CABLES, CONDUITS AND TRUNKING

4. Introduction

4.1 - Cable insulation materials

4.2 - Cables
4.3 - Cable choice
4.4 - Cable supports, joints and terminations
4.5 - Cable enclosures
4.6 - Conductor and cable identification

4.1 Cable Insulation Materials

Rubber
For many years wiring cables were insulated with vulcanised natural rubber (VIR). Much
cable of this type is still in service, although it is many years since it was last manufactured.
Since the insulation is organic, it is subject to the normal ageing process, becoming hard and
brittle. In this condition it will continue to give satisfactory service unless it is disturbed,
when the rubber cracks and loses its insulating properties. It is advisable that wiring of this
type which is still in service should be replaced by a more modern cable. Synthetic rubber
compounds are used widely for insulation and sheathing of cables for flexible and for heavy
duty applications. Many variations are possible, with conductor temperature ratings from
60°C to 180°C, as well as resistance to oil, ozone and ultra-violet radiation depending on the
formulation.
Paper
Dry paper is an excellent insulator but loses its insulating properties if it becomes wet. Dry
paper is hygroscopic, that is, it absorbs moisture from the air. It must be sealed to ensure that
there is no contact with the air. Because of this, paper insulated cables are sheathed with
impervious materials, lead being the most common. PILC (paper insulated lead covered) is
traditionally used for heavy power work. The paper insulation is impregnated with oil or
non-draining compound to improve its long-term performance. Cables of this kind need
special jointing methods to ensure that the insulation remains sealed. This difficulty, as well
as the weight of the cable, has led to the widespread use of p.v.c. and XLPE (thermosetting)
insulated cables in place of paper insulated types.
P.V.C.
Polyvinyl chloride (p.v.c.) is now the most usual low voltage cable insulation. It is clean to
handle and is reasonably resistant to oils and other chemicals. When p.v.c. burns, it emits
dense smoke and corrosive hydrogen chloride gas. The physical characteristics of the
material change with temperature: when cold it becomes hard and difficult to strip, and so
BS 7671 specifies that it should not be worked at temperatures below 5°C. However a
special p.v.c. is available which remains flexible at temperatures down to -20°C.
At high temperatures the material becomes soft so that conductors which are pressing on the
insulation (eg at bends) will 'migrate' through it, sometimes moving to the edge of the
insulation. Because of this property the temperature of general purpose P.V.C. must not be
allowed to exceed 70°C, although versions which will operate safely at temperatures up to
85°C are also available. If p.v.c. is exposed to sunlight it may be degraded by ultra-violet
radiation. If it is in contact with absorbent materials, the plasticiser may be 'leached out'
making the p.v.c. hard and brittle.
LSF (Low smoke and fume)
Materials which have reduced smoke and corrosive gas emissions in fire compared with
p.v.c. have been available for some years. They are normally used as sheathing compounds
over XLPE or LSF insulation, and can give considerable safety advantages in situations
where numbers of people may have to be evacuated in the event of fire.
Thermosetting (XLPE)
Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) is a thermosetting compound which has better electrical
properties than p.v.c. and is therefore used for medium- and high-voltage applications. It has
more resistance to deformation at higher temperatures than p.v.c., which it is gradually
replacing. It is also replacing PILC in some applications. Thermosetting insulation may be
used safely with conductor temperatures up to 90°C thus increasing the useful current rating,
especially when ambient temperature is high. A LSF (low smoke and fume) type of
thermosetting cable is available.
Mineral
Provided that it is kept dry, a mineral insulation such as magnesium oxide is an excellent
insulator. Since it is hygroscopic (it absorbs moisture from the air) this insulation is kept
sealed within a copper sheath. The resulting cable is totally fireproof and will operate at
temperatures of up to 250°C. It is also entirely inorganic and thus non-ageing. These cables
have small diameters compared with alternatives, great mechanical strength, are waterproof,
resistant to radiation and electromagnetic pulses, are pliable and corrosion resistant. In cases
where the copper sheath may corrode, the cable is used with an overall LSF covering, which
reduces the temperature at which the cable may be allowed to operate. Since it is necessary
to prevent the ingress of moisture, special seals are used to terminate cables. Special
mineral-insulated cables with twisted cores to reduce the effect of electromagnetic
interference are available.
4.2 Cables
4.2.1 -Non-flexible low voltage cables
4.2.2 - Cables for overhead lines
4.2.3 - Flexible low voltage cables and cords
4.2.4 - Cables carrying alternating currents
4.2.5 - Corrosion
 4.3.4 -Non-flexible low voltage cables
Types of cable currently satisfying the Regulations are shown in {Fig 4.1}.
a) Non-armoured pvc-insulated cables - Fig 4.1a
1 - pvc sheath
2 - PVC insulation
3 - copper conductor: solid. stranded or flexible
b) Armoured PVC-insulated cables - Fig 4.1b
1 - PVC sheath
2 - armour-galvanised steel wire
3 - PVC bedding
4 - PVC insulation
5 - copper conductor
c) Split-concentric PVC insulated cables - Fig 4.1c

5 - earth continuity conductor:

1- PVC oversheath
---- bare copper wires
2 - Melinex binder 6 - PVC phase insulation
3 - PVC strings 7- copper conductors
4 - neutral conductor:
 
---- black PVC-covered wires
d) Rubber-insulated (elastomeric) cables - Fig 4.1d
1 - textile braided and-compounded
2 - 85°C rubber insulation
3 - tinned copper conductor
e) Impregnated-paper insulated lead sheathed cables - Fig 4.1e
 1 - PVC oversheath 6 - filler
2 - galvanised steel wire armour 7 - screen of metal tape
with paper tape intercalated
3 - bedding 8 - impregnated paper insulation
4 - sheath: lead or lead alloy 9 - Carbon paper screen
5 - copper woven fabric tape 10 - shaped stranded conductor

f) Armoured cables with thermosetting insulation - Fig 4.1f

  1 - PVC oversheath
2 - galvanised steel wire
armour
3 - taped bedding
4 - XLPE insulation
5 - solid aluminium conductor

g) Mineral-insulated cables Fig 4.1g

1 - LSF oversheath
2 - copper sheath
3 - magnesium oxide insulation
4 - copper conductors

h) Consac cables - Fig 4.1h

1 - extruded PVC or polythene oversheath 4 paper belt insulation

2 - thin layer of bitumen containing a 5 - paper core insulation
corrosion inhibitor
3 - extruded smooth aluminium sheath 6 - solid aluminium conductors
 i) Waveconal cables - Fig 4.1i

1 - extruded PVC oversheath

2 - aluminium wires
3 - rubber anti-corrosion bedding
4 - XLPE core insulation
5 - solid aluminium conductors
[Table 52B] gives the maximum conductor operating temperature for the various types of
cables. For general purpose p.v.c this is 70°C. Cables with thermosetting insulation can be
operated with conductor temperatures up to 90°C but since the accessories to which they are
connected may be unable to tolerate such high temperatures, operation at 70°C is much more
usual. Other values of interest to the electrician are shown in [ Table 3.7 ]. Minimum cross-
sectional areas for cables are shown in [ Table 4.1 ].
Table 4.1 - Minimum permitted cross-sectional areas for cables (from Table 52C of
BS 7671: 1992)
type of circuit conductor cross sectional area (mm²)
material
power and lighting circuits copper 1.0
(insulated conductors) aluminium 16.0
signalling and control circuits copper 0.5
flexibles, more than 7 core copper 0.1
bare conductors and busbars copper 10.0
- aluminium 16.0
bare conductors for signalling and copper 4.0
control
4.3.5 Cables for overhead lines
Any of the cables listed in the previous subsection are permitted to be used as overhead
conductors provided that they are properly supported. Normally, of course, the cables used
will comply with a British Standard referring particularly to special cables for use as
overhead lines. Such cables include those with an internal or external catenary wire, which
is usually of steel and is intended to support the weight of the cable over the span concerned.
Since overhead cables are to be installed outdoors, they must be chosen and installed so as to
offset the problems of corrosion. Since such cables will usually be in tension, their supports
must not damage the cable or its insulation. More information on corrosion is given in
{4.2.5} and on the selection and installation of overhead cables will be found in {7.13.1}.
4.3.6 Flexible low voltage cables and cords
By definition flexible cables have conductors of cross-sectional area 4 mm² or greater,
whilst flexible cords are sized at 4 mm² or smaller. Quite clearly, the electrician is nearly
always concerned with flexible cords rather than flexible cables.
{Figure 4.2} shows some of the many types of flexible cords which are available.
a) Braided circular - Fig 4.2a

1 - oversheath - PVC 4 - insulation - pvc coloured

2 - braid - plain copper wire 5 - Conductors - plain Copper
3 - inner sheath - pvc  
b) Unkinkable - Fig 4.2b
1 - rubber layer collectively textile
braided semi-embedded
2 - insulation (Cores) 60°C rubber
3 -conductors - tinned copper
c) Circular sheathed - Fig 4.2c
1 - sheath - rubber or pvc
2 - insulation 60°C rubber or pvc
3 - conductors - tinned copper

d) Flat twin sheathed - Fig 4.2d

1 - sheath - PVC
2 - insulation - pvc
3 - conductors - plain copper

e) Braided circular insulated with glass fibre - Fig 4.2e

1 - glass braided overall
2 - insulation - silicon rubber
3 - conductors - stranded Copper

f) Single core p.v.c. - insulated non-sheathed - Fig 4.2f

1 - insulation - pvc
2 - conductors - plain copper
Flexible cables should not normally be used for fixed wiring, but if they are, they must be
visible throughout their length. The maximum mass which can be supported by each flexible
cord is listed in (Table 4H3A), part of which is shown here as (Table 4.2).

Table 4.2 - Maximum mass supported by twin flexible cord

Cross-sectional area (mm²) Maximum mass to be supported (kg)
0.5 2
0.75 3
1.0 5
1.25 5
 1.5 5
The temperature at the cord entry to luminaires is often very high, especially where filament
lamps are used. It is important that the cable or flexible cord used for final entry is of a
suitable heat resisting type, such as 150°C rubber- insulated and braided. (Fig 4.3) shows a
short length of such cord used to make the final connection to a luminaire.

Fig 4.3 - 150°C rubber-insulated and braided flexible cord used for the final connection to a
luminaire.
4.3.7 Cables carrying alternating currents
Alternating current flowing in a conductor sets up an alternating magnetic field which is
much stronger if the conductor is surrounded by an iron-rich material, for example if it is
steel wire armoured or if it is installed in a steel conduit. The currents in a twin cable, or in
two single core cables feeding a single load, will be the same. They will exert opposite
magnetic effects which will almost cancel, so that virtually no magnetic flux is produced if
they are both enclosed in the same conduit or armouring. The same is true of three-phase
balanced or unbalanced circuits provided that all three (or four, where there is a neutral)
cores are within the same steel armouring or steel conduit.
An alternating flux in an iron core results in iron losses, which result in power loss
appearing as heat in the metal enclosure. It should be remembered that not only will the heat
produced by losses raise the temperature of the conductor, but that the energy involved will
be paid for by the installation user through his electricity meter. Thus, it is important that all
conductors of a circuit are contained within the same cable, or are in the same conduit if
they are single-core types (see {Fig 4.4}).

Fig 4.4 Iron losses in the steel surrounding a cable when it carries alternating current
a) twin conductors of the same single-phase circuit - no losses
b) single cone conductor- high losses
A similar problem will occur when single-core conductors enter an enclosure through
separate holes in a steel end plate {Fig 4.5}.

Fig 4.5 Iron losses when single-core cables enter a steel enclosure through separate holes
For this reason, single-core armoured cables should not be used. If the single core cable has
a metal sheath which is non-magnetic, less magnetic flux will be produced. However, there
will still be induced e.m.f. in the sheath, which can give rise to a circulating current and
sheath heating.
If mineral insulated cables are used, or if multi-core cables are used, with all conductors of a
particular circuit being in the same cable, no problems will result. The copper sheath is non-
magnetic, so the level of magnetic flux will be less than for a steel armoured cable; there
will still be enough flux, particularly around a high current cable, to produce a significant
induced e.m.f. However, multi-core mineral insulated cables are only made in sizes up to 25
mm² and if larger cables are needed they must be single core.
{Figure 4.6(a)} shows the path of circulating currents in the sheaths of such single core
cables if both ends are bonded. {Figure 4.6(b)} shows a way of breaking the circuit for
circulating currents.

Fig 4.6 Circulating currents in the metal sheaths of single core cables
(a) bonded at both ends (b) circulating currents prevented by single point bonding
[523-05-01] calls for all single core cable sheaths to be bonded at both ends unless they have
conductors of 70 mm² or greater. In that case they can be single point bonded if they have an
insulating outer sheath, provided that:
i) e.m.f. values no greater than 25 V to earth are involved, and
ii) the circulating current causes no corrosion, and
iii) there is no danger under fault conditions.
The last requirement is necessary because fault currents will be many times greater than
normal load currents. This will result in correspondingly larger values of alternating
magnetic flux and of induced e.m.f.
4.3.8 Corrosion
The metal sheaths and armour of cables, metal conduit and conduit fittings, metal trunking
and ducting, as well as the fixings of all these items, are likely to suffer corrosion in damp
situations due to chemical or electrolytic attack by certain materials, unless special
precautions are taken. The offending materials include:
1. 1. -unpainted lime, cement and plaster,
2. 2. -floors and dados including magnesium chloride,
3. 3. -acidic woods, such as oak,
4. 4. -plaster undercoats containing corrosive salts,
5. 5. -dissimilar metals which will set up electrolytic action.
In all cases the solution to the problem of corrosion is to separate the materials between
which the corrosion occurs. For chemical attack, this means having suitable coatings on the
item to be installed, such as galvanising or an enamel or plastic coating. Bare copper
sheathed cable, such as mineral insulated types, should not be laid in contact with galvanised
material like a cable tray if conditions are likely to be damp. A p.v.c. covering on the cable
will prevent a possible corrosion problem.
To prevent electrolytic corrosion, which is particularly common with aluminium-sheathed
cables or conduit, a careful choice of the fixings with which the aluminium comes into
contact is important, especially in damp situations. Suitable materials are aluminium, alloys
of aluminium which are corrosion resistant, zinc alloys complying with BS 1004, porcelain,
plastics, or galvanised or sheradised iron or steel

 
4.3 Cable choice

4.3.1 - Cable types 4.3.8 - Protection by semi-enclosed

(rewirable) fuses
4.3.2 - Current carrying capacity of 4.3.9 - Cable rating calculation
conductors
4.3.3 - Methods of cable installation 4.3.10 - Special formulas - grouping factor
 calculation
4.3.4 - Ambient temperature correction 4.3.11 - Cable volt drop
factors
4.3.5 - Cable grouping correction 4.3.12 - Harmonic currents and neutral
factors conductors
4.3.6 - Thermal insulation correction 4.3.13 - Low smoke-emitting cables
factors
4.3.7 - When a number of correction 4.3.14 - The effects of animals, insects and
--------- factors applies plants

4.3.9 Cable types

When choosing a cable one of the most important factors is the temperature attained by its
insulation (see {4.1.1}); if the temperature is allowed to exceed the upper design value,
premature failure is likely. In addition, corrosion of the sheaths or enclosures may result. For
example, bare conductors such as busbars may be operated at much higher temperatures
than most insulated conductors.
However, when an insulated conductor is connected to such a high temperature system, its
own insulation may be affected by heat transmitted from the busbar, usually by conduction
and by radiation. To ensure that the insulation is not damaged: either the operating
temperature of the busbar must not exceed the safe temperature for the insulation, or the
conductor insulation must be removed for a suitable distance from the connection with the
busbar and replaced with beat resistant insulation (see {Fig 4.7}).
It is common sense that the cable chosen should be suitable for its purpose and for the
surroundings in which it will operate. It should not be handled and installed in unsuitable
temperatures. P.V.C. becomes hard and brittle at low temperatures, and if a cable insulated
with it is installed at temperatures below 5°C it may well become damaged.
[522] includes a series of Regulations which are intended to ensure that suitable cables are
chosen to prevent damage from temperature levels, moisture, dust and dirt, pollution,
vibration, mechanical stress, plant growths, animals, sunlight or the kind of building in
which they are installed. As already mentioned in {3.5.2}, cables must not produce, spread,
or sustain fire.
[527-01] contains six regulations which are intended to reduce the risk of the spread of fire
and are concerned with choosing cables with a low likelihood of flame propagation (see BS
4066, BS 476, BS EN 50085 and BS EN 50086). A run of bunched cables is a special fire
risk and cables in such a situation should comply with the standards stated above.
Fig 4.7 Insulation of a cable connected to hot busbar
BS 6387 covers cables which must be able to continue to operate in a fire. These special
cables are intended to be used when it is required to maintain circuit integrity for longer than
is possible with normal cables. Such cables are categorised with three letters. The first
indicates the resistance to fire alone (A,B,C and S) and the second letter is a W and indicates
that the cable will survive for a time at 650°C when also subject to water (which may be
used to tackle the fire). The third letter (X, Y or Z) indicates the resistance to fire with
mechanical shock. For full details of these special cables see the BS.
4.3.10 Current carrying capacity of conductors
All cables have electrical resistance, so there must be an energy loss when they carry
current. This loss appears as heat and the temperature of the cable rises. As it does so, the
heat it loses to its surroundings by conduction, convection and radiation also increases. The
rate of heat loss is a function of the difference in temperature between the conductor and the
surroundings, so as the conductor temperature rises, so does its rate of beat loss.
A cable carrying a steady current, which produces a fixed heating effect, will get hotter until
it reaches the balance temperature where heat input is equal to heat loss {Fig 4.8}. The final
temperature achieved by the cable will thus depend on the current carried, how easily heat is
dissipated from the cable and the temperature of the cable surroundings.
PVC. is probably the most usual form of insulation, and is very susceptible to damage by
high temperatures. It is very important that p.v.c. insulation should not be allowed normally
to exceed 70°C, so the current ratings of cables are designed to ensure that this will not
happen. Some special types of p.v.c. may be used up to 85°C. A conductor temperature as
high as 160°C is permissible under very short time fault conditions, on the assumption that
when the the fault is cleared the p.v.c. insulation will dissipate the heat without itself
reaching a dangerous temperature.

Fig 4.8 Heat balance graph for a cable

A different set of cable ratings will become necessary if the ability of a cable to shed its beat
changes. Thus, [Appendix 4] has different Tables and columns for different types of cables,
with differing conditions of installation, degrees of grouping and so on. For example,
mineral insulation does not deteriorate, even at very high temperatures. The insulation is
also an excellent heat conductor, so the rating of such a cable depends on how hot its sheath
can become rather than the temperature of its insulation.
For example, if a mineral insulated cable has an overall sheath of LSF or p.v.c., the copper
sheath temperature must not exceed 70°C, whilst if the copper sheath is bare and cannot be
touched and is not in contact with materials which are combustible its temperature can be
allowed to reach 150°C. Thus, a 1mm² light duty twin mineral insulated cable has a current
rating of 18.5 A when it has an LSF or p.v.c. sheath, or 22 A if bare and not exposed to
touch. It should be noticed that the cable volt drop will be higher if more current is carried
(see{4.3.11}). [Appendix 4] includes a large number of Tables relating to the current rating
of cables installed in various ways. The use of the Tables will be considered in more detail
in {4.3.4 to 4.3.11}.
4.3.11 Methods of cable installation
We have seen that the rating of a cable depends on its ability to lose the heat produced in it
by the current it carries and this depends to some extent on the way the cable is installed. A
cable clipped to a surface will more easily be able to dissipate heat than a similar cable
which is installed with others in a conduit,
[Table 4A] of [Appendix 4] lists twenty standard methods of installation, each of them taken
into account in the rating tables of the same Appendix. For example, two 2.5 mm² single
core p.v.c. insulated non-armoured cables drawn into a steel conduit (installation method 3)
have a current rating of 24 A {Table 4.6}. A 2.5 mm² twin p.v.c. insulated and sheathed
cable, which contains exactly the same conductors, has a current rating of 27 A {Table 4.7}
when clipped directly to anon-metallic surface. Cables sheathed in p.v.c. must not be
subjected to direct sunlight, because the ultra-violet component will leach out the plasticiser,
causing the sheath to harden and crack. Cables must not be run in the same enclosure (e.g.
trunking, pipe or ducting) as non-electrical services such as water, gas, air, etc. unless it has
been established that the electrical system can suffer no harm as a result. If electrical and
other services have metal sheaths and are touching, they must be bonded. Cables must not be
run in positions where they may suffer or cause damage or interference with other systems.
They should not, for example, be run alongside hot pipes or share a space with a hearing
induction loop.
Special precautions may need to be taken where cables or equipment are subject to ionising
radiation. Where a wiring system penetrates a load bearing part of a building construction it
must he ensured that the penetration will not adversely affect the integrity of the
construction.
The build-up of dust on cables can act as thermal insulation. In some circumstances the dust
may be flammable or even explosive. Design cable runs to minimise dust accumulation: run
cables on vertically mounted cable ladders rather than horizontal cable trays. When cables
are run together, each sets up a magnetic field with a strength depending on the current
carried. This field surrounds other cables, so that there is the situation of current-carrying
conductors situated in a magnetic field. This will result in a force on the conductor, which is
usually negligible under normal conditions but which can become very high indeed when
heavy currents flow under fault conditions. All cables and conductors must be properly fixed
or supported to prevent damage to them under these conditions.
4.3.12 Ambient temperature correction factors
The transfer of heat, whether by conduction, convection or radiation, depends on
temperature difference - heat flows from hot to cold at a rate which depends on the
temperature difference between them. Thus, a cable installed near the roof of a boiler house
where the surrounding (ambient) temperature is very high will not dissipate heat so readily
as one clipped to the wall of a cold wine cellar.
[Appendix 4] includes two tables giving correction factors to take account of the ability of a
cable to shed heat due to the ambient temperature. The Regulations use the symbol Ca to
represent this correction factor. The tables assume that the ambient temperature is 30°C and
give a factor by which current rating is multiplied for other ambient temperatures.
For example, if a cable has a rating of 24 A and an ambient temperature correction factor of
0.77, the new current rating becomes 24 x 0.77 or 18.5 A. Different values are given
depending on whether the circuit in question is protected by a semi-enclosed (rewirable)
fuse or some other method of protection. The most useful of the correction factors are given
in {Table 4.3}.
In {Table 4.3}, '70°C m.i.' gives data for mineral insulated cables with sheaths covered in
p.v.c. or LSF or open to touch, and '105°C m.i.' for mineral insulated cables with bare
sheaths which cannot be touched and are not in contact with combustible material. The cable
which is p.v.c. sheathed or can be touched must run cooler than if it is bare and not in
contact with combustible material, and so has lower correction factors.
Mineral insulated cables must have insulating sleeves in terminations with the same
temperature rating as the seals used.
Where a cable is subjected to sunlight, it will not be able to lose heat so easily as one
which is shaded. This is taken into account by adding 200°C to the ambient temperature for
a cable which is unshaded.

Table 4.3 Correction factors to current rating for ambient temperature (Ca) (from
[Tables 4C1 and 4C2] of BS 7671: 1992)
Ambient
temperatur Type of insulation
e
(°C) 70°C p.v.c 85°C rubber 70°C m.i 105°C m.i
25 1.03 (1.03) 1.02 (1.02) 1.03 (1.03) 1.02 (1.02)
30 1.00 (1.00) 1.00 (1.00) 1.00 (1.00) 1.00 (1.00)
35 0.94 (0.97) 0.95 (0.97) 0.93 (0.96) 0.96 (0.98)
40 0.87 (0.94) 0.90 (0.95) 0.85 (0.93) 0.92 (0.96)
 45 0.79 (0.91) 0.85 (0.93) 0.77 (0.89) 0.88 (0.93)
50 0.71 (0.97) 0.80 (0.91) 0.67 (0.86) 0.84 (0.91)
55 0.61 (0.84) 0.74 (0.88) 0.57 (0.79) 0.80 (0.89)
Figures in brackets apply to semi-enclosed fuses used for overload protection

4.3.13 Cable grouping correction factors

If a number of cables is installed together and each is carrying current, they will all warm
up. Those which are on the outside of the group will be able to transmit heat outwards, but
will be restricted in losing heat inwards towards other warm cables. Cables 'buried' in others
near the centre of the group may find it impossible to shed heat at all, and will rise further in
temperature {Fig 4.9}.

Fig 4.9 The need for the grouping correction factor Cg

a) widely spaced cables dissipate heat easily
b) A closely packed cable cannot easily dissipate heat and so its temperature rises
Because of this, cables installed in groups with others (for example, if enclosed in a conduit
or trunking) are allowed to carry less current than similar cables clipped to, or lying on, a
solid surface which can dissipate heat more easily. If surface mounted cables are touching
the reduction in the current rating is, as would be expected, greater than if they are
separated. {Figure 4.9} illustrates the difficulty of dissipating heat in a group of cables.
For example, if a certain cable has a basic current rating of 24 A and is installed in a
trunking with six other circuits (note carefully, this is circuits and not cables), Cg has a value
of 0.57 and the cable current rating becomes 24 x 0.57 or 13.7 A. The symbol Cg is used to
represent the factor used for derating cables to allow for grouping. {Table 4.4} shows some
of the more useful values of Cg.
The grouping factors are based on the assumption that all cables in a group are carrying
rated current. If a cable is expected to carry no more than 30% of its grouped rated current, it
can be ignored when calculating the group rating factor. For example, if there are four
circuits in a group but one will be carrying less than 30% of its grouped rating, the group
may be calculated on the basis of having only three circuits.
The grouping factor may also be applied to the determination of current ratings for cables as
explained in {3.8}.
Table 4.4 - Correction factors for groups of cables
 Number of Correction factor Cg
circuits Enclosed or clipped Clipped to non-metallic surface
Touching Spaced*
2 0.80 0.85 0.94
3 0.70 0.79 0.90
4 0.65 0.75 0.90
5 0.60 0.73 0.90
6 0.57 0.72 0.90
7 0.54 0.72 0.90
8 0.52 0.71 0.90
9 0.50 0.70 0.90
10 0.48 ---------- 0.90
* ‘Spaced’ means a gap between cables at least equal to cable diameter.
4.3.14 Thermal insulation correction factors
The use of thermal insulation in buildings, in the forms of cavity wall filling, roof space
blanketing, and so on. is now standard. Since the purpose of such materials is to limit the
transfer of heat, they will clearly affect the ability of a cable to dissipate the heat build up
within it when in contact with them,
The cable rating tables of [Appendix 4] allow for the reduced heat loss for a cable which is
enclosed in an insulating wall and is assumed to be in contact with the insulation on one
side. In all other cases, the cable should be fixed in a position where it is unlikely to be
completely covered by the insulation. Where this is not possible and a cable is buried in
thermal insulation for 0.5 m (500 mm) or more, a rating factor (the symbol for the thermal
insulation factor is Ci) of 0.5 is applied, which means that the current rating is halved.
Table 4.5 - Derating factors (CI) for cables up to 10mm² in cross-sectional area buried
in thermal insulation.
Length in insulation (mm) Derating factor (CI)
50 0.89
100 0.81
200 0.68
400 0.55
500 or more 0.50
If a cable is totally surrounded by thermal insulation for only a short length (for example,
where a cable passes through an insulated wall), the heating effect on the insulation will not
be so great because heat will be conducted from the short high-temperature length through
the cable conductor. Clearly, the longer the length of cable enclosed in the insulation the
greater will be the derating effect. {Table 4.5} shows the derating factors for lengths in
insulation of up to 400 mm and applies to cables having cross-sectional area up to 10 mm².
Commonly-used cavity wall fillings, such as polystyrene sheets or granules, will have an
adverse effect on p.v.c. sheathing, leeching out some of the plasticiser so that the p.v.c.
becomes brittle. In such cases, an inert barrier must be provided to separate the cable from
the thermal insulation. PVC cable in contact with bitumen may have some of its plasticiser
removed: whilst this is unlikely to damage the cable, the bitumen will become fluid and may
run.
 4.3.15 When a number of correction factors applies
In some cases all the correction factors will need to be applied because there are parts of the
cable which are subject to all of them. For example, if a mineral insulated cable with p.v.c.
sheath protected by a circuit breaker and with a tabulated rated current of 34 A is run within
the insulated ceiling of a boiler house with an ambient temperature of 45°C and forms part
of a group of four circuits, derating will be applied as follows:
Actual current rating (lz) = tabulated current (It) x ambient temperature factor(Ca) x group
factor (Cg) x thermal insulation factor (Ci)
= 34 x 0.77 x 0.65 x 0.5A = 8.5A
In this case, the current rating is only one quarter of its tabulated value due to the application
of correction factors. A reduction of this sort will only occur when all the correction factors
apply at the same time. There are many cases where this is not so. If, for example, the cable
above were clipped to the ceiling of the boiler house and not buried in thermal insulation,
the thermal insulation factor would not apply.
Then, Iz = It x Ca x Cg = 34 x 0.77 x 0.65 A = 17.0 A
The method is to calculate the overall factor for each set of cable conditions and then to use
the lowest only. For example, if an the way to the boiler house the cable is buried in thermal
insulation in the wall of a space where the temperature is only 20°C and runs on its own, not
grouped with other circuits, only the carrection factor for thermal insulation would apply.
However, since the cable is then grouped with others, and is subject to a high ambient
temperature, the factors are:
Ci = 0.5
Ca x Cg = 0.77 x 0.65 = 0.5
 The two factors are the same, so either (but not both) can be applied. Had they been
different, the smaller would have been used.
 
4.3.16 Protection by semi-enclosed (rewirable) fuses
If the circuit concerned is protected by a semi-enclosed (rewirable) fuse the cable size will
need to be larger to allow for the fact that such fuses are not so certain in operation as are
cartridge fuses or circuit breakers. The fuse rating must never be greater than 0.725 times the
current carrying capacity of the lowest-rated conductor protected.
In effect, this is the same as applying a correction factor of 0.725 to all circuits protected by
semi-enclosed (rewirable) fuses. The ambient temperature correction factors of {Table 4.3}
are larger than those for other protective devices to take this into account.
4.3.17 Cable rating calculation
The Regulations indicate the following symbols for use when selecting cables:
 Iz is the current carrying capacity of the cable in the situation where it is installed
It is the tabulated current for a single circuit at an ambient temperature of 30°C
Ib is the design current, the actual current to be carried by the cable
In is the rating of the protecting fuse or circuit breaker
I2 is the operating current for the fuse or circuit breaker (the current at which the
fuse blows or the circuit breaker opens)
Ca is the correction factor for ambient temperature
Cg is the correction factor for grouping
Ci is the correction factor for thermal insulation.
The correction factor for protection by a semi-enclosed (rewirable) fuse is not given a
symbol but has a fixed value of 0.725.
Under all circumstances, the cable current carrying capacity must be equal to or greater than
the circuit design current and the rating of the fuse or circuit breaker must be at least as big
as the circuit design current. These requirements are common sense, because otherwise the
cable would be overloaded or the fuse would blow when the load is switched an.
To ensure correct protection from overload, it is important that the protective device
operating current (I2) is not bigger than 1.45 times the current carrying capacity of the cable
(Iz). Additionally, the rating of the fuse or circuit breaker (In) must not be greater than the
the cable current carrying capacity (Iz) It is important to appreciate that the operating current
of a protective device is always larger than its rated value. In the case of a back-up fuse,
which is not intended to provide overload protection, neither of these requirements applies.
To select a cable for a particular application, take the following steps: (note that to save time
it may be better first to ensure that the expected cable for the required length of circuit will]
not result in the maximum permitted volt drop being exceeded {4.3.11}).
1. Calculate the expected (design) current in the circuit (Ib)
6. Choose the type and rating of protective device (fuse or circuit breaker) to be
used (In)
7. Divide the protective device rated current by the ambient temperature correction
factor (Ca) if ambient temperature differs from 30°C
8. Further divide by the grouping correction factor (Cg)
9. Divide again by the thermal insulation correction factor (CI)
10. Divide by the semi-enclosed fuse factor of 0.725 where applicable
11. The result is the rated current of the cable required, which must be chosen from
the appropriate tables {4.6 to 4.9}.
Observe that one should divide by the correction factors, whilst in the previous subsection
we were multiplying them. The difference is that here we start with the design current of the
circuit and adjust it to take account of factors which will derate the cable. Thus, the current
carrying capacity of the cable will be equal to or greater than the design current. In {4.3.7}
we were calculating by how much the current carrying capacity was reduced due to
application of correction factors.
{Tables 4.6 to 4.9} give current ratings and volt drops for some of the more commonly used
cables and sizes. The Tables assume that the conductors and the insulation are operating at
their maximum rated temperatures. They are extracted from the Regulations Tables shown
in square brackets e.g. [4D1A]
The examples below will illustrate the calculations, but do not take account of volt drop
requirements (see {4.3.11}).

Example 4.1

An immersion heater rated at 240 V, 3 kW is to be installed using twin with protective

conductor p.v.c. insulated and sheathed cable. The circuit will be fed from a 15 A miniature
circuit breaker type 2, and will be run for much of its 14 m length in a roof space which is
thermally insulated with glass fibre. The roof space temperature is expected to rise to 50°C
in summer, and where it leaves the consumer unit and passes through a 50 mm insulation-
filled cavity, the cable will be bunched with seven others. Calculate the cross-sectional area
of the required cable.
First calculate the design current Ib
P 3000
I b= = =12.5 A
U 240
The ambient temperature correction factor is found from {Table 4.3} to be 0.71. The group
correction factor is found from {Table 4.4} as 0.52. (The circuit in question is bunched with
seven others, making eight in all).
The thermal insulation correction factor is already taken into account in the current rating
table (4D2A ref. method 4] and need not be further considered. This is because we can
assume that the cable in the roof space is in contact with the glass fibre but not enclosed by
it. What we must consider is the point where the bunched cables pass through the insulated
cavity. From {Table 4.5} we have a factor of 0.89.
The correction factors must now be considered to see if more than one of them applies to the
same part of the cable. The only place where this happens is in the insulated cavity behind
the consumer unit. Factors of 0.52 (Cg) and 0.89 (CI) apply. The combined value of these
(0.463), which is lower than the ambient temperature correction factor of 0.71, and will thus
be the figure to be applied. Hence the required current rating is calculated:-
Table 4.6 - Current ratings and volt drops for unsheathed single core p.v.c. insulated
cables
Cross In conduit In conduit In In
Clipped Clipped
sectional in thermal in thermal conduit conduit Volt drop Volt drop
direct direct
area insulation insulation on wall on wall
(mm²) (A) (A) (A) (A) (A) (A) (mV/A/m) (mV/A/m)
3 or 4 3 or 4 3 or 4 3 or 4
- 2 cables 2 cables 2 cables 2 cables
cables cables cables cables
1.0 11.0 10.5 13.5 12.0 15.5 14.0 44.0 38.0
1.5 14.5 13.5 17.5 15.5 20.0 18.0 29.0 25.0
2.5 19.5 18.0 24.0 21.0 27.0 25.0 18..0 15.0
4.0 26.0 24.0 32.0 28.0 37.0 33.0 11.0 9.5
6.0 34.0 31.0 41.0 36.0 47.0 43.0 7.3 6.4
10.0 46.0 42.0 57.0 50.0 65.0 59.0 4.4 3.8
16.0 61.0 56.0 76.0 68.0 87.0 79.0 2.8 2.4

Table 4.7 - Current ratings and volt drops for sheathed multi-core p.v.c.-insulated
cables
Cross In conduit In conduit In In
Clipped Clipped
sectional in thermal in thermal conduit conduit Volt drop Volt drop
direct direct
area insulation insulation on wall on wall
(mm²) (A) (A) (A) (A) (A) (A) (mV/A/m) (mV/A/m)
3 or 4 3 or 4
- 2 core 3 or 4 core 2 core 2 core 2 core 3 or 4 core
core core
1.0 11.0 10.0 13.0 11.5 15.0 13.5 44.0 38.0
1.5 14.0 13.0 16.5 15.0 19.5 17.5 29.0 25.0
2.5 18.5 17.5 23.0 20.0 27.0 24.0 18.0 15.0
4.0 25.0 23.0 30.0 27.0 36.0 32.0 11.0 9.5
6.0 32.0 29.0 38.0 34.0 46.0 41.0 7.3 6.4
10.0 43.0 39.0 52.0 46.0 63.0 57.0 4.4 3.8
16.0 57.0 52.0 69.0 62.0 85.0 76.0 2.8 2.4

In 15 A
Iz = = =32.4 A
C g x Ci 0.52 x 0.89

From {Table 4.7}, 6 mm² p.v.c. twin with protective conductor has a current rating of 32 A.
This is not quite large enough, so 10 mm²with a current rating of 43 A is indicated. Not only
would this add considerably to the costs, but would also result in difficulties due to
terminating such a large cable in the accessories.
A more sensible option would be to look for a method of reducing the required cable size.
For example, if the eight cables left the consumer unit in two bunches of four, this would
result in a grouping factor of 0.65 (from {Table 4.4}). Before applying this, we must check
that the combined grouping and thermal insulation factors (0.65 x 0.89 = .0.58) are still less
than the ambient temperature factor of 0.71, which is the case.
Table 4.8 - Current ratings of mineral insulated cables clipped direct
Cross- Volt p.v.c. sheath p.v.c. p.v.c. Bare sheath Bare
 sectional 2 x single or Sheath 3 Sheath 3 x 2 x single sheath 3 x
area twin core single or single
twin
(mm²) (A) (A) (A) (A) (A)
1.0 500v 18.5 16.5 16.5 22.0 21.0
1.5 500v 24.0 21.0 21.0 28.0 27.0
2.5 500v 31.0 28.0 28.0 38.0 36.0
4.0 500v 42.0 37.0 37.0 51.0 47.0
1.0 750v 20.0 17.5 17.5 24.0 24.0
1.5 750v 25.0 22.0 22.0 31.0 30.0
2.5 750v 34.0 30.0 30.0 42.0 41.0
4.0 750v 45.0 40.0 40.0 55.0 53.0
6.0 750v 57.0 51.0 51.0 70.0 67.0
10.0 750v 78.0 69.0 69.0 96.0 91.0
16.0 750v 104.0 92.0 92.0 127.0 119.0
Note that in (Tables 4.8 and 4.9) 'P.V.C. Sheath means bare and exposed to touch or having
an over-all covering of p.v.c. or LSF and 'Bare' means bare and neither exposed to touch nor
in contact with combustible materials.
Table 4.9 - Volt drops for mineral insulated cables
Cross- Single-phase p.v.c. Single-phase Three-phase p.v.c. Three-phase
sectional area Sheath bare Sheath bare
(mm²) (mV/A/m) (mV/A/m) (mV/A/m) (mV/A/m)
1.0 42.0 47.0 36.0 40.0
1.5 28.0 31.0 24.0 27.0
2.5 17.0 19.0 14.0 16.0
4.0 10.0 12.0 9.1 10.0
6.0 7.0 7.8 6.0 6.8
10.0 4.2 4.7 3.6 4.1
16.0 2.6 3.0 2.3 2.6
15 A
This leads to a cable current rating of =25.9 A
0.65 x 0.89
This is well below the rating for 6 mm² of 32 A, so a cable of this size could be selected.

Example 4.2

The same installation as in Example 4.1 is proposed. To attempt to make the cable size
smaller, the run in the roof space is to be kept clear of the glass fibre insulation. Does this
make any difference to the selected cable size?
There is no correction factor for the presence of the glass fibre, so the calculation of Iz will
be exactly the same as Example 4.1 at 32.4 A.
This time reference method I (clipped direct) will apply to the current rating {Table 4.7}.
For a two core cable, 4.0 mm², two core has a rating of 36 A, so this Will be the selected
size.
It is of interest to notice how quite a minor change in the method of installation, in this case
clipping the cable to the joists or battens clear of the glass fibre, has reduced the acceptable
cable size.

Example 4.3

Assume that the immersion heater indicated in the two previous examples is to be installed,
but this time with the protection of a 15 A rewirable (semi-enclosed) fuse. Calculate the
correct cable size for each of the alternatives, that is where firstly the cable is in contact with
glass fibre insulation, and secondly where it is held clear of it.
This time the value of the acceptable current carrying capacity Iz will be different because of
the need to include a factor for the rewirable fuse as well as the new ambient temperature
and grouping factors for the rewirable fuse from {Tables 4.3 and 4.4}.
In 15
I Z= = =45.73
C g x C a x 0.725 0.52 x 0.87 x 0.725
In this case, the cable is in contact with the glass fibre, so the first column of {Table 4.7} of
current ratings will apply. The acceptable cable size is 16 mm² which has a current rating of
57 A.
This cable size is not acceptable on the grounds of high cost and because the conductors are
likely to be too large to enter the connection tunnels of the immersion heater and its
associated switch. If the cables leaving the consumer unit are re-arranged in two groups of
four, this will reduce the grouping factor to 0.65, so that the newly calculated value of Iz is
36.6 A. This means using 10 mm² cable with a current rating of 43A (from {Table 4.7}),
since 6 mm² cable is shown to have a current rating in these circumstances of only 32 A. By
further rearranging the cables leaving the consumer unit to be part of a group of only two,
Cg is increased to 0.8, which reduces Iz to 29.7 A which enables selection of a 6 mm² cable.
Should it be possible to bring the immersion heater cable out of the consumer unit on its
own, no grouping factor would apply and Iz would fall to 23.8 A, allowing a 4 mm² cable to
be selected.
Where the cable is not in contact with glass fibre there will be no need to repeat the
calculation of Iz, which still has a value of 29.7 A provided that it is possible to group the
immersion heater cable with only one other where it leaves the consumer unit. This time we
use the 'Reference Method 1 (clipped direct)' column of the current rating {Table 4.7},
which shows that 4 mm² cable with a current rating of 36 A will be satisfactory.
Examples 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 show clearly how forward planning will enable a more
economical and practical cable size to be used than would appear necessary at first. It is, of
course, important that the design calculations are recorded and retained in the installation
manual.
Example 4.4

A 415 V 50 Hz three-phase motor with an output of 7,5 kW, power factor 0.8 and efficiency
85% is the be wired using 500 V light duty three-core mineral insulated p.v.c. sheathed
cable. The length of run from the HBC protecting fuses is 20 m, and for about half this run
the cable is clipped to wall surfaces. For the remainder it shares a cable tray, touching two
similar cables across the top of a boiler room where the ambient temperature is 50°C.
Calculate the rating and size of the correct cable.
The first step is to calculate the line current of the motor.
output 7.5 KW
Input = = =8.82 KW
efficiency 0.85
P 8.82 x 103 W
Line current Ib = = =15.3 A
√ 3 x U L xcosφ √ 3 x 415 x 0.8
We must now select a suitable fuse. {Fig 3.15} for BS 88 fuses shows the 16 A size to be
the most suitable. Part of the run is subject to an ambient temperature of 50°C, where the
cable is also part of a group of three, so the appropriate correction factors must be applied
from {Tables 4.3 and 4.4}.
In 16
I Z= = =34.2 A
C g x C a 0.70 x 0.67
Note that the grouping factor of 0.70 has been selected because where the cable is grouped it
is clipped to a metallic cable tray, and not to a non-metallic surface. Next the cable must be
chosen from {Table 4.8}. Whilst the current rating would be 15.3 A if all of the cable run
were clipped to the wall, part of the run is subject to the two correction factors, so a rating of
34.2 A must be used. For the clipped section of the cable (15.3 A), reference method I could
be used which gives a size of 1.0 mm² (current rating 16.5 A). However, since part of the
cable is on the tray (method 3) the correct size for 34.2 A will be 4.0 mm², with a rating of
37 A.
4.3.18 Special formulas for grouping factor calculation
In some cases the conductor sizes where cables are grouped and determined by the methods
shown in {4.3.9} can be reduced by applying some rather complex formulas given in
[Appendix 4].
Whilst it is true that in many cases the use of these formulas will show the installer that it is
safe for him to use a smaller cable than he would have needed by simple application of
correction factors, this is by no means always the case. There are many cases where their
application will make no difference at all. Since this book is for the electrician, rather than
for the designer, the rather complicated mathematics will be omitted.
4.3.19 Cable volt drop
All cables have resistance, and when current flows in them this results in a volt drop. Hence,
the voltage at the load is lower than the supply voltage by the amount of this volt drop.
 The volt drop may be calculated using the
basic Ohm's law formula

U=IxR

where U is the cable volt drop (V

I is the
 
circuit current (A), and

  R is the circuit resistance W(Ohms)

Unfortunately, this simple formula is seldom of use in this case, because the cable resistance
under load conditions is not easy to calculate.
[525-01-03] indicates that the voltage at any load must never fall so low as to impair the safe
working of that load, or fall below the level indicated by the relevant British Standard where
one applies.
[525-01-02] indicates that these requirements will he met if the voltage drop does not exceed
4% of the declared supply voltage. If the supply is single-phase at the usual level of 240 V,
this means a maximum volt drop of 4% of 240 V which is 9.6 V, giving (in simple terms) a
load voltage as low as 230.4 V. For a 415 V three-phase system, allowable volt drop will be
16.6 V with a line load voltage as low as 398.4 V.
It should be borne in mind that European Agreement RD 472 S2 allows the declared supply
voltage of 230 V to vary by +10% or -6%. Assuming that the supply voltage of 240 V is 6%
low, and allowing a 4% volt drop, this gives permissible load voltages of 216.6 V for a
single-phase supply, or 374.5 V (line) for a 415 V three-phase supply.
To calculate the volt drop for a particular cable we use {Tables 4.6, 4.7 and 4.9}. Each
current rating table has an associated volt drop column or table. For example, multicore
sheathed non-armoured P.V.C. insulated cables are covered by {Table 4.7} for current
ratings, and volt drops. The exception in the Regulations to this layout is for mineral
insulated cables where there are separate volt drop tables for single- and three-phase
operation, which are combined here as {Table 4.9}.
Each cable rating in the Tables of [Appendix 4] has a corresponding volt drop figure in
millivolts per ampere per metre of run (mV/A/m). Strictly this should be mV/(A m), but here
we shall follow the pattern adopted by BS 7671: 1992. To calculate the cable volt drop:
1. -take the value from the volt drop table (mV/A/m)
12. -multiply by the actual current in the cable (NOT the current rating)
13. -multiply by the length of run in metres
14. -divide the result by one thousand (to convert millivolts to volts).
For example, if a 4 mm² p.v.c. sheathed circuit feeds a 6 kW shower and has a length of run
of 16 m, we can find the volt drop thus:
- From {Table 4.7}, the volt drop figure for 4 mm² two-core cable is 11 mV/A/m.
 P 6000W
Cable current is calculated from : I= = =25 A
A 240 V
11 x 25 x 16
Volt drop is then: =4.4 V 11
1000
Since the permissible volt drop is 4% of 240 V, which is 9.6 V, the cable in question meets
volt drop requirements. The following examples will make the method clear.

Example 4.5

Calculate the volt drop for the case of Example 4.1. What maximum length of cable would
allow the installation to comply with the volt drop regulations?
The table concerned here is {4.7}, which shows a figure of 7.3 mV/A/m for 6 mm² twin with
protective conductor pvc insulated and sheathed cable. The actual circuit current is 12.5 A,
and the length of run is 14 m.
7.3 x 12.5 x 14 V
Volt drop = =¿ 1.28 V
1000

4 of 240 V
Maximum permissible volt drop is 4% of 240 V = =¿9.6 V
100

If a 14 m run gives a volt drop of 1.28 V, the length of run for a 9.6 V drop will be:
9.6 x 14 m
=105m
1.28

Example 4.6

Calculate the volt drop for the case of {Example 4.2}. What maximum length of cable
would allow the installation to comply with the volt drop regulations?
The Table concerned here is {4.7} which shows a volt drop figure for 4.0 mm² cable of
11mV/A/m, with the current and the length of run remaining at 12.5 A. and 14 m
respectively.
Volt drop = 11 x 12.5 x 14 V = 1.93 V
  1000  

Maximum permissible volt drop is 4% of 240 V = 4 of 240 V = 9.6 V

    100  
 If a 14 m run gives a volt drop of 1.93 V, 9.6 x 14m = 70m
the length of run for a 9.6 V drop will be: 1.93  

Example 4.7
Calculate the volt drop for the cases of {Example 4.3} for each of the alternative
installations. What maximum length of cable would allow the installation to comply with the
volt drop regulations in each case?
In neither case is there any change in cable sizes, the selected cables being 6 mm² in the first
case and 4 mm² in the second. Solutions are thus the same as those in {Examples 4.5 and
4.6} respectively.
Example 4.8
Calculate the volt drop and maximum length of run for the motor circuit of {Example 4.4}.
This time we have a mineral insulated p.v.c. sheathed cable, so volt drop figures will come
from {Table 4.9}. This shows 9.1 mV/A/m for the 4 mm² cable selected, which must be
used with the circuit current of 15.3 A and the length of run which is 20 m.
Volt drop = 9.1 x 15.3 x 20 V = 2.78 V
1000  
Maximum permissible volt drop is 4% of 415 V =4 of 415V = 16.6 V
    100
Maximum length of run for this circuit with the same cable size and type will be
: 16.6 x 20m = 119m
2.78  

The 'length of run' calculations carried out in these examples are often useful to the
electrician when installing equipment at greater distances from the mains position.
It is important to appreciate that the allowable volt drop of 4% of the supply voltage applies
to the whole of an installation. If an installation has mains, sub-mains and final circuits, for
instance, the volt drop in each must be calculated and added to give the total volt drop as
indicated in {Fig 4.10}.
All of our work in this sub-section so far has assumed that cable resistance is the only factor
responsible for volt drop. In fact, larger cables have significant self inductance as well as
resistance. As we shall see in Chapter 5 there is also an effect called impedance which is
made up of resistance and inductive reactance (see {Fig 5.8(a)}).
Inductive reactance XL = 2(pi)fL
Where :
XL = inductive reactance in Wohms
(pi) = the mathematical constant 3.142
 F = the system frequency in hertz (Hz)
L = circuit self inductance in henrys (H)
It is clear that inductive reactance increases with frequency, and for this reason the volt drop
tables apply only to systems with a frequency lying between 49 Hz and 61 Hz.

Fig 4.10 Total volt drop in large installations

For small cables, the self inductance is such that the inductive reactance, is small compared
with the resistance. Only with cables of cross-sectional area 25 mm² and greater need
reactance be considered. Since cables as large as this are seldom used on work which has not
been designed by a qualified engineer, the subject of reactive volt drop component will not
be further considered here.
If the actual current carried by the cable (the design current) is less than the rated
value, the cable will not become as warm as the calculations used to produce the volt drop
tables have assumed, The Regulations include (in [Appendix 4]) a very complicated formula
to be applied to cables of cross-sectional area 16 mm² and less which may show that the
actual volt drop is less than that obtained from the tables. This possibility is again seldom of
interest to the electrician, and is not considered here.
4.3.20 Harmonic currents and neutral conductors
A perfectly balanced three-phase system (one with all three phase loads identical in all
respects) has no neutral current and thus has no need of a neutral conductor. This is often so
with motors, which are fed through three core cables in most cases.
Many three-phase loads are made up of single-phase loads, each connected between one line
and neutral. It is not likely in such cases that the loads will be identical, so the neutral will
carry the out-of-balance current of the system. The greater the degree of imbalance, the
larger the neutral current.
Some three-phase four-core cables have a neutral of reduced cross-section on the
assumption that there will be some degree of balance. Such a cable must not be used unless
the installer is certain that severe out-of-balance conditions will never occur. Similar action
must be taken with a three-phase circuit wired in single-core cables. A reduced neutral
conductor may only be used where out-of-balance currents will be very small compared to
the line currents.
A problem is likely to occur in systems which generate significant third harmonic currents.
Devices such as discharge lamp ballasts and transformers on low load distort the current
waveform. Thus, currents at three times normal frequency (third harmonics) are produced,
which do not cancel at the star point of a three-phase system as do normal frequency
currents, but add up, so that the neutral carries very heavy third harmonic currents. For this
reason, it is important not to reduce the cross-sectional area of a neutral used to feed
discharge lamps (including fluorescent lamps).
In some cases the neutral current may be considerably larger than the phase currents. Where
the load concerned is fed through a multi-core cable, it may be prudent to use five-core (or
even six-core) cables, so that two (or three) conductors may be used in parallel for the
neutral.
In some cases it may be necessary to insert overload protection in a neutral conductor. Such
protection must be arranged to open all phase conductors on operation, but not the neutral.
This clearly indicates the use of a special circuit breaker.
It is very important that the neutral of each circuit is kept quite separate from those of other
circuits. Good practice suggests that the separate circuit neutrals should be connected in the
same order at the neutral block as the corresponding phase conductors at the fuses or circuit
breakers.
4.3.21 Low smoke-emitting cables
Normal p.v.c. insulation emits dense smoke and corrosive gases when burning. If cables are
to be run in areas of public access, such as schools, supermarkets, hospitals, etc, the designer
should consider the use of special cables such as those with thermo-setting or elastomeric
insulation which do not cause such problems in the event of fire. This action is most likely
to be necessary in areas expected to be crowded, along fire escape routes, and where
equipment is likely to suffer damage due to corrosive fumes.
4.3.22 The effects of animals, insects and plants
Cables may be subject to damage by animals and plants as well as from their environment.
Rodents in particular seem to have a particular taste for some types of cable sheathing and
can gnaw through sheath and insulation to expose the conductors. Cables impregnated with
repellent chemicals are not often effective and may also fall foul of the Health and Safety
Regulations. Rodents build nests, often of flammable materials, leading to a fire hazard.
Care should be taken to avoid cable installation along possible vermin runs, but where this
cannot be avoided, steel conduit may be the answer.
Mechanical damage to wiring systems by larger animals such as cattle and horses can often
be prevented by careful siting of cable runs and outlets. Attention must also be given to the
fact that waste products from animals may be corrosive. Access by insects is difficult to
prevent, but vent holes can be sealed with breathers. Damage by plants is a possible hazard,
the effect of tree roots on small lighting columns being an obvious problem area.
4.4 Cable supports, joints and terminations
4.4.1 - Cable supports and protection
4.4.2 - Cable bends
4.4.3 - Joints and terminations
4.3.23 Cable supports and protection
Cables must be fixed securely at intervals which are close enough to ensure that there will
be no excessive strain on the cable or on its joints and terminations, and to prevent cable
loops appearing which could lead to mechanical damage. {Table 4.10} indicates minimum
acceptable spacings of fixings for some common types of cables.
Table 4.10 Maximum spacing for cable supports
p.v.c. sheathed Mineral insulated
Overall cable diameter
Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
up to 9 250 400 600 800
10 to 15 300 400 900 1200
16 to 20 350 450 1500 2000
21 to 40 400 550 2000 3000
Where cable runs are neither vertical nor horizontal, the spacing depends on the angle as
shown in {Fig 4.11}.
Where a cable is flat in cross-section as in the case of a p.v.c. insulated and sheathed type,
the overall diameter is taken as the major axis as shown in {Fig 4.12}.

Fig 4.11 Spacing of support clips on angled runs

 
 Fig 4.12 Effective diameter of a flat cable
The Regulations are concerned to protect hidden cables from damage. Thus, where cables
are run beneath boarded floors, they must pass through holes drilled in the joists which are at
least 50 mm below the top surface of the joist. This is to prevent accidental damage due to
nails being driven into the joists. The hole diameters must not exceed one quarter of the
depth of the joist and they must be drilled at the joist centre (the neutral axis). Hole centres
must be at least three diameters apart, and the holes must only be drilled in a zone which
extends 25% to 40% of the beam length from both ends.
An alternative is to protect the cable in steel conduit. It is not practicable to thread rigid
conduit through holes in the joists, so the steel conduit may be laid in slots cut in the upper
or lower edges as shown in {Fig 4.13}. The depth of the slot must be no greater than one
eighth of the joist depth and notches must be in a zone extending from 10% to 25% of the
beam length from both ends.

Fig 4.13 Support and protection for cables run under floors
Where cable runs are concealed behind plaster they must he installed in 'acceptable zones'
which are intended to reduce the danger to the cables and to people who drill holes or knock
nails into walls. Cable runs must only follow paths which are horizontal or vertical from an
outlet, or be within 150 mm of the top (but not the bottom) of the wall, or within 150 mm of
the angle formed by two adjoining {Fig 4.14} Acceptable installation zones for
concealed cables. The diagonal cable must be enclosed in earthed metal walls. Where a
cable run has to be diagonal, it must be protected by being enclosed in steel conduit, or must
be a cable with an earthed metal sheath (such as mineral insulated cable), or an insulated
concentric cable. In this latter case, the phase conductor will be surrounded by the neutral,
so that if a nail or a screw penetrates the cable it will be impossible for it to become live.
The possible zones are shown in (Fig 4.14). The internal partition walls of some modern
buildings are very thin, and where cables complying with the requirements above are within
50 mm of the surface on the other side, they will require protection.

Fig 4.14 Acceptable installation zones for concealed cables. The diagonal cable must be
enclosed in earthed metal.
There are cases where cables are enclosed in long vertical runs of trunking or conduit. The
weight of the cable run, which effectively is hanging onto the top support, can easily cause
damage by compressing the insulation where it is pulled against the support. In trunking
there must be effective supports no more than 5 m apart, examples of which are shown in
Fig 4.15, whilst for conduit the run must be provided with adaptable boxes at similar
intervals which can accommodate the necessary supports.

 
Fig 4.15 Support for vertical cables in trunking
The top of a vertical conduit or trunking run must have a rounded support to reduce
compression of insulation. The diameters required will be the same as those for cable bends
given in {4.4.2}.
Support for overhead conductors is considered in {7.13}.
4.3.24 Cable bends
If an insulated cable is bent too sharply, the insulation and sheath on the inside of the bend
will be compressed, whilst that on the outside will be stretched, This can result in damage to
the cable as shown in {Fig 4.16}.
The bending factor must be used to assess the minimum acceptable bending radius, values
for common cables being given in {Table 4.11}.

Fig 4.16 Damage to cable insulation due to bending

Type of insulation Overall diameter Bending factor
p.v.c. Up to 10mm 3 (2)
p.v.c. 10mm to 25mm 4 (3)
p.v.c. Over 25mm 6
mineral any 6*
* The figures in brackets apply to unsheathed single-core stranded p.v.c. cables when
installed in conduit, trunking or ducting.
* Mineral insulated cables may be bent at a minimum radius of three cable diameter
provided that they will only be bent once. This is because the copper sheath will ‘work
harden’ when bent and is likely to crack if straightened and bent again.
Table 4.11 Bending factors for common cables
The figures in brackets apply to unsheathed single-core stranded p.v.c. cables when installed
in conduit, trunking or ducting.
* Mineral insulated cables may be bent at a minimum radius of three cable diameter
provided that they will only be bent once. This is because the copper sheath will ‘work
harden’ when bent and is likely to crack if straightened and bent again.
The factor shown in the table is that by which the overall cable diameter {Fig 4.12} must be
multiplied to give the minimum inside radius of the bend. For example, 2.5 mm² twin with
protective conductor sheathed cable has a cross-section 9.7 mm x 5.4 mm. Since the Table
shows a factor of 3 for this size, the minimum inside radius of any bend must be 3 x 9.7 =
29.1 mm.
4.3.25 Joints and terminations
The normal installation has many joints, and it follows that these must all remain safe and
effective throughout the life of the system. With this in mind, regulations on joints include
the following:
1. All joints must be durable, adequate for their purpose, and mechanically strong.
2. They must be constructed to take account of the conductor material and
insulation, as well as temperature: eg, a soldered joint must not be used where the
temperature may cause the solder to melt or to weaken. Very large expansion
forces are not uncommon in terminal boxes situated at the end of straight runs of
large cables when subjected to overload or to fault currents.
3. All joints and connections must be made in an enclosure complying with the
appropriate British Standard.
4. Where sheathed cables are used, the sheath must be continuous into the joint
enclosure {Figure 4.17}.
5. All joints must be accessible for inspection and testing unless they are buried in
compound or encapsulated, are between the cold tail and element of a heater such
as a pipe tracer or underfloor heating system, or are made by soldering, welding,
brazing or compression.

Fig 4.17 Failure to enclose non-sheathed cables

4.5 Cable enclosures
4.5.1 - Plastic and metal conduits
4.5.2 - Ducting and trunking
4.5.3 - Cable capacity of conduits and trunking
4.3.26 Plastic and metal conduits
A system of conduits into which unsheathed cables can be drawn has long been a standard
method for electrical installations. The Regulations applying to conduit systems may be
summarised as follows:
1. All conduits and fittings must comply with the relevant British Standards.
2. -Plastic conduits must not be used where the ambient temperature or the
temperature of the enclosed cables will exceed 60°C. Cables with thermo-setting
insulation are permitted to run very hot, and must be suitably down-rated when
installed in plastic conduit. To prevent the spread of fire, plastic conduits (and
plastic trunking) must comply with ignitability characteristic 'P' of ES 476 Part 5.
3. -Conduit systems must be designed and erected so as to exclude moisture, dust
and dirt. This means that they must be completely closed, with box lids fitted. To
 ensure that condensed moisture does not accumulate, small drainage holes must
be provided at the lowest parts of the system.
4. Proper precautions must be taken against the effects of corrosion (see {4.2.5}), as
well as against the effects of flora (plant growths) and fauna (animals). Protection
from rusting of steel conduit involves the use of galvanised (zinc coated) tubing,
and against electrolytic corrosion the prevention of contact between dissimilar
metals eg steel and aluminium. Any additional protective conductor must be run
inside the conduit or its reactance is likely to be so high that it becomes useless if
intended to reduce fault loop impedance.
5. A conduit system must be completely erected before cables are drawn in. It must
be free of burrs or other defects which could damage cables whilst being inserted.
6. The bends in the system must be such that the cables drawn in will comply with
the minimum bending radius requirements {4.4.2}.
7. The conduit must be installed so that fire cannot spread through it, or through
holes cut in floors or walls to allow it to pass. This subject of fire spread will be
considered in greater detail in {4.5.2}
8. Allowance must be made, in the form of expansion loops, for the thermal
expansion of long runs of metal or plastic conduit. Remember that plastic
expands and contracts more than steel.
9. Use flexible joints when crossing building expansion joints
Table 4.12 - Maximum spacing of supports for conduits
Conduit diameter Rigid metal (m) Rigid insulating (m)
(mm) Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical
Up to 16 0.75 1.0 0.75 1.0
16 to 25 1.75 2.0 1.5 1.75
25 to 40 2.0 2.25 1.75 2.0
Over 40 2.25 2.5 2.0 2.0
4.3.27 Ducting and trunking
Metal and plastic trunkings are very widely used in electrical installations. They must be
manufactured to comply with the relevant British Standards, and must be installed so as to
ensure that they will not be damaged by water or by corrosion (see {4.2.5}).
Table 4.13 Support spacings for trunking
Typical trunking size Metal Insulating
(mm) Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical
Up to 25 x 25 0.75 1.0 0.5 0.5
Up to 50 x 25 1.25 1.5 0.5 0.5
Up to 50 x 50 1.75 2.0 1.25 1.25
Up to 100 x 50 3.0 3.0 1.75 2.0
If it is considered necessary to provide an additional protective conductor in parallel with
steel trunking, it must be run inside the trunking or the presence of steel between the live
and protective cables will often result in the reactance of the protective cable being so high
that it will have little effect on fault loop impedance. Trunking must be supported as
indicated in {Table 4.13}. The table does not apply to special lighting trunking which is
provided with strengthened couplers. Where crossing a building expansion joint a suitable
flexible joint should be included.
Where trunking or conduit passes through walls or floors the hole cut must be made good
after the first fix on the construction site to give the partition the same degree of fire
protection it had before the hole was cut. Since it is possible for fire to spread through the
interior of the trunking or conduit, fire barriers must be inserted as shown in {Fig 4.18}. An
exception is conduit or trunking with a cross-sectional area of less than 710 mm², so that
conduits up to 32 mm in diameter and trunking up to 25 mm x 25 mm need not be provided
with fire barriers. During installation, temporary fire barriers must be provided so that the
integrity of the fire prevention system is always maintained.

Fig 4.18 Provision of fire barriers in ducts and trunking

Since trunking will not be solidly packed with cables (see {4.5.3}) there will be room for air
movement. A very long vertical trunking run may thus become extremely hot at the top as
air heated by the cables rises; this must be prevented by barriers as shown in {Fig 4.19}. In
many cases the trunking will pass through floors as it rises, and the fire stop barriers needed
will also act as barriers to rising hot air.
Lighting trunking is being used to a greater extent than previously In many cases, it includes
copper conducting bars so that luminaires can be plugged in at any point, especially useful
for display lighting.
The considerably improved life, efficiency and colour rendering properties of extra-low
voltage tungsten halogen lamps has led to their increasing use, often fed by lighting
trunking. It is important here to remember that whilst the voltage of a 12 V lamp is only one
twentieth of normal mains potential, the current for the same power inputs will be twenty
times greater. Thus, a trunking feeding six 50 W 12 V lamps will need to he rated at 25 A.
 Fig 4.19 Heat barriers provided in vertical cable way
4.3.28 Cable capacity of conduits and trunking
Not oflly must it be possible to draw cables into completed conduit and trunking systems,
but neither the cables nor their enclosures must be damaged in the process. If too many
cables are packed into the space available, there will be a greater increase in temperature
during operation than if they were given more space. It is important to appreciate that
grouping factors (see {4.3.5}) still apply to cables enclosed in conduit or trunking.
To calculate the number of cables which may be drawn into a conduit or trunkmg, we make
use of four tables ({Tables 4.14 to 4.17}). For situations not covered by these tables, the
requirement is that a space factor of 45% must not be exceeded. This means that not more
than 45% of the space within the conduit or trunkmg must be occupied by cables, and
involves calculating the cross-sectional area of each cable, including its insulation, for which
the outside diameter must be known. The cable factors for cables with thermosetting
insulation are higher than those for pvc insulation when the cables are installed in trunking,
but the two are the same when drawn into conduit (see {Table 4.14})

Fig 4.20 Low voltage luminaire on lighting trunking

The figures in {Table 4.14} may be high when applied to some types of plastic trunking due
to the large size of the internal lid fixing clips.
To use the ({Tables 4.14 to 4.17}). the cable factors for all the conductors must be added.
The conduit or trunking selected must have a factor (otherwise called 'term') at least as large
as this number,

Example 4.9

The following single-core p.v.c. insulated cables are to be run in a conduit 6 m long with a
double set: 8 x 1,4 x 2.5 and 2 x 6 mm². Choose a suitable size.
Table 4.14 - Cable factors (terms) for conduit and trunking
Type of Conductor c.s.a. Factor for Factor for trunking Factor for trunking
conductor (mm²) conduit pvc insulation thermosetting insulation
Solid 1.0 16 3.6 3.8
Solid 1.5 22 8.0 8.6
Stranded 1.5 22 8.6 9.1
Solid 2.5 30 11.9 11.9
Stranded 2.5 30 12.6 13.9
Stranded 4.0 43 16.6 18.1
Stranded 6.0 58 21.2 22.9
Stranded 10.0 105 35.3 36.3
Stranded 16.0 145 47.8 50.3
Stranded 25.0 217 73.9 75.4

Table 4.15 - Cable factors (terms) for straight runs up to 3m.

Type of conductor Conductor c.s.a. (mm²) Cable factor
Solid 1.0 22
Solid 1.5 27
Solid 2.5 39
Stranded 1.5 31
Stranded 2.5 43
Stranded 4.0 58
Stranded 6.0 88
Stranded 10.0 146

Table 4.16 - Conduit factors (terms)

Length of run between boxes (m)
  1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
Conduit, straight
16mm 290 290 290 171 171 167 158 150
20mm 460 460 460 286 278 270 256 244
25mm 800 800 800 514 500 487 463 442
32mm 1400 1400 1400 900 878 857 818 783
Conduit, one bend-
16mm 188 177 167 158 150 143 130 120
20mm 303 286 270 256 244 233 213 196
25mm 543 514 487 463 442 422 388 258
32mm 947 900 857 818 783 750 692 643
Conduit, two bends-
16mm 177 158 143 130 120 111 97 86
20mm 286 256 233 213 196 182 159 141
25mm 514 463 422 388 358 333 292 260
32mm 900 818 750 692 643 600 529 474
For 38mm conduit use the 32mm factor x 1.4.
For 50mm conduit use the 32mm factor x 2.6.
For 63mm conduit use the 32mm factor x 4.2.
Table 4.17 Trunking factors (terms)
Dimensions of trunking (mm x mm) Factor
37.5 x 50 767
50 x 50 1037
25 x 75 738
37.5 x 75 1146
50 x 75 1555
75 x 75 2371
25 x 100 993
37.5 x 100 1542
50 x 100 2091
75 x 100 3189
100 x 100 4252
Consulting {Table 4.14} gives the following cable factors:
16 for 1 mm², 30 for 2.5 mm² and 58 for 6 mm²
Total cable factor is then (8 x 16) + (4 x 30) + (2 x 58) = 128 + 120 + 116 = 364
The terrn "bend" means a right angle bend or a double set.
{Table 4.16} gives a conduit factor for 20 mm conduit 6 m long with a double set as 233,
which is less than 364 and thus too small. The next size has a conduit factor of 422 which
will be acceptable since it is larger than 364.
The correct conduit size is 25 mm diameter.

Example 4.10

The first conduit from a distribution board will be straight and 10 m long. It is to enclose 4 x
10 mm² and 8 x 4 mm² cables. Calculate a suitable size.
From {Table 4.14}, cable factors are 105 and 43 respectively. Total cable factor:
=(4 x 105) + (8 x 43) = 420 + 344 = 764
From ({Table 4.15}, a 10 m long straight 25 mm conduit has a factor of 442. This is too
small, so the next size, with a factor of 783 must be used.
The correct conduit size is 32 mm diameter.

Example 4.11

A 1.5 m straight length of conduit from a consumer's unit encloses ten 1.5 mm² and four 2.5
mm² solid conductor p.v.c. insulated cables. Calculate a suitable con duit size.
From ({Table 4.15} (which is for short straight runs of conduit) total cable factor will be:
= (10 x 27) + (4 x 39) = 426
Table 4.16 shows that 20 mm diameter conduit with a factor of 460 will be necessary.

Example 4.12

A length of trunking is to carry eighteen 10 mm², sixteen 6 mm², twelve 4 mm², and ten 2.5
mm² stranded single p.v.c. insulated cables. Calculate a suitable trunking size.
The total cable factor for trunking is calculated with data from {Table 4.14}.
18 x 10mm² at 36.3 = 18 x 36.3 = 653.4
16 x 6mm² at 22.9 = 16 x 22.9 = 366.4
12 x 4mm² at 15.2 = 12 x 15.2 = 182.4
10 x 2.5mm² at 11.4 = l0 x ll.4 = 114.0
Total cable factor = 1316.2
From the trunking factor {Table 4.17}, two standard trunking sizes have factors slightly
greater than the cable factor, and either could be used .
They are 50 mm x 75 mm at 1555, and 37.5 mm x 100 mm at 1542
 4.6 Conductor and cable identification
4.6.1 - Conduits
4.6.2 - Identification of fixed wiring conductors
4.6.3 - Colours for flexible cables and cords
4.3.29 Conduits
The 'electrical' colour to distinguish conduits from pipelines of other services is orange (BS
1710). Oversheaths for mineral insulated cables are often the same colour, which is also
used to identify trunking and switchgear enclosures.
4.3.30 Identification of fixed wiring conductors
Colour is used to identify the conductors of a wiring system where it is possible to colour the
insulation. Where it is not, numbers are used. The requirements for identification of fixed
wiring are shown in {Fig 4.21}. There is as yet no requirement to use brown and blue to
identify the phase and neutral conductors of fixed wiring, although this applies to flexible
cords and cables (see {4.6.3}. The colour green on its own is prohibited, although green and
yellow stripes identify the protective conductor. The functional earth conductor for
telecommunication circuits is identified by the colour cream.

Fig 4.21 Identification of fixed wiring

Some cables comply with HD 324:1977 and have blue insulation on the neutral conductor.
This colour does not comply with BS 7671 and if such cables are used, they must be
correctly identified at their terminations by the use of black cable markers or black tape
4.3.31 Colours for flexible cables and cords
Unlike the cores of fixed cables, which may be identified by sleeves or tapes where they are
connected, flexibles must be identified throughout their length. The colour requirements are
shown in {Fig 4.22}.

Fig 4.22 Care colours for flexible cables and cords