COVENANT UNIVERSITY, OTA.

College of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT

EXPERIMENT 1: CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTIC

Objective

To determine the characteristics of a centrifugal pump.

Method

By measurement of the pump head, discharge and power characteristics at

varying speeds.

Equipment

In order to complete the demonstration we need a number of pieces of equipment

• The Hydraulics Bench, which provides one of the two pumps used during this
experiment, and allows the volume flow rate to be measured by timed volume
collection
• The Fl-27 Centrifugal Pump Test Accessory.
• A stopwatch to allow us to determine the flow rate of water.

Technical Data

The following dimensions from the equipment are used in the appropriate
calculations. If required these values may be checked as part of the experimental
procedure and replaced with your own measurements.

1
Head Correction Values:

Datum to manifold gauge: hd= O.960m

Datum to FI-27 outlet gauge: hd=

O.170mDatum to Fl-27 inlet gauge: hd=

O.020m

Datum to Bench pump inlet: hd= O.240m

Theory

In this type of pump (Fig. 1), the fluid is drawn into the centre of a rotating
impeller and is thrown outwards by centrifugal action. As a result of the high
speed of rotation, the liquid acquires a high kinetic energy. The pressure
difference between the suction and delivery sides arises from the conversion of
this kinetic energy into pressure energy.

The centrifugal pump is a radial flow rotodynamic machine, wherein fluid enters the
rotor or impeller at one radius and leaves at a larger radius. In sodoing, changes in
kinetic, potential and pressure energy occur, and any understanding of pump
behaviour and performance assessment requires measurement or calculation of these
quantities.

2
The general relationship between the various forms of energy, based on the 1st
Law of
Thermodynamics applied to a unit mass of fluid flowing through a 'cont.rol volume'
(such as the pump itself) is expressed as .

- Ws= d(v2/2) + g.dz + +F (1)

where - Ws is the mechanical shaft work performed on the fluid, d(v2/2) is the
change in kinetic energy of the fluid, g.dzis the change in potential energy of the
fluid, F is the frictional energy loss as heat to the surroundings or in heating the

fluid itself as it travels from inlet to outlet and is the change in pressure
energy, where vol is the volume per unit mass of the fluid (for an incompressible

fluid of constant density p, this term is equal to or ((P2 –P1)/ρ where

P2refers to the pump discharge outlet and P1to the pump inlet).

The first three terms of the right hand side represent the useful work, Wo, i.e.

Wo = ( - )/2 + g(Z2 –Z1) + (P2 –P1)/ρ

(2) Where subscript 2 refers to the pump outlet and subscript 1 to the inlet.

The term Wo represents the actual work performed in changing the energy stages
of a unit mass of the fluid. This may alternatively be expressed as the total
dynamic head, H, of the pump, by converting the units from work per unit mass
to head expressed as a length, which involves dividing by the acceleration per
unit mass, g

H=( - )/2g + (Z2 –Z1) + (P2 –P1)/ρg (3)

On this apparatus the pipe diameters are similar, and so, from continuity
equation, the velocity is constant i.e. V2 =V1 and we can assume that the
( - )/2g term is insignificant, hence:

H = 0 + (Z2 –Z1) + (P2 –P1)/ρg (4)

3
 '

The gauges measure the inlet and outlet pressures in terms of a head, h, where h
=p/pg, giving

H = (Z2 –Z1) + h2 –h1 (5)

The relative vertical positions of the inlet and the outlet arerepresented by the
(Z2– Z1) term. Each head measurement is at a different relative vertical position.
The positions are therefore taken relative to a datum position, the horizontal
plane running through the centre of the F 1-27 pump impeller. Each position' is
given a datum head correction factor, hd, as the examples shown on the diagram
below:

The relative vertical positions of a pump inlet and outlet will therefore be

hd(outlet) – hd(inlet) (6)

The relative vertical distance between the inlet and outlet may then be expressed
as a head difference, Hd

Hd = (Z2 –Z1) = hd(outlet) – hd (inlet) (7)

Substituting this into equation (5) finally gives the head generated across the
pump

H = Hd + h2 –h1(8)

4
 The datum head correction factor for each measurement position can be found in
the Technical Data section of this experiment. If the pump support is not
positioned on the same base level as the hydraulics bench, these figures will
need adjusting accordingly. The basic terms used to define, and therefore
measure, pump performance include

i)
discharge
ii) head
iii) power input and efficiencies

i) Discharge Qt

The discharge (or flow rate, or capacity) of a pump is the volume of fluid
pumped per unit time.

Discharge Qt =

ii) Head H

The term 'head' refers to the elevation of a free surface of water above or below
a reference datum. The useful work generated by the pump may be given in
terms of a head, as shown earlier in this section.

iii) Power Input and Efficiencies

The useful power output of the pump, Wo, is the power consumed by the fluid in producing
a total head H at a discharge rate Qtand is given by equation (2):

However, the fluid friction losses in the pump itself require a hydraulic

efficiency, ηh. to be defined:

ηh = X100%

5
 Further, the mechanical losses in the bearings etc. require a mechanical
efficiency, 11m, to be defined:

ηm = X 100%

The Centrifugal Pump Unit does not include the direct measurement of
mechanicalpower, but instead measures electrical voltage, Vi, and current, Ii, to
the motor. This allows the electrical power to the pump motor, Wi, to be
calculated as

Wi= Aix Ii.

A further efficiency is therefore required, expressing the electro-mechanical

losses in the motor, ηe:

ηe = X 100%

The overall efficiency η is thus

η= X 100%

It will also be seenthat η = ηh .ηm .ηe

Single Pump Operation :

The best way to describe the characteristics of a Centrifugal Pump is through the
use of a Head / Flow characteristic curve.The curve shows the typical
interrelation of Total Head H (plotted on y- axis) and Volume Flowrate Qt
(plotted on x- axis) for a typical pump. The curves can be plotted fordifferent
speeds on the same axis.

Note that pump speeds are measured in Hz. A frequency setting of 50 Hz on the
inverter corresponds to a pump speed of 2800 RPM i.e. multiply inverter setting
(Hz) by 56 to obtain pump speed in RPM.

6
The pump can be operated at reduced speed to show the effect on the
performance.
However, the performance of a centrifugal pump reduces dramatically with
speed and changes in readings will be extremely small when operating below
approximately (30 Hz). For this reason results are recommended between 50 Hz
and 30 Hz. The pump can be operated at lower speeds if required but
performance will be negligible.

Other characteristic curves used to demonstrate the performance of a centrifugal

pump include Pump Power Input against Volume Flowrate and Overall
Efficiency against Volume Flowrate. These can also be plotted for different
pump speeds on the same axes.

Series Pump Operation

Should the head of a single pump not be sufficient for an application, pumps can
be combined in series to obtain an increase in head at the same flowrate as-the
single pump.

Figure 2: Series pumps operation

As shown in figure 2, when two pumps having similar head-flowrate

characteristics are operated in series the combined pump head-flowrate curve is
obtained by adding the heads of the single pump curves at the same flowrate. In
practice the theoretical combined head is not quite achieved because' of
additional losses in the fittings between the two pumps.

7
Parallel Pump Operation

Should the flowrate of a single pump not be sufficient for an application, pumps
canbe combined in parallel to obtain an increase in flowrate at the same head as
the single pump.

Figure 3: Parallel pumps operation

As shown in figure 3, when two pumps having similar head-flow rate

characteristics are operated in parallel the combined pump head-flowrate curve
is obtained by adding the flowrates of the single pump curves at the same head.
In practice the theoretical combined flowrate is not quite achieved because of
additional losses in the fittings between the two pumps.

Procedure - Equipment Set Up

Three test configurations are available; single pump operation (variable speed),
two pumps in series (fixed speed) and two pumps in parallel (fixed speed)

To set up these demonstrations we need to modify the configurations of the

flexible tubing as shown below.

. '. ·

8
• Single Pump Operation

For single pump operation the inlet of the Fl-27 (side connection on pump)
should be connected to the sump drain valve on the Fl-l0 hydraulics bench,
which must be fully opened while performing the experiment. The outlet on top
of the pump should be connected to the discharge manifold.

The gauges used for measurement of inlet and outlet heads for this experiment
are the FI27 inlet gauge, hi, and the Fl-27 outlet gauge, ho.

• SeriesPump Operation

For series pump operation the inlet of the Fl-27 (side connection on pump)
should be connected to the water outlet on the hydraulics bench, using the screw
on adapter supplied. The outlet on top of the pump should be connected to the
discharge manifold.
.

The gauge used for measurement of outlet head is the Fl-27 outlet gauge, ho. The
inlet to the hydraulics bench pump is assumed to be at atmospheric: pressure,

9
modified by the datum head correction factor given in the Technical' Data
section. .

• Parallel Pump Operation

For parallel pump operation the inlet of the Fl-27 (side connection on pump)
should be connected to the sump drain valve on the hydraulics bench, which
must be fully opened while performing the experiment. The outlet on top of the
pump should be connected to the supplied Tee connector. The outlet from the
hydraulics bench pump should also be connected to the Tee connector using the
screw on adapter supplied. Finally the remaining outlet on the Tee connector
should be connected to the discharge manifold.

The gauges used for measurement of inlet and outlet heads for this experiment are
the Fl27 inlet gauge, hi (both pumps are assumed to be at similar inlet heads), and
the discharge manifold gauge, hm.

Procedure - Taking a Set of Results

• Single Pump Operation

Ensure that the Fl-27 has been connected to the FI-I0 as shown in the
appropriate diagram above for single pump operation. Open the hydraulics

10
bench sump drain valve and close the discharge control valve on the Fl-27'
discharge control manifold. Switch on the power to the Fl-27 inverter.

Press the 'RUN' key Qn. the inverter.

Use the inverter Up key to set the motor speed to the maximum speed of 50Hz
as indicated on the inverter display. Open the discharge control valve fully.

Take a set of readings at a range ofhead values. Vary the .head using the
discharge control valve, and include data. for zero flow rate with .the valve fully
closed. The readings for inlet flow to the pump should be taken from the Fl-27
pump inlet gauge. The readings for the pump output should be taken from the
FI-27 pump outlet gauge. Perform a timed volumecollection at each head value,
to find the flow rate.

Readings for the pump speed (Hz) and Motor Input Power (kW) should be taken
from the inverter at each valve setting as follows:

The pump speed is normally displayed (Hz). 'Hz,' LED is illuminated on

the display.

Press the FUNC/DATA key repeatedly (5 times) to display the Motor Output
Power (kW), 'kW' LED blinks continuously on the display. I

Press the FUNC/DATA twice to display the pump speed (Hz) again, 'Hz '
is illuminated on the display.

Repeat the above procedure at pump speeds of 45Hz, 40Hz, 35Hz and 30Hz.

Repeat the above procedure with the inverter set to 50Hz and the discharge fully
open but take a set of readings with different settings of the sump drain valve
from fully-open to fully-closed. This will show the effect of .suction losses on
the performance of the pump.

• Series Pump Operation

11
Ensure that the F J - 27 has been connected to the F1-10 as shown in the
appropriate diagram above for series operation. Close the sump valve and close
the control valve on the FI-I0 hydraulics bench. Close the discharge control
valve on the discharge control manifold. Switch on the Fl-I0 pump. Open the F
1-10 control valve fully. Switch on the power to the Fl-27 inverter and set the
motor speed to 50Hz. Open the discharge control valve fully and allow the
system to fully prime.

Take a set of readings at a range of head values, varying the head using
thedischarge control valve, and including data for zero flow rate, with the
control valve fully closed. Record the inlet and outlet heads. Perform a timed
volumecollection at each head value, to find the flow rate.

The outlet head is measured using the Fl-27 pump outlet gauge. The inlet head
is taken as the head in the sump tank. of .the hydraulics bench, and isassumed to
be at ambient pressure (zero relative to the .outlet). This must still be modified
by the datum head correction .factor given in the Technical Data section, to
account for the difference in height between the sump tank water level and the
hydraulics bench pump inlet.

When the FI-27 is used in series with the pump on FI-l0, the inverter on FI- 27
should be set to 50 Hz to ensure that the two pumps have asimilar performance
(the pump fitted to a 60 Hz version of the FI-I0 Hydraulics Bench incorporates
a modified impeller that gives similar performance to the SO Hz pump).

• Parallel Pump Operation

Ensure that the Fl-27 has been connected to the Fl-10 as shown in the
appropriate diagram above for parallel operation. Open the sump valve and
close the control valve on the FI-I0 hydraulics bench. Close the discharge
control valve on the discharge control manifold. Switch on the FI-I0 pump.
Open the FI-l0 control valve fully. Switch on the power to the Fl-27 inverter
and set the motor speed to 50Hz. Open the discharge control valve fully and
allow the system to fully prime.

12
Take a set of readings at a range of head values, varying the head using the
discharge control valve, and include data for zero flow rate with the control
valve fully closed.

Record the inlet and outlet heads at each head value. The inlet head is assumed
to be similar for both pumps, and is measured using the FI-27 pump inlet
gauge. The outlet head is measured using the discharge manifold gauge. At low
flow rates (below l.4 litre/sec.), flow should be measured, by timed volume
collection in the volumetric tank. At high flow rates (1.4 litre/sec. and above),
it maybe necessary to use the orifice plate supplied to measure the flow rate.
Remove the sealing ball and weight from the tank, and fit the plate into the
drain hole. ,

At each pump setting, allow the water level in the tank to stabilise (this may
take several minutes). Then read the value from the upper scale on the bench
sight glass. This reading in litres may be used to find the actual flow rate by
referring to the following table (the lower scale on the F 1-10 should not be
used).

13
14
 Volum Time Outlet Datum Flow
e to Head Head Rate
Motor Inlet Outlet Pump Total Pump
Watof e Collect Inlet Head Correction Correction
Speed r Head Correction Head Power Head Power
hd hd Hd Input Qt Outpu
t
N V t o or hi (m) h0or hm (m) (m) Wi (m3/s) H Ws
Hz (m3) (sec) (m (m (Watts) (m (Watt
Water) Water) Water)

..

..
' .
"

. , .

- -.

.- - ----
.-<--- .••

.. - .. - .. -
- . .
- _ - . - --

Basic pump characteristics observation sheet

SINGLE PUMP

TOTAL H Power Power

datum (m) S. in out
C (I) Efficiency
Inlet outlet corr.
Hz corr. corr. Factor P S. P S. P
(Amp) ἡ (%)
hm ho hi V t Qv Factor Factor
hd hd Hd Wi Wo
(l) (s) (l/s) (m) (m) (m)
H (watts) (watts)
(mH2O) (mH2O) (mH2O)

30
30
30
30
30

15
35
35
35
35
35
40
40
40
40
40
45
45
45
45
45
50
50
50
50
50

SERIES PUMP

TOTAL H
datum (m)
Inlet outlet corr.
SERIES.
Hz corr. corr. Factor
V t Qv Pump
hm ho hi Factor Factor
(mH2O) (mH2O) (mH2O) (l) (s) (l/s) hd (m) hd (m) Hd (m) H (m)
50
50
50
50
50

16
 PARALLEL PUMP

TOTAL H
Hz Inlet outlet datum (m)
corr. corr. corr. Parallel.
hm ho hi V t Qv Factor Factor Factor Pump
(mH2O) (mH2O) (mH2O) (l) (s) (l/s) hd (m) hd (m) Hd (m) H (m)
50
50
50
50
50

Total Head (m) Parallel Pump may be evaluated by: H=Hd + (hm-hi) Total Head (m) Series Pump
may be evaluated by: H=Hd + ho
Total Head (m) Single Pump may be evaluated by: H=Hd + (ho-hi)
Pump power(watt) output may be evaluated by : Wo = H*Q*ῤ*g
Pump efficiency (%) may be evaluated by : n = Wo/Wi
Take Voltage as 240volts

GRAPHS TO PLOT ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1. Total Head (m) against volumetric flow rates Qv (l/s) for 50Hz,
45Hz, 40Hz, 35Hz and 30Hz flow Characteristics Single Pump (top to Bottom
respectively).

2. Pump input power (Wi) kw or Watt against volumetric flow

rates ) for 50Hz, 45Hz, 40Hz, 35Hz and 30Hz flow Characteristics Single
Pump (top to Bottom respectively).

3. Overall efficiency (%) against volumetric flow rates ) for 50Hz,

45Hz, 40Hz, 35Hz and 30Hz flow Characteristics Single Pump (Top to
Bottom respectively).

4. Total Head (m) against volumetric flow rates Qv l/s) at 50Hz,

for series pump arrangement only.

5. Total Head (m) against Volumetric flow rates Qv ml/s) at 50Hz,

for parallel pump arrangement only.

17
Application of Theory

By comparing the curves of Head against Flowrate and Overall Efficiency against
Flowrate determine the optimum operating point of the pump at each speed tested.

What is the effect of inlet (suction) head on the performance of the pump?

Do we get double the head for two pumps in series? Do we get double the flow
rate for two pumps in parallel? Give reasons for any differences observed
between the theoretical head and the head obtained.

What is the effect of change in kinetic energy-of the fluid if the inlet and outlet
pipe diameters change from 25mm to 32mm? .

18
 COVENANT UNIVERSITY, OTA.
College of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT

. EXPERIMENT 2: BATCH REACTOR

ISOTHERMAL AND IDEAL BATCH REACTION EXPERIMENT

INTRODUCTION:
There are four major types of reactors encountered by Chemical Engineers
among others':
BATCH REACTOR, CSTR, PACKED OR FIXED BED REACTOR and
TUBULAR!
PLUG-FLOW REACTORS. The concern of this experiment is the BATCH
REACTOR. It is a type of reaction which is widely used in pharmaceutical
industries as well as other sensitive industries. It is technically most appropriate
for slow reactions where high residence time is usually required.
Batch reactors are usually tanks provided with agitation mechanism to ensure
homogeneity of phases; uniform mixing and heat transfer is ensured through
coils or external jacket.
The batch reactor study under this experiment uses conductivity data instead of
titration which is inexact and error-prone, in determining the conversions.
. AIM OF EXPERIMENT:
The first experiment involves the following:
1. Determination of reaction rate' constant under isothermal
conditions of 30°C for given reactants.
2. Determination of reaction rate constant under isothermal
conditions of 37°C for given reactants.
5.Determination of activation energy for the reaction studied in 1 and
2 above using Arrhenius equation.

19
 The second experiment involves the following:
1.Determination of the effect of change 111 concentration on the rate of
reaction under specified modification as stated below;
a) Temperature: 30°C, NaOH: O.IM, CH3COOC2Hs: O.IM.
b) Temperature: 30°C NaOH: O.05M, CH3COOC2Hs: O.IM.
c) Temperature: 30°C, NaOH: O.1M, CH3COOC2Hs: O.02M.

UNIT SETTING
 The batch reactor should be firmly positioned on the console. This must
have been done for students)

 Hot water circulator and feed tanks are not required for batch reactor
experiment. DO
NOT HANDLE.
 Plug the temperature sensor and conductivity sensor supplied with CEX into
the appropriate sockets on the side of the control console. Then, insert the
sensors through the appropriate glands in the lid of the reactor -check that the
sensors are fully immersed, than tighten the glands.
 Connect to the appropriate electricity supply.
 For a temperature at below ambient temperature will require chiller unit To
connect the chiller unit, the following are the steps:
-Through the reactor lid, the feed and return loses' for the chiller are connected to
the heating coil within the reactor
-The plug for the chiller solenoid valve connects to the socket on the front of the
control console
Switch' on to' "CHILL"on the control console for experiment involving
temperature below room temperature
 Ensure that the temperature and conductivity sensors are situated well below
the liquid surface inside the reactor.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The chosen reaction for experiment one is saponification of Ethyl Acetate using
Sodium

20
 Hydroxide solution.
. .
Prepare 1 L of Ethyl Acetate using the procedure below:

Step 1: measure 9.80 ml of ethyl acetate

concentrate. Step 2:.add 900ml of distilled water
and shake/mix vigorously Step 3: top up with
distilled water to 1 L mark.
Step 4: that which results is 0.lm solution of Ethyl Acetate

- Prepare 1L NaOH solution using the following steps:

 Measure 4g of NaOH and add into 960ml of distilled water.

 Mix well and top up to lL mark .

PART l A EXPERIMENT
• Measure out 500cm3of NaOH and Ethyl Acetate solutions indifferent containers.

• Using 300C, adjust the temperature controller to set point.

• Switch the chill/ Heat bath to HEAT on the console

• Charge the batch reactor with 0.5 litres of sodium hydroxide solution. [ note
that NaOH is our interest reactant]

• Switch on the reactor agitator and adjust the speed to 7.0

• Collect conductivity data from console board at interval of 45 seconds until a

. .

stable/ steady condition is reacted in the reactor [usually between 30-60 min]

• Charge the batch reactor with 0.5 litres of CH3COOC2HS

A TABLE OF VALUES OF CONDUCTIVITY AND TIME SHOULD BE

OBTAINED.

RESULT INTERPRETATION
The conductivity valuemust be interpreted and translated into NaoH conversion and
CH3COO Na production;

21
. PART IB EXPERIMENT: REPEAT ABOVE EXPERIMENT USING 37°C

Conversion of conductivity values into concentrations and conversion degrees can be

found next page:
From the obtained data,
• Plot a concentration of NaOH vs. time graph for each experiment.
• Determine, using graphical method,the specific rate constants for each
experiment.
• Determine the activation energy of the reaction.

On conclusion of the experiment, the set ofreadings of conductivitywith time will need
to be transferred to the computer as two columns of data.
Now enter the following known constants from the experiment using the
Nomenclaturelist on next two pages. Ensure use of correct units.

22
23
24
25
26
EXPERIMENT II: CONCENTRATION CHANGE EFFECT

Repeat the experiment as above under the conditions given below:

A. Temperature of 35°c; NaOH solution of 0.l5M and CH3COOEt of 0.lM
B. Temperature of 35°c; NaOH solution of 0.l5M and CH3COOEt of 0.lM
C. Temperature of 35°c; NaOH solution of 0.l5M and CH3COOEt of 0.05M

NB: Keep in mind that the rate law general form is:
r= K[A]n[B]m

Using your obtained data:

• In IIA &lIB, to determine the order of reaction with respect to A
• In IIA &IIC, to determine the order of reaction with respect to B
• Verify the degree of agreement of the specific reaction rate constant at 35°c
obtained now to that in experiment I
• Given the following concentration values as below, calculate, using your
obtained rate law, the rate of reaction:
a) NaOH: 0.25M &CH3COOEt: 0.l5M
b) NaOH: 0.025M &CH3COOEt: 0.0I5M

27
 COVENANT UNIVERSITY, OTA.
College of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT

EXPERIMENT 3: SEDIMENTATION

AIM: To study the effects of particle weights on the rate of sedimentation

THEORY:
Sedimentation is the tendency for particles in suspension or molecules in
solution to settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained and come to rest
against a wall. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to the
forces acting on them: these forces can be due to gravity, centrifugal
acceleration or electromagnetism.
In many cases, the motion of the particles is blocked by a hard boundary; the
resulting accumulation of particles at the boundary is called sediment. As
shown in the Figure 1below, as a result of turbulence on the initial constant
composition (B), four different zones (A, B, C and D) are generated. After some
time, these zones later reduce to three zones (A, C and D) and finally reduce to
only two zones (clear liquid, A, and sediment, D) when the final height of the
sediment can be obtained. It is important to note that the solid/liquid interface
keeps changing with time.

28
 FIGURE 1: Formation of the different zones from an initial constant
composition. If a spherical particle is allowed to settle in a fluid under gravity,
its velocity will increase until the accelerating force (body weight) is exactly
balanced by the resistance force (upward drag force). The net force on the
body is then zero and the result is that the velocity of the object remains constant
------ the velocity at this stage is called terminal (settling) velocity. Terminal
velocity varies directly with the ratio of weight to drag. More drag means a
lower terminal velocity, while increased weight means a higher terminal
velocity.
The results obtain from the study of the sedimentation of particles under the
centrifugal force differs in some aspects from that obtain under the influence of
gravity. This is because, certain parameters, such as the mode of applied force
and direction of the particles movement, differ in application.
Particles with a charge or dipole moment can be made to sediment by an electric
field or electric field gradient respectively. These processes are called
electrophoresis and dielectrophoresis respectively. For electrophoresis, the
sedimentation coefficient corresponds to the particle charge divided by its drag
(the electrophoretic mobility).
Similarly, for the di-eletrophoresis sedimentation coefficient equals the
particle’s electric dipole moment divided by its drag.
The sedimentation rate of particles in fluids are affected by some factors, such
as: the ratio of the diameter of the vessel to the diameter of the particle,
concentration of the particles, turbulence, position of the vessel, nature of the
fluids, particle shapes, sizes and weights.
Sedimentation has a wide range of industrial applications. It is used in the
measurement of the viscosity of high viscous fluids and in the treatment
(clarification) of water and wastewater.

PROCEDURE:
Mount up about four of one litre (1000mL) graduated measuring cylinders. Fill
the cylinders with distilled water and then add the varied quantities of the given
sample in the cylinders (say; 100g, 150, 200g and 250g), one after the other. In
each case, study the rate of sedimentation by measuring the changes in height of

29
 the various solid/liquid interfaces with respect to time. Repeat the entire process
using 50% salt solution. Your results, among other things, should treat:
I. Effect of initial concentration on sedimentation rates
II. Construction of settling rate curves from a single batch test (plot the height of
interfaces, mm, against time, s).

The rate of sedimentation during this period is given by:

……1

The time taken for the sludge line to fall from a height, , corresponding to the
critical settling point when the settling rate reduce drastically , to a height is
given by:
-- ………2
A plot of against tgives a straight line of slope –b . Obtain b and HC for each
experimental set up. Comment on your results.

30
 COVENANT UNIVERSITY, OTA.
College of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT

EXPERIMENT4: DRYING OF SOLIDS

Drying of solids refers to the transfer of liquid from a wet solid into an
unsaturated gas phase. Although the removal of moisture from gases is also
considered drying, they come under special terms such as dehumidification.
Drying has several advantages:

i. reduction of the cost of transport of

material
ii. make material earlier to handle
iii. provide definite properties to material
iv. improve the keeping properties of materials by lowering the moisture content

The quality of the dried solid (shape, colour stability, stickiness) all depend on
the drying process used.

General Behaviour

In drying a wet solid with gas of fixed temperature and humidity, a general
pattern is observed

The moisture content of a solid is expressed on dry basis as:

X = mass of moisture
mass of bone-dry solid

The moisture content on wet basis is:

X1 = mass moisture
Mass (moisture + solid)

Free moisture content of the solid in the moisture content that is above the
equilibrium moisture content. It is this moisture content that can be removed by
drying under the given condition.

31
The humidity and temperature of the drying gas are very important as they affect
the rate of both the heat transfer to and the mass transfer from the solid.

The drying rate is expressed as

N = Rate of loss of moisture

Exposed surface area

Since drying involves rate of transfer of moisture from a solid surface to a gas,
the surface exposed to the gas is important.

Drying Curves

The generalized pattern for drying of solids is illustrated in Fig. 1 & 2.

On exposure to the drying conditions the wet solids temperature first adjusts
(increases or decreases) depending on the temperature of the drying medium.
The rate of drying also undergoes a similar adjustment. At steady state, the
temperature of the surface of the wet solid is equal to the wet bulb temperature
of the drying gas. The moisture content falls at a steady rate. The rate of drying
is also constant. Hence this period is termed constant-rate drying period. This
corresponds to the moisture content range of X1 to X2 and there is always a film
of moisture on the entire exposed surface of the solid. X2 is the critical moisture
of the solid. The solid does not directly influence the drying rate during this
period. At the beginning of the first falling rate period, dry patches appear on
the surface of the solid, the transfer of moisture from within the solid to the
surface is insufficient to maintain a complete wet surface.

Drying during this period depends on the nature of the solid. The second falling
rate begins when there is no saturated film of moisture on the solid surface. The
drying rate then depends on the rate of diffusion of moisture from within the
solid to the surface. X4 = X* is the equilibrium moisture of the solid and
corresponds to the lowest moisture of the solid under the drying conditions –
that is gas humidity and temperature. The drying rate approaches zero at X*.
The equilibrium moisture over the solid is equal to the partial pressure of the
vapour in the incoming drying air.

Classes of Drying Material

On the basis of drying behaviour, materials are grouped as granular or

amorphous. Granular solids hold moisture in the interstices between particles or

32
hold moisture in shallow open surface pores. Hence there is little hindrance to
the movement of moisture to the surface. As a result, the constant rate drying
period continues to low moisture levels. The solid, typically inorganic material
is unaffected by the drying process. Hence wide drying conditions can be used.

Most organic solids are amorphous or gel-like and constitute the second class of
drying solids. They hold moisture as an integral part of the structure of the solid
or are trapped within the fibers or fine pores of the solid. Movement of moisture
is more difficult and is characterized by short constant-rate drying period which
end at high X. Similarly the first falling-rate period is also reduced and most of
the drying process is controlled by the rate of diffusion of liquid through the
solid to the surface.
The bulk of the drying is within the second falling rate period and the
equilibrium moisture content is high. Since the liquid is an integral part of the
solid, the removal affects the solid. The surface may dry up more rapidly than
the interior, causing warping or cracking which may further inhibit moisture
movement. Hence drying conditions must be carefully chosen to preserve
desired properties.

Material and Methods

Material

Materials required are:

- an oven
- stop watch
- weighing balance
- samples to be dried: sand and yam/plantain

Method

The oven is set at a fixed temperature (105oC) and the weighed material to be
dried is placed in the oven. The material is prepared in such a way that the
surface area exposed to the drying gas is measured. For sand weigh accurately
about 50g of sand which is thoroughly mixed with 15g of water. For the yam
cut 2 slices of different thicknesses.

At different times after being placed in the oven (t = o) the material is removed
and weighed. The sample is put back into the oven and the weight vs time data
is continually recorded until there is no significant change between two
successive readings least 30 minutes interval for organics).

33
The experiment is repeated at 1150C for fresh samples of the same materials.

Results

Tabulate the moisture content versus time date of the solid. Hence calculate

i.weight of drying material versus

time ii.drying rate versus time
iii. drying rate verses free moisture content on wet and dry basis

Using appropriate plots, determine:

- the constant rate drying period and the moisture content range over
which it occurs.
- the equilibrium moisture content.
- Moisture content range of the falling rate period

Show the effect of drying temperature on the drying of each of the solids used.

Show the effect of the thickness on the drying.

Compare and contrast the drying characteristics of the two types of solid used.

34
 COVENANT UNIVERSITY, OTA.
College of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT

EXPERIMENT 5: AIR FLOW RIG

EXPERIMENT A
OBJECT OF EXPERIMENT
To determine the discharge coefficient experimentally for an orifice plate meter
fitted in an air flow pipe. Also using the static pressure tapings provided, to
determine the pressure distribution along the pipe downstream of the orifice
plate.
THEORY:
An orifice plate meter forms an accurate and inexpensive device for measuring
the discharge for the flow of liquids or gases through a pipe. The multi-tube
manometer provided is used to measure the pressure drop across the orifice and
this is related to the discharge determined independently.
PROCEDURE
Insert the orifice plate into the suction pipe at the flanged joint approximately
half way along its length. Connect all the static pressure tapping points to the
manometer tubes ensuring that one manometer tube remains unconnected to
record room air pressure and that one is attached to the standard inlet nozzle
which should be fitted.
Turn on fan with low air flow (damper plate almost closed) and read all
manometer tubes including any opened to the air. Increase air flow and repeat.
Continue in steps until damper is fully open or until manometer tube lengths
prove inadequate.
RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS
The orifice plate meter forms a jet which expands to fill the whole pipe, some
diameters distance downstream. The pressure difference between the two sides
of the plate is related to the jet velocity, and therefore the discharge, by the
energy equation:

Q = AjVj= AoCcVj = AoCcCv (1)

35
 Where
Q = discharge (volume/time)
Aj = Jet cross-section area at minimum contraction (vena contracta)
A0 = orifice cross section area (πd2/4: d = orifice diameter)
Vj = jet velocity at minimum contraction (vena contracta)
Cc = coefficient of contraction of jet
Cv = coefficient of velocity of jet
g = gravitational acceleration
h = pressure difference ‘head’ across orifice (in terms of the flowing fluid, air)
These two coefficients are normally combined to give a single coefficient of
discharge:
CD = CCCv
Equation (1) now becomes

Q= CDA0 (2)
If Q can be determined independently then the discharge coefficient can be
determined as follows:

CD=
(3)
Values of Qi can be determined if the standard nozzle with known CD is fitted at
the pipe inlet.
If hi = drop in pressure head across the nozzle inlet , the discharge

Qi = AiC’D
(4)
in which Ai = nozzle cross-sectional area and CD is assumed to be 0.97
Values of hi are obtained from the difference between manometer tube levels
connected to the pipe inlet pressure tapping and that open to the atmosphere.
Note that the manometer tubes can be inclined to increase the sensitivity of the
readings.
If the manometer is inclined at an angle of θ from the vertical then the
equivalent vertical separation of liquid levels in the manometer tubes is given by
Δh = (X1 – X2) Cos θ (m of kerosene)
If required, the measured head difference using kerosene can be converted to an
equivalent head of water (or any other fluid) as follows:
Δh =(ρk /ρw ) (X1 – X2) Cos θ (m of water)

36
Where ρk andρw are density of kerosene and water respectively.
When air flows through the pipe ρA, density of air is used instead of water.
Assuming a density of 787 kg/m3 for kerosene
Plot values of CD obtained in this way against corresponding values of pipe

Reynolds number (Re) obtained using the relationship: Re =

Where μ is the coefficient of dynamic viscosity of air and ρ its density, u is the
mean pipe velocity (Oi/Ai) and d the pipe diameter
Also plot longitudinal pressure profiles (mm of kerosene) for the pipe at selected
discharges (tapping positions along test pipe).

EXPERIMENT B

OBJECT OF EXPERIMENT
To compare the performance of the two nozzles provided by checking them
against a precalibrated orifice plate meter.
THEORY:
The 80 mm nozzle used in experiment 1 provides a very convenient standard for
discharge measurement. The effect of the nozzle scale can be explored by
carrying out tests using both the standard 80 mm nozzle and also the reduced
size 50 mm nozzle.
PROCEDURE
The relationship between pressure drop across a nozzle and discharge Q is given
by the expression:

Qi = Ai CD
Where Ai = nozzle cross-section area

37
 C'D = Nozzle discharge
coefficient and hi = pressure head
drop across nozzle
The value of hi is obtained from the difference between the levels in the
manometer tube connected to the nozzle tapping and the one open to
atmospheric pressure. The discharge coefficient CD for the 80 mm nozzle should
be assumed to have a constant value of 0.97.
Using the standard 80 mm nozzle and the orifice plate meter, first calibrate the
orifice plate meter as set out in experiment 1.
Now change the standard nozzle for the 50 mm one and repeat the calibration
this time using the orifice plate meter as the standard.
Determine values of the discharge coefficient for the small nozzle in this way.
Plot these values of CD against the nozzle Reynolds number.

EXPERIMENT C

OBJECT OF EXPERIMENT
To determine and compare the pressure drop across the bends and elbows
supplied and to examine the static pressure distribution along the downstream
pipe.
THEORY:
The design of any pipe system must be based on accurate prediction of head
losses in all its components, including the secondary energy losses in bends and
other fittings. In this experimental rig a range of bends and elbows are provided

38
which may be fitted to the pipe inlet, in conjunction with the standard entry
nozzle provided. The static pressure tapping points in the pipe wall, when
connected to the multi-tube manometer, will enable the pressure pattern
downstream of the elbow or bend fitted to be determined. The inlet pressure can
be taken as standard and will be indicated by the manometer tube connected to
the nozzle tapping point. The term “minor losses” is sometimes used for energy
losses in bends and other pipe fittings but this is something of a misnomer,
unless very long pipes are involved, because these losses often exceed the
normal pipe friction losses in tortuous or complicated systems.
It is usual to express the head loss in a bend or other pipe fitting as the kinetic
energy head of the flow in the pipe multiplied by a suitable factor (k), i.e.

Where hL = pressure loss in bend expressed as “pressure head”

of fluid u = pipe mean velocity (Q/A)
A = pipe cross – section area (πd2/4)
Values of Q must be determined from the pressure drop across the standard
entrance nozzle.
Determine the value of K for each fitting investigated over a range of air
velocity, using the damping plate at the fan outlet to control the air flow.
Plot values of K against pipe Reynolds number.
Also plot longitudinal pressure profiles (mm of kerosene) for the pipe at selected
discharges (tapping positions along test pipe).

39
 COVENANT UNIVERSITY, OTA.
College of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT

EXPERIMENT 6: COOLING TOWER

THEORY

Cooling Tower
Terms Cooling Range
The difference between the water temperature at entry to and exit from the
tower.
Cooling Load
The rate at which heat is removed from the water. This may be expressed in kW,
Btu/h or kCal/h Make-up
The quantity of fresh water which must be supplied to the water circuit to make
good the losses due to evaporation and other causes.
Drift or Carry Over
Droplets of water which are entrained by the air stream leaving the tower.
Packing or Fill
The material over which the water flows as it falls through the tower, so that a
large surface area is presented to the air stream.
Approach to Wet Bulb
The difference between the temperature of the water leaving the tower and the
wet bulb temperature of the air entering.
Drain Down
Water deliberately removed from the water system to prevent the excessive
concentration of dissolved solid (due to evaporation) and sludge (due to
impurities from the atmosphere).

Basic Principles
Consider the surface of a warm water droplet or film in contact with an air
stream. Assuming that the water is hotter than the air, it will be cooled:
(i) By radiation- This effect is likely to be very small under normal
conditions, and may be neglected.

40
(ii) By conduction and convection – This will depend on the temperature
difference, the surface area, air velocity, etc.
(iii) By evaporation – this is by far the most important effect. Cooling takes
place as molecules of water diffuse from the surface into the
surrounding air. These molecules are then replaced by others from the
liquid (evaporation) and the energy required for this is taken from the
remaining liquid.

Evaporation from a wet surface

The rate of evaporation from a wet surface into the surrounding air is
determined by the difference between the vapour pressure at the liquid
surface, i.e. the saturation pressure corresponding with the surface
temperature, and the vapour pressure in the surrounding air. The latter is
determined by the total pressure of the air and its absolute humidity.
In an enclosed space, evaporation can continue until the two vapour
pressures are equal, i.e. until the air is saturated and at the same temperature
as the surface. However, if unsaturated air is constantly circulated, the wet
surface will reach an equilibrium temperature at which the cooling effect
due to the evaporation is equal to the heat transfer to the liquid by
conduction and convection from the air, which under these conditions will
be at a higher temperature.
The equilibrium temperature reached by the surface under adiabatic
conditions (i.e. in the absence of external heat gains or losses), is the “wet
bulb temperature” which is well known in connection with hygrometry.
In a cooling tower of infinite size and with an adequate air flow, the water
leaving will be the wet bulb temperature of the incoming air. For this reason,
the difference between the temperature of the water leaving a cooling tower
and the local wet bulb temperature is an indication of the effectiveness of the
cooling tower. The “Approach to Wet Bulb” is one of the important
parameters in the testing, specification, design and selection of the cooling
tower.
Conditions within a cooling tower packing are complex due to the changing
air temperature, humidity and water temperature as the two fluids pass
through the tower- usually in a contra flow fashion.

Cooling Tower Performance

The following factors affect the performance of a cooling tower:
(i) The air flow rate
(ii) The water flow rate
(iii) The water temperature

41
 (iv) The air temperature and humidity at inlet (particularly the wet bulb
temperature)
(v) The type of packing used
(vi) The area and volume of the packing

This Basic Water Cooling Tower enables these factors to be varied so that an
overall appreciation of cooling tower characteristics can be obtained.

Dalton’s and Gibbs Laws

Air is a mixture of “dry air” (oxygen, nitrogen and other gasses) and the water
vapour. The behaviour of such a mixture is set out in the laws of Dalton and
Gibbs, from which the following may be deduced:
(i) The total pressure of the air is equal to the sum of the pressures which
the “dry air” and the water vapour each and alone would exert if they
were to occupy the volume of the mixture at the temperature of the
mixture.
(ii) The dry air and water vapour respectively obey their nominal property
relationships at their partial pressures.
(iii) The enthalpy of the mixture may be found by adding together the
enthalpies which the dry air and water vapour each would have as the
sole occupant of the space occupied by the mixture at the same
temperature.

The water vapour, steam or moisture content of the air is denoted by its
humidity. Absolute of specific humidity (ω) is the ratio:

ω=
Relative humidity ( ) is the ratio:

Percentage saturation is the ratio

Psychrometric Chart
It is convenient to use psychrometric chart to determine the properties of air at
an appropriate atmospheric pressure.
For given air properties Dry Bulb 20oC, Wet Bulb 14oC, Total Pressure 101.36
KN m-2, the specific enthalpy, specific volume and specific humidity can be
readily obtained from Psychrometic Chart as shown overleaf.

42
EXPERIMENTAL RUNS
The Basic Water Cooling Tower should be prepared, started and allowed to
stabilise under specific conditions, for example:
Orifice differential 10mm H2O (or maximum air flowrate, damper fully
opened)
Water flow rate 40 gm S-1
Cooling load 0 KW
NOTE: Stability is reached when there is no further appreciable change in
temperature or flow rate.
At regular intervals over a measured period of time, for example 10 minutes, all
temperatures and flow rates should be noted and the mean values entered on the
observation chart.
At the commencement of this period, fill the make up tank to the gauge mark
with distilled water. At the end of this period, refill the tank from a known
quantity of distilled water in a measuring cylinder. By difference determine the
quantity of make up which has been supplied in the time interval.
Change the orifice differential pressure to 1mm H2O and fill the observation
chart with the same water flow rate and cooling load.
Change the Cooling load to 0.5 KW and repeat the observations first at orifice
differential pressure 10mm and then 1mm H2O. Keep the water flow rate at 40
gm S-1.
Run the experiment again and take observations for Cooling load of 1.0 KW and
the corresponding orifice differential pressures of 10mm H2O, 7mm H2O, 4mm
H2O and 1mm H2O. Keep the water flow rate at 40 gm S-1.
Change the cooling load to 1.5 KW and repeat the observations at different
orifice differential pressures of 10mm H2O, 7mm H2O, 4mm H2O and 1mm
H2O, keeping the water flow rate at 40 gm S-1.

Basic Water Cooling Tower Observation Sheet

Test No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Packing Installed C

Packing Density m-1 200

Air Inlet Dry Bulb t1 (OC)

Air Inlet Wet Bulb t2 (OC)

Air Outlet Dry Bulb t3 (OC)

Air Outlet Wet
Bulb t4 (OC)

43
Water Inlet
Temperature t5 (OC)

Water Outlet
Temperature t6 (OC)

Water Make-Up
Temperature* t7 (OC)

Orifice Differential x (mmH2O)

Water Flow Rate (gm S-1)

Cooling Load (KW)

Make-Up Quantity mE (Kg)

Time Interval y (s)

Pressure Drop
Across Packing ∆P (mm H20)
* Assumed to be the same as the ambient dry bulb
temperature t1

EXPERIMENT A
Determination of all end state properties of air and water from table of
charts (Psychrometric Chart), and the application of the steady flow energy
equation to selected systems to draw up energy and mass balances.
Extract the data for the experimental run of Cooling Load of 1 KW, water flow
rate of 40gm S-1 and orifice differentials of 10mm H2O and fill up the
observation sheet shown below.
Use this experimental run to determine the end state properties of air and water
as follows:
Let point A be the inlet conditions of air and point B the outlet conditions of air.
With the wet and dry bulb temperatures, plot point A and B on the
psychrometric chart and read off the following values:
hA = Specific enthalpy of inlet air
(KJ kg-1) ωA = Humidity of inlet air
(Kg Kg-1)
hB = Specific enthalpy of outlet air
(KJ kg-1) ωB = Humidity of outlet air
(Kg Kg-1)
VaB = Specific volume of outlet air m3 (Kg dry air)-1

44
 Given that from the orifice calibration, mass flow rate, a (kg/s) of the air is:

= 0.0137
a ---------------------------------------------------------------- (1)
Determine the mass flow rate of the air.
Also determine the make-up rate, (kg S-1):
=
--------------------------------------------------------------
----- (2)
Assume the specific enthalpy of make-up water, hE to be: hE = 87 KJ Kg-1
Applying the Steady Flow Energy equation to the system indicated by the
chain line (System F):
+P=∆ +∆ ------------------------------------------------------------------- (3)
Where = Rate of thermal energy into system through heater
P = Rate of mechanical energy into system through pump

Basic Water Cooling Tower Observation Sheet

Test No 1 2 3 4 5 6
Packing Installed C
Packing Density m-1 200
Air Inlet Dry Bulb t1 (OC)
Air Inlet Wet Bulb t2 (OC)
Air Outlet Dry Bulb t3 (OC)
Air Outlet Wet Bulb t4 (OC)
Water Inlet
Temperature t5 (OC)
Water Outlet
Temperature t6 (OC)
Water Make-Up
Temperature* t7 (OC)
Orifice Differential x (mmH2O) 10
Water Flow Rate (gm S-1) 40
Cooling Load (KW) 1.0
Make-Up Quantity mE (Kg)
Time Interval y (s)

45
 Pressure Drop Across
Packing ∆P (mm H20)
* Assumed to be the same as the ambient dry bulb
temperature t1

∆ = Rate of kinetic energy IN – OUT

∆ = Rate of total enthalpy IN – OUT
Pump power, P, is approximately 100W the
right hand side (R.H.S) of the energy equation
(3) is:
+ P = 1.0 + 0.1 KW -------------------------------------------------------------
(4) = 1.1 kW
Calculate the left hand side (L.H.S) of equation (3) and compare the answer
with that of the R.H.S above. Use equation (5) to calculate the L.H.S
Note ∆ = 0.
∆ = Exit - Entry --------------------------------------------------------------------- (5)
= - -
= ( -
)-
Any small discrepancy may be attributed to errors and heat transfer to or from the
surroundings, and to manufacturing tolerances in the rating of the heating elements.
Mass Balance
= -
= (ωB – ωA)

EXPERIMENT B
Investigation of the effect of cooling load on “Approach to Wet
Bulb” From the experimental runs, extract the data for orifice differential
pressure of 10mm H2O and water flow rate of 40 gm S-1 for each of the cooling
loads, 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 kW. Use the data to fill up the observation sheet shown
overleaf.
The water and air flow rates are kept constant while increasing the load from 0
to 1.5 KW.
Carryout the following calculations for each of the test No:
The pump transfers approximately 100W to the water, and this should be added
to the load imposed on the load tank.
Total cooling load = Applied Load + Pump Input
. = Applied Load + 0.1 kW
Approach to Wet Bulb = t2 - t6 (K)
Specific volume of air at outlet, VaB, (Use psychrometric chart)
Mass flow rate of air, a

46
 a = 0.0137
From continuity equation, mass flow rate of air, a, should be approximately
constant for all the test no, since we have the same air inlet flow rate. Cross
sectional area of column (A) = 0.15 x 0.15 m2
Air mass flow per unit area = (Kg S-1 m-2)
Water flow rate per unit area = (Kg S-1 m-2)
Put the derived results, for the air flow rate when orifice differential
pressure is 10mm H2O, in a table:

Derived Results Units 1 2 3 4

Packing density m-1 200 200 200 200
Air flow per unit area Kg S-1 m-2
Total Cooling Load KW 0.1 0.5 1.1 1.6
Approach to Wet Bulb K

Basic Water Cooling Tower Observation Sheet

Test No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Packing Installed C

Packing Density m-1 200 200 200 200

Air Inlet Dry Bulb t1 (OC)

Air Inlet Wet Bulb t2 (OC)

Air Outlet Dry Bulb t3 (OC)

Air Outlet Wet Bulb t4 (OC)

Water Inlet
Temperature t5 (OC)

Water Outlet
Temperature t6 (OC)
Water Make-Up
Temperature* t7 (OC)

47
Orifice Differential x (mmH2O) 10 10 10 10

Water Flow Rate (gm S-1) 40 40 40 40

Cooling Load (KW) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Make-Up Quantity mE (Kg)

Time Interval y (s)

Pressure Drop Across
Packing ∆P (mm H20)
* Assumed to be the same as the ambient dry bulb
temperature t1

Plot the values of approach to wet bulb (on the ordinate) against the cooling
loads (on the abscissa)
Again, from the experimental runs, extract the data for orifice differential
pressure of 1mm H2O and water flow rate of 40 gm S-1 for all the cooling loads.
Use the data to fill up the observation sheet as done earlier for 10mm H2O.
Carryout similar calculations and obtain the derived results for this air flow rate,
when orifice differential pressure is 1.0mm H2O:

Derived Results Units 1 2 3 4

Packing density m-1 200 200 200 200
Air flow per unit area Kg S1
m-2
Total Cooling Load KW 0.1 0.5 1.1 1.6
Approach to Wet Bulb K

On the same axis with plot for orifice differential pressure of 10mm H2O, plot
the values of approach to wet bulb (on the ordinate) against the cooling loads
(on the abscissa) when orifice differential pressure is 1mm H2O.
These plots are linear.
Discuss your results.

EXPERIMENT C Investigation of the effect of air velocity on

“Approach to Wet Bulb” and the pressure drop through the
packing

48
 From the experimental runs, extract the data for the cooling load of 1 KW, water
flow rate of 40 gm S-1 and the corresponding orifice differential pressures of 10,
7, 4 and 1 mm H2O. Use the data to fill up the observation sheet shown overleaf.
The water flow rate and cooling load are kept constant while varying the orifice
differential pressure.
Calculate the following values:
“Approach to Wet Bulb” = t2 - t6 (K)
Specific volume of air at outlet, VaB, (Use psychrometric chart)
-1
Air mass flow rate, a (Kg S )

a = 0.0137
Air volume flow rate, = a VaB, (m3 s-1)
Cross sectional area of column (A) = 0.15 x 0.15 m2

Air velocity = (S-1) Put your answer

in a table:
Results Units 1 2 3 4
Packing density m-1 200 200 200 200

Nominal velocity of air m s-1

“Wet Bulb Approach” K
Pressure Drop mm
H2O

Plot the values of Approach to Wet Bulb (on the ordinate) against the Nominal
Air Velocity (on the abscissa).
On the same axis plot the values of packing pressure drop on the right hand side
of the ordinate against the nominal air velocity on the abscissa.

Basic Water Cooling Tower Observation Sheet

49
 Basic Water Cooling Tower Observation Sheet
Test No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Packing Installed C

Packing Density m-1 200 200 200 200

Air Inlet Dry Bulb t1 (OC)

Air Inlet Wet Bulb t2 (OC)

Air Outlet Dry Bulb t3 (OC)

Air Outlet Wet Bulb t4 (OC)

Water Inlet
Temperature t5 (OC)

Water Outlet
Temperature t6 (OC)
Water Make-Up
Temperature* t7 (OC)

Orifice Differential x (mmH2O) 10 7 4 1

Water Flow Rate (gm S-1) 40 40 40 40

Cooling Load (KW) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Make-Up Quantity mE (Kg)

Time Interval y (s)

Pressure Drop Across ∆P (mm
Packing H20)
* Assumed to be the same as the ambient dry bulb
temperature t1

50
EXPERIMENT D Investigation of the effect of load on cooling
range
From the experimental runs, extract the data for orifice differential pressure of
10mm H2O and water flow rate of 40 gm S-1 for the corresponding cooling loads
of 0, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 KW. Use the data to fill up the observation sheet shown
overleaf.
The cooling load is increased at constant air and water flow rates.
At another constant orifice differential pressure of 1 mm H2O and water flow
rate of 40
Test No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Packing Installed C
Packing Density m-1 200 200 200 200

Air Inlet Dry Bulb t1 (OC)

Air Inlet Wet Bulb t2 (OC)
Air Outlet Dry Bulb t3 (OC)
Air Outlet Wet Bulb t4 (OC)
Water Inlet
Temperature t5 (OC)

Water Outlet
Temperature t6 (OC)
Water Make-Up
Temperature* t7 (OC)
Orifice Differential x (mmH2O) 10 10 10 10
(gm S-
Water Flow Rate 1) 40 40 40 40
Cooling Load (KW) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Make-Up Quantity mE (Kg)
Time Interval y (s)
Pressure Drop Across ∆P (mm
Packing H20)
* Assumed to be the same as the ambient dry bulb
temperature t1

gm S-1 extract the experimental data for the corresponding cooling loads of 0,
0.5, 1.0, 1.5 KW. Use the data to fill up the observation sheet as above.

51
Plot the values of cooling range on the ordinate against cooling load on the
abscissa for the orifice differential pressure of 10mm H2O.
On the same axis plot the values of cooling range on the ordinate against cooling
load on the abscissa for the orifice differential pressure of 1mm H2O

52