
crush the material; and
• Shear stress – produced by forces tending to cut
F = 2 kN
through the material, i.e. tending to make one part
20° of the material slide over the other.
Figure 1.31 illustrates these three types of stress.
Stress is defined as force per unit area, that is:
50 cm
force, F
stress, σ = (1.5)
area, A

Also,
P
Hinge
60 cm shear force (F s )
shear stress, τ = (1.6)
Figure 1.30 Hinged plate acted on by a coplanar
area resisting shear (A)
force
Note: the Greek letter σ is pronounced sigma and the
letter τ is pronounced tau.
The basic SI unit of stress is the N m−2 or pascal (Pa).
The megapascal (MPa) is the same as the MN m−2 or
the N mm−2 , which are commonly used.
1.5 Simple stress and strain
Key Point. 1 MN m−2 = 1 N mm−2 = 1 MPa
As you have already seen when you revised the concept
of force, components that are subject to tensile loads
in engineering structures are known as ties, while those
subject to compressive loads are known as struts. In both
1.5.2 Strain
cases the external loads cause internal extension (tensile
loads) or compression (compressive loads) of the atomic A material that is altered in shape due to the action of a
bonds of the material from which the component is force that acts on it is strained.
made. The intensity of the loads causing the atomic This may also mean that a body is strained internally
bonds to extend or compress is known as stress and even though there may be little measurable difference
any resulting deformation is known as strain. We will in its dimensions, just a stretching of the bonds at the
 1. Fundamentals 19

F F

(a) Tensile stress

F F

(b) Compressive stress

Rivet in single shear

F /2

F /2

Rivet in double shear

(c) Shear stress

Figure 1.31 Basic types of stress

atomic level. Figure 1.32 illustrates three common types Note that shear strain γ (gamma), the angle of
of strain resulting from the application of external forces deflection resulting from the shear stress, is measured in
(loads) that are described next: radian and is therefore dimensionless, as is direct strain.
• Direct tensile strain resulting from an axial tensile
Key Point. Since strain is a ratio of dimensions it
load being applied;
has no units
• Compressive strain resulting from an axial compres-
sive load being applied; and
• Shear strain resulting from equal and opposite 1.5.3 Hooke’s law and the elastic modulus
cutting forces being applied.
Hooke’s law states that: within the elastic limit of a
Direct strain may be defined as: the ratio of change in material the change in shape is directly proportional to
dimension (deformation) over the original dimension, the applied force producing it.
that is: A good example of the application of Hooke’s law
is the spring. A spring balance is used for measuring
deformation (x)
direct strain, ε = (1.7) weight force, where an increase in weight will cause a
original length (l) corresponding extension (see Figure 1.33).
The stiffness (k) of a spring is the force required to
(where both x and l are in metres). The symbol ε is cause a certain (unit deflection), that is:
the Greek lower case letter epsilon. Note also that the
deformation for tensile strain will be an extension and force
spring stiffness (k) = (1.8)
for compressive strain it will be a reduction. unit deflection
20 Part I

F F

x I x
ε
I
(a) Direct tensile strain

F F

I x
ε
x I
(b) Compressive strain

x
F

y Change in shape
resulting from
shear force
x
γ
y
F
(c) Shear strain

Figure 1.32 Types of strain

Load (N)
The SI unit of spring stiffness is the N m−1 . By
600 considering Hooke’s law, we can show that stress is
directly proportional to strain while the material remains
500
elastic. That is, while the external forces acting on the
material are only sufficient to stretch the atomic bonds,
without fracture, so that the material may return to
400 its original shape after the external forces have been
removed.
300 Hooke’s law states that the extension is directly
proportional to the applied load, provided the material
200
remains within its elastic range. Since stress is load
per unit area, the load applied to any cross-sectional
area of material can be converted into stress provided
100 the cross-sectional area of the material is known. The
corresponding extension of the stressed material divided
0 by its original length will in fact provide a value of its
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 strain. Therefore we can quote Hooke’s law in terms of
Extension (mm) stress and strain, rather than load and extension, and say
that stress is directly proportional to strain in the elastic
Figure 1.33 Load/extension graph for a spring range, i.e.
 1. Fundamentals 21

Stress ∝ strain or stress = (strain × a constant) so:

deformation (extension)
b) Now, strain ε =
stress original length
= a constant
strain Also, extension = 0.12 mm and the original
length = 200 mm.
This constant of proportionality will depend on the Then, substituting gives
material and is given the symbol E. Thus
0.12 mm
ε = = 0.0006.
200 mm
stress (σ )
=E (1.9)
strain (ε) stress 125 N mm−2
c) E= =
strain 0.0006
where E is known as the modulus of elasticity. Because = 208000 N mm−2 or 208 GN m−2
strain has no units, the modulus of elasticity has the same
units as stress. Modulus values tend to be very high; for
this reason GN m−2 or GPa are the preferred SI units.

Example 1.12 A, 10 mm diameter rivet holds

Key Point. The elastic modulus of a material may
three sheets of metal together and is loaded as shown
be taken as a measure of the stiffness of that material
in Figure 1.34. Find the shear stress in the rivet.
Also, the relationship between the shear stress (τ ) and
shear strain (γ ) is known as the modulus of rigidity
(G), i.e.
5 kN
10 kN
shear stress (τ )
Modulus of rigidity (G) = (1.10) 5 kN
shear strain (γ )

with units of GPa or GN m−2 10 mm

Figure 1.34 A rivet in double shear

Example 1.11 A rectangular steel bar 10 mm ×
16 mm × 200 mm long extends by 0.12 mm under
a tensile force of 20 kN. Find: We know that the rivet is in double shear.
a) the stress, So the area resisting shear

b) the strain and = 2 × the cross-sectional area

c) the elastic modulus, of the bar material. = 2π r 2 = 2π 52 = 157 mm2
tensile force 10000
a) Now the tensile stress = and shear stress = = 63.7 N mm−2
cross-sectional area 157
Also, tensile force = 20 kN = 20 × 103 N and = 63.7 MN m−2 .
cross-sectional area = 10 × 16 = 160 mm2 .
Remember, tensile loads act against the cross-
sectional area of the material. Note that when a rivet is in double shear, the area under
shear is multiplied by 2. With respect to the load, we
Then, substituting in the above formula we have:
know from Newton’s laws that to every action there is an
20000 N equal and opposite reaction, thus we only use the action
tensile stress (σ ) = σ = 125 N mm−2 or the reaction of a force in our calculations, not both.
160 mm2
Factor of safety: engineering structures, components
and materials need to be designed to cope with all
22 Part I

normal working stresses. The safety factor is used in and for fractional (n) partial restraint, the stress set up is
these materials to give a margin of safety and to take given by
account of a certain factor of ignorance. It may be
defined as the ratio of the ultimate stress to the working σ = (1 − n)Eαt (1.14)
stress, i.e.:

ultimate stress
factor of safety = (1.11)
working stress Example 1.13 Find the stress set up due to a
temperature rise of 80◦ C in an aluminium rod
Factors of safety vary in engineering design,
30 cm long, rigidly fixed at both ends. Take the
dependent on the structural sensitivity of the member
linear coefficient of expansion for aluminium as
under consideration. They are often around 2.0 but
α = 24 × 10−6 /◦ C and its modulus of elasticity
can be considerably higher for joints, fittings, castings
E = 80 GN m−2 .
and primary loadbearing static structures and somewhat
Then, first finding the unconstrained increase
lower for aircraft structures, where weight saving is
in length due to temperature rise and then using
essential for efficient structural design.
formula 1.13, we get:

1.5.4 Thermal stress and strain L = Lαt = (300)(24 × 10−6 )(80)

If a metal bar (Figure 1.35) is rigidly held at one end and = 0.576 mm
then subject to heat, causing a temperature rise, there
will be an unconstrained increase in length given by: and so strain

L = Lαt (1.12) compression 0.576

ε= = = 0.00192,
original length 300
where (t) or (t2 − t1 ) is the temperature change
(in ◦ C), L is the change (increase in this case) in length and from equation 1.13,
(in metres), L is the original length (in metres) and α is
the coefficient of linear expansion for the metal from σ = Eε = (80 × 103 )(0.00192)
which the bar is made.
= 153.6 MN m−2 .

Note the manipulation of units in this example!

Original
length
To assist you in tackling the problems in TYK 1.3
(below) and those in TYK 1.4, that follows the next
L LaΔt section in this chapter on compound bars, and also as
Length
after heating
a useful source of reference, Table 1.1 sets out some
useful properties of engineering metals.
Figure 1.35 Metal bar, rigidly supported at one end, subject
to heating

Test your knowledge 1.3

1) Define: a) tensile stress, b) shear stress,
Now, if the bar is totally constrained and so prevented
c) compressive stress.
from expanding or contracting, there will be stresses set
up in the bar as a result, i.e.: 2) State Hooke’s law and explain its relationship
to the elastic modulus.
Stress due to temperature change, with total
constraint 3) Define in detail the terms: a) elastic modulus,
b) shear modulus.
σ = Eε = Eαt (1.13)
 1. Fundamentals 23

Table 1.1 Some typical properties of engineering metals

Material Modulus of Shear Tensile Linear Mass density
elasticity E modulus G strength coefficient of (kg m−3 )
(GN m−2 ) (GN m−2 ) (MN m−2 ) thermal
expansion (α)
(×10−6 /C)
Aluminium alloy 70 26 390 24 2780
Brass 102 38 350 20 8350
Bronze 115 45 310 18 7650
Hard-drawn copper 120 44 270 18 8900
Magnesium 45 17 378 29 1790
Mild steel 207 80 480 12 7800
Stainless steel 200 73 650 11.7 8000
Titanium 107 40 550 9.5 4500

reinforced with steel bars, are able to share the best

attributes of the individual members that go to make
4) What is the engineering purpose of the factor
up the bars or columns. For example, in steel-reinforced
of safety?
concrete columns the steel is protected from corrosion
5) If the ultimate tensile stress at which failure and fire by being embedded in the concrete, while
occurs in a material is 550 MPa and a factor the concrete, which is very weak in tension, has pre-
of safety of 4 is to apply, what will be the tensioned steel cables to keep it in compression during
allowable working stress? service and so maintain the advantage of the concrete’s
good compressive strength.
6) A steel bar of length 20.0 cm and diameter
When a load is applied to a compound bar or
2 cm is subject to a compressive load of 40 kN,
compound component, it will be shared between the
which compresses the bar by 4.5 × 10−5 m.
individual materials from which the bar is made. Under
Determine a) the modulus of elasticity of this
differing loading and heating conditions the individual
steel and b) the extension under a tensile load
members of the bar will extend or contract together
of 20 kN.
(since they are securely fastened to one another) and so
7) A welded length of mild steel railway track is will have equal strains. However, if they have different
laid at 20◦ C. Determine the stress in the rails elastic moduli, they will have different stresses. These
at 2◦ C if all contraction is prevented. Take the two principles of load-sharing and equal strains can be
required values for α and the elastic modulus used in various ways to solve numerical engineering
for mild steel from Table 1.1. problems concerned with compound bars. We will
develop the techniques and, in so doing, produce one
or two useful formulae for the solution of problems
concerned with compound bars, through the series of
examples that follow.
1.6 Compound bars
Example 1.14 Five steel rods each with a diameter
A compound bar consists of two or more members of 30 mm reinforce a short concrete column 30 cm in
that are securely fastened at their ends. Some structural diameter (Figure 1.36). If the modulus of elasticity
components formed in this way, such as concrete
24 Part I

for the steel is 15 times that of the concrete, WM = σc Ac + σs As = (5 × 106 )(67151.54 × 10−6 )
determine the load that can be taken by the + (75 × 106 )(3534.29 × 10−6 ) = 600829.47 N or:
column if the stress in the column must not
exceed 5 MN m−2 . The total maximum load taken by the column
WM = 600.8 kN.

Note that we talk about a ‘short’ column to ensure

All steel rods the column is not subject to the added complication
have dia = 30 mm of bending as well as compression, as a result of
Column the imposed loads. The question of how short is
dia = 30 cm short? will be answered, when you study columns
and struts in Chapter 5.

Figure 1.36 Cross-section of steel rod reinforced con-

crete column 1.6.1 Equivalent modulus
A useful relationship that may be used in the solution of
compound bar problems is that known as the equivalent
Let the stresses in the steel and the concrete be σs modulus. This relationship may be formulated and
and σc , respectively, and As and Ac be their areas. expressed as follows.
Then, knowing that ε = σE and that the strains for First, by generalising the relationship for total load
the concrete and steel rods are equal, we may write we used in Example 1.14, i.e., from WM = σc Ac + σs As ,
that: we may write:
σs σ Eσ
= c and so, σs = s c . WT = σ (A1 + A2 + .......An )
Es Ec Ec
= σ1 A1 + σ2 A2 + ....... + σn An ,
Also, we are given that the ratio of the moduli
is 15, therefore σs = 15σc and, knowing that the
stress in the concrete σc  5MN m−2 , then σs = where σ is the stress in the equivalent single bar.
(15)(5) = 75 MN m−2 . Also, the total area of steel Dividing through by the strain ε, which will be common
rods for our compound bar where all components are of equal
length and securely attached to one another, we have:
5(π )(30)2
As = = 3534.29 mm2
4 σ
(A + A2 + .......... + An )
ε 1
and total area of column
σ σ σ
= 1 A1 + 2 A2 + .......... + n An
π(300)2 ε ε ε
= = 70685.83 mm2 ,
4
and
and so the area of the concrete
EE (A1 + A2 + .......An )
Ac = 70685.83 − 3534.29 = 67151.54 mm2 ,
= E1 A1 + E2 A2 + ....... + En An ,
then:
where EE is the equivalent or combined elastic modulus
Maximum load taken by column = load in of the single bar. So equivalent
W
concrete + load in steel and, from σ = ,
A
the maximum load taken by column E1 A1 + E2 A2 + ....... + En An
E=
A1 + A2 + ......... + An
 1. Fundamentals 25

or, we will use the formulae we have just found, together

 with some logical thinking, to solve the problem.
EA
EE =  (1.15)
A
Example 1.15 A heavy-duty electrical cable
Using the relationship
consists of four copper conductors, each 5 mm in
diameter, securely attached to a central mild steel
WT = σ (A1 + A2 + .......An ),
conductor, also 5 mm in diameter, that gives the
cable additional strength. Assuming the cable can
we find that the stress in the equivalent bar, subject to
W be treated as a compound bar, then:
an external load WT , is σ = T , and similarly from
A
a) Calculate the equivalent modulus for the cable,
the relationship
taking the values for the individual moduli for
σ its components from Table 1.1.
(A + A2 + .......... + An )
ε 1
σ σ σ b) Determine the common extension in an initial
= 1 A1 + 2 A2 + .......... + n An , 1.5 m length of the cable when subject to a
ε ε ε
tensile load of 5 kN.
after substitution of c) Determine the stresses in each of the conductors
W when subject to this 5 kN load.
σ = T
A
a) From formula 1.15 and Table 1.1,
and on rearrangement, we may express the strain in the 
EA
equivalent single bar as EE = 
A
ε=
WT x
 = .  
EE A L 4(120 × 109 × π/4 × 52 × 10−6 )
+(207 × 109 × π/4 × 52 × 10−6 )
=
stress π/4(5 × 52 )10−6
Also, from E = and formula 1.15 we get
strain (9424.778 + 4064.435)103
EE =
W (98.174)10−6
T  
A EA WT L EA = 137.4 × 109 N m2 ,
x =  A or  Ax =  A ;
L so EE = 137.4 GN m−2 .
therefore, b) There are a number of approaches we could
W L adopt to find the common extension in the 1.5 m
x = T length of the cable. We will find the equivalent
EA
stress
and, again from 1.15, we may write the relationship stress and then use E = to determine the
strain
in terms of the common change in length (x) for the equivalent strain and so the common extension.
equivalent single bar as: Then,
WT L
x=  (1.16) W 5000
EE A σ = T = = 50.93 MN m−2 .
A 98.174 × 10−6
The above formulae should be considered as useful Therefore, strain in the equivalent bar
additional tools in your armoury for solving engineering
problems concerned with compound bars. On the basis stress 50.93 × 106
of the information you have available about a problem = = = 0.371 mm
E 137.4 × 109
will depend which approach you adopt for its solution;
in many cases this will require the application of logic
rather than just the use of formulae. In the next example
26 Part I

Difference in so called “free acLΔt

and, since all strains will be equal, the common lengths” = acLΔt − asLΔt
cL
extension = strain × original length = 0.371 ×
1.5 = 0.556 mm. Copper

c) To find the stress in the copper and the mild Steel

steel cables we again use the relationship Copper
stress asLΔt
E = , so the stress in the copper =
strain cL
strain ×Ec = 0.371 × 10−3 × 120 × 109 =
44.52 MN m−2 Figure 1.37 Thermal expansion of a compound bar

and the stress in the steel = strain × Es =

0.371 × 10−3 × 207 × 109 = 76.8 MN m−2

length position, while the steel with the lower coefficient

1.6.2 Compound bars subject to of expansion will try to hold back the copper. In reality
temperature change an intermediate compromise position is achieved, as
indicated on the diagram by the centre line CL, whereby
We will now consider the effects of temperature change there is an effective compression of the copper from its
on compound bars. We have already considered the free expansion position and an effective extension of the
effects of temperature change on components made steel. From this situation and Newton’s third law, two
from a single material, when we considered thermal rules may be inferred:
stress and strain in section 1.5.4. With the material
rigidly fixed at one end (Figure 1.35) and having the Rule 1) The extension of the short member + the
other end free to expand or contract due to heating or compression of the long member = difference
cooling, we found that this change in length could be in the free lengths. From the situation shown
found using equation 1.12. We also found that if the in Figure 1.37, this difference in free lengths
component was held rigidly at both ends, to prevent is given as (αc − αs )tL.
completely any change in length due to temperature Rule 2) From Newton’s third law (to every action
change, stresses were set up within the component there is an equal and opposite reaction) we
that could be found using equation 1.13. Look back at may state that: The tensile force applied to the
Example 1.13 and see how we found the stress set up in short member by the long member is equal
a rigidly constrained aluminium rod that was subject to to the compressive force applied to the long
a temperature rise. member by the short member.
We can use the above argument and resulting
formulae when dealing with problems associated with Then, since force = stress × area or F = σ A and the
the heating or cooling of compound bars. Consider the forces in the two different materials of our compound
situation shown in Figure 1.37, where two copper bars bar are equal but opposite in magnitude, we may
and one steel bar are rigidly joined together to form a write that:
compound bar, subject to a temperature rise.
Imagine for a moment that all the expansion takes
place at the right-hand end of the bar as shown in F1 = F2 or that σ1 A1 = σ2 A2 ,
Figure 1.37. If the copper and steel were free to expand
separately, then, due to their different coefficients
of linear expansion, the copper components would where the suffices indicate the two different materials
lengthen more than the steel, to the positions shown for the members of our compound bar. Note that we are
by the hatched lines on the diagram. However, the equating forces, but the stress in each of the members
two different metals are rigidly secured to one another, may be different, dependent on their areas!
therefore they will be affected by the movement of one
on the other. The copper, with the higher coefficient of
expansion, will attempt to pull the steel up to its free σ1 A1 = σ2 A2 (1.17)
 1. Fundamentals 27

Example 1.16 A compound bar consists of two or

copper plates, each having a cross-section of 25 × 447σc = (18 − 12)10−6 (150) × 24840 × 109 .
10 mm, securely sandwiching a central mild steel
bar having the same cross-section as each of the Then the stress in the copper σc = 50.013 MN m−2
copper bars. Find the stresses set up in the steel and compressive.
copper when they are subject to a temperature rise So the stress in the steel 2σc = σs =
of 150◦ C. Take the values of the elastic modulus 100.026 MN m−2 tensile.
and coefficients of linear expansion for mild steel
and copper from Table 1.1. We conclude our short study of compound bars with
Now, from F = σ A, and because, from the data one final example that involves both the stresses due
given in the question, the area of the copper is twice to external force and the stresses due to temperature
the area of the steel, the stress in the steel σs = 2σc . change. However, in Example 1.17, the components
Knowing that the elastic modulus of the compound bar are physically separated (see
stress σ Figure 1.38) and loaded axially by, in this case, the nut
E= =  , being tightened against the washer, creating a tensile
strain x L
force in the bolt and a compressive force in the sleeve.
σL If this same system is heated, a compressive force will
where x is the change in length, then x = and,
E act on the sleeve and a tensile force will act on the bolt
using Es and Ec for the elastic moduli, we may write: as a result of the temperature rise.
Lσs
Extension of the steel due to σs = and
Es
Lσc Example 1.17 A mild steel bolt, washers and nut
compression of the copper due to σc = . From assembly secure and clamp an external aluminium
Ec
rule 1), the extension of the steel + compression protective sleeve, as shown in Figure 1.38.
of copper = difference in free lengths, and from
equation 1.12 for free expansion, i.e., L = Lαt,
200 mm
we may write the useful relationship that:
Lσs Lσ Aluminium sleeve internal
+ c = (αc − αs )tL (1.18) dia = 20 m
Es Ec
Aluminium

Then, knowing that σs = 2σc and after substitu- Steel bolt

tion, we get:
Aluminium sleeve
2Lσc Lσ
+ c = (αc − αs )tL Steel bolt
Es Ec Aluminium sleeve
or dia = 15 mm
external dia = 50 mm
(2Ec σc + Es σc )L
= (αc − αs )tL, Figure 1.38 Steel bolt and aluminium sleeve assembly
Es E c
where it can clearly be seen that L is a common The mild steel bolt and the aluminium sleeve
factor and can be eliminated from the equation. So have an active length of 200 mm, with diameters
we get as shown. Slack in the assembly is taken up by
(2Ec σc + Es σc ) adjusting the nut until finger tight. The pitch of the
= (αc − αs )t
Es E c single start thread on the bolt is 1.2 mm.

and then, after substituting our given values, we

have: a) If the nut is now tightened by one half of
a complete turn, find the stresses due to
(240σc + 207σc ) tightening and the change in length of the
= (18 − 12)10−6 (150)
(207)(120) × 109 aluminium sleeve.
28 Part I

or
b) If, from the hand tight position, the sleeve 130.62σa + 41.4σa
and bolt are both heated evenly from an initial = 0.6 × 10−3 ,
14490 × 109
temperature of 18◦ C up to 60◦ C, find the
stresses set up due to the temperature change. and so the stress in the aluminium sleeve σa =
50.54 MN m−2 and the stress in the mild steel
Take the values for the elastic moduli and
bolt σs = 9.33σc = 471.53 MN m−2 .
coefficients of linear expansion for mild steel and
aluminium from Table 1.1, as necessary. b) The ratios of the stresses for the sleeve and the
bolt will remain the same as in part a) since
a) There are a number of ways of tackling this the areas of the two metals remain the same.
problem. We will adapt the approach we used Thus we may again use a modified version of
in Example 1.16. Then, from rule 1), we know equation 1.18 where, in this case, we represent
that: the stress in the steel bolt in terms of its stress
ratio with that of the aluminium sleeve (as
The extension of the bolt + compression of before) and where the difference in the free
length, due to the greater expansion of the
the sleeve = the difference in the free lengths
aluminium sleeve compared with the steel bolt,
is given by the right-hand side of the equation,
where, for our example, the difference in the
free lengths is given by the axial advance of the L9.33σa Lσa
i.e. + = (αa − αs )tL. Again,
nut and for our single start thread this is simply: Es Ea
since in this case L is a common factor, we may
Thread pitch × number of turns write:
= 1.2 mm × 0.5 turn = 0.6 × 10−3 m. 9.33σa σa
+
207 × 10 9 70 × 109
Lσs Lσa
Then, from equation 1.18, + = 0.6 × = (24 − 12)10−6 (18 − 60),
Es Ea
10−3 m. We also know that the force in the
aluminium sleeve equals the force in the steel so the stress in the aluminium sleeve due to
bolt, as a result of the tightening of the nut, temperature change σa = 8.49 MN m−2 and the
and that, from equation 1.17, we may represent stress in the mild steel bolt due to temperature
this equality of the forces as σs As = σa Aa . So, change σs = (9.33)(8.49) = 79.21 MN m−2 .
π Now, if the nut had been tightened as in part
finding the area of the steel bolt as As = a) and then heat applied, the final stresses in
4
(15 × 10−3 )2 = 176.715 × 10−6 m2 and finding the components would have been found as
the area of the aluminium sleeve as Aa = follows.
π π The total stress in the aluminium sleeve
((50 × 10−3 )2 − (20 × 10−3 )2 ) = (2100 ×
4 4 would equal the stress due to tightening the nut
10−6 ) = 1649.34 × 10−6 m2 , we then find plus the stress due to the temperature rise, both
that: of these stresses being compressive. So we get
that:
176.715σs = 1649.34σa , so σs = 9.33σa .
Total stress in the aluminium sleeve σa
Then, substituting these values into the above = 50.54 MN m−2 + 8.49 MN m−2
relationship that we found from equation 1.18,
we have: = 59.03 MN m−2 compressive.

(0.2)(9.33σa ) (0.2)(σa )
+ = 0.6 × 10−3 m The stress in the mild steel bolt would equal the
207 × 109 70 × 109 stress due to tightening the nut plus the stress
 1. Fundamentals 29

due to the temperature rise. In this case both of

these stresses are tensile. So we get that: 25 mm External dia
of steel tube
Total stress in the mild steel bolt σs S
20 mm
Internal dia
t S of steel tube
−2 −2 t
= 471.53 MN m + 79.21 MN m e
e Copper e
l rod e
−2 Steel jaws l
= 550.74 MN m tensile.
t t
u u
b b
e e
18 mm Diameter of
copper rod

Test your knowledge 1.4

Figure 1.39 Tube and rod assembly held rigidly
1) A cable consists of four aluminium rods, each
between steel jaws
6 mm in diameter, all securely attached to three
central stainless steel strengthening rods, each 4) Find, for the mild steel tube and copper rod
of which is also 6 mm in diameter. assembly of question 3:
a) Calculate the equivalent modulus for a) the stress in the steel tube and in the
the cable, taking moduli values for the copper rod resulting from the steel jaws
individual materials of the cable from imparting a uniaxial load of 50 kN down-
Table 1.1. wards onto the rod and tube assembly;
b) Using the common modulus or otherwise, b) the total stress in the steel tube and the
determine the common extension in an copper rod that results from the combined
initial 2.0 m length of the cable when stresses due to heating by 200◦ C and due
subject to a tensile load of 25 kN. to the applied uniaxial 50 kN load.
2) A short steel-reinforced concrete column has
a cross-section of 400 × 300 mm and a total
cross-sectional area of reinforcing steel of
6000 mm2 . Calculate the maximum load the
1.7 Poisson’s ratio and
column can carry if the compressive stress in
the steel is not to exceed 240 MN m−2 . Take two-dimensional loading
the ratio of the modulus of the steel to that of
the concrete as 12:1. You may have already, from your previous work, met
the definition of Poisson’s ratio. Here we review and
3) A mild steel tube, 25 mm external diameter
define Poisson’s ratio, and relate it to simple stress
and 20 mm internal diameter, encloses a
and strain in two dimensions. Later, in Chapter 7,
copper rod 18 mm in diameter and is rigidly
when we discuss complex stress and strain, we will
held in position vertically between two steel-
consider the relationship between Poisson’s ratio and
plated jaws (Figure 1.39). If, at its initial
three-dimensional loading. Poisson’s ratio gives the
temperature, the rod and tube assembly is
relationship between the lateral and axial strain for a
rigidly held by the jaws but stress free, find
solid under load, provided the solid is only subject to
the stress in both the rod and the tube when
loads within its elastic range. It is expressed as:
the assembly is subject to an increase in
temperature of 200◦ C. Take the values of the Lateral strain
moduli and coefficients of linear expansion Poisson’s ratio (ν) = − (1.19)
Axial strain
for the mild steel and the copper from
Table 1.1. The minus sign results from the convention that
compressive strains are negative and tensile strains
30 Part I

are positive. Since Poisson’s ratio always relates a ratio for a variety of materials. Note that for most metals,
tensile strain to a compressive strain, then the laws of when there is no other available information, Poisson’s
arithmetic always produce a minus sign. ratio may be taken as 0.3.
For a three-dimensional solid, such as a bar subject to
a tensile load (Figure 1.40), the lateral strain represents Example 1.18 A flat metal plate subject to an axial
a decrease in width (negative lateral strain) and the force extends by 0.09 mm in the direction of the
axial strain represents elongation (positive longitudinal force, as shown in Figure 1.41.
strain).
50 mm
Rigid support
Extension
F F
Reduced
width Tensile load
0.09 mm
300 mm
Original length
Figure 1.41 Flat plate subject to axial force
Figure 1.40 A bar subject to a tensile load, showing resulting
strains Find the change in width of the metal plate, if
Poisson’s ratio for the metal is 0.33.
If this same bar were subject to a compressive axial We can find the axial (longitudinal) strain from
load there would be a subsequent reduction in length, the dimensions given in Figure 1.41 and the rela-
with a corresponding increase in width extension
tionship Longitudinal strain = =
original length
Key Point. By convention, tensile strain is 0.09
considered to be positive and compressive strain = 0.0003; also, from equation 1.19, the
300
negative lateral strain = Poisson’s ratio × longitudinal
strain, so lateral strain = (0.33)(0.0003) =
In tables it is normal to show only the magnitudes of the 0.000099. Then, from equation 1.7, lateral strain =
strains considered, so tabulated values of Poisson’s ratio change in width (deformation)
are positive. Table 1.2 shows typical values of Poisson’s , so:
original width
Change in width = (0.000099)(50) =
Table 1.2 Typical values of Poisson’s ratio for 0.00495 mm.
a variety of materials
Material Poisson’s ratio
1.7.1 Poisson’s ratio in two dimensions
Aluminium 0.33
A two-dimensional stress system is one in which all the
Manganese bronze 0.34 stresses lie within one plane, such as the plane of this
Cast iron 0.2–0.3 paper, the xy plane. Consider the flat plate (Figure 1.42)
under the action of two separate stresses, σx in the XX
Concrete (non-reinforced) 0.2–0.3 direction (Figure 1.42a) and σy in the YY (Figure 1.42b)
direction.
Marble 0.2–0.3
Figure 1.42c shows the result of combining these
Nickel 0.31 two separate stresses. Then, using equation 1.19 for the
elastic modulus and the definitions of Poisson’s ratio, it
Nylon 0.4 can be shown that in the XX direction:
Rubber 0.4–0.5 σ
the strain due to σx (Figure 1.42a) acting alone = x
E
Steel 0.27–0.3 (tensile) and the strain due to σy (Figure 1.42b) acting
σ
Titanium 0.33 alone = ν x (compressive). Remembering the sign
E
convention for stresses, i.e., that tensile stresses are
Wrought iron 0.3
positive and compressive stresses are negative, we may
 1. Fundamentals 31

(a) (b) sy (c) sy

Y Y Y

sx sx sx sx

X X X X X X

Y Y Y
sy sy

Figure 1.42 Flat plate under the action of two separate stresses and combined stresses

combine these two results (Figure 1.42c) to give the

strain due to both σx and σy acting together, i.e.:

The combined strain in the XX direction 9 kN

m
m
3
σ σy
εx = x − ν (1.20)
E E 12 kN

A similar result may be shown for the strains due to

both σx and σy acting together in the YY direction
(Figure 1.42c), i.e.:

The combined strain in the YY direction

σy σ
εy = −ν x (1.21)
m

E E
m
0
20

m
m

Example 1.19 If the plate loaded as shown in

0
10

Figure 1.43 is made from a steel with ν = 0.3 and 9 kN

E = 205 GPa, determine the changes in dimension
in both the x and y directions. Figure 1.43 Plate loaded in two dimensions
In the x direction the plate is subject to a 12 kN
load acting over an area of 600 mm2 . Thus the stress
in the x direction = L/A = 20 N mm−2 . Similarly,
the stress in the y direction = 9000/300 N mm−2 =
So change in dimension in the x direction is an
30 N mm−2 .
extension = 0.00537 mm.
Then, from equation 1.20, the total combined
Similarly, from equation 1.21, the total combined
strain in the x direction is:
strain in the y direction is:
20 − 0.3(30) N mm−2
εx = = 5.37 × 10−5 , 30 − 0.3(20) N mm−2
205 × 103 N mm−2 εy = = 1.17 × 10−4 ,
205 × 103 N mm−2
and since strain = change in length (dimension)/ and so the change in length
original length, then:
= (1.17 × 10−4 ) × (200) mm = 0.0234 mm.
Change in length = strain × original length
So change in dimension in the y direction is an
= (5.37 × 10 − 5) × (100) mm = 0.00537 mm. extension = 0.0234 mm.
32 Part I

We started by explaining the concept of “force”

Test your knowledge 1.5 and how it was defined using Newton’s second law.
You should appreciate that force is a vector quantity
1. A metal bar 250 mm long has a rectangular
that has both magnitude and direction as well as a
cross-section of 60 mm × 25 mm. It is
point of application. We then went on to look at
subjected to an axial tensile force of 60 kN.
the vector representation and combination of forces,
Find the change in dimensions if the metal has
by first looking at how we add up two vectors
an elastic modulus E = 200 GPa and Poisson’s
using the parallelogram and triangle laws. We defined
ratio is 0.3.
concurrency, the equilibrant and resultant of force
2. A rectangular steel plate 200 mm long and systems and showed how to solve concurrent force
50 mm wide is subject to a tensile load along systems with more than two forces by using the polygon
its length. If the width of the plate contracts of forces method. You were then able to check your
by 0.005 mm, find the change in length. Take understanding of the graphical solution of force systems
Poisson’s ratio for the steel as 0.28. by completing the questions set in TYK 1.1.
The resolution of coplanar force systems was then
3. A flat aluminium plate is acted on by mutually
looked at in some detail, with both concurrent and
perpendicular stresses σ1 and σ2 as shown in
non-concurrent systems being considered, also the fact
Figure 1.44.
that when resolving non-concurrent force systems, the
s2
single resultant force is always accompanied by a
turning moment. The method of tabulating values to
find total vertical and horizontal components of the
forces and turning moments within the system was
also explained. The principle of transmissibility and
s1 s1 Varignon’s theorem were also covered. You may not
have met either of these concepts before; however, they
are useful tools for solving problems concerned with
non-concurrent coplanar force systems and well worth
knowing. You were then able to assess your ability
s2 to tackle problems concerned with force systems by
completing the questions in TYK 1.2.
Figure 1.44 Figure for TYK 1.5 question 3 In section 1.5 you were reintroduced to elements of
simple stress and strain, many of which you will already
The corresponding strains resulting from these be familiar with, including the definitions for tensile
stresses are ε1 = 4.2 × 10−4 and ε2 = 9.0 × and shear stress and strain, the elastic modulus and
10−5 . Find the values of the stress if E shear modulus. A brief introduction to one-dimensional
for aluminium = 70 GPa and the value of thermal stress and strain also formed part of this section.
Poisson’s ratio is 0.33. Again, an assessment of the knowledge and application
you required at this stage was provided by the questions
set in TYK 1.3.
Section 1.6 provided you with a fairly comprehensive
introduction to the analysis of compound bars under
1.8 Chapter summary varying conditions. In the first part of the section
you considered compound bars subject to simple axial
The aim of this chapter has been to review and revise compressive and tensile loads and found the stresses
some of the basic concepts that will be needed to aid in the components of the bar, as well as establishing
your understanding of the topics concerned with the common stresses and strains, using, among other
mechanics of materials that follow in the remaining techniques, the concept of the equivalent modulus. You
chapters of Part I. Your familiarity, or otherwise, with next considered the stresses set up in compound bars
these topics will depend on your background, so in order that had been subject to temperature change, using
to assess your understanding several TYK exercises rule 1 and rule 2. You should commit these two rules to
have been provided, which you should be able to memory and fully understand their use as demonstrated
complete without too much difficulty. in the three rather lengthy examples given in the section.
 1. Fundamentals 33

Finally, you should not only be able to determine the strains vary according to the axes used in the plane.
magnitude of the stresses set up as a result of combined This section has been included as a precursor to the
external loading and heating, but also be able to decide study of three-dimensional stress and strain that you
on the nature of the forces that act on the individual will meet in Chapter 7. Again, you can assess your own
members of the bar, i.e., whether the members tended to understanding of the concepts discussed in this section
be compressed or extended. Being able to successfully by attempting the questions given in TYK 1.5.
complete the questions in TYK 1.4 will show that The first of the Essential Mathematics topics (Vectors
you have clearly understood the subject matter in this and Vector Operations) is given on the book’s website
section. These resumés have been included to provide the
Finally, in section 1.7 you were introduced to necessary mathematical background you may need
Poisson’s ratio and its application to two-dimensional to apply to specific areas of the science, as already
loading. You should note how the formulae for combined mentioned in the introduction to the book.