ISSN: 1563-2504

ISBN: 92-95014-06-5

ICAR Technical Series no. 11

FAO-ICAR Seminar on Camelids

Current Status of Genetic Resources, Recording and
Production Systems in African, Asian and American
Camelids
Sousse, Tunisia, 30 May 2004

Editors: R. Cardellino, A. Rosati & C. Mosconi

The designations Cover page: 17th century engraving by Pieter Jacobsz van Laer of Haarlem,
employed and the dit Bamboccio, (1599-1642), representing a livestock farm
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imply the expression
of any opinion
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of the Organisation
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Title of the Volume: Current Status of Genetic Resources, Recording and
status of any country, Production Systems in African, Asian and American
territory, city or area Camelids
or of its authorities, or
concerning the Editors: R. Cardellino, A. Rosati & C. Mosconi
delimitation of its
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ISSN: 1563-2504
part of this
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reproduced, stored in In the same series:
a retrieval system, or • K.R. Trivedi (Ed.), International Workshop on Animal Recording for Smallholders
transmitted in any
form or by any means,
in Developing Countries, Anand (India) 20-23 October 1997. I.T.S. no. 1.
electronic, mechanical, • T. Vares, M. Zjalic & C. Mosconi (Eds), Cattle Identification and Milk Recording
photocopying or in Central and Eastern European Countries, Warsaw (Poland), 23 August, 1998.
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permission, with a 1999. I.T.S. no. 3.
statement of the • B. Moioli, J. Mäki-Hokkonen, S. Galal & M. Zjalic (Eds), Animal Recording for
purpose and the
extent of the
Improved Breeding and Management Strategies for Buffaloes, Bled (Slovenia)
reproduction, should 16-17 May 2000. I.T.S. no. 4.
be addressed to the • T. Vares, F. Habe, M. Klopcic & D. Kompan (Eds),The Role of Breeders'
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00161 Rome, Italy • H. Simianer, H. Täubert & K. Küttner (Eds), Beef Recording Guidelines: A
[email protected] Synthesis of an ICAR Survey, I.T.S. no. 6
• A. Rosati, S. Mihina & C. Mosconi (Eds), Physiological and Technical Aspects
of Machine Milking, Nitra, Slovak Republic, 26-27 June 2001, I.T.S. no. 7
• J. Mäki-Hokkonen, J. Boyazoglu, T. Vares & M. Zjalic (Eds), Development of
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for the opinion • V. Tancin, S. Mihina & M. Uhrincat (Eds), Physiological and Technical Aspects
expressed by each of Machine Milking, Nitra, Slovak Rep., 26-28 April 2005, I.T.S. no. 10
Author.

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The International Committee for Animal Recording (ICAR) wishes to express its appreciation
to the Ministero per le Politiche Agricole e Forestali and to the Associazione Italiana Allevatori for
their valuable support of its activities.
 ICAR Technical Series no. 11

Current Status of Genetic Resources,

Recording and Production Systems in
African, Asian and American Camelids

Proceedings of the ICAR/FAO Seminar

held in Sousse, Tunisia,
30 May 2004

Editors: R. Cardellino, A. Rosati & C. Mosconi

August 2005
 Table of content

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... a
Camels and dromedaries: General perspectives ............................................................................ 1
Muhammad F. Wardeh & Mahmoud Dawa
Lama (Lama glama L.) and Guanaco (Lama guanicoe M.): General perspective .................. 11
José R. Campero
Camel production systems in Africa ................................................................................................ 19
Mongi Sghaier
Alpaca and vicuña: General perspectives ...................................................................................... 31
Daniel Aréstegui Otazú
Camel production systems in Asia ................................................................................................... 37
Abdul Wahid Jasra & M. Ashraf Mirza
Camel genetic resources in North Africa ........................................................................................ 51
M. Djemali
Camel genetic resources in Morocco ................................................................................................ 61
A. Guerouali & R. Acharbane
Mongolian camels ................................................................................................................................. 73
T. Saipolda
Camelid genetic resources. A report on three Arabian Gulf Countries ................................. 81
Isam T. Kadim & Osman Mahgoub
Dairy productivity potential of camels ............................................................................................ 93
B. Faye
Meat recording systems in camelids .............................................................................................. 105
M. Kamoun
Fibre recording systems in camelids .............................................................................................. 131
Carlo Renieri, Marco Antonini & Eduardo Frank
Camelids in South America. Lama (Lama pacos) production systems in Bolivia ............... 145
José R. Campero
Production and handling systems of alpaca and vicuñas ......................................................... 159
Daniel Aréstegui Otazú
Main conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 165
 Cognome/i

Introduction

The two major groups of camelids, the species belonging to the genus
Camelus (dromedary and Bactrian camels) and the species of the genus
Lama (llama, alpaca, guanaco and vicuña) contribute effectively to the
welfare and livelihoods of people in harsh and difficult environments:
hot and cold deserts, and highlands. The first group is autochthonous to
Asia and Africa and the second group originates in South America.
Although frugal in habits and of legendary resistance to long periods
without water and feed, they are remarkable producers of milk, meat,
hair and work. Improved management could enhance this contribution
and improve the livelihoods of communities depending on them.

The workshop that originates the present publication took place during
the 34th ICAR Session in Sousse, Tunisia, May 2004. The local organizers
suggested that camelids would constitute an appropriate theme for a
one-day meeting and this idea was embraced by both ICAR and FAO.
The purpose of this workshop was to offer participants the possibility:

• to get acquainted with camelid production systems in Africa, Asia

and South America, including environmental, management, health,
breeding, reproductive and market aspects;
• to gain insight on the status of camelid genetic resources in several
countries of Africa, Asia and South America;
• to discuss actual – if existing – and potential recording systems for
camelids with emphasis on milk, meat and fiber production;
• to evaluate the need for research and development in camelids at
regional and global level;
• to exchange experiences among participants coming from different
world areas.

These objectives were largely met, although much remains to be done.

Research on camelids lags behind that of most species used for food and
agriculture and it has been said that these species have almost been
neglected by science. This may be associated with the fact that they are
of limited geographical distribution and remoteness of location, again in
comparison with more widely used species. Although in general people
closely dependent on camelids have a thorough traditional knowledge
of their animals, they lack much information that could be provided by
scientific research.

The present proceedings touch on several aspects of camelid production.

The first three articles contribute general perspectives on dromedaries,
Bactrian camels, llama, guanaco, alpaca and vicuña. Following, camel
production systems in Africa and in Asia are considered. The next four
articles describe camel genetic resources in North Africa, Morocco,

a
ICAR Technical Series - No. 11
 Introduction

Mongolia and Arabian Gulf countries. Dairy productivity potential in

camels is discussed in the next article, while meat and fiber recording
systems are the subjects of the two subsequent papers. Two more articles
close the proceedings, one on llama production systems in Bolivia and
the other on production systems of alpaca and vicuñas.

The Editors wish to express their gratitude to ICAR and FAO for
supporting the workshop, including travel of authors and meeting
facilities, and to the Tunisian Organizing Committee for their enthusiasm
and constant support.

b
FAO/ICAR Seminar on Camelids
 Wardeh & Dawa

Camels and dromedaries: General

perspectives
Muhammad F. Wardeh & Mahmoud Dawa

The Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD),
P.O. Box: 2440, Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic

Camels continue to be the preferred livestock species for utilizing extreme

dry land areas. They are part of the culture of pastoralists and make up
Summary
over 30% of the livestock biomass in such areas.
Pastoralists are seeking new systems of using their animals and increasing
sales of surplus rather the keeping them to accumulate wealth.
The Camel Applied Research and Development Network succeeded in
highlighting the case of the marginalized camel production sector,
encouraged the establishment of the camel producers association,
supported 17 national research systems and developed may technical
packages for improving camel productivity.
Further activities would be focused on strategies and policies, technology
transfer, marketing of camels and camel products and capacity building.

Key words: importance of camels, CARDN, Camelus dromedarius, Camelus

bactrianus.

The family camelidae is divided into two genera. The genus Camelus
includes two species: Camelus dromedarius, the dromedary, the one
Background
humped or the Arabian camel; and the Camelus bactrianus, the bactrian
or the two humped camel. The second genus is the Lama comprising
four species: Lama glama, the Llama and Lama pacos, the Alpaca which
are domesticated; and Lama guanacoe, the guanaco and Lama vicugna, the
vicuna which are wild.
The habitat of the dromedary is the dry hot zones of Asia and Africa.
The Bactrian camel lives in the cold deserts of southern areas of the former
Soviet Union, Mongolia, East Central Asia and China. The lamoids are
found in the cold heights of Latin America.
Scientists believe that the dromedary was first domesticated in Southern
Arabia (Zeuner, 1963) or in Northern steppes of Arabia (Bulliet, 1977;
Mikesell, 1955). However, Khanna (1990) reported that the dromedary
might have been separately domesticated in India.

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ICAR Technical Series - No. 11
 Camels and dromedaries: Perspectives

The camel plays vital socio economic roles and supports the survival of
millions of people in the semi-dry and arid zones of Asia and Africa.
Camel milk is the sole nourishment for the pastoralists for prolonged
periods each year. The camel proved it is the most fit domestic animal
during severe drought periods. The camel not only survived such droughts,
but continued producing and reproducing while other animals ceased
production or died out.
The camel possesses unique qualities which make it superior to other
domesticated animals in the hot and arid desert ecosystems. These
attributes of the camel are reinforced by its ability to traverse considerable
distances with much less effort than other species, moving from one patch
of short lived vegetation to another.
The role of camel as a domestic animal is undergoing fundamental
changes as subsistence nomadism shifts towards semi-sedentary cash
demanding systems. Problems associated with the lack of knowledge,
due to insufficient research in the past, are further compounded to day
by the challenge of change. The camels of poor families in arid and semi
arid areas should become more productive and competitive if the
communities concerned are to survive.

Camel numbers increased from 17.671 to 18.783 million in the world

The relative during the period 1993-2002 (FAO, 2003). The African cotenant possesses
importance of about 13 million, while Asia and Australia have about 4.5 and 0.3 million,
camels respectively. South America possesses about 6.2 million lamoids. There
are 12.4 million camels in the Arab countries and 12.5 million in CARDN
countries (Figure 1).
In spite of the fact that camel numbers have increased during the last
decade, the relative importance as biomass has slightly decreased due
increased numbers (and biomass) of cattle in general during the same
period. Camels comprised about 6.5, 0.84, 19.2 and 14.8% of the total
animal biomass in Africa, Asia, the Arab countries and CARDN countries
in 1993, respectively. These ratios decreased to 6.2, 0.7, (Figure 2) 15.1 and
10.1% (Figure 3) in the related areas in 2002, respectively.
The decline of the role of the camel as a mean for transport and agricultural
work due to the rapid socio economics changes during the last few
decades, and the exclusion of camels from support (crediting and
research) have led to the increase in cattle (dairy and beef) projects and
numbers, and hence, the slight decrease in the relative importance of the
camel.
Total world milk production from camels increased from 4.8 to 5.1 million
tons during the period 1993-2002. Meat, hide and fiber production also
increased from 353, 28 and 21 thousand tons, respectively in 1993 to
376, 30, and 23 thousand tons, respectively in 2002 (FAO, 2003).

2
FAO/ICAR Seminar on Camelids
 Wardeh & Dawa

2 0 .0 0 0

As ia
C a m e l N u m b e rs (in 1 0 0

1 5 .0 0 0
Ara b
C o u n trie s

C AR D N
1 0 .0 0 0
C o u n trie s

Afric a

5 .0 0 0
W o rld

0
1993 2002
Y e ars

Figure 1. Development of camel heads, in the years 1993 and 2002 in some
African and Asian countries.

E Q U IN E EQUINE 4,02%
G O AT CAM EL CAMEL 15,09 %
5,80%
6,68% 19,16% GOAT 7,28%
S H EE P
15,73% SHEEP 14,80 %

BUFFALO 3,38%
B U FFA LO
4,64%
C A T T LE CATTLE 55,43%
47,99% 2002
1993

Figure 2. Relative Importance of camels (TLU) in the Arab Countries, in the years 1993 and 2002.

EQ U INE
G O AT C AM EL EQUINE 4,63%
4,90%
10,09% 14,84% CAMEL 10,11 %
GOAT 8,80%
SH EEP
15,05% SHEEP 13,63%

BUFFALO 8,03%
C ATTLE CATTLE 54,80%
B UFFALO 41,29%
13,83% 2002
1993

Figure 3. Relative Importance of Camels (TLU) in CARDN Countries, in the years 1993 and 2002.

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ICAR Technical Series - No. 11
 Camels and dromedaries: Perspectives

The virtues of camel include their ability to tolerate several days without
The Camel access to drinking water without decreasing feed intake and milk yield,
Applied which makes it possible to use pasture in areas and at times where there
Research and is no water available; and selection of feed which is unpalatable,
Development indigestible or out of reach for other livestock. As there is little overlap
Network with feed selected by other species, increasing the proportion of camels
(CARDN) under mixed species stocking allows for higher stocking rate without the
risk of long-term damage to the vegetation. Camels have the capacity to
travel and to carry loads under these conditions over long distance.
Relatively, camels have low susceptibility to certain contagious diseases;
and they ensure a decent life of pastoralists on extreme dry lands under
non-sedentary livestock systems.
Keeping camels enables people to live in areas which otherwise would
not be usable by man. They benefit in particular important pastoral
groups, the poor pastoralists in that they:
• provide through their milk daily subsistence needs of food;
• generate income through sales of excess animals;
• ensure security through capital accumulation;
• ensure social links; and
• provide transport, which is a necessary element of the mobility in
pastoralist systems as water and feed are not available at one site
during all periods of the year.
The unique qualities which make the camel superior to other domestic
animals in hot and arid desert ecosystem have attracted the attention of
many regional and international organizations. The Arab Center for the
Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD) and the International
Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) with the support of the
Islamic Development Bank and the French Government have established
the Camel Applied Research and Development Network (CARDN) in
1991.
The scope of CARDN includes countries in Asia and Africa where the
camel is of economical or of special importance. The main objectives of
CARDN are to:
• assist national research systems to improve and generate (and assist
in the adoption of) appropriate technologies in order to ensure
sustainable resource use and enable long-term of camel-based
production systems;
• assist with the identification of problem areas;
• promote networking where appropriate and seek financial support
for its successful operations;
• ensure that results from research are applied where applicable; and
• document and disseminate research results.
The programme is co-ordinated by ACSAD.
Each member country assigned a national Technical/Planning
Committee, which is headed by the National Co-ordinator, who oversees
the network activities in the country.

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FAO/ICAR Seminar on Camelids
 Wardeh & Dawa

A Steering Committee (SC) is the set up for overall governance of the

network. The SC is composed of:
• a Senior ACSAD staff (chair);
• one IFAD representative;
• one or two representatives from each of the country groups;
• representatives from donors and potential donors of the network; and
• the network co-ordinator.
The distribution of research work among member countries took into
consideration:
1. research priorities for each country;
2. the advancement of research in certain topics;
3. the availability of scientists and facilities; and
4. the tight budget. In certain cases, the same research work was repeated
in two countries which have different ecosystems.

CARDN has succeeded in highlighting the case of camel production and

the long ignored camel pastoralists. Such a case was brought to the CARDN and
attention of the highest authorities in member countries and elsewhere. the case of
Presidents; Prime Ministers; Ministers of Agriculture, Economics, camel
Environments, foreign affairs, and finance; and organizations and NGOS production
in member countries and elsewhere have considered the camel as one of
the key factors for food security in the arid and semi arid zones.
As a result of such activities of CARDN, the concerned parties in member
countries have included the camel and camel producers in their plans
and started initiating and establishing development projects in the camel
producing areas.
Moreover, CARDN has been able to play a very important role in
strengthening and help establishing research centers, units and courses
in many countries. The intervention of CARDN with authorities has lead
to the increase of Camel Research Centers and Units from 5 in the early
1990s to over 35 in member countries, and 10 elsewhere by 2004.

A National Committee for Camel Research and Development was

established in each member country of CARDN. The main objectives of
The National
the committee are to:
Committees
1. coordinate among national research centers;
for Camel
2. outline the priorities of camel research; Research and
3. form a team of work for each research topic, and Development
4. conduct the research work within the framework of the programme
of CARDN.
The national committee for camel research consistes of well-known
scientists in the field and is headed by national coordinator and was
officially announced by an order from the Minister of Agriculture in
each member country of CARDN.

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ICAR Technical Series - No. 11
 Camels and dromedaries: Perspectives

The initial socio-economic studies of the camel production sector have

releavled very important results. Traditional management systems and
practices have been studied and experts are exploring means to help
improving such systems and practices.
CARDN played an important role in the establishment of the
International Camel Pastoral Association in 2001. The main objective of
this association is to follow up the development of the camel production
in member countries. The Sudan offered to host the association.
CARDN supported NARS in conducting 42 research activities, supported
17 laboratories and established four laboratories for artificial insemination
and embryo transfer (a grant for the Islamic Development Bank). Four
mobile veterinary units are being purchased to be used in four member
countries.
Basic and applied biological research focused on performance,
reproduction, nutrition, health, and pre and postnatal mortalities are
mainly carried out.
Applied research led to development the following technical packages:
• Colostrom feeding to camel calves to reduce calf mortality.
• Feeding local agricultural by products to reduce grazing pressures
and improve reproductive efficiency in camels.
• Utilization of traditional veterinary practices to treat camel diseases.
• Early weaning as a tool for increased herd productivity.
• Camel fattening.
• Camel milk processing.
Studies on marketing of camels and camel products were conducted in 5
member countries were camel production is important (Sudan, Pakistan
and Tunisia) and where camel products are highly appreciated (Egypt,
Mauritania and Tunisia).
Studies on standardizing camel products are being finalized.

CARDN held 38 symposia and workshops, and 13 training course.

Scientific Experts from CARDN countries participated in 41 conferences, symposia,
meetings workshops and training course which were organized by other
organizations.

A number of collaborating scientists received high national prizes and

Prizes decoration for their contribution in camel research.
• Mr. Mostapha Gellouze, the national Coordinator of CARDN-Tunisia.
• Mr. Afaf Saad Eddin Fahmy, National Research Center, Molecular
Biology Department, Egypt.
• Mr. Saleh Ahmed Mohamad, National Research Center, Molecular
Biology Department, Egypt.

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FAO/ICAR Seminar on Camelids
 Wardeh & Dawa

The Camel Applied Research and Development Network has established

a Camel Documentation Unit (CDU) in order to furnish available The Camel
research results on camels to scientists, researchers, extension services Documentation
workers and interested parties. Camel research centers and camel Unit
scientists and experts are also surveyed throughout the world in order to
coordinate research programmes, and exchange information and
experiences.
Over 50 graduate students have been helped and hundreds of scientists
have benefited from CDU. Moreover, CDU is publishing the following
two important periodicals. The Camel Newsletter (CNL) and the Journal
of Camel Science (JCS).

This matrix would fit a programme for a third phase of the Camel Applied
Research and Development Network (CARDN). However, part of it was
Future themes
included in the programme of CARDN-II during the period
and activities
July 2003-December 2004 within budget permission. A list of the future
themes and activities is summarised in table 1.

Table 1. Future themes and activities.

Themes Activities
Strategy and policy 1. Development of Camel production (All countries).
2. Integrated systems for development (Tunisia).
3. Encourage establishment of herders
organizations/cooperatives (Most countries).
4. Genetic improvement (Iran and Sudan).
5. NGO’s participation ( Pakistan).
6. Use of AI (Iran).
Technology 1. Provide (Developed technologies):
Transfer 2. AI techniques (Algeria, Iran).
3. Feeding regimes (Egypt, Morocco, Pakistan and
Tunisia).
4. Milk processing (Mauritania, Pakistan and Tunisia).
5. Early weaning (Tunisia).
6. Disease control (Egypt, Mauritania, Sudan and Tunisia).
7. Herd book keeping (Tunisia).
8. Camel drawn implements (Pakistan).
Need:
1. AI techniques (Syria, Tunisia and Yemen).
2. Feeding regimes ( Iran, Jordan, Sudan, Syria and
Yemen).
3. Milk processing (Jordan, Sudan, Syria and Yemen).
4. Meat processing (Iran, Pakistan, Syria and Yemen).
5. Early weaning (Pakistan, Syria and Yemen).
6. Disease control (Syria, Tunisia and Yemen).
7. Herd Book keeping (Iran and Sudan).

(To be continued in the next page....).

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ICAR Technical Series - No. 11
 Camels and dromedaries: Perspectives

(...to be continued from the previous page).

Themes Activities
Quality Control of products: Standards
Need:
1. Products (milk, meat, hiders, and fiber) All countrie
2. Value addition (All countries).
3. Grading as per ISO/WTO requirements procedure
and implementing tools (Tunisia).
Marketing 1. Marketing live animals (Egypt, Mauritania, Pakistan,
Sudan and Yemen).
2. Marketing of camel meat (Algeria, Egypt, Iran,
Morocco, Mauritania, Pakistan, Syria, Tunisia and
Yemen).
3. Marketing of camel milk (Iran, Jordan, Morocco,
Mauritania, Pakistan, Tunisia and Yemen).
4. Marketing of camel hides and fiber (Egypt,
Mauritania, Pakistan, Tunisia and Yemen).
5. Legislation (Egypt and Tunisia).
6. Integrated production system (Tunisia).
7. Marketing intelligence (Pakistan, Sudan and Tunisia).
Capacity building A. for Producers:
1. Organization (Morocco).
2. Range management (Egypt, Iran and Tunisia ).
3. Feeding regimes (Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Mauritania and
Sudan).
4. Disease control (Iran and Mauritania).
5. Milk processing (Jordan, Pakistan and Sudan).
6. Marketing aspects (Pakistan, Sudan and Tunisia).
7. Decision Making (Tunisia).

B. Researchers:
1. Disease control (Algeria, Pakistan, Sudan and Syria).
2. ET and AI Reproduction (Egypt, Iran, Pakistan, Sudan,
Syria and Tunisia).
3. 3. Marketing (Egypt).
4. 4. Feeding and Nutrition : Master trainers (Pakistan).

C. Extension Officers:
1. Reproduction: ( Algeria, Egypt, Tunisia and Yemen).
2. Feeding and Nutrition : (Algeria, Egypt, Jordan,
Mauritania, Syria, Tunisia and Yemen).
3. Market skills: ( Morocco , Sudan and Yemen).
4. Disease control: (Jordan, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia).
5. Milk processing: (Iran, Jordan, Mauritania, Sudan, Syria
and Yemen).
6. Meat processing: (Morocco, M auritania, Sudan, Syria
and Yemen).
7. Camel use for poverty alleviation: (Pakistan).

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FAO/ICAR Seminar on Camelids
 Wardeh & Dawa

Alice Springs review. 2003. Arid Zones Research Insitute. P.O.

Box 8760 Alice springs NT 0871. References
Bulliet, R.W. 1977. The Camel and the Wheel. Harvard
University press.
CARDN. 1999. Full Design Paper: CARDN Phase II. The Camel
Applied Research and Development Network (CARDN). The Arab
Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD). The
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). December
1999.
FAO. 2003. production year book. Vol. 56.
Khanna, N.D. 1990. Camels in India from photo-historic to the
present time. Ind. J. Anim. Sci., 60: 1093-1101.
Mikesell, M.K. 1955. Notes on the dispersal of the dromedary
south-west. J. Anthropology, 11: 231-245.
Wardeh, M.F. 2003. Country Annual Reports 2002-2003 and
Work Plan 2003-2004. CARDN II. The Camel Applied Research and
Development Network (CARDN). The Arab Center for the Studies of
Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD).CARDN/ ACSAD/Camel
pp. 114.
Zeuner, F.E. 1963. History of Domestic Animals. Hutchinson,
London.

9
ICAR Technical Series - No. 11
 Campero

Lama (Lama glama L.) and Guanaco (Lama

guanicoe M.): General perspective
José R. Campero

Ministerio de Asuntos Campesinos y agropecuarios,

Avenida Camacho 1471 La Paz, Bolivia

The highlands of South America form a special ecosystem with an

important biodiversity. Since 4 000 or 5 000 years ago, two species of Summary
domesticated camelids have developed in this region: the llama and the
alpaca, as well as two non-domesticated ones, the guanaco and the
vicuña. During the Incas period, these genetic resources played an
important role in the development of this ancient culture, but the
protagonistic role of Camelids ended abruptly with the Spanish conquest
of that South American region five centuries ago. The Spaniards initiated
their colonization with the systematic elimination of the camelids and
replaced them with their own domestic species, principally sheep and
cattle. Along with the Spanish conquest, the mines period begins in these
highlands as well; the mines’ development requested not only an
important quantity of camelids’ meat, vegetables and natural energy but
also large llama caravans, in order to transport the mines products from
highlands to the coast. However, the pastoral communities in those
high-risk environments have played a major role in conserving the llama,
alpaca, guanaco and vicuña species. The mining activity along with
human pressure on the fragile ecosystem resulted not only in an important
loss of biodiversity but also, and most importantly, in the reproduction
of poverty. Consequently, today like five centuries ago, the highlands of
South America are characterized by three elements: poverty, soils of low
quality and camelids. And it is through these elements that they try to
resolve their main problem, that is poverty. The analysis of market trends,
the review of the historical context of the use of native breeds, and the
efforts of highlands people suggest that the rational use of South
American Camelids, both domestic and wild ones, can be an economic
alternative in many production systems in the South American highlands,
on the condition that the regional governments in co-operation with the
producers are able to find new markets with fair prices and improve the
quality of camelids’ products.

Keywords: llama, guanaco, highlands of South America ecosystem, poverty

and economic alternative.

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 Lama and Guanaco. Perspective

The habitat of South American Camelids

South America is located between 2 800 to 5 000 meters
Camelids of altitude in areas of Peru, Bolivia, Chile
habitat and Argentina.
The Highlands of the Andes form a
special ecosystem with an important
biodiversity. The temperature is usually
below 0°C, the fluvial precipitation has
an average of 300 mm of rain, and the
natural fertility of the soil is low,
characterized by Ca and Mg deficiency.
Under these conditions biomass
production is reduced and located to a
rainfall station.
There are two species of domesticated
Andean camelids, the llama and the
Alpaca, as well as other two, non-domesticated ones, the guanaco and
the vicuna. Both domestic and wild camelids use the same pastoral areas.
All camelids of the Andes are perfectly adapted to life at altitudes above
of 4 000 m, having evolved many physiological adaptations in order to
produce in the highlands of South America. For example, they have an
unusually high number of small, elliptical red blood cells, which offer
them a greater capacity to carry oxygen. The camelids’ regional
population was estimated at near 5 millions, (Campero, 2004).
In the last centuries, the grazing area has been reduced as a result of the
introduction of bovine and sheep. According to the opinion of many
researchers, the reduction of the llama populations during the last century
was about 80 % of the original population present in the last part of the
18th century.
The presence of sheep
and cattle populations
in the highlands
ecosystem increased the
degradation of natural
resources. Besides, the
irrational management
of llamas and the low
prices for its products
led to the development
of a poverty cycle for
poor livestock keepers.

Five centuries ago, the protagonistic role of Camelids ended abruptly

The problem with the Spanish conquest of that region of South America. The Spaniards
initiated their colonization with the systematic elimination of the llamas
and alpacas and replaced them with their own domestic species, mainly
sheep and cattle.

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 Campero

The European stock

displaced the native
camelids from every part
of the region save the
highest parts of the Puna
where the foreign
livestock had no chance
of survival because of the
harsh climate.
The llama and alpaca
were exiled to the upper
regions of their natural territory, while the sophisticated husbandry and
management systems were lost due to Spanish prejudice and lack of
understanding.
Along with the Spanish conquest, the mines period begins in the
highlands of South America. The mining activities requested not only an
important quantity of meat, vegetables and natural energy but also large
llama caravans in order to transport the mines products from highlands
to the side coast.
During the last two centuries, the mines publishers developed the idea
that the llama meat was “Indian meat”, thus it was easy to prohibit its
marketing in the urban centers. This idea was associated to the existence
of sarcosistiosis in the meat. With such strategies, the miners not only
could assure the meat provision but could also buy it in low prices.
Moreover, the pressure on natural resources has increased due to the
high rate of human (2.9% per year) and livestock (2%) expansion.
Consequently, the ecosystem presents an important rate of degradation
of its forests, water and soil resources and cultural values. This process
evolved along with the mines development in the highlands.The lost soil
was estimated at 14 000 kg per hectare/year.
This erosive process resulted in an important loss of biodiversity and,
most importantly, in the reproduction of poverty. People in those regions
have only two means of production: soils of low quality and camelids. It
is with these that they reproduce poverty. The llama and alpaca became
animals of the poor and formed the base of a subsistence culture for the
natives of the High Puna.
Bolivia is the country with the largest number of llamas in the world.
There are 3 million animals, most of them bred in small family herds and
graze on wild pastures. Fifty four thousand poor livestock keepers depend
on camelids production.
The socio-economic framework of many people living in the Altiplano
region indicates a rather alarming situation which can adversely affect
its socio-cultural future. This socio-economic situation is characterized
by low education levels, limited access to basic services (health,
communication, energy), and soil erosion by overgrazing.
However, the camelid breeding activities and the development of a fair
market for its products are the principal opportunity that many Andean
people have in order to increase the family income.

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 Lama and Guanaco. Perspective

The use and conservation of South American camelids, both domestic

Development and wild animals, is seen optimistically as an economic alternative to
perspectives many production systems in the highlands of South America.
In this context, the management of natural resources has to take into
consideration that important quantities of South-American camelid meat
and fiber are sold in both local and international markets at attractive
prices. This is the only way for the highlands of South America to cope
with their social problems, above all poverty.

The pivotal role that llamas and alpacas played in the Incan civilization
Domestic camelids and its economy naturally elevated their status. In that historical period,
very sophisticated ways of management and care were developed for
both domestic and wild camelids.
The Alpacas were selected mainly for fiber production. On the contrary,
the llamas were selected according to meat and traction criteria. The
llama’s adaptability and efficiency as a pack animal in the mountainous
terrain of the Andes made it possible to link the zones of diverse altitude
and to cover the great distances of the region.

The Llama The llama is the most common and also the strongest of the Andean
camelids. It has a slender shape and it can be found in up to 16 different
colours. The llama has long legs, neck and face, and may reach a hight
of 1.9 meters.
As a pack animal, the llama can carry a weight of about 25 kg through
long journeys, and up to 40 kg in short ones (Riera et al., 1972). The
llama’s average weight as an adult varies between 80 to 115 kg. The
newborn llamas weigh 12 kg on average. The gestation period lasts about

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 Campero

348 days. The female llama reaches sexual maturity at one year of age,
but in South America it is usually not bred until two or three years of
age. Males reach sexual maturity at about three years of age.
There are two breeds of llama traditionally recognized - the Q’ara and
the Thampulli. Their fiber (technically it is called “fiber” and not “wool”)
is less dense than that of the alpacas, and averages about 28 microns of
diameter (Riera et al. 1972).
The llama was selected specifically to produce a large and strong animal
for packing. On the other hand, the alpaca was bred to make use of its
naturally finer fiber. Today in Bolivia, the harvest of this fine fiber is the
base for a significant textile industry whose products are conquesting
new markets.

The Andean countries, especially Peru and Bolivia, have lately recognized
the importance of native camelid species for their culture and rural Fiber production
development.
Rediscovery of the alpaca’s fine wool by the international textile market
in the late 1800s led to a higher level of interest in the alpaca,
consequently leading to increased management, research, and selective
breeding activities. On the contrary, the llama continued its obscure
existence until about 30 years ago. (Campero and et al., 2004)
Research into management and breeding of the llama has been instituted
and carried on in conjunction with current alpaca research. Obviously,
modern transportation has reduced the importance of the llama as a
beast of burden. Nevertheless, today the development of industries
involved in fiber and meat production is considered pivotal for the rural
development of the western regions of Bolivia and Peru.
Today in this country, great emphasis is being laid on this animal as a
fiber producer, with meat as a secondary function. In 2003, the production
of fiber was 720 tons. This production was 125 % higher than in 1998.
The llama fleece has two components: fiber and hair.
The llama fiber is a modulated natural protein with no lanolin or grease,
and is classified as a specialty fiber. The llama fiber is characterized as
fine, strong, comfortable, warm and lightweight (good warmth to weight
ratio), and is available in 16 natural colours, (Campero, 2002). The main
negative characteristic of this fiber is its low elasticity.
The characteristics that influence most the commercial value of a fleece
are fineness and color. Fineness has always been correlated with higher
prices in any type of fiber. Commercial buyers and processors prefer and
pay a premium for white fiber because it can be dyed.
The average length of llama fiber is 6.8 ± 1.5 cm, and it is 1.1 cm shorter
than its hair. These values are smaller than those reported for llamas
selected in the Experimental Station of Patacamaya in Bolivia by
Rodriguez (1992), that were 8.3 ± 0.7 cm. Nevertheless, this length is
adequate for directing those fibers to industrial processes, and is similar
to many sheep breeds of high production of wool as the Merino, that has

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 Lama and Guanaco. Perspective

a length of 8.1 cm. The general average for “dirty” fleece weight was
1.2 ± 0.2 kg. Howeber, this information does not take into account the
age of the fleece or shearing frequency (Cardozo and Choque, 1988).

The consumption of llama meat in the highlands of South America is

Llama meat traditional and in Bolivia it represents near 17 thousand tons per year.
In the last years, llama meat has been exported to special markets as
exotic or organic meat (Campero, 2004).
The llama meat is similar to beef in taste and texture, but the protein
content is higher and its fat level is lower than beef. Moreover, the
consumption of llama meat does not cause formation of cholesterol.
According to the actual level of meat production quality, the llama meat
producers have to improve the quality in order to maintain the new
markets.
The amount of cholesterol per 10 ml of llama serum blood varies between
20 to 50 mg while the same in beef is 200 mg and in sheep 300 mg.
Hence, there are many reasons that should permit to increase the presence
of this meat in both national and international markets.

In the last twenty five years, the populations of guanaco and vicuña
Wild camelids have increased slowly but constantly. This successful process was only
possible thanks to the establishment of natural reserves in Argentina,
Bolivia, Chile and Peru. Besides, the control of furtive hunters was
important too.
The focal point in this strategy was the role of many rural communities.
It is proven that hunters provide illegal markets with animals in other
areas far from the natural reserves.
The international markets for guanacos and vicuñas productions were
banned by the CITE Convention. Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Peru have
developed plans of rational utilization and have gained the CITES
approval. Consequently, these countries can export guanacos and vicuñas
products made with fiber shorn of live animals.

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FAO/ICAR Seminar on Camelids
 Campero

In many cities of South America it is possible to find illegal markets of

guanaco and vicuñas products. The main illegal markets are found in
Buenos Aires, La Paz, Lima and Santiago. But, in some of cases, when
the illegal products such as sweaters and shawls were controlled, it was
found out that the material was fiber of llama or alpaca. This does not
mean that there are no illegal markets in South America.

The guanaco has the widest distribution among all the camelids, ranging
from the tip of Tierra del Fuego to the Andes. Guanacos
The guanaco coat consists of a double layer. One layer is made of relatively
short fibers (3.0 cm to 4.5 cm) which are fine and soft, while the other
one is formed by long, coarse hairs. The guanaco fiber, with approximately
16 microns average diameter, is not legally traded in international markets
unless there is expressed
authorization from CITES. Each
animal can provide up to 500 g of
fiber annually, its colour can be
described as a cream tan.
Guanacos are somewhat smaller
than llamas, but in general very
similar to them. They have a
different ear shape from the llama,
while both have a similar colour
pattern, although the intensity of the pattern varies with the region. They
have a brownish upper body and neck, with the front of the limbs
coloured brown, and the back of the limbs, chest, belly, and anal region
whitish to cream. This white area usually extends quite high to the flanks,
as high as the point of the hip. The head is usually greyish to black.
In the last five years, the low demand of the fur industry in Europe has
reduced the incentive to hunt newborn animals. In the last years of 70‘s,
the exportation of guanaco
leather reached nearly
140 000 units. In many countries,
the animals are once again
viewed as a national treasure to
be protected and promoted.
Preservation of wild herds of the
nearly extinct guanacos has
become a priority, and hunting
bans have been imposed and
enforced.

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 Lama and Guanaco. Perspective

1. The development of llama fiber and/or meat industrial/handicraft

Conclusions production is vital for many countries in South America in order to
accelerate their rural development.
Llamas 2. New markets situated in Europe, North America and Asia have
demonstrated high interest in llama fiber and meat production. If
certain problems mainly associated with sanitary standards can be
resolved, these areas will be potential markets.
3. Many states have been working in order to develop the necessary
conditions to improve the quality of llama products. This includes
credits, technology assistance, disease control, market research etc.

1. The guanaco, both a grazer and a browser, is quite adaptable. There

Guanacos
are guanacos that live in one of the driest deserts in the world (the
Atacama in Chile), while others live in the wet archipelago of Tierra
del Fuego, where rain falls all year round.
2. On the basis of the high prices of guanaco fiber in the market, it should
be convenient to continue developing an offer of fiber with
homogeneous quality since the shearing of live animals. This condition
should allow to resolve the problem of hunting of guanacos in order
to crop their fibber.

Campero, J. R., F. Campero & A. Medina. 2004. Situación de los

References Recursos Zoogenéticos en Bolivia. Documento de Trabajo Nº 20.
Dirección de Ganadería. Ministerio de Asuntos Campesinos y
Agropecuarios. La Paz, Bolivia.
Campero, J. 2002. Caracterización de Camélidos en Tierras Altas
de Arque y Boliviar. Programa de Desarrollo de los Valles de Arque y
Tapacarí. Cochabamba, Bolivia.
Cardozo, A. and F. Choque. 1988. Comparación de cinco
caracteres en llamas K’aras y T’hampullis. En Programa y Resumenes
de Trabajos VI Convensión Internacional de Especialistas en
Camélidos Americanos. La Molina, Perú Vol. I: 54 -105
Rodríguez, T. 1992. Importancia de la influencia de factores
ambientales sobre algunos caracteres de producción de carne y lana en
llamas. Tesis Maestro en Ciencias, especialidad Ganadería, Colegio
Postgraduados. Chapingo, México.
Riera, S, D.H. Matwes and J. López. 1972. Finura del pelo de
llamas y alpacas. En Memoria de la Primera Reunión Nacional de
Investigadores en Ganadería. Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería.
La Paz, Bolivia.

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 Sghaier

Camel production systems in Africa

Mongi Sghaier

Institut des Régions Arides, 4119 Médenine, Tunisia

E-mail: [email protected]

Camel breeding had and continues to be of major social and cultural

importance in Africa which holds more than 80% of the world camel Summary
population. The largest flocks are found in Somalia, Sudan, and Ethiopia.
According to FAO statistics, an average of one camel for 20 persons is
found in Africa.
Nowadays, camel products are increasingly having advantages compared
to other traditional animal products.
In fact, camel products markets (meat, milk, hair, and leather) are
expanding because of health problems of the other products of cattle,
sheep and poultry.
The meat and milk produced biologically and naturally are becoming
substitutes of the traditional products.
This paper analyses the camel production systems in Africa and especially
the production machine (number, species, etc), practices and production,
profitability (financial and economic aspects), marketing and
commercialization.
Finally, the main socioeconomic advantages and constraints will be
analyzed.

Key words: camel production, camel breeding, production systems, main

constraints.

It is difficult to give exact estimates of the camel production potential

because of the nature of its non controlled breeding system. Table 1 show Camel
that the total number of cattle, camels, goats and sheep in the world production
reached 1 265 540 animal units in 1997 out of which only 1.2% are camels potential
compared to 82% cattle. For Tunisia, camels represent about 11.4% out
of the total number of livestock while cattle represent 37.1% which
indicates the importance of camels.
According to estimates of FAO, world camel flock is approximately
20 million. It had increased from 18 million heads during the period
1981-1985 to 20 millions by the end of the twentieth century (Alaya,
1999). In Africa, Somalia is ranked first with approximately 6.1 million

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 Camel production systems in Africa

Table 1. Cattle, sheep, goats and camel average population in the period 1991-1995 in the world and in 1997
(in thousand heads).

Cattle Sheep Goats Camels

1991-1995 1997 1991-1995 1997 1991-1995 1997 1991-1995 1997
The world 905 219 923 727 22 3908 2102 942 96 586 112 146 18 925 19 373
Source: Alaya, 1990.

heads that is 42.3% of the camel African flock. Sudan occupies the second
position with 2 950 million heads (20.5% of the total camel flock in Africa).
Mauritania and Ethiopia come in the 3rd and 4th position with 1.1 million
heads and 1 million heads, respectively (Table 2).
The North African countries have approximately 900 000 heads including
231 000 heads in Tunisia.

Table 2. The camel African flock (in thousand heads).

Country Heads
Somalia 6 100
Sudan 2 950
Ethiopia 1 000
Burkina Faso 18
Djibouti 69
Kenya 810
Chad 600
Niger 380
Mali 260
Nigeria 6
Senegal 12
Mauritania 1 100
Tanzania 200
Egypt 135
Libya 129
Tunisia 231
Algeria 125
Morocco 290
Total 14 415
Sources: Alaya, 1999; Faye, 1997; Cheriha, 2000.

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Faye et al. (1997) classified the importance of the camel breeding in the
economies of the countries in Africa based on the proportion of the camel Importance of
production in the Herbivorous Domestic Biomass (HDB). The HDB the camel
corresponds to the total weight of the domestic herbivores. Somalia comes breeding in
at the head with 55% whereas for other countries, like Nigeria, it reaches the agricultural
only 0.15%. Then, the countries are classified into four categories: economics in
• The countries where camel breeding represents only a marginal activity Africa
(HDB < 1%): Nigeria, Senegal and Burkina-Faso.
• The countries where the camel breeding represents an average activity
(1 < HDB < 8%): Morocco, Algeria, Egypt and Libya.
• The countries where the camel breeding constitutes a significant part
of the agricultural economics (8 < HDB < 20%): Tunisia, Niger, Chad
and Sudan.
• The countries where the camel breeding is of primary importance in
the economy of the country (HDB > 20%): Somalia, Mauritania,
Djibouti. Indeed in a country like Somalia, the export of the dromedary
constitutes the main source of foreign currency for the country, 60%
of dairy consumption is ensured by the camel breeding.
The four countries Somalia, Sudan, Mauritania and Ethiopia total up to
11.5 million heads, that is approximately 77.4% of the African camel
flock.

231
290
125
129
135

260
1100
12 380 2950
18 600
1000 69
6
6100
810
200

Figure 1. Camel population in Africa (in thousand heads).

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 Camel production systems in Africa

Figure 2. Importance of camels in the agricultural economics in Africa. The

HDB corresponds to the total weight of the domestic herbivores.

Dromedary is known by its preference of open large rangelands since it

Camel
is able to travel tens of kilometers per day.
breeding In the African countries, two types of camel breeding systems are
systems in prevailing:
Africa • The free breeding system.
• The breeding system of accompanied by a shepherd (Controlled
breeding system).
The system of breeding in stalling, although it is possible, but almost non
practiced.

It is a traditional breeding system where the herd is left free without

Free breeding guarding.
system
In general, the stockbreeders attend their herds at long periods (a few
months) around the water points. These fixed water points are known
by the stockbreeders and the herds.
The periods of frequentation are in general dependent on needs such
birth, health control, etc.
It is most widespread in Africa and mainly in the countries of Central
Africa and the East Africa. It occupies an important place in North Africa.

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 Sghaier

For example: the case of “reguebat” of the Saharan provinces in Morocco,

the case of “Kel Ewey” of Niger in the area of Timia which moves up to
Nigeria (Faye et al., 1997), the case of the “Mérazzigues” in the Tunisian
Sahara where the camel herds can move hundreds of kilometres in the
large Saharan rangelands in Libya and Algeria.
The advantages of this breeding system are :
• The freedom of movement of the animals on large areas and good
rangelands.
• More economic efficiency(low costs of breeding).
The most important disadvantages are:
• High risk of animals loss (attacks of predatory, etc.).
• Low productivity.
• can cause damages to thers (cultivated fields, etc.).

In this case, the herd is kept by a shepherd who is in general accompanied

by shepherd assistance. The movements and the choice of the grazing Controlled
breeding system
lands are controlled by the shepherd. The operations births, health
treatments and watering are assisted. The average size of a herd varies
from one country to another in Africa (20 to 100 heads per herd). In
general, a shepherd controls an average herd of 50 to 80 heads.
This breeding system is practiced in the countries where the grazing
areas are limited and the camel breeding is regaining economic interest.
It is found more in the countries of North Africa (Tunisia, Libya, and
Morocco).
Advantages of this system are:
• Controlled breeding system
• Better range management.
• Reduction of the losses.
• Better productivity.
The disadvantages are:
• High production costs.
• Scarcity of qualified shepherds.
• Needs for means of transport.

The camel production systems in Africa are diverse enough. The main
characteristics of the major geographical areas will be analyzed in the
Main
following section (Table 3)
characteristics
Three main areas are distinguished: of the of camel
• East Africa: Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia; production
• North Africa: Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco; systems in
• Central Africa: Kenya, Chad, Mali, Mauritania and Nigeria. Africa
Concerning the case of Somalia, Sudan and Ethiopia, the camel
production system is marked by the existence of large herds
(100-5 000 heads/flock) and of an important diversity of races. The
average weight of an animal varies between 400-750 kg and it is around
of 650 kg. The big animals size is dominant (Cheriha, 2000; Idriss, 2003).

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 24

Camel production systems in Africa

FAO/ICAR Seminar on Camelids

Table 3. Synoptic table of the m ain characteristics of the camel production in A frica.

A verage A verage D airy

herd w eight of Principal production M ilk O ther
(units) adult (kg) production l/day M arketing uses Sector System Export/im port
N orth 20-80 400 M eat 1.5-6 N ot Transport Private Extensive Im port from
A frica heads (250 -800) m ilk racing sector sem i- Sudan, Chad,
(Egypt, ploughing extensive M auritania
Libya, tourism
Tunisia,
M orocco)
Central - 250-300 M eat 1.5-8 Yes Transport Private Extensive Export to
A frica m ilk race sector G ulf countries,
(K enya, ploughing Libya,
Chad, M ali, M orocco
M auritania,
N igeria)
East Africa 100-5 000 650 M eat 5-10 Yes Transport Private Extensive Export to
(Som alia, (400 -750) m ilk racing sector G ulf countries,
Sudan, (according ploughing Egypt, Libya
Ethiopia) to the
breeds)
 Sghaier

The objective of the breeding depends on the races. The dairy races exist
and produce on average 5 to 10 litres per day. The milk marketing is
practiced in Somalia and Ethiopia (Cheriha, 2000; Idriss, 2003).
Animal herders in Sudan lead a nomadic life combined with minor crop
production activities for about four months of the year i.e they are
agro-pastoralists. The average herd size is around 193 heads, about two
thirds of which are females and one third males. Animals depend
completely on natural grazing in Darfur province, and mostly on natural
grazing with some supplementary feed in Kordofan and the Eastern
provinces. Supplementary feeding is composed of sorghum grain, oilseed
cakes, sorghum straw and concentrates. It is mainly for weak animals.
Animals and their products form the main source of income for these
pastoralists. Income from camels is in the form of animals and milk sales
and the other sources of income come from crop sales and transfers from
relatives working in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States. Milk sales are
limited in Western Sudan but in Eastern Sudan about 25% of milk
production is sold either fresh, in form of yoghurt or liquid butter (Sakr
and Abdel Majid, op. cit.). The main problems indicated by the herders
include shortage of drinking water, spread of camel diseases, and lack of
veterinary services and encroachment of agricultural activities on grazing
land. (Idriss, 2003).
The camel breeding is dominated by the private sector. It was reported
that stakeholder can own up to 2 million camels in Ethiopia (Faye, 1997).
The breeding system is in general extensive. The three countries are among
the main exporting countries of camels to Egypt, Libya and the Gulf
countries of the Golf. For example, Sudan exports approximately
200 000 heads to Egypt (Idriss, 2003).
In the countries of Central Africa (Kenya, Chad, Mali, Mauritania and
Nigeria), the camel production system is characterized by herds of less
important size, except some cases in particular Mauritania.
The average weight of the main races is 250-300 kg per animal. The
principal objective depends also on races but it is mixed production of
meat and milk. The dairy production lies between 1.5 and 8 litres per
day (Cheriha, 2000). Milk marketing is practiced but it is not very
widespread. Other uses of camels are transport, racing and the
agricultural use. The system of breeding is extensive. Exports of camels
are practiced to other countries such as Algeria and Libya.
Concerning North Africa (Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco),
the camels production systems are marked by very diverse sizes ranging
from few heads in the case of agro-pastoral systems to thousands as in
the case of Morocco (Faye, 1997; Sghaier, 2003). In general the average
size is 50 to 100 heads per herd. The average weight by animal varies
according to the races. It is located between 250 and 700 kg/head
(Cheriha, 2000).
The main objective of the breeding is the production of meat. The dairy
production is secondary and varies from 1.5 to 6 litres/day. The milk
marketing is not practiced and the markets are almost missing.

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 Camel production systems in Africa

Dromedary is used as means of transport, racing (Mehary race), and

draught animal in agriculture. Recently the dromedary starts to be
exploited in the tourism sector as it is the case of Kébili and Douz in the
south of Tunisia. In this case, the dromedary is used as means of transport
in the tourist tours. The average annual income by animal is estimated at
1 160 TND/year (1000 $/year) which represent 400% of the annual
income earned from a she camel destined for livestock production (Sghaier,
2003).

The statistics related to the estimation of camel production in Africa are

Productions
not precise and are fragmented. The production of camel meat was
estimated in 1994 at 248 000 tons that is 82.6% of the world production
(approximately 300 000 tons).
The studies carried out by the ACSAD give more precise estimates for
the studied countries. According to Idris (2003), the production of camel
red meat in Sudan increased from 1 275 000 tons in 1996 to 1 624 000 in
2002. For the case of Tunisia, Sghaier (2003) reported that the camel red
meat production evolved from 2 150 tons in 1997 to 3 500 tons in 2003.
Meat is the main product of camels and represents about 2.5% of the
total red meat production in the country. The average annual camel meat
production has increased during the Ninth Economic Development Plan
(EDP) from 2 150 ton to nearly 3 000 ton in 2001.
Estimates of the tenth EDP are expected to increase the contribution of
camel meat to about 10% of the total red meat production. Planners
responsible for the sub sector hope that camel meat production increases
from the 3 300 ton per year level at the beginning of the Tenth EDP
(2002-2006) to reach 4 050 ton per year by the year 2006.The planned
annual increases are shown in table 4.
The evolution of other products in a country like Tunisia is described in
table 5. Milk production from the Tunisian camel breeds is rather limited.
Quantities produced are therefore intended mainly for consumption by
camel herders and shepherds. Beside the fact that quantities produced
are limited, whatever is produced is difficult to assemble, store and
transport. Having said that, these limitations should not obscure the social
and economic value of this promising product because of its nutritive
and medicinal value (Some people take it as medicine for diabetes).
The total milk production, as shown in table 5, is expected to increase
from 13 750 tons in 1997 to 19 875 tons in 2006.

Table 4. The development of camel production during the Ninth EDP and estimates for the tenth EDP.

Year 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Production 2 150 2 280 2 400 2 400 3 000 3 300 3 500 3 650 3 850 4 050
(ton pure
meat)

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4500
4000 4050
3850
3500 3500 3650
3300
3000 3000
2500 2400 2400
2150 2280
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Figure 3. Meat camel production during the Ninth EDP and estimates for the
tenth EDP in Tunisia (tons/year)

The products of hair hides, on the other hand, represent the raw materials
for the cottage industries in the Southern part of the country. The average
hair production per head is estimated at 3 kilograms per year. Table 4
shows the current and estimated future projections:
The figures in table 5 indicate that the average annual production of
camel hair is about 220 tons and the average annual production of hides
is about 698 tons.
The distribution of these products does not follow a certain established
marketing channel but rather a simple rudimentary distribution system
that is confined to family members and those involved in cottage
industries.
Table 6 shows the estimates of other camel products in the majority of
the African countries are given per capita and per race, especially dairy
production.
It is noticed that the best performances of dairy production are recorded
in Egypt (1 600-4 000 litres/year/lactation) and Libya (1 200-3 500 litres
per year/lactation). Countries like Somalia, Ethiopia and Sudan keep
high performances but far below the potentialities because of the
dominant extensive breeding systems.

Table 5. Estimates of camel milk, hair and hides production

Year 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Hair 181 184 205 205 213 220 231 243 251 262
Hides 577 585 651 651 677 701 734 773 800 835
Milk 13 750 13 925 15 500 15 500 161 125 16 00 17 475 18 400 19 050 19 875
Source: Officer of camel and small animals, 2001.

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 Camel production systems in Africa

Table 6. Average production of camel milk in some African countries.

Dairy production
Country Litres/day/head Litres/year/head
Somalia 9 1 800
Sudan 5-10 1 500-2 500
Tunisia 1.5-5 300-1 200
Egypt 4-15 1 600-4 000
Algeria 4-8 -
Chad 3-5 -
Kenya 4-6 -
Ethiopia 7 2 450
Eritrea 5-6 -
Libya 3-6 1 200-3 500
Source: Cheriha, 2000.

It is not easy to draw up a common and complete diagram of the main

Constraints constraints and advantages of the camel production systems in Africa
and because of the specificities of each country and the lack of adequate data.
advantages Nevertheless, in a general synthesis will be presented here.

The camel production systems in Africa face several constraints of various

Main constraints importances and in particular:
• Low economic interest of the camel breeding in the economies of the
countries with rare exceptions like Somalia.
• The breeding systems and the of control modes of the camel breeding
remain traditional.
• The socio-economic and technical difficulties facing the modernization
of the camel production systems.
• The absence of well organized markets for camel products in spite of
the renewed interest in these products for their biological quality.
• The insufficiency of programs and strategies for the development of
the camel sector at various scales: national, regional and international;
• The lack of organization of the camel breeders (associations,
co-operatives, etc.) to face the dominating role of the speculators and
intermediaries who have major control of the sector.
• In spite of the scientific achievements, the knowledge on camels
remains insufficient and do not allow to encourage the sector.
• The insufficiency of the scientific research programs at the various
scales (national, regional and international). One can quote here, the
example of the regional program implemented by ACSAD, “The Camel
Applied Research and Development Network (CARDN)”.
• Low productivity compared to the available potentialities.
• Absence of channel for the main camel products marketing.

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The main advantages could be as follow:

• Social importance of the camel breeding which represents the main Main advantages
income activity of most of the pastoral populations in the arid, semi-arid
and desert zones of Africa.
• High level of knowledge of the camel breeding production system
and the existence of a rich local know-how of this type of breeding,
• Low production costs.
• The natural and biological production conditions would allow the
camel products of being substitutes of other livestock products (cattle,
etc.).
• The availability of an important productive potential (approximately
80% of the world camel population).
• Existence of a high comparative advantage of the camel products in
Africa.
• Beginning of a serious renewed interest in camel breeding in the
development strategies of the African countries.

The camel production systems in Africa are very diversified and play an Conclusions
increasingly dominating role in the economies of many countries. Because
of its socio-economic and cultural role within a large portion of the
pastoral and nomad communities in the African arid and desert regions,
this economic activity represents a high local potential solution for poverty
alleviation in Africa.
The milk and especially camel meat, which are produced naturally and
biologically, would occupy important place on the global market.
However, this remains obviously dependent on the implementation of
serious national, regional and international strategies for the development
of the camel production sector in Africa.
The expansion of the camel use by other sectors, such as tourism and
racing, offers new socio-economic opportunities to increase the
profitability of the camel production system.
Though the scientific research achievements are modest, they open new
horizons for the modernization of the sector in order to improve the
productive performances of camels in Africa.

Alaya M. 1999: Annuaire des économies agricoles et

References
alimentaires des pays arabes et méditerranéens. CIHEAM-IAM
Montpellier – France, 449 p.
Cheriha A.M. 2000: Camels in arab countries, lives look and
production. Fatah University publications, 539 p.
Faye B. 1997: Guide de l’élevage du dromadaire. SANOFI.
Idriss B. 2003: Marketing of camels in the Soudan,
CARDN/ACSAD/Camel/ P111/2003, Wardeh MF (Ed.), 34 p.

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ICAR Technical Series - No. 11
 Camel production systems in Africa

Pacholek, X; Vias G.; Faye B. et Fougère O. 2000: Elevage

camelin au Niger, refereciel zootechnique et sanitaire. Coopération
Française, 93 p.
Sghaier M. 1999: La commercialisation des produits de l’élevage
camelin en Tunisie. Proceding of the training course on camel
production in Tunisia. IRA/CARDN/ACSAD/Camel/P58/1999,
pp. 54-61.
Sghaier M. 2003: Camel Marketing in Tunisie. The Camel
Applied Research and Development Network (CARDN). ACSAD.
CARDN/ACSAD/Camel/P108/2003.
Sghaier M. and Moslah M. 1999: L’importance socio-
économique de l’élevage camelin en Tunisie. Proceeding of the training
course on camel production in Tunisia, IRA,
CARDN/ACSAD/Camel/P58/1999. pp. 42-53.

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 Aréstegui Otazú

Alpaca and vicuña: General perspectives

Daniel Aréstegui Otazú

Consejo Nacional de Camélidos Sudamericanos,

Camuide Street 805 Lima II, Lima 51, Peru

“Gold of the Andes, riches that dresses the world”

In the landscapes of the high plains at over 4 000 meters above sea level,
thousands of years ago the Incas domesticated two species of the South
American camelids: Alpaca and Llama, using techniques that are a mystery to
these days. The first one would later be used as a source of soft, fine and resistant
fibre and the second one as a mean of transportation. From the two species
that continued being wild: Guanaco and especially Vicuña, a fantastic and
very fine fibre was obtained, which was reserved only for nobility. Its threads
were mixed with gold threads to create varied work of art. It was the fibre of
the gods.

Key words: South American camelids, domestic camelids, wild camelids,

characteristics, population and distribution, fibres, market.

• The Camelids appeared in North America, about three millions of

years ago. A group migrated trough the Bering Strait to Africa and The South
Asia, evolving to form part of the Camelini Tribe (camel and American
dromedary). An other group migrated to the South trough Central camelids
America and expanded in South America, where they formed the
Lamini Tribe. Finally, the ancestral Camelids disappeared in North
America.
• The South American Camelids belong to the Ariodactyla order,
Ruminantia suborder of the Camelidae family.
• Nowadays, the South American Camelids are represented by the
domestic camelids: Llama (Lama glama) and Alpaca (Lama pacos) and
the wild ones: Vicuña (Vicugna vicugna) and Guanaco (Lama guanicoe)

This group comprises the alpaca (known as the most resistent and light
The South
fiber in the world) and the llama, known for its nutritive meat with American
reduced content in cholesterol. domestic
camelids

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 Alpaca & vicuña: General perspectives

Alpaca (on the left) and llama (on the right).

The South The South American group of wild camelids comprises vicuña, an animal
American wild very well known for the finest fibre in the world and Guanaco that is the
camelids most resistant camelid in South America.

The Alpaca: • The alpaca is a pacific animal with a slim body. It is covered with
general fibre that when it is set together is called vellón. It presents steps pads
characteristics on it’s four extremities, which gives it the characteristic of ecological
animal, because it does not damage the grass.

Vicuña (on the left) and guanaco (on the right).

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• Lives in the Andes zone of Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina and today,
by introduction, in United States, Canada, New Zealand, Australia,
and in a minor numner in other countries.
• There exists two breeds of Alpaca: Huacaya and Suri.

Country Alpacas Percentage The Alpaca:

population and
Peru 3 100 000 87.0% distribution
Bolivia 325 000 9.0%
Chile 30 000 0.8%
United States 30 000 0.8%
Australia 25 000 0.7%
New Zealand 20 000 0.6%
Other countries 30 000 0.8%
Total 3 560 000 100.0%
Source: CONACS - MINAG 2003.

• The Alpaca fibre got a special fibre denomination. The alpaca fibre
World’s special fiber production (in MT).

Mohair 17 000 TM
Cashmere 8 000 TM
Alpaca 6 440 TM
This volume represents less than the 1% of the natural animal fibers.
Source: IPAC-2004

Comparison between alpaca fiber and other main fibers.

Production Refinement US$/Kg Comfort Application

Fiber Tons. % (mic). (Top) factor Punto Plano
Alpaca baby 515.2 8.0% 22.5 14.0 90.0% xxxx xxxx
Alpaca Suri 322.0 5.0% 26.0 13.0 70.0% xxxx
Alpaca superfine 2 576.0 40.0% 26.5 9.0 70.0% xxxx xxxx
Alpaca Huarizo 1 301.8 20.2% 31.0 4.3 55.0%
Alpaca adult 1 725.0 26.79% 34.0 2.9 25.0% xxxx
Total 6 440.0 24.1%
Cashmere 8 000.0 30.0% 16.0 80.0 98.0% xxxx xxxx
Mohair kid 3 400.0 20.0% 25.0 27.0 80.0% xxxx xxxx
Mohair young G. 10 200.0 60.0% 28/31 21.0 65.0% xxxx xxxx
Mohair adult 3 400.0 20.0% 35/37 11.5/6.0 25.0% xxxx
Total 17 000.0 63.7%
Angora other types 1 700.0 6.4%
Source: IPAC-2004.

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 Alpaca & vicuña: General perspectives

In traditional markets of tops and spinning, made of fibre, its reduced

The alpaca volume does not make it competitive and it is exposed to different interests
fibre market of the producers and industrialists of Peru.
When it is on fashion, approximately each five years, prices become
extremely unstable, i.e. they increse very fast due to the effects of the
higer demand comparing to the offer; this matter causes relevant internal
speculation and a temporal rise of prices in all the chain.
This situation makes the relation very conflictive between the final buyers,
which retract from the market, with a consequent replacement of the
alpaca with other more stable fibres. As a result, the Alpaca prices go
down to sub yield levels of the producers.

• The main exportation markets are: China, Italy, United Kingdom and
United States for the tops and spinning, and the United States,
Markets and Germany, United Kingdom and Japan for the finished alpaca clothes.
products of the • The main exportation products are tops of alpaca and wool combed
alpaca fibre or rebuke, spinning, fabrics, preparations in plane weave handmade
or with special machines, such as sweaters, cardigans and artisan
products.
• The 80% of the Alpaca fibre is exported with low added value such as
tops, spinning and fabrics and only a 20% as finished clothes.

• Relating to the productive chain of the fibre, it was established four

main objectives:
Development - The fibre’s refining trough a genetic improvement process.
perspectives of - The standardization and normalization of the commerce and
the alpaca transformation process as well as the derived products.
fibre - The increase of the added value trough the exportation of finished
products in a bigger proportion.
- The international positioning of derived alpaca fibre products in
fashion segments more stable and with better prices.
• Relating to the meat productive
chain, the development of the
sector can be supported through:
- the improvement of the quality
of the carcases: free of parasitic
diseases and a better finished.
- the identification of the markets
that appreciate the properties
of the alpaca meat, and that are
available to pay an higher
price.
• Relating to the productive chain
of skins and leathers, basically not
used, it must be noted that this

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Prices of different alpaca fibres (in US$) from 1994 to 2004.

sector has a great potential as soon as some problems linked to the

conservation and quality of raw materials will be solved.
- The productive chain with better perspectives in short and medium
term is the one associated to the germoplasm: animals on foot, such
a reproducers or pets; frozen semen, embryos, ovules, etc.

• The vicuña habitat lays in the high andean ecosystem of the Puna,
ranging 4 000 up to the 5 000 a.s.l.. Vicuñas can generaly be found in The vicuña
Peru, Chile, Argentina, Bolivia and Ecuador.
• The vicuña is a wild animal, gregarious and territorial. Socially, they
form three kinds of organizations: family groups ruled by a male with
five or more female vicuñas, cattle of young male vicuñas rejected by
the family groups and the lonely male ones.
• The vicuña is perfectly adapted to the Puna, has cinnamon fibre
(mimetic), very fine (10-12 microns of diameter) very warming,
particularly adapted to resist low temperatures.

• The Vicuña produces about 200 grams of this fibre every two or three The Vicuña:
years. general
• Its blood contains around 14 million red globules/cubic millimetre, characteristics
that facilitate the absorbtion of the small ammount of oxygen in the
air. Its feet has very smooth pads that avoids erosion of the lands. It
can reach a speed of 45 km/h.

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 Alpaca & vicuña: General perspectives

• The vicuña gestation period is of 11 months and produces just one

baby vicuña per year, between February and April.

Country Vicuñas Percentage

The vicuña: Peru 149 500 61.5
population and
distribution Bolivia 57 905 23.8
Chile 13 528 5.6
Argentina 20 263 8.3
Ecuador 2 058 0.9
Total 243 254 100.00%

• The vicuña fibre is consider the finest animal fibre of the world.
The vicuña fibre
market and its • The price of the partially free of hair vicuña fibre,
derived products ranges between 500 and 700 US$ per kilogram.
• The animal products are positioned in a very
specific market, because of the very high price of
the clothes and their special characteristics.
• More than the 90% of vicuña fibre is exported
partially or completely free of hair. Finished
products are barely exported.
• The main exportation markets are Italy, United
kingdom, Germany and Japan and in the near
future United States.

• The vicuña potential is based on the sustainable management of its

Development
perspectives of specie which allow a safety increase of the population and the
vicuña fibre production of the fibre, improving the safeguard and the control of
the population against furtive hunters.
• The Peruvian Government, according to the international agreements
(Vicuña Agreement and CITES that regulates the management of the
species, the commercialization and the transformation of vicuña fibre),
is executing through the CONACS.
• Several actions to accomplish the sustainable manage of the specie
have been started.
• In the national South American Census, that will take place in 2005,
we hope to count a population above 145 000 units.
• In economical terms, the vicuña manage is more profitable than the
alpaca raising.

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Camel production systems in Asia

Abdul Wahid Jasra1 & M. Ashraf Mirza2

1
Director, Range Management and Forestry, Pakistan Agricultural
Research Council (PARC), Islamabad, Pakistan
2
National Coordinator, CARDN-Pakistan, PARC, Islamabad

Due to uneven distributing of global population (i.e. 18.58) million heads,

>80% camels are found in Africa. Asia is the second largest host of Summary
camelids where 70% population is found in India and Pakistan. Both
dromedary and bactrian camels are found in Asia, however, former is in
eventual majority. All camel habitats are unique ecological niches i.e.
extremely marginalized and highly inaccessible temperate as well as
tropical deserts. The physical/physiological uniqueness of camel enabled
humans to inhabit these deserts. hence pastoralism involving exclusively
camels or mixed livestock remains the dominant use of natural resources
in arid and semi-arid ecosystems of Asia. Within these ecological
specificities camel production is the mainstay of livelihood. Being
extremely low input animal, the camel has been supporting the main
subsistence needs of pastoralists across large-scale biological and
geo-political diversities, Camel has been the key resilience animal species
of pastoralists to absorb various external shocks particularly climatic and
geo-political vulnerabilities. The adventitious vulnerabilities of camel
pastoralists had led to various camel production systems.
The Camel Applied Research and Development Network (CARDN),
Pakistan has documented the camel production systems in Indo-Pak
subcontinent based on socio-cultural terms. Hence, three categories of
camel pastoralists have been recognized which are migratory or nomadic
pastoralists, transhumant or semi-migratory pastoralists and sedentary
or household pastoralists. The International Livestock Research Institute
(ILRI) has reported 10 global livestock production systems. The
agro-ecologically based production systems are also directly applicable
to camel production systems in Asia. The livestock production systems
have been redefined in commercial context. These include a) traditional
rural livestock production; b) commercial milk production; and
c) desert/rangeland production. These are equally good to be used for
camel production. The camel production systems have very recently been
reported as following a) traditional system; b) peri-urban system; and
c) ranching of camels. Although very complex issue, we need to define
camel production systems based on universally agreed parameters.

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 Camel production systems in Asia

As a consequence of vulnerability to external forces, socio-economic

transformation of camel as well as other pastoralists is emerging as
gradual phenomenon, hence, the treasures of biological as well as cultural
diversity are at stake. This changing scenario is calling for appropriate
collaborative research and development initiatives to optimize the general
understanding of key external shocks like macro economic framework,
demography and access to land & other natural resources, drought and
other climate related events.

Key words: camel population, distribution, statistics, species and breeds,

habitats, production systems.

The camel was domesticated around 2500 – 3000 B.C. (Graham, 1996).
Introduction It was believed that the dromedary camel was domesticated in southern
Arabia, the north eastern part of Yemen and the west of Oman (Khan et
al., 2003) Camels were the domestic animals of particularly nomads for
the milk, meat and transport needs. However, the greatest cultural impact
on the recent distribution of camel was the advent of Islam. The Arabs
took their one-humped camels with them towards north east Asia and
Mediterranean sea. Gradually dromedary emerged as food security animal
in extremely harsh and arid sandy as well as mountainous deserts. The
Muslims developed especial religious association with camel since it was
quoted in the ‘Quran’ as a gift for man from God.
The camel production was also strongly recommended in the pre-Islamic
sacred religious books in Iran. Maqddam and Namaz-Zadeh (1998)
reported the use of camel during ancient Iran era, hence contradicting
the notion of the Muslims driven distribution of dromedary out of Arabian
Peninsula.
It was believed that the bactrian camel was domesticated on the border
of Iran and Turkmenistan and spread towards Mongolia and China
(FAO, 1982). The bactraian camels were domesticated before 2500 B.C
(Graham, 1996). Isani and Baloch (2000) found little or no knowledge
about the domestication of two humped camel.

The statistics of world camel population differs from source to source.

Camel The National Research Centre on Camel (NRCC), Bikaner, India reported
population in its website total 19.31 million camel, worldwide. It was further reported
and that there were 15.13 million camel in Africa, and 4.17 million in Asia.
distribution Based on camel population, various countries were ranked as following.
I st Somalia (6.2 million), 2 nd Sudan (3.2 million), 3 rd Mauritania
(1.2 million), 4th Ethiopia (1.07 million and 5th India (1.03 million). Isani
and Baloch (2000) cited 18.84 million camels throughout the world
distributed over Africa (13.82 million), Asia (4.76 million) and 0.01 million
in former Russian states. Khan et al. (2003) reported 18.58 million camels

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in the world i.e. Africa 13.62 million, Asia 4.76 million and Australia
0.2 million. They further mentioned that there were 1.2 million camels
in Pakistan.
FAO (1978) estimated that there were 2.9 million camels in Asia and the
regional camels population is summarized in Table 1.
Another website indicated camel population for various Asian countries
as reported in table 2.
The camel population in Iran has decreased from 0.3 million in 1975
down to 0.14 million in 1998 (Moqaddam and Namaz-Zadeh, 1998)
More than 80 % of all dromedary population is found in Africa. East
Africa contains about 63% of all old world camelidae. In Asia, about
70% of dromedaries are found in India and Pakistan.
The statistic cited in above paragraphs is concerning single humped
(i.e. dromedary) camel. Estimates for bactrian camels are scant. However,
the bactrians are mainly found in central Asian states of former USSR
and in China. More than 90% of the habitat of the bactrian camel lies in
Inner Mongolia (China), outer Mongolia (Gobi desert) and the desert
steppes of Kazakhstan. Bactrian is also found in northern Afghanistan
and a few animals in Northern Areas of Pakistan (Isani and Baloch,
2000). This species has also been reported to a lesser extent in Iran and
Turkey (Moqaddam and Namaz-Zadeh, 1998)

Table 1. Regional camel population in Asia (FAO 1978).

Country/Region Million camel

India 1.2
Pakistan 0.8
Afghanistan 0.3
Iraq 0.2
Saudi Arabia 0.1
Iran 0.03
S. Arabian & Gulf states 0.02
E. Med. Countries 0.05

Table 2. A possible alternative composition of the Asian camel population.

Country Million camels

India 1.52
Saudia Arabia 0.422
Yemen 0.18
UAE 0.16
Oman 0.094
Jordan 0.018
Kuwait 0.0086

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 Camel production systems in Asia

There are two species of camel, dromedary (Camelus dromedaries) or single

Species and humped camel and bactrian (Camelus bactrianus) or double humped camel
breeds Dromedary, commonly called Arabian camel has generally been
categorized into three work classes i.e. racing camels, baggage or draft
camels and milch camels. Modern breed description has rarely been
applied for camel till the Camel Applied Research and Development
Network (CARDN) initiated the spade work in this region. Under the
auspices of CARDN, Isani and Baloch (2000) documented twenty breeds
of camel in Pakistan based on morphological characteristics, habitats
and geographical distribution. However, Khan et al. (2003) concluded
that in depth research work was needed to verify the breed
documentation of Pakistani camel due to gaps in knowledge and
overlapping of characteristics of some local breeds, NRCC, Bikaner has
reported three camel breed in India (Kachchi, Jaisalmeri and Bikaneri).
Moqaddam and Namaz-zadeh (1998) cited four breeds of Arabian camel
i.e. Torkammam, Baloochi, Bandari (Port) and Kalkooi in Iran. In Saudia
Arabia the most commonly used classification for camel breeds is based
on colours. In the former Soviet Union, all one humped camels are
categorized as Arvana breed (Khan et al., 2003). Lot of work on
documentation of camel breeds in member countries of CARDN is in
progress.
Three breeds of bactrian camel are recognized in the former Soviet Union
i.e. Kalmyk, Kazakh and Mongolian. Khan et al. (2003). Moqaddam and
Namaz-Zadeh (1998) reported long legged bactrian and short legged
bactrian camels in Iran.

Since its domestication, the camel has been a food security animal of
Habitats subsistence oriented pastoralists in exclusively very harsh arid and
semi-arid ecosystems. Due to its uniqueness, the camel emerged as key

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animal species of both cold and hot deserts. Because of specific

adaptations, the Bactrian camels inhabited the cold arid deserts where
as the dromedary camels encroached into warm as well as hot arid
deserts.

The dromedary accounts for 95% of total world camel population The dromedary
habitats
(Wardeh, 1996), hence this single humped camel is distributed over vast
arid and semi-arid mountainous as well as plain areas in Asia.

Mountainous
his habitat stretches over Afghanistan, north eastern Iran and Balochistan highlands
province and Sulaiman Rodkohi mountains of Pakistan. The climate is
hyper arid to semi-arid where annual precipitation varies from 50 mm
to >250 mm. Mountainous terrain is a dominant topographic feature of
this habitat, hence animal grazing is an ultimate land use, however, along
with minimal crop and orchard farming. Temperature regimes vary
widely from cool temperate to sub tropical. Shrubby vegetation is classical
characteristic of this habitat.

Rajestan in India, Cholistan, Thal and Thar deserts of Pakistan and sandy Sandy deserts
deserts of Saudi Arabia, Gulf States, and other middle eastern Arab
countries are classical examples of this type of habitat. Sandy deserts are
characterized by great daily variations in temperature, maximum being
in summer rising to > 41oC and sometimes as high as 50°C; minimum in
January ranging from 3 to 8°C, with few frost days and relatively low
humidity. These extreme temperatures are accompanied by hot and high
wind velocity. Droughts and famines are frequent in these hyper arid to
arid deserts. Mean annual rainfall ranges between 100 to 250 mm. The
vegetation is essentially dictated by sand dunes formation.

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 Camel production systems in Asia

The two humped camel inhabits mainly the mountains of central Asia at
The bactrian altitudes of upto 2 000 m. It may be found at even higher altitudes under
habitats
snow cover. Wild forms of bactrian are found in Gobi desert. The annual
precipitation in the desert steppes of central Asia is 80 to 120 mm, hence
extremely arid climate where winters are very cold. The bactrian camel
is generally not found in temperature over 21°C.

Camel production systems to be discussed here would be relating to the

Production dromedary only. Historically, the production systems have been very
systems extensive and migratory in nature. However, over the period, the
traditional subsistence role of camel has been subject to visible changes
throughout Asia. Thus, emergence of various production systems is a
gradual phenomenon. The CARDN, Pakistan documented the most
traditionally prevailing camel production systems in at least four countries
i.e. Afghanistan, Iran, India and Pakistan. Socio-economic importance
of camel is closely associated with existing production systems. These
system are generally determined by climatic conditions, topography, plant
phonology, water resources, socio-cultural norms etc.

The migratory production is characterized by extensive animal husbandry

Migratory in both mountainous and sandy desert habitats with following three basic
production system
features:
• Camel heads are diversified with other species of livestock like sheep,
goat and donkeys. This strategy involves socio-economic
considerations of a pastoralist family.
• Herds mobility is an obvious fundamental strategy for survival.

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• It enables the pastoralist to share camel with other fellows of different

areas incase of a natural disaster or less forage availability.
Based on differing migratory natures, the migratory production system
is further divided into following two: a) Nomadic production; and
b) Transhumant production.

True nomads are generally found in mountainous habitat of camels

Nomadic production
i.e. Afghanistan, Iran and Balochistan province of Pakistan. These system
nomadic pastoralists are infact international and migrate between at
least two countries i.e. Afghanistan and Pakistan or Afghanistan and
Iran. They follow seasonal patterns of forage production. They would
spend summers in highlands of Afghanistan and winters in warmer and
relatively low lands of Pakistan in Balochistan province and/or adjoining
Iranian provinces. Nomads travel on historically/traditionally approved
routes across open grazing lands with herds camping for a few days at
a location. The camping duration would be linked with availability of
range vegetation to animals.
These nomads are called ‘Kuchies’. The Kuchies have been facing great
problems since the advent of Afghanistan crises. The present Afghanistan
government is trying to address their problems at national as well as
international levels. Due to security concerns, some of these pastoralists
had opted to contain their movements within one country i.e. Pakistan
or Iran, however, schedule and routes remain unchanged. In low lands,
they enter into contracts with local farmers for buying stubbles, grazing
rights, straw and other forage for their animals to mitigate feed shortage
in winter. Meanwhile, they would work as labourer to support their
family income through seasonal employment. These low lands also offer
them an opportunity to market their surplus animals/products etc. Their
backward migration coincides with the seasonal regeneration of
vegetation in uplands. Usually they depart from winter places in early
spring and reach their summer grazing areas in early summer.
There are three types of nomad camel herders.
1. Nomadic camel herders. They own pure herds of camels. Herd size
may vary from 50 to few hundreds.
2. Mix camel herders. This type of nomad family would own on average
24 camels, 95 sheep and 32 goats. Three or four families usually keep
their livestock together hence, making up herd/flock size of about
380 animals. Jasra and Isani (2000) estimated that these pastoralists
generated 48% of their gross income by sale of live animals, camel
services, 30% by marketing small ruminants and 8% by off-farm
employment.
3. Nomad pastoralists. The livelihood of these partoralists is largely based
on small ruminants (sheep and goat) production, however a normal
family may keep more then one camel for travel and transportation
of goods, household items etc.

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 Camel production systems in Asia

Transhumance is semi-nomadism and is also basically a migratory

Transhumant livestock production system. Some researchers have linked transhumance
production
with shifting of tillage operations among rainfed area during certain
seasons of a year. However, this definition does not necessarily apply on
camel producers in all habitat as most camels are owned by small farmers,
peasants or landless pastoralists.
The transhumant producers would always move between specific
locations hence, their migrations follow fixed annual routes. In
mountainous habitat, the local farmers in highlands would cultivate their
rainfed crops mainly winter wheat and as soon as sowing is over, they
would move alongwith their camels and other livestock down toward
low lands, where they behave like true nomads.
The other category of herders is almost completely dependent on their
camel herds as well as small ruminants. They are co-owners of common
tribal rangelands and in most cases their migrations take place within
the limits of their tribal lands. They may move from commonly owned
rangelands to open rangelands as forage availability fluctuates and would
usually return to their permanent dwellings during summer months.
Migration of camel herders from one place to another is a regular
phenomenon in most sandy deserts. Seasonal migrations are primary
feature of camel herders. The camel production practices vary among
tribes, however, two practices are generally recognize.
1. Wandering camel herds. The pre-monsoon period i.e. April to June in
sandy deserts of Indo-Pak is very hot and harsh. Just to avoid high
labour input in hot summer, few tribes would execute jointly the
wandering camel grazing scheme till the onset of monsoon in July.
They would let their camel herds un-attended to graze freely in desert
however, would appoint duty persons at watering wells distributed

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over the desert. These duty persons would wait for thirsty camels to
offer them water. With the onset of monsoon rains, all watering ponds
are filled in hence the duty persons on wells are no more needed and
camel herds keep grazing the lush green desert as free roaming
animals. Sometimes in October, the post monsoon period, all tribes
put up a search for their camel herds and drive them back to their
settlement. During winter, their grazing movements are watched since
it is the breeding season.
2. Watched camel herds. Some tribes never leave their camel herds
un-attended in desert. They would migrate to riverine banks and/or
adjoining irrigated plains during the pre-monsoon period to avoid
harsh hot weather and to feed their animals from unconventional
feed resources. The migration period may vary from three to six
months, however these pastoralists would return to desert as soon as
monsoon is commenced.

This kind of pastarolists are permanently settled. They own mostly

cultivable land and keep other animal species like sheep, goats, cattle etc Sedentary
production system
alongwith camels. Herds are rarely moved far away from their base area.
These camel producers are generally subsistence oriented small farmers,
peasants, landless tenants and camel is their main traction/draft power
source to undertake tillage and other agricultural operations. They would
one or few camels/family.
Sedentary camel producers are found throughout mountainous region,
sandy deserts and irrigated plains of India and Pakistan. However with
the influx of tractors, the role of camel as a source of traction power is
considerably declining. The classical example in this regard is the Thal
sandy desert in Punjab, Pakistan, where camel used to be prime draft
animal. However, since 1980’s camel has gradually been knocked out by
tractors and allied machinery.
In Indo-Pak subcontinent, the dietary preference of local people for camel
milk and meat has been very low as compared to other animal species.
Hence, the value of camel as milch and meat animal never got a boost
for exploiting its commercial aspects. Although camel milk and meat are
consumed at domestic level, but marketing of both is not customary.
Camel meat is sold by mixing with other beef and similarly camel milk is
mixed with cow/buffalo milk for selling. Thus, such environment
discourages commercial camel production for camel products. However
in Afghanistan and Western mountain ranges of Pakistan, the preference
for camel meat is relatively higher than in sandy desert and irrigated
plains. Thus, there is absolute need to promote camel milk and meat as
delicacy, for example for diabetic persons, however, based on sound
research findings. Unless the commercialization of camel milk and meat
is targeted, the camel production in south East Asia would remain at
subsistence. The camel producer would continue to stay below poverty
line and most probably the camel population would drastically decline
in coming few decades.

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 Camel production systems in Asia

ILRI defined 10 livestock production systems for the developing world.

The description of each system is primarily based on agro-ecological
classification (Thorton et al., 2002). In Pakistan, three livestock production
systems have been reported which are a) Rural livestock production b)
Desert/Rangeland livestock production and c) Commercial milk
production. The former two are infact sedentary and migratory
production systems as defined by Jasra and Isani (2000), however, the
latter one is recent development applicable to commercial cattle/buffalo
dairy farmers (www.pakissan.com). These are equally good to be used for
camel production. Khan et al (2003) have reported the camel production
systems as following:
1. Traditional system.
2. Peri-urban system.
3. Ranching and
4. Research system.
Most of these systems do not describe properly the camel production
systems in Asia. Hence, there are so many ways to define camel
production systems and there is need to define universally agreed
parameters in this regard.

As a matter of fact, the CARDN work in Pakistan has been taken as case
Conclusions study for the dromedary production systems in Asia. Jasra and Isani
(2000) identified following major constraints for camel development;
1. Issues of production systems. Majority of camel herders (90%) inherit
this profession from their ancestors of subsistence economy. Though
they are well versed with camel raising yet their indigenous camel
production system need up-gradation based on modern animal
husbandry practices keeping in view a shift from subsistence level to
commercial camel production.

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2. Management specific constraints. The primitive approach of camel

management in all three production systems (i.e. nomadic, sedentary
and transhumant) manifested in general poor feeding of animals, hence
slow growth rate, delayed maturity, long calving interval, low calving
rate and high disease incidence are common constraints on camel
productivity. Mean pubertal age of females was reported as five years.
Average calving rate ranged between 70.6% to 82%.
3. Socio-economic implications. 88 to 94% camel herders are illiterate.
For usual farm operations in mountains > 50% respondents preferred
camel over bullocks. Majority camel producers are below poverty line
and their livelihood focus is subsistence.
4. Marketing concerns. In sandy deserts, 21 to 100% camel herders
reported problems with marketing of camel milk and meat during
survey. Upto 60% reported middlemen exploitation. More than 80%
of respondents in coastal areas reported low marketing prices for their
animals and no government control on market operations.
5. Disease problem. High incidence of parasitic as well as infectious
diseases in camel herds was reported as serious concern.
Trypanosomiasis was reported in 30 to 45% of sample camels
population of coastal zone. Similarly, 28 to 50% respondents of irrigated
Punjab reported Surra. Mange and Ticks were reported by upto 98%
respondent camel herders. Among infectious diseases Pneumonia was
widely reported.
6. Veterinary extension service. In sandy deserts, 45 to 100% respondent
herders were using traditional medicine for sick camels. More than
65% of respondents were un-satisfied with a general treatment of
diseases. None of the respondents drenched his animals against
parasites or treated again Trypanosomiasis.
7. Policy implication. At both policy level (i.e. federal as well as
provincials), the livestock sub-sector has traditionally been given low
priority within agricultural sector. And under livestock sub sector,
the camel had been victims of neglect by both research and
development functionaries.
8. Technological deficiencies. There is severe deficiency of camel specific
and appropriate technological packages for camel herders to construct
a track for camel development.
9. Gender issues. Women were rarely involved in marketing of camel
and their products and were mostly not consulted for decision making.
Majority of women were unaware of the concept of development and
an increase in number of animals was development for them.
9. Machinery threats. Camel is quickly loosing its traditional draft value.
Mainly against machinery and tractors over the past thirty years. It
was estimated that machinery and tractors had taken over almost
50% of camel draft power responsibility in terms of transportation
and agricultural operations in sandy deserts. Under this scenario, the
traditional camel production systems may not sustain too long.

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 Camel production systems in Asia

11. Drifting of production systems. The second phase survey revealed

that all three traditional classes of pastoralists (i.e. nomad, sedentary
and transhumant) were subject to transformation in one or other way
in Balochistan Province, the largest camel habitat. Expanding
cultivation under government policies is gradually restricting
movements of free roaming flocks/herds. Nomads were found highly
vulnerable to external forces. It was further concluded that the drift
in traditional pastrolists’ production systems was conclusively
occurring because of changes in overall household as well as
community economic structures and part of survival strategy under
given socio-political and biological constraints.
This scenario is calling for commercial camel production, however, a
rough task due to a little market demand for camel milk and meat.

The Arab Centre for the studies of Arid Zone and Dry Lands (ACSAD)
Acknowledge- has served as great platform for the cause of global dromedary
ments development by launching the CARDN. CARDN has so far created firm
basis by generating sufficient knowledge base as well as appropriate
technologies. International as well as national strategies could be built
on CARDN’s output. In this regard, the missionary personal contributions
of Dr. M.F. Wardeh must be admired. The financial support of the
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and other
Co-donors to CARDN has eventually very well targeted the poorest of
the poor for poverty eradication. Meanwhile, the inputs of Dr. Ahmed
sid Ahmed have been commendable. Finally, Dr. Mustapha Guellouz’s
hospitality and hard work for this seminar on comelids are highly
appreciated.

FAO. 1978. FAO production yearbook. No. 32. FAO, Rome.

References
Graham, D. 1996. www.llamaweb.com/camel/info.html.
Homepage www.nifty.com/dromedaries/e/ehuman/e_toukei.html
Isani, G.B. and M.N. Balooch. 2000. Camel breeds of Pakistan.
CARDN-Pakistan/ACSAD/P93/ 2000. PP/150.
Jasra, A.W. and G.B. Isani. 2000. Socio-economics of camel
herders in Pakistan. CARDN-Pakistan/ACSAD/P94/2000.
Khan, B.B., A. Iqbal and M. Riaz. 2003. Production and
Management of Camels. Dept. Livestock Management, University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
Moqaddam, E. and K.P. Namaz-Zadeh. 1998. An introduction
to various breeds of camel in Iran. Mazraeh (Farm); Analytical and
Educational Magazine (Monthly) Feb & March, No. 11, 73-78.

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FAO/ICAR Seminar on Camelids
 Jasra & Mirza

Thorton, P.K. R.L. Kruska, N. Hemninger, P.M. Krisjanson,

R.S. Reid, F. Atieno, A.N. Odero and T. Ndegwa. 2002. Mapping
poverty and livestock in the developing world. ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya.
124 pp.
Wardeh, M.F. 1996. The Camel Applied Research and
Development Network. In: Jasra, A.W. and M.F. Wardeh. 1996.
Proceeding of the workshop on the status of camel production and
research in Pakistan. 3 Nov. Islamabad, Pakistan. ACSAD/CARDN/
Camel/P24/1996.
www.icar.org.in/nrecm/home.html
www.pakissan.com/Pakistan 2001-2004.
Yagil, R. 1982. Camels and camel milk, FAO animal Production
and health paper, FAO, Rome.

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ICAR Technical Series - No. 11
 Djemali

Camel genetic resources in North Africa

M. Djemali

INAT, 43 Avenue Charles Nicolle 1082 Mahrajène, Tunis, Tunisia

The dromedary (Camelus dromedaries) has demonstrated its high

adaptability to the most rigorous environments in North Africa. Its ability Introduction
to grow on feed that is not regarded as sustenance for most other domestic
animals made the dromedary a special component for marginal, arid
and semi-arid ecosystems. The dromedary, or Arabian Camel, is one of
the six species in the camelidae family, along with the bactrian camel
(Camelus Bactrianus), Llama, Alpaca, Guanaco and Vicuna. The
dromedary populates the semi-arid and arid tropical and subtropical
regions of Africa and Asia and other regions like Australia. The Bactrian
is found in regions of Asia with a colder climate and is well suited to
high mountainous regions. Both types of animals have provided man
with animal protein and energy and given nomads immense mobility
(Knoess, 1979). The Arabian Camel has one hump and it is adapted to
the desert conditions. The term ‘dromedary’ is derived from the word
dromos (Greek for “road”). Even though considerable research work has
been done on health, nutrition, anatomy, physiology and reproduction,
dromedary productivity is still low and new innovative management
practices are mostly needed. The association of camels, in general, with
harsh environments and the lack of appropriate genetic management
strategies did not help camels reach a better economic status when
compared with their counterparts, such as cows, sheep and goats. The
objectives of this article were: 1) to describe the dromedary population
in North Africa, and 2) to propose a plan of action for dromedary
improvement in the region.

North Africa has a population of about 78 million inhabitants which

represents 28% of that of the Arab countries and 15% of all the
North Africa
Mediterranean basin. This population has been multiplied by 2.4 times
population
since 1965 with an average annual growth varying from 2.26 in Tunisia trends
to 3.76 in Libya (Table 1). The urban population growth rate has been
increasing during the period 1965-2000 by 3.76, 2.96, 2.82, 2.56, and
2.26 per year in Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Mauritania and Tunisia
respectively. The ratio (Agricultural Gross Domestic Product : Gross
Domestic Product (AGDP/GDP)) was between 12-13% in Algeria,

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Table 1. North Africa total population.

2000 Increase
Country 1965 1995 2000 (%) 1965-2000
Algeria 11 923 27 655 30 291 0.39 2.96
Mauritania 1 096 2 275 2 665 0.03 2.82
Morocco 13 323 27 213 29 878 0.39 2.56
Libya 1 623 4 755 5 290 0.07 3.76
Tunisia 4 630 8 943 9 459 0.12 2.26
Total 32 595 70 841 77 583 1

Morocco and Tunisia. The GDP per inhabitant was $5 349, $2 238, $1 580,
and $1 193 in Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco respectively (MED
AGRI, 2002).
Improvement of standards of living in the region, combined with a high
population growth rate and a high rate of urbanization has caused a
massive increase in demand of livestock products that native breeds could
not satisfy. This situation resulted in the importation of exotic specialized
breeds and intensification of livestock production systems, especially in
dairy cattle and poultry. Little is invested in camel production
development.

North Africa is home of a very rich animal resources biodiversity of small

North Africa ruminants, cattle, equines and camels that have been adapted for
farm animal centuries to a variety of environments encountered in the region (Table 2).
resources Approximately 2 millions of camels are raised in the region. It is quite
difficult to have exact camel numbers within each country because of
the movement of camels among countries. This is why it may be more
interesting to see the total camel population size within the region and
not within a given country per se.
Farm animal resources play many agricultural roles in the region (food
production, social, employment, traction, fuel, fertilizer, bank, culture,
tourism). The livestock sector contributes around 30-35% to the GDP.

Total camel milk and meat production in the region are reported in table 3.
Livestock food Mauritania has the highest camel population size and it is the highest
production producer of milk and meat (FAOSTAT, 2003).
Total production of meat and milk by country and by species in the region
are mainly coming from other species (Figures 1 and 2). Poultry, sheep
and cattle contribute approximately by 45%. 30% and 24% respectively
to the total meat produced. Milk production is mainly coming from dairy

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Table 2. Livestock numbers in North Africa (in 1 000 heads) and percentages.

Country Sheep Goats Camels Cattle Horses Asses

Algeria 0.34 0.20 13 0.25 0.17 0.13
Mauritania 0.12 0.25 70 0.21 0.06 0.10
Morocco 0.30 0.34 2 0.40 0.46 0.61
Libya 0.12 0.13 2.5 0.02 0.14 0.02
Tunisia 0.12 0.08 12.5 0.12 0.17 0.14
Total 53 750 16 783 1 851 6 718 327 1 595
Source: FAOSTAT, 2003.

Table 3. Camel milk, meat and leather production (Mt).

Country Number (1 000 heads) Milk Meat

Algeria 245 8 000 3 400
Mauritania 1 292 22 000 20 000
Morocco 36 3 800 2 000
Libya 47 2 000 3 500
Tunisia 231 1 000 1 400

600

500
Meat

400
Cattle
(1 000 kg)

300 Sheep

200 Poultry

100

0
Algeria Mauritania Morocco Libya Tunisia

Figure 1. Meat production in North Africa by species.

cattle in all North African countries, exception made for Mauritania,

where the three species (cattle, sheep and goats) contribute almost equally
to the total milk produced.
In the case of camels, it should be understood that the lack of a complete
evaluation of its potential led to an underestimation of its real capacity
to produce meat and milk. As reported by Kamoun in 1995, the daily

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 Camels in North Africa

1600

1400

1200

1000
(1 000 kg)

Milk

800 Cattle

Sheep
600 Goats

400

200

0
Algeria Mauritania Morocco Libya Tunisia

Figure 2. Milk production in North Africa by species.

milk increase can reach 28.5% when the number of milking changes
from 2 to 3 per day. The part taken by the young camel should also be
measured accurately in order to assess the total milk produced on average
by lactation. There is no doubt that variability in production potential
does exist among and within camel breeds (Ismail and Al Mutairi, 1998).
This variability can be very useful for screening productive animals under
harsh conditions. In Tunisia, Kamoun et al. (1990) reported milk yield
averages varying from 1 000 to 2 700 kg.

Data on the actual amount of milk produced from camels in the region
Importance of by lactation are not known very accurately for judging their milk-
camels in the producing capacities. However, they are valuable animal genetic
region resources and constitute an indispensable natural resource that must be
properly managed due to their unique characteristics especially under
the most stressful conditions. As awareness of the importance of animal
resources and food safety has increased in the region as well as worldwide,
agricultural development and food security are becoming the main
components in most countries’ agricultural policies. It is becoming clear
that the food security argument is putting additional value on local
agricultural products, irrespective of their opportunity costs. The strategic
idea is to minimize the country’s dependence on external food supply
sources and produce a product that can be traced back regarding its
origin. This choice should allow camels in the future to regain economic
importance. If a sharply rising population in the developing countries is
to achieve higher real incomes and a better quality of life, agricultural
output must rise more rapidly than population growth. In order for the

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rise in agricultural output to be maintained over time, natural resources,

including camels, which provide the basis for such output must be
preserved and new technologies offering higher productivity must be
developed.

The adult Arabian camel weighs between 450 to 650 kg and its height Genetic
varies from 190 to 230 cm. Various types are encountered. In Tunisia, considerations
the most common name of the breed is “Maghrebi”. The adult live weight
of males is 450 kg on average while for females it is 400 kg. Algeria has
9 camel varieties in total (Chaambi, Chameau de l’Aftout, Chameau de
la Steppe, L’ait Khebbach, L’ajjer, Ouled Sidi Cheikh, Reguibi, Sahraoui
and Targui). Their adult live weights vary from 600 to 700 kg on average.
Their milk yield is 1100 kg on average and days in milk are 345 days on
average (DAD-IS, 2004). In Mauritania, there are 2 varieties: Chameau
de l’Aftout and Chameau du Sahel. In Morocco, four varieties are
encountered: Jebli (central atlas and anti atlas) Khaouri, Marmouri and
Sahraoui. Milk yield of these types varies from 500 kg in 180 days to
2 500 kg in 720 days (DAD-IS, 2004)
Almost no research has been done on a multidisciplinary way including
genetic improvement aspects as to the capacity of the camel to produce
milk and meat under drought conditions or under conditions where
human nutrition is so precarious. No thought is given concerning the
genetic ability improvement of this animal to produce food in severe
drought periods.
Looking at camels from a genetic point of view will soon clarify why
camels did not progress the way cattle, sheep and goats did in developed
countries. While developing countries are trying to follow the steps of
developed countries in breeding strategies for cattle, sheep and goats,
the situation is completely different for the camel case because the camel
is mainly encountered in developing countries. This situation did not
stimulate developing countries to investigate more the breeding
component in camels. The latter (Genetic improvement component) with
all its organizational aspects (Breed Associations, legislature, etc) is still
not considered as a priority for animal improvement when compared to
health, nutrition and feed resources. The common view is expressed that
there is no need to worry about genetics until management is sufficiently
improved to allow full expression of the existing available genetic
potential. This view, however, fails to recognize that an animal
population is dynamic in nature (culling and replacements) and that
genetic variability does exist in any given environment. Therefore, the
notion that there is a genetic potential for each level of management is
conceptually and practically more accurate (Falconer, 1996). The absence
of national recording systems and the lack of reliable breeding strategies
have been for long time major limitations to improvement. This explains
the absence of specialized breeds in camels. The main traditional typology
classifies camels into riding and pack types. A further typology allows
camels to be classified as lowland or mountain types (Lease, 1927). These

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 Camels in North Africa

classifications assign little importance to the main products (milk and

meat). Recent attempts have categorized camels into types comparable
to those applied to cattle (beef, dairy, dual purpose and racing) (Wardeh,
1991). This could build a new way of orienting research work in camels
and allows the development of breeds based on main products rather
than tribe names.

Breeding programs have been successful in developed countries because

A plan of they serve real needs and they were designed on solid bases, i.e.
action identification of economic objectives, recording, genetic evaluation,
dissemination of favorable genes and breed or farmers’ associations
backed up by reliable research institutions. Well-trained people and caring
breeders, working together in harmony, have made breeding programs
successful and essential for their breed improvement in a sustainable
way. These considerations should be taken into account for camels in
the future. In order to improve their productivity, a complete strategy,
including technical and organizational components, should be
implemented according to the prevailing production systems or society
use as follows:

1. Identify types of breeds (meat, milk or dual purpose, racing) based

Technical on:
component • Number.
• Production system.
• Community preference.
2. Develop a breeding strategy for each important breed that includes:
• Breeding goals.
• A simplified reliable recording system.
• Reliable genetic evaluation methods.
• A plan for dissemination of results and wanted genes.
• An evaluation of management progress and genetic trends in the
recorded herds on a yearly basis.
3. Implement a sound management program (nutrition, health, etc)
specific to each proposed breeding strategy.

In order for the technical components of the strategy to be maintained

Organizational on a continuous basis, the following organizational steps should be
components followed:
1. Create a national/regional association for the chosen breed with the
recorded herds taken as the breed nucleus.
2. Educate and design training programs for nationals who will have
the responsibility of implementing the breeding strategy and advising
the breed or farmers’ association.

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3. Increase the awareness of administrators in Ministries of Agriculture

about the importance and potential of the genetic management of the
breed and the role of the associations in promoting the breed. This
could be achieved through special short courses (Cunnigham, 1987)
4. Build working links between the association and specialized national
research institutions.
5. Use the association as a framework for extension programs to enhance
the multidisciplinary involvement (nutrition, genetics, socio-economics,
environment and marketing) and to develop services and technology
transfer to farmers. National legislatures could help enhance this type
of organization. International organizations like ILRI, ICARDA,
ACSAD and the FAO have a lot to offer in the field of education and
training in animal breeding, management and breed associations
organization. They can play a facilitating role in bringing key people
and national institutions together to implement and manage the
proposed strategy. It is important to stress again that the proposed
plan of action considers the breeding component as a leading issue
due to its dynamic nature in a sustainable way and the amount of
information that it generates. The breed/farmer association is taken
as a framework through which any program (nutrition, health, range
improvement...) aimed at improving the breed can be implemented.
It is also essential to note that all the mentioned actions should be
taken into account together in order for the strategy to be successful
(Djemali & Wrigley, 2002). Resource requirements for the
implementation of the strategy could be partially fulfilled by farmers’
participation.

During the past three decades, most developing countries have established
an institutional infrastructure for livestock development research: Organizational
extension, veterinary laboratories, disease control services and educational aspects
institutions at various levels. The technical performance of this
infrastructure varies from country to country and from institution to
institution. The development concern these days is not so much about
the capacities, in terms of physical infrastructures or size of trained
manpower, but about the usefulness of this capacity in improving farm
output. One of the alternatives to enhance this capacity resides in the
establishment of coordinating mechanisms among different active forces
working in agriculture within countries as well as at regional and
international level. The future of local livestock breeds in general and
camels in particular depends on the steps taken today toward their
improvement. Van Vleck (1987) reported that the true model in studying
livestock traits should be defined as y = f (genotype, environment, people).
It is the organization of people for the benefit of their animal resources
(breed or scientific associations) that generates progress at the productivity
level and ensures its sustainability. Successful examples are seen in the
developed world (European Association for Animal Production,
American Dairy Science Association). This is why it is very important

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 Camels in North Africa

that national livestock scientists in countries with arid and semiarid

climatic characteristics should join their efforts in order to create
mechanisms that allow them to meet regularly to present, discuss and
exchange information on topics relevant to the conservation and
improvement local breeds.

The potential of camels as a food producer in the region should be studied,

Conclusions utilized and improved. The absence of reliable genetic strategies is a real
handicap for camel development. A plan of action is proposed considering
the breeding component as a leading issue and a generator of useful
information with the breed/farmer association taken as a framework
for extension programs and a larger multidisciplinary involvement. In
order for the camel industry to benefit from science, dynamic mechanisms
should be established to bring together livestock scientists working in
arid and semi arid areas to facilitate exchanges of findings, avoid
redundancy and set up research priorities relevant to local animal breeds
in general and camels in particular.

Cunningham, E.P. 1987. Education and training for animal

References genetic resources in the tropics developed country view. FAO Animal
Production and Health, Paper 66.
DAD-IS. 2004. FAO-AnGRdatabase
Djemali, M. and J. Wrigley. 2002. Tailoring genetic
improvement to meet the overall livestock development objective.
7th World Congress on Genetics applied to livestock production.
FAOSTAT, 2003. FAOSTAT Database.
Falconer, D. S. and T.F.C. Mackay. 1996. Introduction to
quantitative genetics. Fourth edition. Longman Group Ltd.
Kamoun, M.1995. Le lait de dromadaire: productions, aspects
qualitatifs et aptitude à la transformation. Options Méditerranéennes.
Séries séminaires N° 13, 81-103.
Kamoun, M., S. Ellouze, J. Gordon and Ch. Ouinizi. 1990. The
Tunisian experience in camel milk production and processing. Proc.
Int. Conf. Camel production and improvement, Tobruk, Lybia.
Knoess, K.H. 1979. Milk production of the dromedary. Camels
IFS Symposium. Sudan. 201-214.
Ismail M. D. and S.E. Al Mutairi. 1998. Milk production
potential of dairy camels in northern Saudi Arabia. Actes du colloque:
dromadiare et chameaux, animaux laitiers, Nouakchott, Mauritanie.

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Leese, A.S. 1927. A treatise on the one humped camel in health

and disease. Haines: Stanford. U.K.
MED AGRI. 2002. Yearbook of agricultural and food economies
in the Mediterranean and Arab countries.
Van Vleck, L.D. 1987. Contemporary groups for genetic
evaluations. J. Dairy Sci. 70: 2456.
Wardeh, M.F., A.A. Zajed and H.S. Horier. 1991. Camel breed
types in Arab Africa. Proceeding of the International Conference on
Camel production and improvement. Arab Center for the study of Dry
zones and Arid Lands. Damascus. Syria 78-86.

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 Guerouali & Acharbane

Camel genetic resources in Morocco

A. Guerouali & R. Acharbane

Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat Morocco

In the kingdom of Morocco, the camel (Camelius dromedarius) is

considered as an important national resource that deserves to be protected Introduction
and not neglected. The reason is that camel husbandry contributes largely
to the socio-economic life of herders in large part of the country, especially
in the desert areas. In addition, camel husbandry has a considerable role
in providing subsistence and transport for the Saharan population, in
spite of the observed reduction of the number of camels during the last
two decades.
In Morocco, the number of camels is estimated at 150 000 heads (survey
of 1998) with 106 200 females at the age of reproduction. 58% of camels
are found in the southern Saharan regions and 26% in the east-west
band from Ouarzazate to Figuig passing by Rachidia. In these regions of
Morocco, camel livestock plays a considerable role among the population
activities, being the main factor of production, consumption and source
of income for the herders. The number of herders is estimated at 19 000.
Meat production averaged 5 000 tons in 2000, which is maintained
constantly during the last decade.

Key words: identification, characterisation, Guerzni type, Marmouri type,

Khouari type, genetic markers, milk production,

Since 1985, several camel development programs have been developed

by the Ministry of Agriculture in order to improve the productivity of
Research
this species in the regions of high concentration. The aim of these background
development programs was to improve meat production efficiency while
milk production efficiency was also considered in some urban regions
where the demand for milk is very high (Lahyoune, Boujdour and
Dakhla). The camel production development programs were supported
by research studies in laboratories and fields conducted by specialized
institutions, particularly the Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan
II with a financial contribution of the Ministry of Agriculture. The
research program focuses mainly on topics dealing with nutrition,
reproduction, diseases and production parameters of different varieties
of camels found in Morocco. The laboratory Research studies are
conducted at the specialized labs of the Institut Agronomique et
Vétérinaire Hassan II and the field research studies are performed at the

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Camel Research and Development center created by the Ministry of

Agriculture at Lahyoune (south of Morocco) to do research studies in
the field under the Saharan environment.

The present work was carried out in all Moroccan regions where the
Identification camel herding was practiced. It included data on surveys made with
and camel herders and determination of morphologic and genetic criteria.
characterization 1. Surveys. The aim of the surveys with herders was to bring out the
of Moroccan different criteria (color, size, productivity and endurance) used to
camels identify the camel varieties and to figure out the possibility of a better
utilization of these criteria.
2. Morphometric measurements. These measurements, made on the body
Methodology
of the animal, included:
- Shoulder height.
- Body length.
- Body girth (abdominal, thoracic and at the hump).
- Coxal width.
- Head length.
The data collected were compared to the survey data and then
processed in order to come up with a formula that allows identification
of the different camel breeds.
3. Genetic markers. This technique is based on the determination of
protein markers in the blood cells and plasma. It was used to make
genetic separation or grouping of the different camel varieties identified
through the morphometric studies.

The skin was mainly dominated by the brown colour (from light to dark).
Description of the However, there was a minority with a white skin, while some individuals
phenotic
characteristics were albinos. Different colours of the ear were found on the same skin.
The main skin colours which were used to differentiate between the types
of camels are showed in the photos.

The majority of camels measured have a shoulder height of less than

Morphologic 180 cm, indicating that this group of camels belong to the draught and
measurements transportation type, since the ride camel has a shoulder height of more
than 180cm, especially in males. Body length of measured camels
averaged 134 cm and coxal width averaged 41 cm. These measurements
did not allow distinguishing between the groups of camels. Body girths
(abdominal, thoracic and at hump) were well correlated with body weight
and the best correlation was obtained with the hump girth:

BW(kg) = 2.96 x HG (cm) – 282.76; r2 = 0.86.

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The morphologic measurements were helpful in estimating body weight

and in distinguishing the 2 types of the camel population: the Marmouri
type (20%) and the Guerzni type (60%). The crossing between the two
types has given a third type named Khouari (20%).
• Guerzni Type. This is the heavy type, which makes up the majority of
camels maintained by nomads. It is a pack camel with small size, teak
skin, abundant ear and well-developed hump. A mature animal
weighs about 400 – 500 kg. Females have small mammary glands but
are more adapted to harsh environments.
• Marmouri Type. This is the type that is used for riding. It is lighter in
body weight, with long legs, a well-developed neck, and a small hump.
It has a thin skin with less abundant ear. Females have well-developed
mammary glands but they are very sensitive to harsh environments.
• Khouari Type. This is the product of crossing between Guerzni males
and Marmouri females. The Khouari type has morphological and
physiological characteristics similar to the Marmoury type.

A limited number of studies were performed by looking at some genetic

markers in the blood that can separate between dromedary types. Some Genetic markers
genetic markers were tested and the information collected was not
convincing. The blood groups were not identified in dromedaries; it seems
that most camelids of Africa and Asia belong to the same group (B) while
small camelids of South America showed six blood groups: A, B, C, D, E
and F.
Studies on biochemical polymorphism, especially protein polymorphism,
showed a very small genetic variation between dromedary types. No
differences were observed on some blood enzymes such as: D-esterase,
isomerase gluco-phosphatase, dehydrogenase phosphoglutanate and
some blood proteins such as: Albumin, Transferin, and protein
transporting Vit D. Some variations in hemoglobin and beta-lactoglobin
were detected in dromedaries of different types of Somalia and other
variations in albumin and haptoglobin were reported in the Sudanese
dromedaries. Concerning catalase, opposed opinions are reported in the
literature. In India, no polymorphism of milk protein was detected but
differences between breeds were observed in phosphatase and amylase
of milk. These results may indicate that dromedaries have very few
genetic variations of blood markers of protein origin, which makes this
animal very special when compared to other domestic species. The use
of DNA typing, based on molecular biology, remains the best technique
to detect genetic differences between dromedary types or breeds.

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 Camel genetic resources in Morocco

Camel production was known as an extensive production based on

Performances grazing large areas with poor vegetation. However, with urbanization
of milk and high demand for camel products, herders developed new intensive
production in systems for fattening and milk production. These systems require daily
the two main feed supplies. Therefore, and with the absence of specific feeding
types of standards for lactating camels, cattle nutrients requirements were used
dromedaries instead. Studies dealing with nutrient requirements of camels at
found in maintenance and fattening (Guerouali et al. 1992) showed estimates of
Morocco feed conversion coefficient different from those reported for cattle. The
aim of this work was to estimate the coefficient of transformation of
nutrients into milk of the two type of camels and to compare growth
rates of calves belonging to the Marmouri and Guerzni dromedaries.

Eight lactating camels (4 Marmouri and 4 Guerzni) with an average

Materiel and weight of 450 kg and an average age of 8 years were used. Camels were
methods
housed individually and fed a ration composed of 65% forages and 35%
concentrate distributed in two equal meals per day (Table 1). The ration
was analysed and estimated to correspond to 2.5 maintenance energy
requirements (Guerouali et al. 1993) with 17% of crude proteins. All
animals had free access to drinking water. The camels were adapted to
the respiratory gas collection chamber and to the milk production
estimation technique prior to the experimental period. The experimental
design was based on the continuous measurement of the oxygen
consumption for 24 h at the peak of lactation. Oxygen consumption was
determined by flush through indirect calorimetry and energy
expenditures were estimated by the equation developed by Mclean (1972):

HP = O2 consumption x 4.89

Milk production was estimated by weighing the offspring before and

after suckling (for 15 min) three times per day for three successive days.
Milk energy was estimated from daily milk production and the energy
concentration of camel milk (3.46 MJ/kg) as it was estimated by Guada
et al (1985). Metabolizable energy intake was estimated from the amounts

Table 1. Dry matter, metabolizable energy and crude proteins of the feeding ration fed to
lactating camels.

Fresh Dry
matter matter Metabolisable Crude
Ration composition (kg) intake (kg) energy intake (Mj) proteins (g)
Ground barley 3 2.64 34.40 363
Sun-flower meal 1 0.90 6.11 380
Wheat straw 2 1.80 15.23 70
Alfalfa fodder 30 4.10 33.51 999
Total 46 10.44 89.25 1 812

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of feed consumed and their digestibility and metabolizability was taken

from the literature (INRA, 1988). The amount of MEI of all lactating
camels was comparable during the peak of lactation and was estimated
to average 89.25 Mj/d. Energy Balance (EB) of camels was calculated by
subtracting Total Heat Production (THP) and milk energy (LE) from
metabolizable energy intake (MEI):

EB = MEI – (THP + LE).

All feeds offered to lactating camels were consumed except some

Results and
perturbations in alfalfa intake and metabolizable energy intake averaged discussion
88.25Mj/d in the Guerzni type and 90.25 in the Marmouri type (Table 2).
Total heat production of camels, averaging 59.17Mj/day, did not change
significantly with the camel type. This amount of heat production was
about twice the amount reported in camels at maintenance (Guerouali
et al. 1993) indicating that the physiological stage of lactation is at least
twice demanding in energy expenditures compared to the maintenance
stage.
Milk production in Marmouri was significantly higher than in Guerzni
camels and averaged 5.95 ± 0.48 kg /camel/day (Table 3). Higher camel
milk production was reported in the Malhah (9.3 kg/d) and Wadhah
(8.94kg/d) breeds in Saudi Arabia (Basmail et al, 1994) and lower milk
production (3.6kg /d) was reported in Niger (Saley et al. 1994). Energy
contents of camel milk, estimated from its composition, averaged

Table 2. Metabolizable energy intake (Mj/d) and total heat

production (Mj/d) in camels at the peak of lactation.

Metabolizable Total heat

Camel identification energy intake production
Guerzni type
A 85.6 50.68
B 87.4 59.34
C 88.7 53.95
D 91.3 63.17
Mean 88.25 56.785
SD 2.40 5.56
Marmouri type
E 93.6 63.29
F 89.2 64.9
G 90.5 59.49
H 87.7 58.52
Mean 90.25 61.55
SE 2.5 3.04

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Table 3. Milk production and its energy concentration in lactating camels.

Milk production Milk energy

Camels identification (kg/d) (Mj/d)
Guerzni
A 5.83 20.19
B 5.62 19.48
C 5.2 18.11
D 5.58 19.36
Mean 5.5575 19.29
SE 0.23 0.75
Marmouri
E 6.2 21.4
F 5.94 20.54
G 6.53 22.48
H 6.76 23.24
Mean 6.3575 21.915
SE 0.313 1.028

3.46 Mj/kg and had more energy than cow milk (3.02 Mj/kg) and goat
milk (3.16 Mj/kg) but less energy than ewe milk (4.52 Mj/kg). Lactating
camels received an amount of MEI corresponding to 2.5 times that for
maintenance energy requirement and showed a positive energy balance
at the peak of lactation with about 9.5 Mj of daily tissue energy deposition
(Table 4). This energy partition of lactating camels was different from
that commonly observed in dairy cattle which usually have a negative
energy balance at the peak of lactation. In fact, at the peak of lactation,
high producing dairy cows can mobilize daily up to 1.5 kg of lipids and
200g of proteins from their body reserves to satisfy their needs for milk
production (INRA, 1988). Lactating camels, however, showed body
reserve conservation and even development at the time when the animal
was in high demand of energy for milk production
This conservation process might be one of the adaptation strategies of
the camel for surviving under difficult conditions in the desert. With the
development of an intense camel production system (modern camel
farms) and a genetic selection, it is possible to have an improvement in
milk production in the lactating camels through body reserves
mobilization as it was experienced in dairy cattle (Chupin et al. 1993).
With lower milk production and total heat production, the Guerzni type
showed more body tissue energy retention when compared to the
Marmouri type. The energy balance was more positive in the Guerzni
type with 12.18Mj/d than in the Marmouri type with 7.79 Mj/d. The
efficiency coefficient of utilisation of MEI for milk production was
estimated based on the following considerations:

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Table. 4. Energy balance in lactating camels at the peak of lactation.

Metabolisable Total heat Milk Energy

Camel Energy intake production energy balance
identification (Mj/d) (Mj/d) (Mj/d) (Mj/d)
Guerzni
A 85.60 50.68 20.19 14.73
B 87.40 59.34 19.48 8.58
C 88.70 53.95 18.11 16.64
D 91.30 63.17 19.36 8.77
Mean 88.25 56.79 19.29 12.18
SD 2.40 5.56 0.86 4.12
Marmouri
E 93.60 63.29 21.40 8.91
F 89.20 64.90 20.54 3.76
G 90.50 59.49 22.48 8.53
H 87.70 58.52 23.24 5.94
Mean 90.25 61.55 21.92 6.79
SD 2.51 3.04 1.19 2.41

• Metabolizable energy intake can be partitioned into metabolizable

energy for maintenance (MEm) estimated to average 32.40 Mj/d in
450 kg lactating camel (Guerouali et al, 1993) and metabolizable energy
for production (MEP).
• MEP = MEI – MEm = 89. 25 – 32.40 = 56.85 Mj/d.
• Since the lactating camels were producing milk and at the same time
gaining weight, metabolizable energy for production can also be
partitioned into ME for milk production (MEL) and ME for body tissue
deposition or growth (MEg). MEg was estimated from the amount of
energy deposited in maternal tissue (estimated from the energy
balance) and the efficiency coefficient of utilisation of ME for gain
calculated in other studies (Guerouali et al, 1993) to average 61%.
Metabolizable energy used for body tissue deposition
MEg = 9.48 /0 .61 = 15.54 MJ/d.
• ME for milk production was determined as the difference between
the ME used for production and the ME used for body tissue
deposition.
• MEL = MEp – MEg = 56.85 – 15.54 = 41.31 Mj/d
The daily amount of milk energy in lactating camels was calculated at
an average of 20.60 Mj/d and the ME used for milk production was
estimated at 41.31 Mj/d on average. The efficiency coefficient of
utilisation of ME for milk production (Kl) is defined as the ratio between
the energy deposited in the milk and the ME used for milk production.
Kl (%) = 20.60 / 41.31 * 100 = 50 %.

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 Camel genetic resources in Morocco

Efficiency lactation of 50% is reported for the first time in camels and
was lower than the efficiency reported in dairy cattle, varied around a
mean value of 62% (Moe et al. 1972). Precise estimates of Kl for different
species could not be averaged because of the significant effect of the diet
composition and digestibility. Kl averaged 61% in cows fed low quality
forages and 72% in cows fed high quality forages (VanEs, 1975). Kl varied
from 51% to 66% in the same cows receiving diets of different composition
(Hoffman et al. 1972).
Kl estimated in lactating camels was generally lower than most values of
Kl reported for dairy cattle indicating that camels were less efficient in
transforming MEI in milk energy. The determination of the efficiency
coefficient of utilization of MEI for milk production allowed the estimation
of energy requirements of lactating camels producing 5 kg of milk at 4%
fat (Table 5).
Lactating camels averaging 500 kg required 65.3Mj ME for producing
5 kg of milk in comparison with 74.0 Mj of ME for lactating dairy cattle
of the same weight and level of production. When partitions ME, camel
and cattle required 33.9 and 44.2 Mj of ME for maintenance and 33.9 and
29.8 Mj ME for milk production respectively. Hence camels required 35%
less ME for maintenance and 12% more ME for lactation than dairy cattle.
The same trend was observed in camels weighing 600 kg and producing
5 kg of milk (70.0 Mj ME) compared to that (82.8 Mj ME) of dairy cattle
of the same weight and level of production (Hoden et al., 1988).

In another trial, four ten-months-old calf camels of the Guerzni type

were compared to other four of the Marmouri type receiving the same
Comparison of amount of feed. The young camels were weighed every week during a
growth rate period of eight weeks and growth rate was determined (Table 6). The
between Guerzni
and Marmouri calf growth rate in the Guerzni type was significantly higher than the growth
camels rate obtained in the Marmouri type indicating the potential of meat
production in the Guerzni type.

Table 5. Daily energy requirements (expressed in mega joules and forage

units) in lactating camels producing 5 kg of milk at 4% fat.

Body weight Energy requirements*

Kg Kg 0.75 Mj/d UF/d
300 72.1 55.0 4.8
350 80.9 57.7 5.0
400 89.4 60.3 5.2
450 97.7 62.8 5.5
500 105.7 65.3 5.7
550 113.6 67.7 5.9
600 121.2 70.0 6.1
*Energy requirements for maintenance and production of 5 kg of milk at
4% fat.

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Table 6. Comparison of growth rate between calf camels from Guerzni and
Marmouri types receiving the same feeding ration for period of two months.

Calf Weight at Weight at Weight Growth

camels 1st day(kg) 56days (kg) gain (kg) rate (kg/d)
Guerzni
A 180 195 15
B 144 170 26
C 150 177 27
D 132 156 24
Means - - 23 0.41 kg/d
SD 0.98
Marmouri
A 133 152 19
B 128 170 15
C 155 177 22
D 148 164 16
Means - - 18 0.32 kg/d
SD 0.056

The Marmouri type showed higher milk production and a more negative
energy balance when compared to the Guerzni type. But Guerzni showed Conclusions
more potential for meat production.
The efficiency coefficient of utilization of ME for milk yield (Kl) averaged
50% in the lactating camel and was lower than Kl reported in cattle.
However, camels with lower MEm compared to cattle, required 12%
less Metabolizable energy to produce 5 kg of milk at 4% of fat under
harsh environmental conditions for dairy cattle.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of this work

by ACSAD, IFAD and the IAV Hassan II. They also thank all the
Acknowledge-
technicians of the Physiology Department for their care and good
ments
handling of the dromedaries.

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 Camel genetic resources in Morocco

Figure 1. Guerzni type camel.

Figure 2. Marmouri type camel.

Figure 3. Khouari type camel.

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 Guerouali & Acharbane

Figure 4. Lasfar type camel. Figure 7. Lazrag type camel.

Figure 5. Lakhdar type camel. Figure 8. Labied type camel.

Figure 6. Lahmami type camel. Figure 9. Dkhan type camel.

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 Camel genetic resources in Morocco

ARC, Agricultural Research Council. (1988). The nutrient

References Requirements of Ruminant livestock. Commonwealth Agricultural
bureaux. Farnhan Royal Slough SL2 3BN, England.
Baismail, M. D. and Al Mutari, S.E. (1994). Potentiel laitier des
dromadaires dans le nord da l’Arabie Saoudite. Colloque organisé par
CIRAD en Mauritanie. CIRAD Publication n. 18, 33541.
Chupin, D., Wagner, H. and Wilson T. (1993). L’amélioration
génétique des des bovins en Afrique de l’Ouest. Rome et Banjul (GBM).
FAO. Etudes de production et santé animale. N° 110, pp. 296.
Guada, J. A., P. J. Alvarez, and Ovejero, F.J. (1985). Prediction
of energy value of ewes milk from composition data. Inet. Nat. Invest.
Agrar. Ser. Granada. 22(1): 3950.
Guerouali, A and Zine Filali. R. (1992). Maintenance energy
requirements of the dromedary camel. Proceeding of the First
International Camel Conference. Editors: W.R Allen, A.J. Higgins,
I.G. Maybew, D.H. Snow and J.F. Wade. R&W Publications
(Newmarket) Ltd. Pb 251254.
Guerouali, A., Zine Filali,, R. Vermorel, M. and Wardeh M.F.
(1993). Maintenance energy requirements and energy utilisation by
camel at rest. Proceedings of the 13th symposium on Energy
Metabolism of Farm Animals. September 1824, 1994. Majacar, Spain.
Hoffmann, L., Scheimann, R., Jentsch, W. and Hensler, R.
(1972). Adch. Tierernahr. 22: 721.
INRA. (1988). Tables de l’alimentation des bovins, des ovins et
caprins. INRA Publications Versailles, France.
Mc Lean, J.A. (1972). On the calculation of heat production
from open circuit calorimetric measurement. Br. J. Nutr. 27: 519549.
Saley, M. and Steinmetz, P. (1994). Approche quantitative de la
production laitière destinée à la consommation humaine et sa
répercussion sur la crissance du chamelon. Etude réalisée en milieu
traditionnel au Niger.

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 Saipolda

Mongolian camels

T. Saipolda

Research Institute of Animal Husbandry, RIAH, Zaisan 210153

Ulaanbaatar, Ulaanbaatar 21015, Mangolia

In the world there are about 19.1 million head of camels, including 0.8
million of bacterian; about 30% of this last one bred are in Mongolia. In Summary
1954, there were 895.3 thousand head of bacterian in the country but
last years the number of camels decreased by 3 times, as result of increased
production for camel meat and losses of them after livestock privatization.
Nowadays, Mongolian two humped camels are endangered species.

Key words: characteristics, Mongolia breeds, Galbiin Goviin ulaan, Khaniiin

khetsiin khuren, Tokhom-tungalag, behaviour, semen collection, semen
evaluation, parturition.

The two native humped camels have excellent potential as they are used Biological
for draught power, transport, wool production, and meat. The high
characteristics
resistance of the camel to the hot desert climate in summer is due to the
economic use of reservoir water. Camel reduces the frequency of
respiration and they are not subjected to sweating through the nose cavity;
paunch of camel also favour the economic use of water. Camel can
survive without food and water for 3 to 4 days.
The Mongolian camels have the following morphologic characteristics:
elongated roundish muzzle, large forehead, hare lip, short ears, well
developed muscles, mobile body, long ribs, short tail and strait legs.
Body weight is in progress up to 7 years old. Most intensive development
of the younger animals happens during the first 3.5-4 years and depends
on the natural and climatic factors.
The Mongolian bacterian puts on weight from May to October and the
average daily gain ranges from 338 to 475 g. Adult castrated male weighs
424-600 kg. Killing-out percentage is 54.6-60.3, including 30-60 kg fat.
Mongolian camels are well adapted to severe continental climate of Gobi
area and they have a high ecologic and physiological plasticity to resist
to the extreme conditions: hot summer and cold winter during which
they loose 20-25% of their body weight.
Colour of Mongolian breed of camel is mainly brown, light-brown. About
80% of camels have brown coat. Camels with white and light-bay coat
are found rare. Wool yield in adult she-camel and castrated male is 5.2

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 Mongolian camels

Figure 1. Distribution of camels in Mongolia.

kg/year, while wool production in bull-camel averages 8.1 kg, bat can
reach 16-18 kg. The fibre diameter and lengths for under coat from she-
camel are reported to be 20.8 micron and 81.2-98.4 mm respectively, for
outer coat-22.69 micron and 73.4-140.4 mm. The diameter of wool in
camels becomes coarser according to their age. Clean yield of wool varies
up to 84.3-94.2%.
The Mongolians have tradition that use camel milk as curative. In the
Gobi desert, lactation period of she-camel is 528 days /17.6 month/.
She-camels are dried up after 5 months from conception. Average milk
yield during lactation period is reported to be more than 300 litres (174-
576 litres ) The camel milk contains 14.56% dry matter, 5.65% fat, 3.17%
lactose, 3.81% protein 0.67% ash. The milk of she-camel is rich in amino-
acids, P, Ca and vitamin C. Killing-out percentage of adult camel is 54.5-
60.3%. Weight at slaughter ranges from 209 to 301 kg. Fat weight in the
humps is reported to be around 13.4-43.4 kg. On average, camel meat of
castrated male contains 60.2% moisture, 21.1% fat, 17.8% protein and
0.9% ashes. Weight of a warm hide is 27.2 kg. Castrated camels are able
to transport 200-240 kg of load and travel at 30-40 km per day.
Reproduction biology of Mongolian camel is particular interest. Mating
season begins at the beginning of the winter season. Behaviour of the
male camel is getting aggressive. Female pregnancy period is 387-415
days long.
Optimal structure of camel's herd is considered to be as follows: she-
camels - 35-38 %, the males - 2 %, the young animals - 30-38 % and
castrated - 25-27%.

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There are a number of outstanding local breeds of camel such as Galbiin

Goviin ulaan, Khaniiin khetsiin khuren and double maned Breeds of
Tokhom-tungalag. These breeds are widely used for the genetic Mongolian
improvement of native Mongolian camels. camels

Figure 2. Galbiin goviin ulaan.

The tables 1 and 2 report the main physical characteristics of the Galbiin
Goviin ulaan, while figure 2 shows an adult Galbiin goviin ulaan . Galbiin goviin
ulaan

Table 1. Body measurement of Galbiin goviin ulaan.

Sex Height, cm Length, cm Girth, cm

Adult castrated male 174.5 150.9 233.1
Adult she-camel 167.3 139.8 213.0

Table 2. Live weight and wool characteristics of Galbiin goviin ulaan.

Live weight, kg
Sex Spring Autumn Wool yield, kg
Adult castrated male 569.4 667.5 6.4
Adult she-camel 413.2 523.1 5.3

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 Mongolian camels

This breed is characterised by a lighter weight compared to the other

Khaniin khetsiin camel breeds. It is found in Khanbogd and Bayan-ovoo soums of
khuren
Omnogobi province. About 60% of breed have red brown color. Tables 3
and 4 summarise the physical characteristics of the Khaniin khetsiin
khuren. Figure 3 shows an adult Khaniin khetsiin khuren.

Table 3. Body measurement of Khaniin khetsiin khuren.

Sex Height, cm Length, cm Girth, cm

Adult castrated male 171.9 151.0 230.3
Adult she-camel 164.7 138.1 208.2

Table 4. Live weight and wool characteristics of Khaniin khetsiin khuren.

Live weight, kg Wool yield, kg

Sex Spring Autumn
Adult castrated male 549.7 622.6 7.2
Adult she-camel 378.1 465.4 6.0

Figure 3. Khaniin khetsiin khuren.

It is found in Togrog soum of Gobi-Altai province. Main pecularity of

Double maned
Tokhom-Tungalag the breed is the double mane. There are three types in the breed:
A (woolly); B (heavuer in live weight); and C (standard).
Tables 5 and 6 summarise the physical characteristics of the double maned
Tokhom-Tungalag. Figure 4 shows an adult double maned
Tokhom-Tungalag.

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Figure 4. Double maned Tokhom-Tungalag.

Table 6. Body measurement of double maned Tokhom-Tungalag.

Sex Height, cm Length, cm Girth, cm

Adult castrated male 173.8 147.5 239.0
Adult she-camel 167.1 139.5 226.3

Table 7. Live weight and wool characteristics of double maned

Tokhom-Tungalag.

Live weight, kg
Sex Spring Autumn Wool yield, kg
Adult castrated male 540.0 600.0 7.6
Adult she-camel 372.1 440.5 5.9

A humped bull camel was tame and calm in non-breeding season. The
reproductive behaviour of a one/two-humped bull camelids (Camelus The sexual
bactrainus, Camelus ferus and Camelus dromedarus) becomes more behaviour of
aggressive during the rutting season. The mating behaviour of bull Mongolian
camelids is preparative to sexual activity during the rutting season. The wild and
preparative (zengerleh) stage before sexual activity (occurring between Indian bull
non-breeding and breeding season) is different from that of other camelids
ruminant male animals.

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 Mongolian camels

Approaching the time of the sexual activity, the behaviour of humped

bull camelids modifies: saliva forms a foam at the mouth blowing, teethes
produce acute sounds, emitting a gurgling or blubbering vocalisation,
flipp urine up over the back, accumulation of dirt in the urine soaked
hair fibres a crush on the back of hump, snuff secreting of poll glands of
the typical symptom. The intensity symptom of mating behaviour of wild
bull is more evident than that of both domestic Mongolian and dromedary
bulls.
The dulaa protrudes and two parts of secreting of poll glands of the
dromedary bull has to contrast symptom with domestic and wild bactrian
bulls. The poll gland of the bull camels is more developed than in castrated
male camel.

Attempts for semen collection in Mongolian and dromedary bull camels

Semen produces a refusal to ejaculate or an incomplete ejaculation in the artificial
collection, vagina. Sometimes at the collection of semen it is possible to recover
evaluation of aspermic bulbourethral, dead spermatozoa and dust contamination.
Mongolian Typical camel semen is sparkling white, milk colour with partially
bull camel in released from liquefacting coagulum. The semen volume of wild bull camel
breeding is higher that that of both Mongolian and dromedary bulls. The
season spermatozoa concentration of domestic Mongolian bull is higher than
that of both dromedary and wild camels.
Some characteristics of the semen are the following: mean volume
5.78±1.96 ml, sperm mobility 0.6, medium density, pH=7.5, sperm
concentration is 706.34 h 106/bl. The total and the head length of the
spermatozoa is 42^36±1^09μ and 6^62±1^32μ. Dilution with an extender
(sacrose/lactose+egg yolk+glycerol) is feasible and diluted semen shows
a reasonable mobility allowing a deep freezing.
The sperm mobility in raw semen is similar in both Mongolian and
dromedary bull camels.
The morphology of the spermatozoa of Mongolian bull camel is
determined to be 89.86% normal and the remain 10.14% are abnormalities
in rutting season. The most preminent abnormalities are non-headed or
non-tailed spermatozoa , a sharp demarcation of head, bending or curling
of tail.
A study carried out to determine the acrosomial status of spermatozoa
in fresh condition revealed that acrosome integrity was 69.2-74.0% in
intact healthy spermatozoa. The remaining 26.0-30.8% of all intact
acrosomes were loosen or detached, swollen and lost acrosome with
spermatozoa.

The three layers of the skin of gland are epidermis, dermis and
Histological hypodermis. The structure of the skin glands were similar to that of other
studies of the portion's of body. The simple coiled tubular sweat glands are associated
skin of the and deeply embedded in the dermis with primary hair follicles. The
gland secondary hair follicles are not associated with sweat glands. The sweat

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glands of the bull camel are more developed than those of the females
and of the castrated male camels. During the breeding season the sweat
gland of the bull camel excretes a coffee-colored and acrid smelling fluid.

The behavior of female camel before parturition changes from calmness

and quietness to unstable. The female camel begin to reduce the grazing Parturiton of
time, look into distance and emitting a specific sound and secluding just Mongolian
before parturition The vulva swells up, the udder and teats increases in female camel
size. The female camel is unease and tends to seek solitude by wandering
out from the herd. She laid down and get up quickly sometimes, she
urinates many times small amount of urine, she whinnies many times.

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Camelid genetic resources. A report on three

Arabian Gulf Countries
Isam T. Kadim & Osman Mahgoub

Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural and

Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, PO Box 34, Al-Khoud, 123,
Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

Key words: taxonomy, origin, classification, camel breeds, camel types, riding
camel, camel traditional breeds, meat production camels, milk production
camels.

Camel breeds in the Gulf region resulted from a community of breeder’s

efforts for generations. This community dwells in the same area, keeps Introduction
and breeds camels for specific purposes and exchanges camels among
themselves. In some traditional societies, camels are associated with
specific group such as a tribe or family. In the Gulf region, camels are
used for meat, milk, transportation and racing. Arabian societies believe
that camels are regarded as assets of the community as a whole that
must be maintained for future generations; therefore, camels traditionally
change ownership only when they are given as marriage dowry to the
bride’s family. Social aspects therefore, are important for keeping certain
camel breeds that have become economically unviable.
The local breeders select their camels for their physical attributes, unique
qualities, behavior and performance, therefore, they restricted the use of
male camels until they have known what the offspring is like. Therefore
most of the Arabian breeders avoided in breeding, certain types of color
and performance or combinations produced for many generations.
Generally, the breeders kept oral records of genealogies, tracing the
ancestry of their herds in female lines. Every camel has a name and a
female is usually named after its mother. Selection of male camels is done
with utmost care, although, due to economic constraints, not all breeders
can afford to use the highest standards. Features such as the looks, size,
color, temperament and milk yield of the mother and other female
relatives are taken into account. Male animals that produce calves that
look similar to their father are regarded as “strong” genetically, and
therefore, preferred as breeders. If a good quality male camel is available,
it is obliged to be accessible for female camels to be mated.

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 Camelids in Arabian Gulf Countries

Camelidea

Lama Camelus

Glama

Alpaca
Dromedary

Vicuna

Guanaco

Bacterian

Figure 1. Taxonomy of the camelids

This paper will be overviews the classification of the Arabian camel in

general then discuss the types and breeds in the Sultanate of Oman,
United Arab Emirate and Saudi Arabia. The racing camel industry is
getting well established in the region and recently it substantially
developed in the whole region, therefore, the features of the Arabian
racing camel breeds will be emphasized in this paper.

Camelids belong to the order Artiodactyla (even toed ungulates), sub order
Taxonomy, Tylopoda (pad-footed), and Family Camelidae. They are pseudo-ruminants
origin and and have several unique features: they walk on pads rather than hoofs,
classification do not have horns or antlers, and their red blood cells are oval in shape
(Larson and Ho, 2003).
The Old World camels fall basically into two species, the Arabian (Camelus
dromedarious) and the Bactrian (Camelus bacterianus). The Arabian camels
have one hump and the Bactrian have two humps (Wilson, 1998). The
Arabian camels (dromedary) prefer desert conditions characterized by a
long dry and a short rainy season. There are still Bactrian camels in the
Gobi desert as wild animals, but their numbers are dwindling due to
human encroachment. The dromedary camels no longer have wild
relatives. It has been suggested that they are actually derived from the
Bactrian camels and lost one of their humps in the process of
domestication. Introduction of dromedary camels into other climates has
proven unsuccessful as they are sensitive to cold and humidity (Nowak,

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1991). The Arabian camels are used as pack animals for human transport
and as a source of hair, hides, meat and milk (Al-Ani, 2003). Today,
there are several local camel breeds in the Gulf region, which have been
mainly used in camel racing.
Scientists believe that ancestors of the modern camel lived in North
America at least 40 million years ago, moving across the Alaskan ‘land
bridge’ to Asia and eventually Africa. These migration probably occurred
during the Pliocene or early Pleistocene between four and three million
years ago (Wilson, 1998). In Asia, two groups separated to become the
two chief types of camel known today: the one-humped longer-legged
dromedary camel and the two-humped, shorter-legged Bacterian camel.
There is little evidence for an exact time of dromedary camel
domestication due to relatively little changes in camel morphology as a
result of selection and also for the lack of archaeological evidence (Wilson,
1998). The earliest evidence for the dromedary domestication dates to
about 4 000 years ago on a small island off the Abu Dhabi coast (on the
Arabian Gulf). Northern Arabian tribes began to use dromedary camels
as riding animals around 3 100 years ago (Kohler-Rollefson, 1991). The
Arabian camel then spreaded into many parts of Europe and Asia by
the Roman Empire. Similarly, the speard of the Islamic Empire led to
wider use of these animals (Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg, 1981). With few
exceptions, camels are found in areas where rainfall is low and occurs in
a relatively short period followed by a long hot dry season of eight or
more months. In Asia dromedaries extend from Gulf of Aden northwards
into Turkey, the southern parts of Russia then Afghanistan where their
overlaps with Bacterian camel. Dromedary camels occupy arid regions
of the Middle East through northern India and arid regions in Africa,
most notably, the Sahara Desert. They have also been introduced to arid
regions of central Australia where some of the only feral populations
now persist. The original range of their wild ancestors was probably
south Asia and the Arabian peninsula.

Domestication

Figure 2. Domestication of the camels in the Arabian peninsula.

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 Camelids in Arabian Gulf Countries

Although there has been relatively little differentiation into specialized

Breeds and types in the camels over years, there are many classifications of the
types of dromedary camel throughout the regions of its traditional global habitat.
dromedary In general, traditional breed classification divided the dromedary into
camels in the three types: riding, transport and multipurpose camels. In most areas,
Gulf Region camels are multipurpose animals with the females used primarily as milk
producers, the males for transport or draught and both sexes providing
meat. The lack of specialization can be attributed to the uniforml harsh
conditions, in which camels are bred and reared and therefore their
owners’ requirements for them to be multipurpose. If, indeed,
specialization has occurred it is in the dichotomy of riding and pack
types, both within the overall transport function. There is evidence that
some camels have a finer confirmation and are considered to be the
equivalent of the thoroughbred horse breed. They are much sought after
by the camel racing fraternity in the Gulf region.

The dromedary camel bears a remarkable similarity to that of the

Riding Camel thoroughbred racehorse. The head is small with fine muzzle, small lips,
small ears, set close together, alert eyes and lower jaw deep below the
eye. Therefore, they have been used for military purpose to protect the
desert border. The neck is fine and supple and joined down to the trunk.
The shoulder is long and fine, the chest very deep, ribs well sprung and
terminating not far from the pelvic bone. The fore legs should be set
close together, be straight, not brush at the knees and the feet not turned
out. The quarters are well muscled and the tail set high, the feet medium
sized, the skin fine and supple. According to Al-Ani (2003) the highest
point from the tip of the hump to the ground is estimated between 1.8 to
2.2 meters with 450 to 600kg weight of the male. This type of camel can
carry a rider and walk for 10-12 hrs continual without water or feed.
They can also walk at speed 15-20 km/h for three days without rest.

Baggage camels are much tougher than riding camel, with heaver head
Baggage camel and neck, shorter legs, heavier bone and larger feet. Their pace is slower
and shorter than that of the riding types but equally tireless. This type of
camel measures 1.4 to 1.9 meters from the tip of the hump to the ground
and average weight between 550-700 kg. They can carry 160 to 290 kg
and walk between 4-6 km/h (Al-Ani, 2003).

Little appears to be known about types and breeds in this part of the
Traditional world. Although, there is little justification for the present classification,
breeds in the camels were named after the tribes that breed them or due to their colour.
Gulf Region However, recently, attempt has been made in some countries to categorize
camels into conventional types such as meat producer, milk producer,
dual purpose and racing.

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Modern advances in the technology for studying genetic variation provide

a powerful tool in the study of evolution of camel breeds. There are little
quantitative production parameters that are now so important in other
species to the breed description, such as riding, transport, milk, meat
and double purposes camels. Selection programme can be used to clarify
the ancestry of domestic camel breeds in the region and provide a valuable
aid to animal breeders to genetically improving production of the local
breeds.
Generally, the camels in the Gulf region can be classified according to
their productivity into four classes according to their foundation:
1. meat producers;
2. milk producers;
3. dual purpose; and
4. racing camels.

Large size camels characterised by a long neck, bulky muscles, large single
hump and rapid growth rate. The best camel meat comes from young Meat
male camels. It is regarded as a delicacy in the Arabian diet, and is gaining production
popularity in arid lands where it is difficult to herd sheep, cattle and camel
goats. Camel meat is started to have its own way through the meat
industry in the gulf region.

Al-Dowasir breeds, which, reared in Saudia Arabia, are medium sized Milk
camels with good size udder and uniform body with moderate to high production
milk production according to the nutrition status of the animals. camel
Al-Dowser has the highest milk yield of all breeds in the Gulf region.
Camel milk is much more nutritious than that from a cow. It is lower in
fat and lactose, and higher in potassium, iron and Vitamin C. It is
normally drunk fresh, and the warm frothy liquid, heavy and sweet, is
usually an acquired taste for the Western palate. Most the Arab Gulf
Countries camels are females reared for their milk in dairy herds.

Al-Kawar breeds are medium to large size camels. They can produce a
moderate amount of milk. Al-Kawr camels are found in United Arab Dual purposes
Emirate. camel

Camel racing in the Arab Gulf Countries is a traditional sport comparable Racing camel
to horse racing in the Western World. Selective breeding of racing camel
has taken place by individual camel owners in these traditional areas of
the world. However, over many years of natural breeding in the arid
areas of the Arab Gulf countries, the camel has evolved to produce a
typical racing animal. This is still basically slim, lightweight with
high-speed type of camel and is unique only in that it is derived from the
dromedary camels.

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According to FAO (2003), the number of camels in the Arab Gulf

Countries is about 665 620 in 2002, distributed over six countries. The
traditional classification of camel’s breeds in this region, according to
the coat’s colors, is Al-Majahem, Al-Wathah, Al-Hamrah, Al-Safrah,
Al-Zarkah, Al-Shakha, Al-Shalah, Al-Kimta and Al-Malhah camels.
Variety of local camel breeds are available in different Gulf countries,
therefore, the camel breeds will be classified according to each individual
country in the region.

Omani camels are characterised by relatively small head, long body,

Sultanate of narrow neck and deep chest, straight rear legs, with distant hocks and
Oman raised tail. They have smooth skin and light colors, fine bones and light
weight (Wardah, 1989). Although there is no defined breed, certain types
and sub types of this group have been recognized and developed by
various families and tribes. A list of types of racing camels identified in
Oman is summarised in Table 1. Omani tribes cross the boarders and get
their female camel mated by superior United Arab Emirate male camels.
However, generally the government encourages camel owners to keep
local breeds as pure as possible.

Number of camels significantly increased in United Arab Emirate for the

United Arab last two decades due to selection programme for racing camels. The
Emirate government and private sectors is strongly supporting camel racing
industry. The camels in the United Arab Emirate are mainly grouped
into three breeds:
1. Al-Arabiat. One of the earliest breeds in the region that contribute to
well recognized subtypes including:
a. Al-Esseker
b. Wahbar
c. Al-Komry
d. Sokan
e. Om Sbeehan
f. Teban
2. Al-Kazmiat. It is a multipurpose heavily built breed, the camels of
this breed are well known for meat and milk production. Al-Kowar is
one of the most famous breeds belong to this group.
3. Racing camels. Racing camel has shown a market development during
the last two decades. The government imported well-known racing
camels from different countries and they were used for crossing with
endogenous breeds. Therefore, new racing breeds have been
established such as:
1. Sokan
2. Hamlol
3. Msehan
4. Al-Thenian

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Table 1. Types and Sub-types of Omani racing camels.

Name Origin Color Characteristics

Samha Interior region Brownish-Red Walking long distances and
known as good racing camel
Farha Al-Sharkia Red, blond or Divided into 6 subtypes. It is
Region yellowish beautiful with fine skeleton.
Good for racing
Buwadah Al-Sharkia Whitish Famous for long distance
Region traveling and tolerate hunger for
long period, easy to handle
Arjaa Interior Region Yellowish & Originated from Samha a good
blondish long distance racing camels and
has good milk yield.
Musaiha Batinah Region Golden Known for good breeding males
and long distance racing
Shahbar Batinah Region Reddish to Famous for being intelligent,
blondish good milk producer and her
body’s is higher at the front than
the rear
Al-Azkiyah Al-Sharkia Light yellowish Famous for racing and milk
Region production. It has a medium
hump size.
Al-Bahree Batinah Region Reddish to Famous for short distance racing
yellowish
Al-Kawara Batinah Region Reddish to It has long and big body size and
yellowish used for long distance traveling.
The front and rear ends have the
same height.
Gazaella Al-Sharkia Reddish to white It has a high and heavy body
Region with long neck.
Al-Azbah Al-Sharkia Blondish Easy to handle with fine skeleton
Region and straight head. It has a big
size body with fine legs.
Goodracing camel.
Kudsha Al-Sharkia Reddish- Fast racing camel used for long
Region Blondish distance. Have a medium body
size with centrally located hump
(To be continued in the next page...).

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 Camelids in Arabian Gulf Countries

(...to be continued from the previous page).

Name Origin Color Characteristics

Dhibian Al-Dhahira Reddish Al-Dhibian tribe breeds this
Region camel. It has a short neck with
large skeleton. Famous in long
distance racing
Sadoorah Interior region Light red Famous for short distance racing.
It has a strong body.
Zabeia Al-Sharkia Blondish Famous for long distance
Region traveling. It has a long back and
her body’s is higher at the front
than the rear
Al-Derehiah Al-Zahra Region Yellowish- Subtypes descendedfrom it such
Blondish as Al-Esefer, Habar and Hamza’s
daughters and Al-Draae. It has a
medium size body with
lightweight with tolerate fatigue.
Source: The original of Omani Camels, Royal Diwan Court, Sultanate of Oman (1998).

Camels are one of the main strength of animal production in Saudia

Saudia Arabia Arabia. These are relatively larger with high milk production and located
in the desert area used for riding and light baggage as well as being
major source of meat and milk for owners.
The main camel breeds are:
1. Al-Majahem. The coat colour of this breed varies from dark yellowish
to black with high milk production. This breed is located in the eastern
south of the country. This group includes the following sub-types:
a. Al-Dawser. Large size black camel with high milk production.
b. Al-Sohib.
c. Shomer Al Enza.
2. Al-Makater. The coat colour of this breed is white and located in the
northern part of the country. This group includes:
1. Horat Al Madenia
2. Al-Shiabeen and Okban
3. Al-Shorarat
4. Al-Shahab
3. Lorak. The coat colour of this breed varies from white to reddish brown
and located in the Tohama and Aseer regions.
4. Racing camels, groupping the following:
1. Al-Omaniat: Known as Jaish for its speed
2. Al-Hurah (Al-Hararyer): The camels of this breed are of good
height, strong in build with their nose tilt upwards and have smooth
fur.
3. Al-Sodaniat: Known as Sudanese Jaish for its speed

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Farha Samha
Beautiful with fine skeleton Walking long distances
Good for racing Good racing camel

Buwadah
Arjaa
Long distance traveling
Long distance racing camels Good Tolerate hunger for long period
milk yield Easy to handle

Shabbar Musaiha

Intelligent
Good milk producer
Good breeding males Long
Body is higher at the front than the rear
distance racing

Al-Bahree Al-Azkiyah

Famous for racing and milk

production
Medium hump size
Famous for short distance racing

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 Camelids in Arabian Gulf Countries

Kudsha
Al-Kawara

Long & big body size

Fast racing camel
Long distance traveling
Medium body size
Front & rear ends same height
Centrally located hump

Al-Azbah

Gazaella

Easy to handle
Fine skeleton and straight head
Big size body with fine legs
High & heavy body with long
Goodracing camel.
neck.

Dhibian
Sadooah

Short distance racing

Short neck with large skeleton
Strong body
Long distance racing

Al-Derehiah Zabeia

Al-Esefer, Habar and Hamza’s

daughters and Al-Draae
Medium size body Long distance racing
Light weight with tolerate fatigue Long back
Body higher at front than rear

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Hamlol Sokan

Al-Thebian
Msehan

Yodia Al-Hurah

Al-Hazmia

Alsudani

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Al-Ani, F.K. (2003). Camel encycolpedia. 2nd Edition, Modern

References Book World Publication.
FAO. (2003). Food and Agriculure Orginazation of the United
Nations. Stastics for live animal.
Kohler-Rollefson. 1991. Camelus dromedarius. In: Mammalian
Species. No. 375.
Larson, J and HO, J. (2003). Information resources on the South
American Camelids: Liamas, Alpacas, Guanacos and Vicunas
1943-2003. AWIC Resource Series No.12.
Gauthier-Pilthers H. and A. Dagg. 1981. The camel, its
evolution, ecology, behavior and relationship to man. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Originallity of Omani Camels (1998). Camel unit, Royal Diwan
Court. Sultante of Oman, Muscate.
Wardi, M.F. (1989). Arabian Camels: Origin, Breeds and
Husbandry. 1st edition. Dar Al-mallah for publicationa dn
Distribution. Damascus, Syria.
Wilson, R.T. (1998). The Tropical Agriculturalist: Camels.
Macmilan Education Ltd. London and Basingstoke.

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Dairy productivity potential of camels

B. Faye

Cirad EMVT, Campus International de Baillarguet TA/30A, 34398

Montpellier, France

While it is recognized that the camel has the ability to produce more
milk than the cow in similar conditions, camel milk productivity is not Summary
well known. Data from the literature are scarce, mainly issued from
observations in research stations, and more rarely from pastoral areas
where performance monitoring is not common. Elsewhere, the data are
not homogeneous among the authors: mean daily yield, total yield per
lactation, herd average… Therefore comparisons are not easy.
Furthermore, there is a high variability of reported productions which
leads to suppose a potential for selection on that criterion. This selection
is possible but rarely achieved except in the Soviet Union period for
dromedary and Bactrian camels.
The world production of camel milk was officially estimated at 1.3 million
tons in 2002. However, according to the high level of self-consumption
and the individual potential, this production could probably be higher
(i.e. 5.4 million tons). The individual production varies between 1 000 and
12 000 litres per lactation according to some sources. The lactation curve
is similar to bovine with a better persistence. The lactation length is very
variable (from 8 to 18 months in general), i.e. longer than that for dairy
cattle in similar conditions. Obviously, the feeding and seasonal
conditions have an impact on those performances. Some intensified
systems found in many places showed good prospects in camel milk
production to supply populations from arid lands.

Key words: camel milk production, genetic variability and lactation

characteristics, climatic and feeding factors, parity, health.

For the general public, for funding agencies and policy makers, the camel
is poorly associated to high productivity, except for packing and racing Introduction
activities. The potential for meat and milk production is not known for
this species. This misunderstanding could be attributed to two factors:
1. in the past, camel dairy production was mainly destined for self
consumption or, in case of extra production, for giving to the poorest
or to guests;

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2. on literature basis, a few references are available in the international

scientific community, even if recent data are more reliable than in the
past.
The published results on camel dairy production come mainly from
observations achieved in experimental stations, and more rarely from
pastoral zones. In fact, it is quite difficult to perform dairy production
monitoring in traditional farming systems where animals are usually
submitted to high mobility. Elsewhere, the measurement procedures are
rarely mentioned or set up in a standard manner and can change among
authors. Moreover, the available publications give some results as daily
average quantities, total lactation yield or year yield, herd average, after
camel calf suckling or not. Therefore the comparisons between authors
are not easy. Finally, even if camel scientists and producers are able to
attribute a high dairy potential to the camel, further investigations are
necessary to propose an objective outcome of this potential. The oldest
reference on camel dairy production is dated 1854 (Gouhaux, 1854). Since
then, the number of references on this subject has not exceeded one
hundred papers and most of them came from the soviet literature in the
fifties and sixties, poorly available for international scientific community
(Saint-Martin, 1990).

The world Cow milk represents approximately 85% of the entire milk produced
camel milk and consumed in the world. The she-camel production has a marginal
position (less than 2%), far behind buffalos or sheep and goats. With a
production
world camel population 70 times less important than the cattle
population, this difference should not be surprising. According to FAO
statistics, camel milk production in the world, both for dromedaries and
Bactrian camels, was 1 283 672 tons in 2002 (Table 1).
It should be noted that, first, these data were not complete because data
from Central Asia and from some countries in Near- and Middle-East
are missing. Second, a gap can be observed between the estimated
population and the stated production, as for example in Sudan, where
the camel population is half of the Somalian population, milk production
is 10 times lower.
A different assessment could be proposed by the extrapolation of the
expected production for a she-camel. The world camel population is
around 20 million heads (this number is probably under-estimated), the
proportion of lactating camels is around 18% (Hjort af Ornäs, 1988) and
the mean production could be estimated at 1 500 litres per year. So, the
world production could be estimated at 5.4 million tons from which 55%
is taken by young camels. In fact, there is strong uncertainty concerning
the world camel milk production, all the more as an important part of
this milk is removed from the market sector.

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Table 1. Camel milk production in the world, comprehensive of

dromedaries and Bactrian camels, in varius countries in 2002.

Country Production (MT)

Afghanistan 8 100
Algeria 8 000
Saudi Arabia 89 000
China 14 400
Djibouti 5 900
Arab Emirates 33 400
Eritrea 5 100
Ethiopia 22 450
Iraq 672
Kenya 25 200
Libya 2 000
Mali 54 900
Morocco 3 900
Mauritania 21 500
Mongolia 1 000
Niger 10 800
Qatar 13 300
Somalia 850 000
Sudan 82 250
Chad 21 800
Tunisia 1 000
Yemen 9 500
Total 1 283 672
(Source: FAO, 2002).

The estimations of camel milk yield available in the literature mention

the quantities produced per lactation or year. In most of the cases, the
The milk
authors do not specify if these yields include or not the part taken by the potential of
young camel which represents about 40% of the entire production, camels
sometimes even 75% under certain conditions. Lastly, the number of
milkings may change depending on the circumstances and the producer’s
practices, and could have an effect on the whole production (Knoess,
1977). When the number of milkings changes from 2 to 3 per day, the
daily increase of milk production could be 28.5% (Kamoun, 1995). So, a
high variability is described in the literature and comparisons are not
easy.

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In Africa, references can change between 1 000 and 2 700 litres depending
Africa on the studies, the considered breeds and the farming system. For
example, in Tunisia (Kamoun et al., 1990), the extreme values reported
in experimental conditions vary between 942 and 3 300 litres for a
Northern-Africa
lactation length between 190 and 404 days. In Libya, Hermas
(unpublished data) reported milk yields between 320 and 2139 kg at the
Al-Assa station with a mean standard production (305 days of lactation)
corresponding to 1 016 kg. Araba et al. (1998) conducted a study on
Maghrebi camels from Morocco and reported a milk yield of 935 litres in
305 days. In Egypt, Yagil (1982) reported different results from several
observations with a dairy yield between 1 500 and 4 000 litres. In Egypt,
dams maintained on irrigated pasture could yield 15 to 35 litres milk/head
per day, while yield was 3 to 5 litres on desert range (El-Badawi, 1996).

In Ethiopia, milk yield of five Dankali camels kept on natural pastures

Horn of Africa
was recorded over a period of 12 months. Mean yield per head was
1 123 litres. The peak yield of 404 litres was obtained at day 56 (Richard
and Gérard, 1989). This quantity is comparable to that reported by
Dessalegne (1985) in South Ethiopia with the Somali breed, i.e. 1 045 litres
for 430 days. Former studies performed in Ethiopia by Knoess (1977)
reported a mean daily yield of seven camels milked twice daily: 6.6 litres,
i.e. approximately 2 000 litres for a standard lactation. Field (1979)
estimated daily milk yield of camels in North Kenya at 21 litres in the
second week of lactation, falling between 4.8 and 2.2 by the sixteenth
week of lactation. In this country, the observations on the Somali breed
reported by Karue (1998) were between 1 614 and 2 151 litres, with an
average of 1 876 kg for the herd. Gebre-Mariam (1987) stated that average
daily milk yield of Somali camels ranged between 5 and 6 litres. Hashi
(1993) found that Somali camels produce on average 800 to 3 600 litres
during lactation from 9 to 18 months. Kaufman (1998) analyzed the
three camel husbandry systems of the Rendile, Gabra and Somali
pastoralists in Northern Kenya. Considering different proportions of poor,
average and good yielding camels in the herds, average milk off take per
lactation was 1 096, 1 400 and 1 581 litres for the Rendile, Gabra, and
Somali respectively. In two traditional camel calf management systems
in Kenya involving 42 multiparous lactating Somali camels, the total milk
yield was 2 956 litres in the group with camels separated from calves,
and 2 441 litres in the control group (Simpkin et al., 1997). An average of
6 litres milk yield per camel per day under the feedlot system was reported
by Ibrahim (1990). For Schwartz (1992), yield of Somali and Kenyan
dromedaries ranges from 1 300 to 2 500 litres, but with good grazing
their yield may even exceed 3 000 litres.

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In Nigeria, from data monitored in a pastoral area, Saley and Steinmetz

(1998) estimated the annual milk yield at 1 760 litres with two milkings West Africa
and at 2 400 litres with three, the young camel taking 50% of the whole
quantity. The milking quantity of the Azbin camel in Nigeria was
estimated at 1 187 kg for 366-day lactation length and 1 417 kg when
the young camel sampling was included (Chaibou and Faye, 2003). In
Chad, observations in a pastoral area (Ganda and Buron, 1992) put
forward a mean dairy yield of 2 280 litres for 12 months. In Mauritania,
Martinez (1989) reported mean values from 3.1 to 4.3 litres per day in
peri-urban camel farms with a mean yield of 684 litres in 6 months
between the 3rd and 8th lactation month, the first three months being
totally let to the young camel.

In Asia, extreme values between 650 and more than 12 000 litres are
reported, the dromedary camels having a better milk potential than the Asia
Bactrian ones, but there is a lack of available references for this last breed.
In Central Asia, crossbreeding strategies between Camelus dromedarius
and Camelus bactrianus aim at improving milk production.

In India, at the Bikaner station, Khanna et al. (1998) reported a mean

yield of 1 655 litres (5.5 litres per day) in dromedary camels, but India and Pakistan
observations between 2 000 and 6 000 litres were reported in a review
paper (Khanna, 1986). According to Ranjhan (1997), a dromedary may
produce 8 to 10 litres of milk daily. In Pakistan, Yasin and Wahid (1957)
found that well-fed and well-managed dromedaries produced 9 to
14 litres of milk daily and 2 722 to 3 629 litres in a lactation period of
16-18 months, while under desert conditions the average lactation yield
varied from 1 134 to 1 588 litres of milk in 9 months. Knoess et al. (1986)
collected data on lactation yields of seven dromedaries in Punjab and
reported a mean daily yield of 18.7 litres, i.e. 5 695 litres for a standard
lactation. Yagil (1982) reported that production in Pakistan was between
1 350 and 3 600 litres per lactation according to diverse publications.
Schwartz (1992) reported that heavy camels of Pakistan and India may
produce up to 12 000 litres of milk per lactation. In a camel survey
conducted in Balochistan (Pakistan), total lactation yield ranging from
1 250 to 3 650 litres was found, with an average of 1 800 litres (Jasra
and Aujla, 1997). According to Iqbal (1999), mean milk yield of the
Punjabi camel was found to be 4 260 litres.

In the Arabian Emirates, the average milk yield is set around 2 000 litres
per lactation (Quandil and Oudar, 1984). Sohail (1983) reported that, Near and
Middle-East
on average, Arabian camels can produce up to 2 275 litres of milk per
year. Shareha (1985) reported in Syria 7.3 to 12.2 litres daily when the
udder was completely milked. According to Qureshi (1986), a camel my
produce on average 8 to 20 litres of milk daily, but under intensive

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management conditions it may produce from 15 to 40 litres daily. In

Kuwait, a good, a medium and a poor milker can produce 9 030, 3 185
and 805 litres respectively in 350 days (Ibnoaf, 1987). In Saudi Arabia,
the average milk yield ranges from 2.4 to 7.6 litres daily (Basmaeil and
Bakkar, 1987). El-Naggar (1998) reported that the camel can yield about
2 700 to 3 666 litres per lactation.

In Turkmenistan (Saparov, unpublished results), precise measurements

Central Asia and showed that the Arvana camel, recognized for its milk potential, may
China produce 5 000 to 6 000 litres per lactation. Yagil (1998) asserted that a
yield up to 8 200 litres, even 12 000 litres, may be possible under intensive
conditions. Bactrian camels seem to have a lower milk potential. The
average milk yield is only 800 to 1 200 litres. In China, the total lactation
yield varies between 500 and 1 254 litres (Xhao, 1994).
Finally, available data on camel milk production potential at world level
are partial and the proposed estimations are often approximate, especially
concerning Africa. However, the productivity potential of camels seems
higher than that of cows in similar climatic and feeding conditions. In
Ethiopia for example, Afar pastoralists who breed cattle and camels
simultaneously, got an average daily milk yield of 1-1.5 litres from the
afar cow and 4-5 litres from the Dankali camel. According to Schwartz
and Dioli (1992), in the Horn of Africa milk productivity related to live
animal weight was higher in camels (250 kg/Tropical Livestock
Unit/year) than in small ruminants (220 kg) and zebu cattle (100 kg).

Genetic variability seems very important and allows to suppose high

Genetic possibilities for selection. In Somalia for example, the Hoor breed may
variability and produce 8 litres per day for 8-16 months lactation i.e. around 2 000 litres
lactation per lactation. The Sifdaar breed may produce 6 litres on average for
characteristics 12 months (1 550 litres per lactation), while the Eydimmo breed is able to
produce 4 litres only for 6-12 months, i.e. a production of 1 000 litres per
lactation (Herren, 1993). In India, comparisons were conducted in the
Bikaner station between the Bikaneri, Kachchi and Jaisalmeri breeds with
mean yields of 4.19, 3.94 and 3.72 litres respectively (Sahani et al., 1998).
Potential of milk production was reported on 4 phenotypes of Arabian
camels for three consecutive lactations and the milk yield was compared.
The Malhah breed produced the most milk (9.33 kg per head), followed
by the Wadhah breed (8.94), the Safah breed (8.13) and the Hamrah breed
(6.83). A maximum of 18.3 and 14 kg per head was observed in the
Malhah and Wadhah breed respectively (Ismaïl et al-Mutaïri, 1998).
In general, Asian breeds are considered to have a higher milk potential
than African breeds. In that field, However, information is partial. Some
breeds may be considered as milk breeds, but selection pressure was low
in camel species. Variability within the same breed is probably very high,
which allows to suppose a possible improvement of milk potential in
some breeds.

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The shape of the lactation curve in dairy camels is comparable to that of

cows (Richard and Gérard, 1985). The peak occurs at 2-3 months and
may reach 5 to 6 litres for a total lactation yield between 1 800 and
2 000 litres, 8-10 litres when the total lactation yield is 3 000 to 3 500 litres.
The persistence coefficient which expresses the ratio between the milk
yield at month +1 on the previous month is high, generally up to 80%,
according to available data.
Lactation length may vary between 8 and 18 months. It seems to depend
on certain practices such as the milking or suckling frequency. Milking
frequency could be two to six times daily (Dioli et al., 1992). The milk
down induction necessitates the presence of the young camel at the teat.
This presence contributes to the maintenance of milk production of the
dam. As for the cow, the biggest part of expulsed milk during milking or
suckling has a cistern origin rather than alveoli cells origin. So, the milk
way down may be obtained by the beginning of suckling by the young
or by ocytocin injection (Balasse, 2003). Other subterfuges could be
proposed by the farmers in case of stillbirth or calf mortality, such as the
introduction of a puppet covered with the camel calf skin or the adoption
or vaginal blowing (Bernus, 1992).
Feeding plays an important role on lactation length and yield. Under
good feeding conditions, the lactation length may increase from
8-12 months up to 16-18 months. Anyway, the differences between breeds
could sometimes be attributed to differences in feeding conditions rather
than to strictly genetic factors. The duration of lactation depends also on
the dam’s gestation status. First, lactation could inhibit ovarian activity
and then delay reproduction time. Second, the end of gestation may
lead to a milking refusal for the dam. Generally, the lactation length
increases with the calving interval. However, lactation and gestation
are not incompatible.

Variation factors in camels are similar to those reported in other species.

Some data are available in the scientific literature (genetic, quality and Some variation
quantity of available feed, milking frequency, parity, health status). factors

Camels depend on natural resources most of the times. The feeding

Effect of climatic
availability is generally linked to the climatic conditions (heat, humidity) and feeding
which have obviously an effect on milk production. The difference in factors
milk yield according to the calving season could be up to 50%: milk
performances are lower at the end of the dry season than in the rainy
season (Khanna, et al. 1998). Milk yield does not seem to be affected by
water shortage. In Israel, Yagil and Etzion (1980) observed a continuing
production in camels after 10 days of dehydration followed by an
ad libitum drinking and then another 10-day period of dehydration. In a
previous observation, 6 camels continued to produce 6 litres per day
during the hot season with once a week watering (Yagil et al., 1979).

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As for other dairy animals, milk yield in camels tends to increase with
Effect of parity parity. However, alhough the lactation length could be important, data
are scarce and limited to very small consecutive lactation. According to
Ismail and Al Mutairi (1998), the maximum may be reached at the second
or third lactation.

Most of the parasites (trypanosoma, internal parasites, ticks and mange)

Effect of health
may have a cross reaction with milk yield. In pastoral zones, the use of
status
classical veterinary inputs for parasitic disease prevention contributes to
an increase of 65% in milk production (Simpkin et al., 1997).

The contribution of the camel to the world milk supply is marginal but
Conclusion essential for human populations in arid and semi-arid areas; on the one
hand, for satisfying the human needs in communities culturally attached
to camel products and contributing to food safety, on other hand, for
stimulating the local economy by the maintenance of an agricultural
activity in marginal desert areas. However, available data on the camel’s
production potential are not sufficient. The great variation in camel milk
production may be attributed to the methods employed to determine
yield (Khan and Iqbal, 2001). Further investigations and probably
standardisation of the methods are necessary to point out the importance
of camel milk production for the food security of desert areas in the world.
The international scientific community has to turn its attention to a good
performance control of dairy production in camels. Specific tools for dairy
yield monitoring are necessary. The LASER software set up by
CIRAD-EMVT could be a possible tool for performance monitoring in
camel herds as it has been tested in some arid countries (Juanes and
Faye, 2001).

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Meat recording systems in camelids

M. Kamoun

Ecole Supérieure d’Agriculture 7030 Mateur, Tunisia

There are very few data on meat recording systems in camelids,

particularly on the relationships among production systems (conditions), Summary
growth, fattening, body size, and qualitative aspects. These aspects
regarding camelids will be discussed. Furthermore, work on Tunisian
dromedary will be presented for illustration and comparison. These
researches were mainly conducted for several years at the Ecole
Supérieure d’Agriculture Mateur . This works concerned growth,
fattening and carcass and meat quality on camel reared from birth until
on-station slaughtering. Data were collected each four weeks on
conformation traits and animals were weighed each two weeks. Studies
on growth of dromedaries revealed a significant relationship between
daily gain (y = 282+5.4 x) (y in g) and daily intake of concentrate (x, in g
per kg lw0.75 ). The growth of youngest dromedary has been modeled
and data on linear growth permitted to determine a prediction formula
for live weight. After slaughtering 15 males aged from 15 to 50 months
and weighing between 280-560 kg were used to examine the following
aspects: slaughtering and jointing yield, carcass tissue composition, and
meat quality. Results concerning growth, quality and yield of carcass
are discussed in order to draw some practical conclusion regarding
potential recording systems for camelids on production traits and
eventually to identify future axes for research.

Key words: camel, carcass, meat, quality, weight and growth of camel,
compensatory growth, meat characteristics.

The camel can survive, reproduce and produce meat in a very harsh
environmental conditions that are difficult for all other domestic livestock Introduction
constituting an important source of meat and income in these arid
regions. The potential of the camel as a meat producer has received little
attention. The camel has a slow growth rate and has not been selected
for meat production, so that it is very unlikely better than cattle breeds
under intensive or semi-intensive conditions.
There are very few data on meat production potential of this species.
The growth patterns, the efficiency of growth, fattening and carcass and
meat quality, were not looked into in different breeds and under different
ecological conditions. So and for want of specific data on meat recording

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systems in camelids, these aspects will be inferred by analogy with study

carried out, for several years, with camel herd of the experimental farm
at Higher Agriculture School in Tunisia.

Weight of dromedary camels at birth are in the range 27-45 kg and are
Factors affected by sex, parity of dam, period (month, season, year) and whether
affecting or not dams have been subjected to nutritional and health interventions
weight and or not (Wilson, 1992). Breed probably affects weight at birth but no studies
growth of have been performed on this variable.
camel Studies carried out at breeding farm in India with reference to Bikaneri
camel breed has reported the following results: average birth weight was
37.2 kg (Bargava et al., 1965), 41.6 kg with hertability 0.6 (Berhat and
Choudhary, 1980) significant sire effect was observed. The average birth
weight for males was 41.9 and for females 39.9 kg (Tandon et al., 1988).
In the last study, which involved 532 records, effect of birth parity of
dam and sex was highly significant.
Studies carried out in Tunisia with reference to Maghrabi camel breed
reported these, in experimental farm conducted by Kamoun (1993, 1995a)
reported, the smallest calf weighed 24 kg that is the half the weight of
the heaviest calf, which was 48 kg, the average birth weight was 33.1 kg.
Burgemeister (1975) recorded the birth weight of camel reared on pasture
as 25.8 kg, lower than the average weights of 33.1 kg given by Kamoun
for the same breed.
Such differences reveal the variations in camel calf performances
attributable to breed, strain, environment and management. The exact
role of these factors in the camel has not been investigated.
Average daily weight gains as high as 870 g from birth to 30 days and
570 g from birth to 180 days can be achieved when nutrition is adequate
(Wilson, 1992). Weight at specific ages and growth rate are important
parameters, detailed knowledge of which is required if rapid
improvement in camel productivity is to be achieved. Then Kamoun
(1995a) studied postnatal growth performance of young dromedaries
reared from birth on-station. The results of his observations are given in
table 1. They showed that male calves tend to grow fasters than female
ones. These calves achieved high average daily weight gains from birth
to wean 760 g for male and 620 g for female. Suckling young are weaned
between 8 and 10 month. Weaning weight varied from 200 to 260 kg.
Field (1979) observed the growth patterns of camel calves in north of
Kenya. Two groups of animals were studied, one under pastoral
conditions and the other one under special conditions where the young
received a greater proportion of mothers milk. The first group showed
daily average gain of 222 g and 255 g during the dry and wet seasons
respectively, while gains ranged from 378 g to 655 g for second group.
The Measurement of the growth rate of the young camels under different
forms of management indicates that the amount of milk permitted for
the calf is of fundamental importance in controlling the rate of growth.

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Table 1. Live weight and daily weight growth in young camels reared in the
experimental farm of the ESA Mateur (Source: Kamoun, 1995a).

Live weight kg Daily weight gains g

Males Females Males Females
Age (month) Number = 13 Number = 16 Number = 13 Number = 16
0 35 ± 6 32 ± 5 - -
6 179 ± 9 156 ± 12 798 687
12 286 ± 22 244 ± 21 596 492
18 349 ± 10 295 ± 16 352 285
24 403 ± 26 348 ± 9 301 292
36 496 ± 15 421 ± 47 258 202

With dam producing least 1 550 liters of milk per year, camel calf can
survive on daily suckling of at least 25% of milk if there is provision of
water, good pasture and veterinary care and that beyond suckling 75%
of dam milk, the milk suckled did not influence growth rate (Ouda, 1995).
Calf milk levels intake need to be established in order to maximum on
both the calf growth and amounts of milk taken by the owner.
At weaning, young camels were individually hobbled in a common barn.
They were fed a standard concentrate ration (500-1 200 g/10 kg l.w.per
day) and wheat straw ad libitum. Animals were weighed every 14 days.
Under this experimental conditions the weight achieved by weaned male
camel were 286, 349 and 403 kg respectively at 12, 18 and 24 month old.
The calve multiply their birth weight three times during the first 90 days
and achieved at 12, 24 and 36 month old respectively 47.6%, 63.0% and
82.7% of mature weight for male and 48.8%, 70.0% and 84.2% of mature
weight for female. Male and female reached 88% and 95% of mature
weight respectively at 4 years (Table 1).

In a study carried out at the experimental facility of the ESA Mateur in

Tunisia Kamoun (1993), Kamoun and Wilson (1994) reported the growth Compensatory
patterns of camel calves. Two groups of animals were studied, one bought growth
as wean in the market and another reared from birth on-station. At
weaning animals born on-station were always heavier, and had greater
linear measurements in relation to average mature size than those bought.
These differences were maintained at 12 and 24 month of age. Compared
to the station-born the market animals were about 6 month later in
reaching a given weight (Table 2). Early restricted feeding in the market
group had lasting effects on development. Compensatory growth was
evident as market camels on station, at given age, had better
conformation and weighed than their contemporaries in the traditional

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system (Kamoun, 1993). Also Field (1979) showed a better performance

by calves born during wet season than by calves born in the dry season
in spite of compensatory growth. The early environment of camels, with
full access to milk before weaning, is a determining factor in physical
development.

Weight at specific ages and growth rate are important parameters, detailed
Growth knowledge of which is required if rapid improvement in camel
productivity is to be achieved. Little work, however, appears to have
been done on the growth rate of camel under different climatic conditions.
But only few empirical and experimental data are available probably
because there are considerable difficulties involved in weighing camels
in both experimental and traditionally managed herds. Less than 1.3%
of all camel literature references provide information on growth and
weight underline these problems (Wilson, 1992). Previous investigations
on growth in the camels have been inconclusive and difficult to compare
because of differences in experimental conditions.
So some work conducted for several years in Tunisia on growth in
dromedaries under determined growth conditions. This work aims to
contribute to the knowledge has already been acquire on the growth,
and to the determination of equations for weight prediction, based on
measurements carried out on the growing dromedary.
Data are collected from the camel herd of the experimental farm of the
Ecole Supérieure d’Agriculture of Mateur on 39 growing animals of the
Maghrabi race (10 bought as wean in the market and 29 reared from
birth on the station) fed concentrate and straw ration. Animal weighed
every 14 days using adapted livestock scale. Linear measurements were
carried out monthly using three instruments graduated in centimeters
and manufactured in craftsman technique (a tape-measure three meters
long, a large height-gage and a small height-gage). 973 series of 20 types

Table 2. Comparative age of camels born on Station and bought from the
market as wean at 200 kg and at 350 kg Live Weight (Source: Kamoun,
1993)

Age (day) at given

live weight (kg)
Live weight (kg) 200 350
Age of camels bought from the 430±48 876±180
market as wean (day)
Age of camels born on ESA 230±28 687±150
Mateur Station (day)
Age late to reaching givens live 200 days 189 days
weight

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Table 3. Morphometric measurements recorded.

Animal no……(Date:……)
Age (months) Breadth (cm) Neck girth (cm)
Weight (kg) Chest at the 1st CV
Height (cm) Shoulder at the 4th CV
Shoulder Hip at the 7th CV
Hump Trochanter Metacarpal length (cm)
Sacrum Length (cm) Metatarsal length (cm)
Girth (cm) Scapulo-ischial
Chest Neck length
Hump Head length (chignon-nostril)
Spiral girth Head wide (between eyes)

measurements were thus available for calculations (Table 3). From the
20 types of measurement done, only 7 were finally chosen because of
their precision and their strong correlation to the live weight.
Morphometrics measurements, from birth to 3 years and above, of those
camels were given in table 4.
From this data a growth function has been adjusted to sequential body
weights. The compertz growth equation is the same as that used by Laird
(1966):

P=P0Exp[A/a(1-Exp(-at))]

in which P is the weight at time t, P0 is the birth weight, and A and a are
constants. The model gives the evolution of weight in relation to time
with co-ordinate at inflexion point Pi, ti. Pi, ti were weight and age at
maximum growth rate. In table 5 is summarised the growth constants
for both camel sexes.
The growth constants indicate a general tendency for the camel female
to pass through her growth period faster and to mature earlier than the
male. There was strong evidence of allometric growth. Large ranges were
observed among linear measurement for developing rate, the classification
from earlier to later Shoulder height, Chest girth and Hump girth
respectively. In the other hand, linear measurements were developed
much more rapidly than live weight in terms of final mature values.
An indication of weight may be required for improvement of camel
breeding. Several formulas to predict weight, at different ages and for
different categories, combining different linear measurements, were
established. These prediction formulas are shown in table 6. Most of the
barymetric formulas are based on the idea that an animal weight is
proportional to its volume and that the best expression of the latter is a

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Table 4. Physical characteristics of Tunisian Maghrabi camels born and reared on station in northern
Tunisia.

Males Females
60 or 60 or
Age (months) 0 12 24 36 more 0 12 24 36 more
Weight (kg) 34.5 285.7 403.0 496.4 640–730 31.9 244.1 350.4 421.0 500-580
Height (cm)
Shoulder 97.8 145.2 155.4 163.3 172-176 98.5 141.1 152.0 158.0 160-170
Hump 98.6 161.0 169.0 182.5 198-202 99.9 158.7 169.8 180.8 185-200
Sacrum 95.9 143.0 153.6 161.8 163-165 95.1 140.0 150.23 155.5 155-160
Girth (cm)
Chest 76.9 165.5 181.4 212.8 220-247 74.9 156.4 180.8 207.3 210-220
Hump 79.0 209.4 241.0 264.8 290-328 76.6 195.0 236.4 250.0 260-270
Scapulo-ischial 64.3 129.3 146.4 155.0 173-175 61.8 123.2 145.2 155.8 158-165
length (cm)

Table 5. Growth model constants of camels.

Growth constants Camel male Camel female

A 0.0099 0.0081
(a) 0.0048 0.0044
ti (day) 151 138
Pi (kg) 116 92.5
Maximum rate (g/day) 556 408

Table 6. Formulas for estimating camels live weight.

Live weight formulas Animal number Country or area Source

P (kg) = 53*T*A*H 38 South Algeria Boue, 1949
P (kg) = 52*T*A*H - Chad Graber, 1966
P (kg) = 507*T-457 28 Sudan Wilson, 1978
P (kg) = 3.06*A-290.6 81 Egypt Bucci et al., 1984
P (kg) = 6.46*10-7*S3.17 9 Kenya Field, 1979
T: Chest girth (in m); A: Hump girth (in m); H: Shoulder height (in m) and S = T + A + H in cm.

product of order 3 of linear magnitudes. However, for constructing simple

chart we must use only 2 linear measurements. Then, the data collected
from the camel herd on station, have been used and permitted to
determine some prediction formulas for live weight based on tow
measurements:
1. For young calves: Live weight (kg) = 52.17*HB 1.6374*CT1.7171+1.35 which
HB hump height, CT Chest girth in meters (R² (5%) = 0.96),

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2. For growing male: Live weight (kg) =9*10-6*HG1.8953*CA1.4637 which

HG Shoulder height, CA hump girth in centimeters (R² (5%) = 0.98)
and
3. For growing female: Live weight (kg) =1.9*10-6*HG2.7082*CA0.9957 which
HG Shoulder height, CA hump girth in centimeters (R² (5%) = 0.96).
These formulas were used for building abacus.

There have been relatively few investigations on feeding standards for

growing camel and assessment of these standards remains very empirical
Nutrition and
and often extrapolated from cattle data. growth
Dry matter intake values for growing camels grazing natural pastures
have been estimated to be 0.97-1.21 kg/d/100 kg l.w. (Kamoun and
Steinmetz, 1995). These camels were, often subjected to poor grazing
conditions and the feeding level is often at or below maintenance, with
considerable weight losses during dry seasons. Feed supply is the top
constraint to increased camel meat production.
In view of searching the best growth and diet ration for camel, some
trials were conducted in the experimental facility of the ESA Mateur in
Tunisia (Hashi et al., 1995; Kamoun, 1993; Kamoun 1995b; Kamoun et
al., 1989a, b). 16 young dromedaries, distributed in several groups, were
fed medium quality forage (wheat straw or oats hay) ad libitum and
concentrates in different quantities (0.4-3.2 kg) and for different qualities
(16, 22 and 28% CP on a DM basis). The animals were kept under hobbled
stalling. Feed consumption (feed offered minus refusals) was measured
and recorded every day. Their intake during the tethered period ranged
from 1.4 to 1.8 kg DM per 100 kg live weight. Forage intake was higher
for the hay (0.94-0.97 kg DM per 100 kg lw), but it may have been affected
by the quantity and quality of concentrate. However, total DMI of this
species remained, in any case, limited even with high concentrate level
(over 50% of total diet on DM basis). In the other hand, these results
indicate the opportunities for low-cost seasonal supplementation of camel
to optimize growth. The average daily weight gain variation ranges from
285 g up to 525 g. An overall average daily gain of 285 g was achieved
with low energy consumption (8.5 MJ ME per kg DM).
A significant relationship (y=284+5.4x) between daily gains (y, in g) and
daily intake of concentrate (x, in g per kg w0.75) is shown. An amazing
growth rate (280 g per day) has been observed using a medium quality
ration. There is a need to further investigation in order to find out the
responses to different supplements across a wide range of feeding
conditions.
It has been claimed that camels fatten rapidly when fed 15 to 20 kg of
mixture of straw, beet pulp silage, molasses and 10 to 15 per cent barley
grains and that camels feeding on growing sugar beet tops gain as mush
as 1.5 kg per day and can be made ready for slaughter in 60 days (Wilson,
1989). The compensatory growth explained this high average daily weight
gains. In an attempt to provide at least some realistic data on the potential
of camels for meat production. Some fattening trials were conducted at

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the experimental facility of the ESA Mateur in Tunisia between 1987

and 1995. A summary of the results is given in table 7, in which 15 young
male camels and 20 young bulls were fed during 120 days oats hay
ad libitum and received the same quantity of concentrate (1.2 kg per
100 kg/lw). The animals were kept under hobbled stalling. The average
feed consumption (DM per 100 kg lw) and the average daily weight
gains were ranged respectively between 1.72-1.90 kg DM and 797-806 g
for camels and 2.83-3.21 kg DM and 1 151-1 172 g for Steers. These trials
confirmed that camel voluntary intake is very low. There is some evidence
that camel daily weight gain can be increased by better quality feed rather
than an increase in quantity. The average daily gain can reach
1 000 g/day under the most favorable fattening conditions.

Camel meat is produced in around 537.7 thousand tons of meat, most of

The carcass which is produced in Somalia, Sudan and Mauritania (Wardeh, 1992).
and camel A considerable number of camels are managed and bred specially for
meat slaughter in the Near East, and North Africa. A large number of these
characteristics camels are exported. Both Somalia and Sudan export large numbers of
camels to Saudi Arabia, Egypt and the Gulf States, while Libya imports
camels from Sudan, Mali, Algeria, and Mauritania every year for
slaughter. The camel meat is relished as beef in Middle East and African
countries, is highly appreciated in many parts of Arabia, Libya, Algeria
and Tunisia. There is often some resistance to the consumption of camel
meat in non-camel herding societies. However, in pastoral societies,
camels are rarely slaughtered except during ritual ceremonies.
The potential of the camel as a meat producer has received little attention.
The most problem relating to meat production concerns the lack of
coordinated data. Slaughter enabled us to gather information on the
way the animal is transformed into meat and in particular on the

Table 7. Comparison of dry matter intake and daily weight growth in young camels
and steers receiving the same feeding ration (Source: Kamoun, 1995b).

Animals type Camel Steer

Number 6 9 10 10
Duration (days) 120 120 120 155
Mean Live Weight (kg) 180±31 300±36 215±36 305±58
Average Daily Gains (g) 806±211 797±164 1151±155 1172±129
Dry Matter Intake (kg per
100 kg lw)
Oats hay 0.64±0.22 0.72±0.18 1.52±0.29 1.96±0.10
Concentrate 1.26±0.14 1.00±0.08 1.31±0.31 1.25±0.06
Total intake 1.90±0.24 1.72±0.21 2.83±0.25 3.21±0.16
Kg DM per kg weight 4.56±1.57 6.7±1.35 5.34±1.14 7.60±1.19
growth

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importance of what is often called the 5th quarter, which represents more
than 20% of the live weight. An indication of these parameters may be
required to compare the meat production potential of these species, with
different breed and under different management conditions.

Actual slaughter weight, carcass weight and dressing percentage data

are almost completely lacking. Slaughtering
There is a considerable phenotypic variation in the live weight of mature and jointing
dromedaries, whose age at full growth ranges from 6 to 7 years for males yield
and slightly earlier in females. For the same breed, animal weight varies
with age, sex and depends mainly on husbandry practices and condition
of the vegetation. Live weight is heavier and age at full growth is earlier
when these animals were well managed from weaning to maturity. All
recent figures are consistent with the average dromedary weights
450-600 kg, while the average bactrian camel is slightly heavier. Dong
Wei (1979) stated that the economic importance of the Chinese bactrian
camel is primarily in work output and wool production. However it was
found that body weight ranged from 400 to 600 kg.
Average carcass weight of the Iranian dromedary was reported as
300-400 kg for males, with that females being 250-350 kg (Khatami, 1970).
These Iranian camels must have been well fattened. The same author
further gave a figure of 650 kg as a possible carcass weight for the Bactrian
camel. In the other hand, Bremaud (1969) noted that the average carcass
of Somali camels be estimated to weight 286 kg. A carcass weight of
231 kg was given for males and 196 kg for females in Sudanese camels
(Wilson, 1978).
The dressing percentage varied from 55 to 70 per cent (Kamoun, 1989;
Shalash, 1979). Camel males have a higher dressing percentage than
females. In general the dromedary have a higher dressing percentage (in
the range of 54-57%) than other domestic animals Wilson (1984). The
dressing percent seems to be rather high and it is not clear the average
dressing percentage on live weight or on empty body weight. Indeed, in
the Sudan southern Darfur camels were found to have dressing
percentage on live weight of 51.4 in males and 47.4 in females (Wilson,
1978).
Only few sources provide data relating to slaughter and carcass weight,
dressing percentage on live weight and on empty live weight, carcass
characteristics and age (Bahamou and Baylik, 1999; Biala et al., 1990;
El-Gasim and El-Hag, 1992; Kamoun, 1995a, b; Wilson, 1978; Youssif
and Babiker, 1989). Main results are summarised in table 8.
In a Tunisian study involving 15 camels, well managed from weaning to
slaughtering in ESA Mateur experimental station, Kamoun (1995a, b)
derived some very useful results, which are shown in tables 9, 10, 11
and 12 for illustration and comparison. After slaughtering the fattened
males, the following aspects were studied: slaughtering and jointing yield,
and carcass tissue composition.

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Table 8. Live weights, carcass and body components weight, and dressing percentage in camel males.

Youssif Bahamou
El-Gasim and and
Kamoun Biala et al., and El-Hag Babiker Wilson Baylik
Source 1995 1990 1992 1989 1978 1999
Country Tunisia Libya Saudi Arabia Sudan Sudan Algeria
Place Experimental Experimental Experimental Slaughter Slaughter Slaughter
station station station house house house
Number 15 6 12 22 21 47
Age (years) 3 2 2 Mature Mature Mature–
castrato
Type Well- Fattened Non-fattened Well- Non- Non–
fattened fattened fattened fattened
Live weight kg 413.8 288 226.8-271.0 456.1 447.9 459.7
Empty weight kg 351.5 241.3 194-235 404.8 367 -
Carcass weight kg 231.1 146.8 119.5-132.5 239.9 231.3 244.2
Carcass % Live weight 55.8 51.0 52.1-56.1 56.6 51.4 53.3
Carcass % Empty weight 65.4 60.7 60.0-65.5 63.8 63 -
Hump weight kg 20.1 9.1 2.3-4.2 30.8 4.0 8.8
Digestive tact content % lw 15.1 16.1 13.2-14.4 11.2 23.2 -
Body components kg
Head 12.5 7.7 6.7-8.6 14.1 12.1 12.9
Four feet 13.0 8.4 - 14.4 14.6 15.3
Stomach+Intestines(empty) 18.5 12.6 11.5-12.4 25.7 - 21.9
Liver 5.4 4.2 3.8-4.6 8.0 7.5 7.3
Lung and trachea 3.9 2.2 2.0-2.3 5.9 - 2.8
Heart 1.8 1.4 1.4-1.6 2.7 - 3.4
Kidneys 1.3 0.91 1.9-2.0 1.7 - 1.8
Spleen 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.5 - 0.3
Hide 35.2 19.8 - 35.8 34.8 25.3

The slaughter weight and carcass weight of mature Sudanese desert

camels were in no –fattened male 306 - 581 kg and 144-310 kg, yielding
dressing percentage on body weight and on empty body weight of
46.2-55.6% and 55.7-65.1% and in well fattened male 395-512 kg and
208-295 kg, yielding dressing percentage on body weight and on empty
body weight of 47.2-62.8% and 53.1-74.7 respectively. Wile the mature
castrato Algerian camels for the same slaughter weight give heavier
carcass. For average camels carcass weight of 231-244 kg there are a
great variation in the weight of humps, 4-31 kg (Table 8). The discrepancy
on the live weight of this Sudanese desert camels breed may be explained
by the weight of the digestive tract content, it self influenced by the
duration of fasting between last weighing and slaughtering.
The slaughtering males, aged from 15 to 50 months and weighing
280-560 kg provide between 150 and 343 kg of carcass. The 5th quarter,
blood and digestive tract content represent 22.6±1.7; 6.8±3.5 and 15.1±5.1
of the live weight, respectively. Slaughtering yield, expressed as the carcass

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weight on body weight and on empty body weight were 55.67±2.77%

(52.3-61.4%) and 65.40±3.74% (60.30–72.12%), respectively. The hump,
fat included, accounts for 8.4% (5-13%) of carcass weight. The rate of
live growth did cause a change in the camel carcass yield and
characteristics. Carcass weight and yield and hump increased as right
increased. The fact that dressing percentage varies with live weight,
carcass weight, age, sex, breed and the digestive tract content (Table 9).
Camel body components are also summurised in Table 8 and 9. The
camel head and four feet had an average weight of 12.5±2.8 kg and
13.0±2.7 kg, they represent about 3.5% of the empty body weight. Camel
hide had a weight of 35.2±9.5 which represent 10% of the empty body
weight. Liver, Lung with trachea, heart and kidneys weight were
5.4±0.8 kg, 3.9±0.9 kg, 1.8±0.4 kg and 1.3±0.2 kg and represent 1.5%,
1.1%, 0.5% and 0.4% of the empty body weight respectively. As for the
empty digestive tract (stomach + intestines) it weighed 18.5±3.2 kg and
represent 5.3% of the empty body weight. The relative proportion of
body weight components indicated that the heaviest body component
was the hide followed by digestive tract. The relative proportion of body
component agreed with values reported by Bahamou and Baylik (1999),
Wilson (1978) and Youssif and Babiker (1989). Compared with body
components for bulls reared under the same conditions and weighing
the same empty body weight, the camel had a lighter head and digestive
tract but heavier hid.
Camel wholesale cuts are shown in table 10. The cut, into wholesale
cuts are not set up in standard manner and change from one author to
another. So the comparisons between authors are not easy. But, generally,
the leg and shoulder weights as proportion of the hot carcass weight
were the heaviest joints in the carcass followed by thoracic region
(dorsal+flank) and neck. Carcass joints having lighter weights in the
lumbar region and abdominal flank.
According to traditional cutting (Figure 1), the wholesale yield cuts have
been studied on fifteen fattened males camels slaughtered at different
body shape (Kamoun, 1995a, b). The neck, the fore limb, the thoracic-back
region, the ribs, the lumbar region, the hind limb, the flank, the hump
and others (kidney fat + tail + diaphragm muscle) represented
respectively, 9.4%; 22.6%; 8.1%; 10.8%; 7.5%; 24.5%; 5.7%; 8.4% and
3.0% of carcass weight. In all cases, forequarters were heavier (51 and
49% of carcass weight), than the hindquarters.

The camel carcass and camel meat characteristics are important

parameters, detailed knowledge of which is required if rapid Carcass tissue
improvement in camel meat production is to be achieved. Some work, composition
however, appears to have been done on camel meat but only few
experimental data are available. This can be attributed to the lack of the
same reference methods for the assessment of carcass and meat
characteristics which to be used at the end of camel production
experiments.

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Table 9. Comparison of carcass weight and dressing percentage of camels and steers.

Kamoun 1995b Experimental Station in Tunisia

No. = 15 fattened Magharabi
camels No = 6 Steers (FFPN)
Mean ± SD Range Mean ± SD Mean ± SD
Age (month) 30 12 15–50 9 1 13 1
Live weight kg 413.8 104.4 280–560 283.5 1.5 405.6 5.4
Empty weight kg 351.5 85.1 240–476 218.8 0.4 345.3 8.6
Carcass hot weight 231.1 63.1 149.5–343.3 134.0 0.1 219.0 9.2
kg
Carcass % Live 55.67 2.77 52.33–61.41 47.3 0.2 54.0 2.2
weight
Carcass % Empty 65.40 3.74 60.30–72.12 61.2 0.1 63.4 1.7
weight
Hump weight kg 20.1 9.4 8.5–44.0 - - - -
Hump % carcass 8.4 2.2 5.1–12.8 - - - -
Digestive tact 15.1 5.1 11.2–18.5 22.8 - 14.9 -
content % lw
Body components kg
Head 12.5 2.8 8–18 14.7 1.1 21.0 0.5
Four feet 13.0 2.7 9.5–18.5 8.7 0.3 11.7 0.5
Stomach + intestines 18.5 3.2 13.5–23.7 17.7 0.3 29.3 2.5
(empty)
Liver 5.4 0.8 4.3–7.1 3.3 0.1 5.7 0.2
Lung and trachea 3.9 0.9 2.2–5.5 2.2 0.1 5.1 0.1
Heart 1.8 0.4 1.2–2.6 1.3 0.1 1.6 0.1
Kidneys 1.3 0.2 1.0–1.6 0.8 0.1 0.9 0.1
Spleen 0.4 0.1 0.3-0.5 0.5 0.1 0.8 0.1
Hide 35.2 9.5 21.5–50.0 16.8 0.4 29.0 0.8

Youssif and Babiker (1989) reported that the mean composition of

9 carcass was 56% (43.6-67.6%) meat; 19% (13.4-25.3%) bone and 13.7%
(7-18.4%) fat. In these 9 carcasses muscle: bone ratio ranged from 2.7 to
3.0. On the other hand Kamoun (1995a, b) determined the tissue
composition by dissection of twelve camel male carcasses. He reported
that these carcasses which weighed 256.6 kg (181-343 kg) contain, in
average of 60.9% (57.3-64.9%) meat, 20.9% (16.2-23.7%) bone and 18.2%
(12.5-24.0%) fat. However, the meat: bone ratio decreased while body
shape increased. The muscle: bone ratio was ranged from 2.48 to 3.76 with
mean of 2.95±0.39 (Table 11).
Wholesale yield cuts and joint composition are shown in table 12. The
tissues were unevenly distributed in the carcass. Meat, bone and fat
composition were respectively 66.9±1.3; 26.8±3.7% and 6.3±3.6% for the
fore half and 54.5±3.2%; 14.8%±1.7% and 30.7±3.9% for the hind half.

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Table 10. Yield of wholesale cuts from camel carcass (% of carcasses).

Bahamou
and
Kamoun Biala et al., Baylik Wilson El-Gasim and
Source 1995 1990 1999 1978 El-Hag 1992
Country Tunisia Libya Algeria Sudan Saudi Arabia
Place Experimental Experimental Slaughter Slaughter Experimental
station station house house station
Number 15 6 47 21 12
Age (years) 3 2 Mature– Mature 2
castrato
Type Well- Fattened No- No- No-fattened
fattened fattened fattened
Forequarter 50.9 63.2 58.5 57.5 -
Neck 9.4 10.4 10.2 - Neck 7.5
Shoulder 22.6 22.8 23.6 - Shoulder 31.6
Thoracic region 18.9 30.0 24.7 - Rib 14.6
Hindquarter 49.1 36.8 41.5 40.5 Loin 6.0
Lumbar region 7.5 16.3 9.3 - -
Leg 24.5 20.5 28.7 - Leg 28.8
Abdominal flank 5.7 - - - -
Hump 8.4 - 3.5 2.0 Hump 5.2
Tail-int.fat - 3.0 - - - Others 6.3
m.Onglet
Total carcasses 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Carcass% 100.0
Carcasses kg 231.1 147.0 244.2 231.3 Carcass kg 126.0

The hump fat included, accounted for 60.0±4.7% of the hind half fat.
The meat: bone ratio were respectively 3.73-2.55-4.30-3.59-2.67-2.49-1.53
in the hind half, fore half, fore limb, hind limb, neck, lumbar region,
thoracic back region and ribs.
Joint composition indicated that the shoulder and leg had a muscle
proportion around 75%. The joints, neck and lumbar region had a muscle
proportion of 71% and 60% respectively. The proportion of bone in
wholesale cuts was highest in the thoracic, dorsal and flank regions and
a minimum in the flank joint. The proportion of fat was higher in the
abdominal flanks which ranged between 25 and 45% while a minimum
fat contents was found in the neck, shoulder and leg joints.

The quality of meat has received little attention. Earlier camel meat was
described as palatable, but coarser than beef, varying in color from Quality of
raspberry red to brown red and having white fat (Leupold 1968). Khatami camel meat
(1970) indicated that in appearance and color, texture and palatability,
camel meat is very similar to beef.

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 Meat recording systems in camelids

Table 11. Live weight and carcass characteristics in males camel.

Youssif and Babiker

Sources Kamoun 1995 Biala et al., 1990 1989
Country Tunisia Libya Sudan
Place Experimental Experimental Slaughter
station station house
Number 12 6 9
Age (years) 3 2 Mature
Type Well-fattened Fattened Well - fattened
Live weight kg 455.0 288 456.1
Carcass weight kg 256.6 146.8 239.9
Hump weight kg 20.1 9.1 30.8
Meat % carcass 60.9 60.5 57.8
Bone % carcass 20.9 28.1 18.8
Fat % carcass 18.2 9.2 13.7
Trimming % carcass - 2.2 9.7
Muscle : Bone ratio 3.31 2.20 2.95

The quality of meat produced by younger animals was comparable to

beef in taste and texture. With increased age, however, there is an increase
in meat toughness; the meat also becomes less testy and of inferior quality.
There is a great reluctance on the part of camel owners to sell their young
stock. Since animals are usually slaughtered at the end of their productive
life. Most trade therefore consist of meat from much older animals the
low quality of which has a direct bearing on the extent of demand for
camel meat outside the camel herding societies. Camel meat is often
labeled inferior in urban societies, and its consumption is considered fit
only for poor.
Unfortunately, in spite of all the indication of the superior quality of
meat from young animal, objectives data on change of camel meat quality
with age are almost completely lacking. In recent years the potential of
the camel as a meat source has received creased recognition but only
few investigation on the chemical composition and eaten quality of this
meat have been published.
Meat differs in composition according to type and condition and the fat
content of tissues varies. The chemical composition of camel meat has
been studied. Nasr et al., (1965) indicated that the meat of young camels
(below 5 years) has a higher moisture content (78.3%) than that of older
animals (76.2%) and estimated the crude protein, fat and ash contents
of the two age groups as 20 and 22%, 0.92 and 1.01%, and 0.76 and
0.86% respectively, with no significant difference between the sex.
Kamoun (1995b) found that quality of camel meat varies with age. The
mean chemical composition was presented in table 13.

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 Table 12. Traditional wholesale cuts and joint composition in camel carcasses.

Source Kamoun 1995a, b Biala et al., 1990

Country Tunisian cut Libyan cut
Number 12 6
Age (years) 3 2
Weight kg Tissue composition Weight kg Tissue composition
Cut pieces % Muscle % Bone % Fat % Muscle % Bone % Fat
Forequarter 131.3±26.6 66.9±1.3 26.8±3.7 6.3±3.6 73.4-113.1 61.3-62.3 27.7-31.0 7.7-10.0
Neck 24.4±6.4 71.3±3.8 27.5±4.0 1.2±0.5 11.0-19.7 69.0-72.3 25.3-31.0 0.0-2.4
Shoulder 57.1±12.1 76.7±3.6 18.2±2.6 5.1±2.4 27.0-38.6 67.8-71.3 27.2-30.7 1.5
Thoracic dorsal region 22.7±4.2 56.0±3.2 36.4±7.9 7.6±5.5 35.4-54.8 51.1-53.1 29.7-31.1 15.8-19.2
ICAR Technical Series - No. 11

Thoracic flank (Rib) 27.1±5.0 51.6±4.3 36.7±8.6 11.7±6.4

Hindquarter 125.3±27.3 54.5±3.2 14.8±1.7 30.7±3.9 42.7-64.2 61.8-66.4 24.6-30.3 7.9-9.1
Lumbar region 16.9±2.8 60.4±7.6 25.6±4.8 14.0±3.6 18.8-28.6 51.8-55.6 24.7-29.3 18.9-19.7
Abdominal flank 16.2±3.8 66.1±6.8 0.0±0.0 33.9±6.8
Leg 61.8±12.6 74.5±2.7 21.0±2.3 4.5±1.5 23.9-35.6 69.2-74.9 24.5-30.8 0.0-0.6
Hump 23.6±8.4 0.0±0.0 0.0±0.0 100±0 - - - -
Tail + Kidneys fat + m. onglet 6.8±1.7 - - - - - - -

Kamoun
Total carcasses 256.6±53.3 60.9±2.1 20.9±2.5 18.2±3.5 116.1-177.3 61.6-63.5 26.5-30.1 8.3-10.0
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 Meat recording systems in camelids

Figure 1. Traditional cuttings of camel meat.

Table 13. Chemical composition of camel and steers meat.

Steer Camel Camel Camel Camel

Type meat meat meat meat meat means
Age (month) 15 20±4 34±2 49±1 30±12
Moisture % 73.0±0.9 77.5±0.8 78.1±1.4 76.9±1.7 77.6±1.7
Dry matter % 27.0±1.30 22.5±1.3 21.9±2.0 23.1±2.2 22.4±1.7
As dry matter %
Protein 77.0±2.9 91.4±3.3 91.2±4.0 89.6±9.0 91.0±5.1
Fat 18.5±3.3 3.55±3.25 4.25±3.69 5.89±8.77 4.2±4.9
Ahs 4.5±0.1 5.1±1.1 4.5±1.1 4.5±0.9 4.8±1.1
Collagen 2.69±0.95 2.35±0.9 2.54±0.76 2.47±0.79 2.4±0.8
Myoglobin 2.20±0.43 1.65±0.41 2.10±0.61 2.64±0.54 1.97±0.63
% collagen soluble 18.3±2.9 39.6±15.3 31.4±11.6 22.7±10.9 34.1±13.0

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It was observed that the moisture content of fresh camel meat was 77.6%
and camel meat contain 20.4% protein but only about 1% fat. The
chemical composition varies with age: percent fat, increased as body
shape increased while moisture decreased. Chemically, camel meat was
compared with meat of steer 15 month old. The result indicated that
camel meat contains more moisture, more protein, less intra muscular
fat, the same level of collagen (Tenderness) and the same percentage of
ash. However, few differences between meat were observed for protein
excluding fat. It was also found that myoglobin (color), increased in camel
meat as body shape increased. At four years old camel meat, reached
the same color than that from steer below 2 years old.
Hamman et al., (1962) found that the LD muscles obtained from 5 year
old camels had an average 19.4% protein, 76.2% moisture, 2.6% fat and
1.1% ash, the round muscles (ST) had 19.8% protein, 78.3% moisture
and 3.8% fat while shoulder muscles (TB) had 22.3% protein, 76.1%
moisture, 0.95% fat and 0.79% ash.
It was of interest to test the meat quality in different cuts. Then chemical
and sensory properties of the following six muscle from fifteen young
fattened males camel were evaluated by Kamoun (1995b): Psoas major
(PM), Longissimus dorsi (LD), Semimembranosus (SM), Semitendinosus
(ST), Vastus lateralis (VL) and Triceps brachii caput longum (TB). These
camel muscles weight and characteristics are given in table 14 and mean
chemical composition in table 15. In the other hand, Babiker and Youssif
(1990) compared the chemical composition and the eating quality
attributes to LD, ST and TB muscles obtained from nine mature well
finished camels, while El Kady and Fahmy (1985) studied the effect of
aging by cold storage on some physical and chemical properties of buffalo
and camel meat. A summary of these results is given in table 16.

Table 14. Weight and characteristics of six camel muscles.

As percentage of
Total Total
Muscle removed from Muscle Weight kg carcasses carcass meat
Shoulder
Triceps brachii (TB) 3.60±0.93 1.39±0.11 2.22±0.22
Lumbar region (loin)
Longissimus dorsi 3.05±0.60 1.20±0.17 1.98±0.28
(LD)
Psoas major (PM) 1.70±0.22 0.68±0.10 1.11±0.16
Leg
Semitendinosus (ST) 1.07±0.37 0.41±0.08 0.68±0.14
Semimembranosus 2.17±0.50 0.85±0.07 1.39±0.13
(SM)
Vastus lateralis 2.22±0.34 0.88±0.10 1.44±0.14

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Table 15 Chemical composition and eaten quality attributes of the six major camel muscles (Source:
Kamoun 1995b).

Muscle
PM LD SM ST VL TB means
Moisture % 77.7 75.1 78.1 78.4 78.3 77.8 77.6±1.7
Dray matter % 22.3 24.9 21.9 21.6 21.7 22.2 22.4±1.7
As dry matter %
Protein 91.8 82.9 92.4 93.4 93.2 92.1 91.0±5.1
Fat 3.5 12.2 2.8 1.9 2.2 2.8 4.2±4.9
Ashes 4.9 4.8 4.8 4.7 4.7 5.0 4.8±1.1
Collagen 1.5 1.7 2.3 3.5 3.1 2.5 2.4±0.8
Myoglobin 1.75 1.64 2.63 1.59 1.89 2.29 1.97±0.63
Eaten quality
Color :Myoglobin mg/g FM 3.9 4.1 5.8 3.4 4.1 5.1 4.4±1.4
Tenderness
Collagen mg/g fm 3.3 4.1 5.0 7.5 6.6 5.6 5.5±1.8
Sensory tenderness 7.2 6.6 3.7 3.6 1.9 3.9 4.5±1.8
Percent collagen soluble 29.4 29.1 29.7 33.9 42.0 40.5 34.1±13.0
Sensory juiciness 6.2 6.8 5.2 3.8 4.1 5.8 5.3±1.1
Cooking weight loss % 44.6 45.0 49.3 48.2 51.1 50.8 48.2±2.5
Cooking volume loss % 41.1 42.0 45.6 44.3 47.8 44.7 44.2±2.2

Kamoun (1995b) observed few differences between muscles for dry matter
excluding fat. However, a large range in percent fat (determined on lean
tissue trimmed of all external fat) was observed: the LD the highest fat
content (12.24±8.07 as % dry weight) and ST the lowest (1.94±0.78 as
dry weight %). The six muscle PM, LD, SM, ST, VL and TB were ranked
by percent fat, total myoglobin (color) and total collagen (Tenderness).
Large ranges were observed among muscles for percent fat, total
myoglobin and total collagen, the classification were: leaner to fatty
(ST-VL-SM-TB-PM-LD), pale pink to bright red (ST-PM-LD-VL-TB-SM)
and most tender to least tender (PM-LD-SM-TB-VL-ST), These muscle
enclosed (0.42±0.17; 0.47±0.20; 0.61±0.26; 0.63±0.29; 0.73±0.39;
3.16±2.45) percent fat and (3.47±1.07; 3.89±0.79; 4.10±1.24; 4.12±0.97;
5.09±1.43; 5.77±1.72) mg of myoglobin and (3.34±0.64; 4.10±1.10;
5.01±1.00; 5.60±1.18; 6.62±1.36; 7.66±1.80) mg of collagen per gram of
fresh meat respectively.
In all case, crud fat and total myoglobin increased while moisture and
collagen solubility decreased as body shape increased. Chemical
composition of LD is the one that varies the most with age, fat content
increased as body shape increased while moisture decreased. After
3 years, intra-muscular fat deposited, coming from the hump, makes meat
richer in fat, producing, as a result, marbled meat.

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 Table 16. Chemical composition and eaten quality in camel, steers and buffalos muscle.

El-Kadi and
Source Kamoun (synthesis) Kamoun (1995a, b) Youssif and Babiker Fahmi (1985)
Animal Types Steer Camel (1989) Buffalo Camel
Ages Under 2 years From 1 to 2 years From 3 to 4 years 5 years or more 3 years
Muscle LD ST TB LD ST TB LD ST TB LD ST TB LD LD
Chemical composition
Moisture % 71.5 73.4 74.4 75.8 78.1 77.7 73.1 77.4 77.2 75.9 75.81 75.2 76.1 79.6
Dray matter % 28.5 26.6 25.6 24.2 21.9 22.3 26.9 22.6 22.8 24.1 24.2 24.8 23.9 20.4
Protein (% dm) 74.4 80.8 78.9 85.8 93.2 91.8 74.3 92.7 92.2 89.7 88.5 89.2 87.3 85.5
Fat (% dm) 21.4 15.0 16.8 9.2 2.0 2.9 21.1 2.5 3.1 5.9 5.8 5.7 9.32 11.1
ICAR Technical Series - No. 11

Ahs (% dm) 4.2 4.1 4.3 4.9 4.9 5.3 4.6 4.8 4.7 4.4 5.7 4.9 3.38 3.44
Collagen (% dm) 1.8 3.2 4.1 1.5 3.4 2.5 1.8 3.8 2.5 3.8 2.0 2.6 1.25 2.04
Elastin (% dm) - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.94 1.26
Myoglobin (% dm) 1.7 1.0 2.0 1.4 1.3 1.8 2.3 2.3 3.1 - - - - -
Eaten quality
Color
Myoglobin 4.8 2.7 5.1 3.3 2.8 4.1 6.2 5.2 7.0 - - - - -

Kamoun
(mg/g wm)
Degree of redness - - - - - - - - - 17.2 13.8 15.9 - -
Absorbance at 542 nm - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.640 0.252
Tenderness
Shear force kg 3.5 3.7 3.9 - - - - - - 4.8 5.7 5.8 2.5 2.3
Collagen mg/ g wm 5.0 8.3 10.5 3.5 7.4 5.6 4.8 8.5 5.7 9.2 4.9 6.4 3.0 4.2
Sensory tenderness 6.2 5.5 5.6 6.8 3.1 3.3 6.5 2.1 2.3 - - - - -
% Collagen soluble 24 17 19 33 41 49 21 17 36 25 34 10 - -
Sensory juiciness 6.1 4.7 5.9 6.8 3.1 5.9 7.2 2.8 5.3 - - - - -
123

Cooking loss % 34 37 41 42 47 49 46 49 51 38 33 37 - -
 Meat recording systems in camelids

Comparing the chemical composition and the eating quality attributes

to LD, ST and TB camel muscles, Babiker and Youssif (1990) found that
those muscles had similar moisture (75.2-75.9%) protein (21.4-22.4%)
and fat (1.40-1.43) content (Table 16). The concentrations of
sarcomplasmic and myofibrillar proteins were not significantly different
among the three muscles studied. The LD muscle appeared brighter red
than the other two muscles and total collagen content was greater in LD
than in ST or TB muscles. In this case LD and ST collagen data will be
rather in inverse order, seeing that shear force and connective tissue
strength were lower in LD than values for ST and TB muscles. Indeed
Kamoun (1995b) found that total collagen content is lowest in the LD
than ST as well as in camel meat and in Steer meat.
Otherwise El Kady and Fahmy (1985) have been studied the effect of
aging by cold storage on some physical and chemical properties of buffalo
and camel meat. They indicated that fresh camels meat has higher
moisture content (79.6%) than that of buffalo (76.1%) and estimated the
crude protein, collagen, elastin and ash contents (as % dry weight) of
buffalo and camel as 87.3 and 85.5%, 1.25 and 2.04%, 0.94 and 1.26%
and 3.38 and 3.44% respectively. For color it was noticed that buffalo
meat was darker due to more myoglobin content than that of camel
meat. They noted too, that after storage at 4°C for 7 days the tenderness
increased and reached 112% -113% of the original value indicating that
the increase of tenderness was continued through aging while water
holding capacity (WHC) decreased. They mentioned, that the WHC and
tenderness of buffalo meat where better than for camel meat during cold
storage. In the other hand, crude protein, collagen and elastin value
decreased slightly during aging while ash increased (Table 16).

The LD muscle was found to have more soluble collagen than the ST and
Eating quality TB muscle. TB had the highest shear force values, maximum connective
tissue strength and least collagen solubility indicating that it will be the
toughest muscle in this group (Babiker and Youssif, 1990).
Meat eating quality was assessed, the meat having been cooked in
traditional way (40 minutes in boiling water. Theses six muscles
(PM, LD, SM, ST, LV, TB) were ranked by eating quality, sensory
tenderness, sensory juiciness, thermal solubility of collagen and cooking
loss (Kamoun, 1995b). The ranking was given in table 15. A large range
in percent cooking losses was observed, the VL had the highest weight
and volume losses (51.1% and 47.8%, respectively) and PM the lowest
(44.6% and 41.1% respectively).
The TB and LV muscle were found to have more soluble collagen than
ST, PM, LD and SM muscles, possibly indicating less thermal stable bond
between collagen molecule and weaker connective tissue structure of
those muscles. Muscles of the lumbar region (loin) were more tenders
and had less detectable connective tissue than muscle from shoulder and
leg. The PM and LD were the most tender muscle and had less detectable
connective tissue than all other muscles. However, few tenderness

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differences were observed between SM, ST and TB muscles and they

were also ranked acceptable for this trait. The VL was the least tender
muscle. The LD had the highest juiciness score and the ST and LV were
less juicy than PM, SM and TB muscles. The eaten quality of meat from
young camels did not change between 1 and 4 years age wile the location
of the cut determines to a great extent the tenderness of the meat.
As compared to Steers muscle (LD, ST and TB), camel muscles losses
more weight when they were cooked (48±2% versus 37±2%). The camel
boiled meat was less juicy than boiled beef meat, however no tenderness
differences were observed between meat of the camel and beef. Wile
Babiker and Tibin (1986) have reported that camel meat samples have
less cooking losses and higher water holding capacity when compared
with the beef samples.
With increased age there is an increase in meat toughness; the meat also
becomes less testy and of inferior quality. However, Kamoun (1995a, b),
noted that age is not a predominant factor in yield variation and meat
quality, in the case of dromedaries fed on the same diet and slaughtered
between 15 and 51 month of age. Results concerning growth, quality
and yield of carcass are discussed in order to draw some practical
conclusions regarding, for instance, the best age for slaughtering. This
author suggested that the young males must be complemented and
slaughtered at 2 years, although it is traditionally done when the animals
are 3 years old, a figure consistent with the 3 years given by Dina and
Klintegerg (1977). At this age the animals were not yet fully grown, they
averaged about 60-70% of full live weight. Their meat is young and tender.

The hump fat and abdominal fat were also used for culinary purposes.
The edible fats of the camel are obtained from hump, the mesentery and Camel fat
kidney area. The fat derived from the camel is of very great nutritional
importance in meeting the need for fat in the human diet.
Fatty acids composition of the meat and the hump of the camel were
studied by Rawdah et al., (1994) and the results indicate that the saturated
fatty acids in the meat account for 51.5% of total fatty acids, which is
higher than the levels found in cattle meat (40.0%), wile the
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated chains constitute 29.9 and 18.6%,
respectively. The ratio of the polyunsaturated chains to the saturated
ones is 0.36 as compared with 0.22, 0.26, and 0.36 in beef, mutton and
goat respectively. The major fatty acids in camel meat are palmitic (26.0%),
oleic (18.9%) and linoleic (12.1%). The main fatty acid of the hump fat is
palmitic (34.4%) followed by oleic (28.2%), myristic (10.3%) and stearic
(10.3%). In the other hand Babiker and Tibin (1989) reported that in the
pad fat, hump fat and abdominal fat the cholesterol content is
0.16 g/100 g, 28 g/100g and 2.7g/100 g, respectively. So camel meat
seems to have low fat and cholesterol content and high level of
polyunsaturated fatty acids.

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 Meat recording systems in camelids

When camels are slaughtered at the end of their productive live, these
Camel meat old animals often give toughest meat. The conversion of this toughest
product camel meat to minced meat or to sausages eliminated toughness and
reduced the required cooking time.
Camel meat provides an excellent basis for various manufactured and
cured forms of meat. It has highly desirable features as a sausage
constituent and because of its superior performance, pigmentation and
water holding, kebab and kefta makers often incorporate it with other
meats.
The camel meat has greater total protein than beef and superior water
holding capacity as well as low fat content which make it an ideal lean
source for comminuted meat processing (Babiker and Tibin, 1986). Camel
meat sausages can form a highly acceptable cooked meal. Then the
physical, chemical and palatability aspects of camel sausage and beef
were compared by Tibin an Babiker (1989) and they stated that emulsion
type sausage camel with 10% and 15% fat were acceptable to the panelists
and not significantly different from the beef sausage. Therefore camel
and beef meat can successfully replace each other in sausage manufacture.

Despite the paucity of available data, the dromedary appears to be the

Conclusion most advantageous animal for the protein supply of population in arid
zone. There is an urgent need to investigate the meat production potential
of this species under different management conditions. Further
standardization of the methods is necessary to point out the growth
patterns, the efficiency of growth, dressing percentages and quality of
camel meat.
An indication of weight may be required to determine the exact role of
these factors. But, even under conditions where normal facilities are
available camel are difficult animals to weight, and on open rangeland
the problems are often insuperable.
In the other hand, with this complete chemical analysis, it has been shown
that dromedaries have lean meat with high moisture level. In appearance
and color, texture and palatability, camel meat is very similar to beef.
Total collagen content and percent soluble collagen my be an important
factors relating to cooked meat tenderness, although a trend was observed
for muscles with higher percent fat to be more tender and more juicy.
These data indicate that some muscles could have a potentially greater
value if they were separated and used independently.
Camel meat is relatively rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (18.6%) and
its fat content (0.42-3.16%) is significantly low compared with beef
(4.0-8.0%). Furthermore the meat is a good source of protein and is rich
in mineral constituent. Hence the camel as a meat source seems to present
a viable alternative to cattle.
The habit of eating fatty meat may predispose to health risks. The
reduction of saturated fat level in the diet is a primary step in avoiding
artery-sclerosis. Consequently, now, the general trend in the word is to

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have biological meat and labeled lean meat as it is synonymous with

good health. Thus the camel meat with its low fat and cholesterol content
and high level of polyunsaturated fatty acids is an ideal health food.
The camel meat is consumed locally either fresh or preserved. The eaten
proprieties of camel and cattle meat are comparable. Nevertheless,
evidence is accumulating which indicates that when quality standards
are set and adhered to, camel meat can be successfully marked alongside
that of cattle, sheep and goat.

Babiker, S.A. & I.M. Tibin. 1986. Comparative study of camel

References
meat and beef. Small ruminant and camel group, ILCA Document
no. SRC 12, 73-77.
Babiker, S.A. & I.M. Tibin. 1989. A note on desert camel meat
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Rawdah T.N, M.Z. El-Faer & S.A. Koreish. 1994. Fatty acid
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dromedarius). Meat Sciences 37, 149-155.
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Khartoum workshop on camels. W.R. Cockrill (Ed.) Uppsala, Sweden,
1984 V1, 231-247.
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on birth weight of camel calves of Bikaneri breed. Indian J. of Animal
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international Sympousium on the development of animal resources in
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the Arab countries. Camel Newsletter. 1992 no. 9, 15-19.
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meat animal. Meat Science, 26: 245-254.

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Fibre recording systems in camelids

Carlo Renieri1, Marco Antonini2 & Eduardo Frank3

1
University of Camerino, Department of Veterinary Science,
Via Circonvallazione 93/95, 62024 Matelica, Italy.
2
ENEA Casaccia, BIOTEC AGRO, Via Anguillarese 301, S. Maria di
Galeria, Roma, Italy
3
SUPPRAD programme, Catholic University of Cordoba, Obispo Trejo
323, Cordoba, Argentina

Keey words: fibre production, fibre characteristics, selection for fibre, suri,
recording methodologies.

Llama (Lama glama L.) and alpaca (Lama pacos L.) are domestic mammals
classed in the Tilopods suborder together with guanaco (Lama guanicoe L.)
Introduction
and vicuña (Vicugna vicugna M.). Domesticated by the pre-conquest
Andean cultures, they are currently used by South America Andean
populations for fiber (both, llama and alpaca), meat and packing (llama)
(Flores Ochoa and Mac Quarry, 1995 a, b; Bonavia, 1996).
In order to improve fiber production in both the South American domestic
Camelids (SAC), llama and alpaca, three different project have been
funded by the European Union during the last 15th years:
• PELOS FINOS, “Supported program to improve Argentinean South
American Camelids fine fiber production” (EU DG 1, 1992-1995);
involving Argentine, Italy and Spain;
• SUPREME, “Sustainable Production of natural Resources and
Management of Ecosystems: the Potential of South American Camelid
Breeding in the Andean Region”, (EU DG XII, ERBIC18CT960067,
1996-2000) involving 5 South American Countries (Argentine, Bolivia,
Chile, Ecuador, Peru) and 4 European Countries (Italy, Germany,
France, U.K.);
• DECAMA “Sustainable development of Camelid products and
services marketed oriented in Andean region” (E.U. INCO ICA4-CT-
2002-10014; in progress), involving Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, Germany
and Italy.
Two experiences of selection of fiber production have been carried out
during the time of the projects: the selection of llama population on Jujuy
Region, Argentina and the selection of the alpaca population in an open
nucleus breeding scheme in the Caylloma Region, Perù, involving
18 000 animals and 500 breeders.

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South American Camelids (SAC) fibre productions are generally divides

Fibre in Llama and Alpaca fibres. Llama produce less quantity of fibre and
production in present a greater size than Alpaca which is smaller with more ability to
alpaca and produce fibre. Also the commercial classification distinguishes between
llama Llama and Alpaca. In table 1 the quality characteristics in fiber tops of
alpaca and llama are presented (Vinella, 1994).
The SAC population presents a great variability and the type of fleece is
one of the principal characters utilised to distinguish the different type
of animals.
In the Alpaca it is possible to distinguish two different type according
fleece structure: Huacaya and Suri. Alpaca “Huacaya” is the more
common and is characterized by compact, soft and highly crimped fibres,
with blunt-tipped locks which closely resemble those of Merinos sheep.
By contrast, the “Suri” has straight, less-crimped fibres and locks with a
“cork-screw” shape, very similar to those of Angora goat but not as
bright.
The situation in llama is more complicated and different methods of
classification according to the different breeding cultural Andean areas
exist. A “Suri” type of fleece seems to segregate inside the population,
but a “Suri” standardized flocks are never discovered. The dis-
homogeneity and the variability of llama flocks derived from the lack of
interest on fibre selection by breeders.
Until few years ago llama fleece was mixed with the Alpaca fiber in
order to increase the quantity of product, compromising the Alpaca fleece
quality of lots. At present, a commercialization of fleece from some
“woolly” Llama exists in some Andean highland areas and fiber is directly
classified as Llama lots.

Table 1. Quality characteristics in fibre tops of alpaca and llama.

Characterists Woven goods Knitwear

Fiber diameter *** **
Variability of diameter *** **
Fiber colour *** ***
Colour homogeneity *** ***
Fiber length ** **
Variability of length * *
Dark hair (presence) *** *
Kemps (presence) **** *
Presence of impurities ** **
Regularity tops ** **
Lustre *** **
Handle *** **
Scale: * = Low importance; **** = High importance

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The main difference in fleece between alpaca and llama is on the structure:
Alpaca has a homotricous fleece in both Huacaya and Suri, while Llama
generally presents a double coat structure expressed in different
relationship between under coat and outer coat. Llamas is classified in
two different types:
1. “kara” (or “cargera”), typical double coated animal, with many guard
hair (outer coat) and markedly less woolly fibres (undercoat) ranging
from short to very short, and
2. “chacos” (or woolly), single-coated animal with soft, crimped
secondary fibres but with a low quality fleece with respect to Alpaca,
because many primary fibres are mixed with the secondary ones.
The variation of llama and alpaca fleece is complicated by inter fertility
among both and with the wild animals (vicuna and guanaco).
Alpaca and llama should be shorn annually, and expected fleece length
and weight would be respectively between 90-160 mm and 3–5 kg
(Australian Alpaca Association 1997).
At presents, an homogeneous and official methods to classify the different
category of SAC fibres lacks. Generally, industrial classification prefers
to grade the fineness according micron rank.
For example the official Peruvian classification is: Baby 20-22 μm;
Superfine 25.5 μm; Suri 27 μm; Adult 27.5 μm; Huarizo 32 μm,
Llama 34 μm; and Coarse 34-36 μm. Peruvian INCA Tops industry
classify the fleece of 2 micron category (<20, 20 – 21, 21 – 22, etc). The
Australian classification foresee 5 categories: Superfine (SF) < 22 μm;
Fine (F) 22-24.9 μm; Medium (M) 25-29.9 μm; Strong (S) 30-36.9 μm,
Coarse (C) > 37 μm.

The objectives of selection for fiber production in alpaca and “woolly”

llama are: Selection for
1. Mendelian characters: type of fleece (“Suri” vs “Huacaya”) and coat fibre
colour; production in
2. Quantitative characters: fleece weight, fineness and variation of alpaca and
fineness, percentage of medullated fibers, fiber crimp, fiber length, llama
morphological evaluation (linear methodology).

Two different type of fleece exist in SAC: Huacaya and Suri. Huacaya is
predominant type and represents the 90% alpaca fleece processed in Mendelian
characters
Peru (Hoffman et al., 1995).
The Suri is characterised by lustrous, silky fibre, with an absence of crimp
and the fleece is similar to mohair with particular lustre characteristic. Suri
The Suri fleece seems to be dominant with respect to the no–Suri type
(Huacaya) (Ponzoni, 1990). However intermediate animals that have
no suri and no huacaya fleece structure can be observed when Suri and
Huacaya are crossed.

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Suri No Suri Llama

Figure 1. Follicle structure (Antonini et al., 2004).

Among the parameter used to characterise and analyse fibre structure,

cell scale frequency could be considered as differential parameter. The
range vary from 3 to 18 (Antonini et al., 2001).
As described in table 2, 7 Scale/100 ìm could be the distinctive parameter
for Suri fibre. The independence of Suri cell scale frequency from fibre
diameter variation under 35 ìm, suggests that this result can be use in
selection to achieve single coated structures. The results can be used by
textile laboratories in quantitative analysis of blend to differ fibre (Antonini
et al., 2001).
Fibre Cuticle Cell High presents too low variability to be used as textile
distinction tools and a differentiation between the three fleeces types is
impossible (Table 3). For this reason Suri lustre and silky characteristic,
in comparison with other lustre fibre as mohair, seems depend more by
a reduced cuticle cell scale frequency, which gives rise to the typical fibre
silky handle, than by the cell scale height. In fact, the cell high value is
more similar to Llama and Huacaya with a lower brightness respect to
other lustre fibre.
The follicular structure analysis produced some useful information on
Suri and Huacaya differentiation. Density of skin follicles, percentage of
medullated secondary fibres, and percentage of active secondary follicles
reached their maximum values at 2 months in all the three types of SAC
(see Table 4) (Antonini et al., 2004). The secondary/primary follicles ratio

Table 2. Means scale frequency in fibre cuticle cell.

All Fibres Fibres < 35μm Fibres > 35μm

Suri 7.54 7.50 8.22
No Suri 9.10 9.06 9.28
Llama Woolly 9.72 9.40 10.65

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Suri No Suri Llama

Figure 2. Cuticle structure.

Table 3. Fibre cuticle cell high..

Means Max Min

Suri 0.232 0.05 0.75
No Suri 0.261 0.10 0.55
Llama woolly 0.201 0.10 0.60

(S/P) reaching the maximum value two months later, alpaca Suri and
Huacaya and llama gained a complete and mature skin follicle apparatus
at an early age.
With reference to the magnitude values of these four parameters, the
huacaya and suri alpaca showed similar peak values for follicular skin
density and S/P ratio; generally Huacaya presents higher values for both
follicular density and S/P respect to Suri. The woolly llama is clearly
different from alpaca, exhibiting the lowest values for all parameters
(Antonini et al., 2004).
The data presented may be exploited for a rational management of the
“crias category”. As kid fleece is the most requested by the market, and
fibre production potential is present in llama and alpaca from an early
age, producers can practise an anticipated first shearing, increasing
revenues for animal (one shearing more for productive life).

Table 4. Skin follicular structure.

Density (n/mm2) S/P ratio

Suri 19.90 6.89
No Suri 22.30 8.08
Llama woolly 17.98 4.66

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The quality and quantity of melanins that are synthesised in follicular

Coat colour melanocytes determine the colour of hair and wool in mammals. There
are two chemically distinct types of melanin pigments: the black to brown
eumelanins and the yellow to reddish pheomelanins which are further
divided into polymeric pheomelanins and dimeric trichochromes
(pheomelanogenesis by-product). It is generally accepted that natural
eumelanin is derived from copolymerization of 5,6-dihydroxyindole
(DHI) and 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid (DHICA) while
pheomelanins are characterized by the presence of
1,4-benzothiaziynilalanine structural units which arise biochemically
from 3,4-dihydroxy-phenylalanine (DOPA) and cysteine even if
pheomelanin-like pigments without sulfur also occur and arise probably
by peroxidative cleavage of DHI units of the eumelanin polymer.
Eumelanins and pheomelanins are syntethized within melanocytes on
the specialized organelle, the melanosome, where the specific enzyme
tyrosinase catalyzes conversion of the amino acid tyrosine to dopaquinone.
Chemical proprieties of melanins have been described in alpca and llama.
The morphology of melanosomes have been described in both llama and
alpaca (Renieri et al., 1991; 1995; Cecchi et al., 2001; Cozzali et al., 1998,
2001; Cecchi et al., 2004).
Coat colour variation in llama and alpaca flocks is generally very large
and no colour selection has been carried out, except for full white in
some peruvian alpaca and argentine llama flocks (Lauvergne, 1994; Mc
Quarry, 1995; Renieri, 1995; Lauvergne et al., 2001). The great colour
fleece variability is one of the main SAC characteristics. In the industrial
cards colour it is possible distinguish 22 different types from white to all
brown variable and black.
The variation has been established according to the four phenotypic
dimensions; pigment pattern, type of eumelanins, alteration of pigment,
type of white designs (Lauvergne et al., 2001). The various phenotypic

Suri No Suri Llama

Figure 3. Scale height (Antonini et al., 2000).

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variants already identified in llama and alpaca and the inheritance of

each variants are given in table 5 (Lauvergne et al., 2001; Renieri et al.,
2002; Frank et al., 2002)
According the results of biology and segregations analysis, specific
reproductive plans can be carried out for coat colour selection in two
alternative ways in llama and alpaca:
1. selection for full dominant white;
2. selection for pigment patterns; in this case, the objectives are:
a. selection for the uniform patterns: eumelanic black, eumelanic
brown and pheomelanic;
b. selection against no uniform patterns;
c. selection for grey and greying;
d. selection against white designs.

The following characters can be taken into account as a selection

objectives in both llama and alpaca: Quantitative
characters
• fleece weight at 1st shearing;
• fibre fineness and the variation of fineness at 1st shearing;
• percent of medullated fibres;
• fibre length;
• fibre crimp.

Table 5. Coat colour variations in llama and alpaca.

Dimension Variants Inheritance

Eumelanic Full recessive vs
Uniform other patterns
Red (Pheomelanic) Unknown
Eumelanic and tan Unknown
Pheomelanic with Dominant vs
eumelanic eumelanic and
Pigment
Composed by extremities wild patterns
pattern
eumelanic Mule stripe Unknown
and pheomelanic Mule stripe with Unknown
parts black extremities
Badger face Unknown
Wild vicuna Unknown
Wild guanaco Unknown
Type of eumelanins in the Black Dominant
eumelanic part Brown Recessive
Grey Dominant
Greying Dominant
Alteration of pigmentation Dilution Unknown
Full White Dominant and
epistatic
Irregular spotting Recessive
White Design Painted Unknown
Pack saddle Unknown

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Figure 4. Alpaca.

Figure 5. Llamas.

The very few estimations of genetic parameters for fibre production on

alpaca and llama in the original countries are presented in table 6 and 7.
The methodology of selection used in both the selection plans (Jujuy and
Caylloma) has been the performance test. In both cases an open nucleus
breeding scheme has been carried out.

Llama and alpaca fiber is tested for fineness by international recognized

Recording tests. A test is typically administrated by a recognized laboratory with
methodologies an expertise in testing fibre. The American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) publishes a specification for testing Alpaca fibre.

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Table 6. Estimated heritability of fleece characters in alpaca.

Characters Shearing Estimated heritability References

1st 0.35 ± 0.02 Velasco (1980)
0.22 Bravo and Velasco
(1983)
0.21 ± 0.07 Roque et al., (1985)
Fleece weight 0.38 ± 0.34 Mamani (1991)
0.31 ± 0.17 Ruiz de Castilla et
al., (1992)
All 0.79 ± 0.36 Ponzoni et al.,
(1999)
0.18 Leon-Velarde and
Guerrero (2001)
Fiber diameter
0.67 ± 0.30 Ponzoni et al.,
(1999)
1st 0.43 ± 0.39 Mamani (1991)
0.21 ± 0.07 Roque et al., (1985)
Staple lenght 0.31 Leon-Velarde and
Guerrero (2001)
All 0.63 ± 0.48 Ponzoni et al. (1999)

Table 7. Estimated heritability of fleece characters in llama.

Characters Estimated heritability References

0.48 ± 0.02 Choque and
Rodriguez (1988)
Fleece weight
0.27 Choque and
Rodriguez (1988)
Fiber diameter 0.18 Frank (unpublished)
0.34 ± 0.08 Choque and
Rodriguez (1988)
Staple lenght
0.28 ± 0.37 Choque and
Rodriguez (1988)

Fibres fineness, expressed as means fibre diameter, is the most important

parameter to define fibre quality in relation to the comfort and lightness
of textile product. At the same time the Coefficient of Variation (CV) of
the diameter defines the homogeneity of the product, very important for
the processing efficiency. ASTM Standards D 2130–90; D 6466–99 and
D 6500–00 describe the official method for fineness and CV fibre analysis
using respectively Microprojection, Sirolan-Laserscan Fiber Diameter
Analyser and Optical Fiber Diameter Analyser.

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The presence of medullated fibres and kemp is important dye resistance

and light reflectance qualities. Medullated fibre have an abnormally large
diameter; an high degree of medulla is probably responsible of low
comfort of products (low resistance and “piercing” effect). ASTM
Standards D 2968 – 95 defines the official method for medullated and
kemp fibres analysis.
The length of fiber affects the quality. A peculiar fibre length is needed
by each textile product. However fibre length has less importance in llama
and alpaca with respect to other fine fibre producing animals. ASTM
Standards D 1575–90 and D 519-04 describe the official method for Fibres
length measurement respectively fibre Length of Wool in Scoured Wool
and length of fibre in the top.
Fibre crimp is expressed as number waves or crimps per unit length.
Crimps affect the carding and subsequent processing of the fibre into
either a yarn or a non woven fabric. Staple crimp will also affect the bulk
or openness of a yarn and therefore the hand and visual appearance of
the finished textile product. In llama and alpaca fibre crimp is one of the
more important distinctive parameter. ASTM Standards D 3937-90
describes the official method for Crimp Frequency of staple fibres.
Unpublished data provided by the INCA Tops Peruvian Factory, show
a significant difference between the Suri crimp (20.60) and other different
non Suri fibre (Royal Alpaca – 39.00; Baby Alpaca - 34.40 and Superfine
Alpaca - 32.57)

References Antonini M., Gonzales M. and Valbonesi A, 2004. Relationship

between age and postnatal skin follicular development in three types of
South American domestic camelids. Livestock Production Science (2004)
(In Press).
Antonini M., Gonzales M., Frank E., Hick M., Pierdominici F.,
Catalano S. and Castrignanò F, 2001. Cuticle cell mean scale frequency
in different type of fleece of domestic South American Camelids. Progress
in South American camelids research. EAAP publ. no. 105, pp. 110-116.
ASTM D519-04, 2001. “Standard Test Method for Length of Fibre
in Wool Top”. ASTM International.
ASTM D1575-90, 2001. “Standard Test Method for Fibre Length
of Wool in Scoured Wool and in Card Sliver”. ASTM International.
ASTM D2130-90, 2001. “Standard Test Method for Diameter of
Wool and Other Animal Fibres by Microprojection”. ASTM International.
ASTM D2968-95, 2001. “Standard Test Method for Med and Kemp
Fibres in Wool and Other Animal Fibres by Microprojection”. ASTM
International.
ASTM D3937-01, 2001. “Standard Test Method for Crimp
Frequency of Manufactured Staple Fibres”. ASTM International.

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 Renieri et al.

ASTM D6466-99, 2001. “Standard Test Method for Diameter of

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 Campero

Camelids in South America. Lama (Lama

pacos) production systems in Bolivia
José R. Campero

Ministerio de Asuntos Campesinos y Agropecuarios,

Avenida Camacho 1471. La Paz, Bolivia

In this paper, a review about the historical and actual context of the
lama production systems, with special focus in the Bolivian Altiplano
Summary
Lama Production Systems (BALPS) is presented. The BALPS are possible
to include in two general systems manned Pastoral (lama, or/and alpaca
and sheep) System and Agropastoral System, and gather near 54 thousands
productive units. During the last five centuries, the life of many people
in these systems was very hard, and the poverty and social exclusion are
the principal results. Lama is the principal livestock component and has
historically been used for their high protein meat, transporting
merchandise along the Incan, colonial and republican roads, and in
religious rituals; it provides the family with economic security, manure,
traction and transport and has and specific cultural significance;
moreover, in those Agropastoral Systems, the quantity of manure
determined the extension of agricultural activities. In Bolivia as in other
countries, the llamas’ productive systems are, still, traditional and based
on the extensive used of the native pastures. The productivity of the
grasslands, not only is scare but too it has low quality as a result of the
extreme climatic fluctuations, characterized for periods prolonged of
frosts and droughts, and depended of a ecosystem fragile, marginal and
inaccessible. However, the Altiplano, also presents opportunities as its
biological diversity and the extreme conditions have generated traditional
practices and knowledge that joint with modern technologies should be
used to improve the actual low productive systems. The planners of
Ministery of Rural Affairs and Agricultural of Bolivia consider that the
successful developed of the camelid chain with fiber, meat, and leather
productions require to develop of special markets as organic or ecological
markets, and consider that this can be a one of a few opportunities that
have the Altiplano people in order to resolved the secular poverty cycle.

Keywords: Lama (lama pacos), production systems, Bolivian highland.

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The camelids production systems in South America are located in the

Introduction Andean Central Region, which include the highlands or Altiplano of
Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru. This mountainous area (with
around 1.4 million square kilometres and more than 113 millions
habitants) is inhabited by some of the poorest people in Latin America,
most of them depend on agriculture for their livelihood. The majority of
the farming systems are mixed systems based on crop-livestock. Livestock
component plays an important role in the sustainability, because is less
susceptible to widespread climatic risks than crops.
In 1580 with the initial Colonial Epoch, sheep and cattle were introduced
to the Altiplano in order to replace the native livestock. This colonial
behaviour was based more on religious consideration than on
zootechnical criteria, because the catholic missionaries known the use of
llamas in religious rituals. Moreover, llama meat was prohibited in the
marketplace, as a way to reduce the availability of llamas for religious
rituals.
Since immemorial times, in these systems, lamas have been used for their
high protein meat, transporting merchandise along the Incan roads and
in religious rituals. Five centuries later, with the construction of modern
roads for transport, the demand for llamas for transporting drammatically
decreasing, but, in the last decade the interest for lama’s fiber increased
and many rural developers agree that is possible to built an important
textile industry based on lama fiber similarly to the alpaca sector that
have been historically used for its fine fiber.
Actually, camelid take important roles such as: food supply, feed bank,
work, and source of energy in the system, source of fertilizer, and link to
local markets.

Before to the Spanish Conquest, Incan Empire developed agropastoral

Livestock production systems that were able to produce significant goods based
Andean on the use of simple and low inputs external technologies. But, following
problems the collapse, massive new genetic resources, socio-economic and
administrative changes were introduced (Caro, 1992).
During the colonial times there were introduced new genetic resources,
composted principally by sheep and cattle, that occupied the best lands
and lamas and alpacas were confined to an obscure existence and used
lands with increased agronomics difficulties. In addition, the mines
demanded not only an important quantity of meat, vegetables and nature
energy but also needed large llamas caravans, in order to transport the
mines products from the highlands to the side cost. The irrational
llamas’ management and low prices for their products conduced to a
development of the poverty cycle for livestock keepers.
Between these general context, in Bolivia 54 000 keepers depend on
camelids productions. In the last five centuries, many people in these
systems lived a very hard life, and the poverty and social exclusion are
the principal results. They have only tree issues: poverty, soils of low

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quality and camelids. And with these last, they reproduce the first issue
(MACA, 2002).

Under a simplistic view, in the Altiplano of Bolivia is possible to find out,

two general production systems associated to South American camelids. Agropastoral
It is possible to identificate apastoral (lama or lama and sheep) system and pastoral
and an agropastoral system. In the last systems, the use of various types systems with
of crop enables farmers to minimise climatic risks. Animal husbandry lama in
has many functions besides the pure productive ones. It provides the marginal lands
family with economic security, manure, traction and transport and has of Bolivia
and specific cultural significance.

In spite of diverse efforts carried out in the last 40 years by the Bolivian
Governments, these productive systems have, practically, no provided a Inputs of Bolivian
system of commercialization jousts that assure to producers a minimum lama production
benefit of its products market, nor an opportune and efficient sanitary system
control, infrastructure of support or credit and technical support.
Probably, the combination of the previous constraints explains by itself
the present low production indexes of the flocks (MACA, 2002).

In the management of the Altiplano by agropastoral production system,

the size of the family, the age of these members, the ability to management Human resources
the system, the level of specific knowledge, the size of production units
and the size of flock are very important (Quiroz et al., 1995). On the
other hand, in the last years, the explosive growth of the population and
the collapse of mines activity has resulted in massive pressure on the
highland natural resource and originated the greatest series of migrations
in Andean Bolivian history. As a result we find out:
1. Extreme poverty: low incomes; low education levels; limited access
health services, Overgrazing of natural pasture; scarcity of water
resources.
2. Process of migration with lost of the youngest and most able
population.
3. Environmental impacts in both original areas (highlands) and receiving
areas (lowlands)
4. Severe socio-economic and political problems partially generated by
the necessity to find out best condition of life.
5. A minor or a lack attention to crop-livestock management, that results
in a low productivity.
This socio-economic framework describes a rather alarming situation
which can adversely affect the future of the economy for the communities
of the Altiplano. The migratory process towards the cities or the lowlands
will continue, and eventually, the cocaine production can increase. Unless
the national governments implement special programs to resolve the

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poverty, some areas of the Altiplano will be the principal centres of social
Habitat component problems.
The Bolivian Altiplano is a large high plateaus above 3 500 m and has
the same characteristics of the Central Andes Region. The variables
temperature, precipitation, air pressure, solar radiation, and wind speed
define the ecosystem’s Altiplano. The southwest part is relatively arid
with Regosols, Lithosols, Alluvial Soils, and the Calcimagnesian Sodic.
The northern ranges are relatively more humid than the southern ones
and have mixed brown forest soils, lithosols, and heavy-textured alluvial
soils (MACA, 2002).
Elevation and the Humboldt Mass are important determinants of Andean
cool climate, in this equation the latitude is only a minor factor in the
expression of Andean climatic conditions. Moreover, local variations in
topography influence temperature and humidity, particularly with
respect to diurnal ranges.
Temperature has a range from 4°C to 6.5°C, but with much local
variation. Under cloudy skies, the diurnal temperature range will decrease
markedly. Within the tropical zone of Bolivia and Peruvian Altiplano,
temperature gradients are very steep, at 10.5°C per 1 000 m during the
cooler season and 12.5°C per 1 000 m during the warmer season
(Alzérreca, 1992).
Since 1900, the pressure on natural resources has increased, according
to high annual rate of human (2.9%) and livestock (2%) expansion.
Today, the Altiplano ecosystem presents an important rate of
degradation; only the soil lost is estimated in 14 000 kg per hectare/year
(Le Baron et al., 1979). This process was parallel to the mines development
in the highlands. This erosive process results in an important lost of
biodiversity and the most important in the reproduction of the poverty.

The Altiplano native vegetation is a result of a short rainy season and

Biomass component low temperatures. It is further influenced by the specific effects of solar
radiation, wide variations in temperature, low humidity, and low oxygen
pressure. Currently, the Altiplano vegetation is typical, but changes in
humidity from north to south create three different types: the humid
Altiplano with vegetation characterized by typical grass vegetation,
named Chilliguar grassland; the dry Altiplano, where the bunch grasses,
called ichu (Festuca spp.) and tola shrubs, are dominant; and, the desert
region, as the Puna of Atacama and Argentina has typical xerophytic
plants (Beck, 1992).
In the Altiplano region, the native grasslands constitute the main feed
resources for both camelids and ruminant species. And those are
composed by different associations of plant species. Table 1 summarises
the main grass associations, dry matter yields (DM) and lama stock rate.

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Table 1. Biomass production.

DM Yield Stock rate

Main grass association (tn/year) (Lama units)
Chilliguar grassland 1.7 - 2.2 2.0
Pajonal 0.8 – 1.2 1.0
Tolar – Parestrepia, Bracharis 0.3 – 0.4 0.2
Paramo rangelands 0.2 – 0.3 0.1
Bofedals 4.0 4.0
Source: Campero, 2004 (modifided from Quiroz, 1995).

Other important type of forage is the aquatic vegetation that is composed

of plankton and macrophytic. Within the macrophytic, there are about
15 species. The most important ones are the llachu (Elodea potamogenon,
Myriophyllum elatinoides) and the totora (Schoenoplectus totora) (Alzérreca,
1992).

The actual population of lama located in Bolivia, Peru and Northern

Livestock (lama)
Argentina is aroubd 4.5 million heads. Their special adaptation to high component
altitudes is associated to a specialised haemoglobin, that can absorb more
oxygen than that of other mammals. Their red blood cells also have a
longer life span than other mammals, an average of 235 days versus 100
days for humans.
Archaeologic evidence indicates that the lama have been domesticated
approximately 5 000 years ago. On the base of corporal conformation, is
high probably that the llamas were selected as pack animal. In fact, lamas
are larger and stronger than the guanaco, their more closed wild parent.
On the other hand, the alpaca has probably been selected and breed for
fiber. The vicuña is their more closed wild parent.

According to National Census (1998), the typical structure of Bolivian

llamas’ flock shows a higher proportion of females than males. The Flock composition
females constitute 64.6% of the total; while, the male contribute with
35.4% of the total. The ratio between reproductive females and males is
colose to 11:1 (Table 2). This flock structure is the result of the strategies
of the sale and familiar consumption, which prioritize sale or
consumption of male within a small flock with no more than 50 lamas in
average.

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Table 2 Average composition to llama flock (in thousand).

Females Males Total

Number % Number % Number %
1. Temporally teeth 455.7 15.19 341.7 11.39 797.4 26.58
2. Permanents: Two teeth 417.6 13.92 417.6 13.92 835.5 27.85
3. Permanents: Four teeth 227.7 7.59 75.9 2.53 303.9 10.13
4. Permanents: Full mouth 987.3 32.91 75.9 2.53 1 063.2 35.44
Total 2 088.6 69.62 911.4 30.38 3 000.0 100.00
Source: MACA, 2002.

The reproductive efficiency in Bolivian llama flock is still low and cloose
Reproductive to 55%. This value is the results of tropical highland environment, low
efficiency
levels of management, poor sanitary controls and over-grazing of native
pastures. According to actually investigations, the reproductive efficiency
may be improved, whiting certain limits, as direct function of energy
intake (Campero, 2004).
The female lama reaches sexual maturity at one year of age, but in Bolivia
it is common not to mate he animals until the female is two or three
years old; the lenght of the gestation is about 348 days. Males get sexual
maturity at about three years of age.
Traditionally, the breeding season begins in February and it has 60 days
of duration. The partition occurs during the day mainly between 6.00 a.m
to 12.00 p.m in the months of January and February. The live born lama
does not receive any attention; the abortion is frequent and it is estimated
to around 9%.
The weaning is carried out naturally in the months from August to
October with a rank from 240 to 300 days of lactation. Generally, the
mass weaning is near the 2/3 of mass adult. No separation of animals by
sex or age exists and all of them constituted a single flock.
Traditionally, the males are selected under phenotypic criteria, being the
mass corporal (weight greater than flock average) and fleece colour
(brown or black) the principal criteria for the selection.

Five characteristics are frequently associates with the corporal weight

Weight corporal variation of lama, i.e.: age, sex, breed, colour of fleece and management.
variations Obviously, the age and the sex have the major effects. In Bolivia, on the
base of a population of 9 680 animals, Loayza and Iñiguez (1995)
developed the following equations of prediction of the corporal weight
as a function of age.

Male: Y = 59.5 + 4.3X – 0.14 X2 (R2 = 0.97)

Females: Y = 60.7 + 3.9X – 0.42 X2 (R2 = 0.92)

These equations were corrected to effects due to localities, sex and age.

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In male, the weigh corrected by effects of localities increases lineally until

to the 7 years of age, when the curve has a descendent tendency. In the
females, the weight corporal tendency has a parabolic course. The
corporal weight constantly increased until 4 years of age.
Figure 1, shows these variations according to four categories of age and
shows that the growth, in practical terms, finalize after the fourth year.
The average for to corporal weight predicted with the equations 1 and
2, corrected only by age (correction to 4 years) and omitting localities,
shows a weight of 90.6 ± 8.7 kg and 86.5 ± 8.4 kg for male and females,
respectively.

Lama fiber is a medulated natural protein with no lanolin, which is

classified as a specialty fiber. Positive characteristics are: fine, strong, Fleece characteristic
comfortable and warm, available in 16 natural colours; its little elasticity
is considered as the principal limiting factor.
In the national flock of lama, the distribution of fleece colours is black
and brown (69.6%), spotted colour (22.8%), and white (7.6%) (Figure 2).
The spotted pattern includes those diverse colour or tones that on a white
colour fleece fund are presented. Figure 3 presents this model of colours
fleece (Campero et al., 2004).
These patterns of colour distribution, may be possibly explained on the
regional preferences of the people for the black and brown colours. The
selection of male is guided, among others criteria, by favouring the lama
with brown colour fleece. Preliminary observations consistently suggested
that the taller and heavier animals are those that have dark colours.
Empirical observations show that lama with brown and white spots
fleece produce longer fleece, following by animals which fleece are dark
or white colours. In order to maintain the corporal temperature in the
highlands Andean condition, animals with white fleece colour probably
require more energy than animals with dark colour. If this is true, the
dark colour animals are more efficient in produceing fiber in the Altiplano
region.

90

80

70

60

50

40
Age Temporary Permanent Permanent Permanent
Teeth Two Tooth Four Tooth Teeth

Figure 1. Weight corporal variations in lama (kg).

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 Lama production system in Bolivia

30
28
27

20
18

10

0
White Black Brown Spot

Figure 2. Fleece colour distribution in lama.

The below figure 3 shows only 12 colours of 30 tones of colours that are
possible to find out in the fleece of lamas. A program, in order to improve
the quality of fiber production in llamas, based on the selection by colour
does not seem to be easy and quickly of development because is possible
that at least four pairs of genes control and modify the colour of the
fleece in llama.

In pre-Colombian times, most Altiplano communities had land rights

Crop component
and cultivated land at lower elevations in the areas with temperate and
tropical climates on the eastern slopes of the Andes. Today, the access to
low lands has for them is not common, and each family has small parcels
of land on the hill sides and these are often located in different ecological
zones.
In order to minimize the climatic risks and protect their self-supplying
production system, the farmers use various types of native crop like:
potato, corn, ulluco, oca, mashua and tarwi. These species are sow
together with barley, wheat and oats introduced by the Spanish 500 years
ago. The extreme upper limit of potato cultivation is 4 200 m.

Figure 3. The image shows only 12 colours of 30 tones of colours that are
possible to find out in the fleece of lamas.

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Livestock has many functions besides the pure productive ones. It provides
the family with economic security, manure, plough power and has a
specific cultural significance. In these systems, the quantity of manure
determined the extension of agricultural activities.
In the present days, most of the Andean producers are grouped in
communities, with access to both private and communal lands. Usually,
the community has rules for the management of the crops and animals.
The crop cycle begins with potato, quinoa, followed by grain and barley
and ends with a fallow cycle that has a range front of 5 to 8 year (Table 3).
During the fallow, the secondary native grass is grazed, allowing a
nutrient recycling through animal excreta. The Andean agriculture is
frequently definite as an activity with high risk, and it principal constrains
are frost and drought. In this regard, livestock minimizes the climatic
and economic risks.

In general, in these production systems, the animal production

contributes to around 73% of the in-comes and the crops to 27%. Outputs of lama
production
However, 20% of animal production and 80% of vegetal production is systems
for family consumption.

The lama meat production is estimated ranging between 20 000 to

Meat production
25 000 Tons per year, being Bolivia the principal producer, and its
western region as the principal market. In these production systems, the
annual crop of llamas was estimated in 11 per cent. It is certainly a low
efficiency, but it can be explained by both low fertility and high rate of
mortality of baby lama.
The carcase yield is not grater than 52%, and the ratio meat : bone is
4 : 1. Probably, under Altiplano conditions, the lama is the best option
for meat and fiber production. Its products are more competitive than
that of other more specialized species.
In Bolivia, the demand of lama meat increased of 76% during the period
1985 - 2004 and it is consumed as fresh or sun-drayed. In the same period,
population of lamas increased more than 1 million of units. This facts
may be explained by: a) the promotion of llamas’ meat consume b) the
nutritional value, which is high in protein and low in fats; c) the
commercialization programs endorsement with norms of quality
established by the Bolivian Institute for Norms and Quality (IBNORCA);
and d) the lower price for special courts.

Table 3. Area and yields of principal crops in the Bolivian Altiplano.

Potato Quinoa Barley Pasture

Crop area (ha) 1.0 0.4 1.5 1.5
Yield (tn/ha) 5.5 0.6 1.2 3.5
Source: Campero et al., 2004.

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In order to resolve the extremely poverty of the people in Bolivian’s

highlands, the Ministery of Rural Affair and Agricultural (MACA) of
Bolivia has been constructed the National Strategy of Rural Development
(ENDAR) and its policymakers hope to increase the actual lamas meat
demand. For this scope, it is necessary to resolve:
1. The presence of moderated infestation of Sarcosystis aucheniae and
S. lamacanis. These parasite are not danger to human consumers and
meat with high degree of infestation is confiscated; the parasitism
incidence, which is transmitted by dog, is near to 46% in animals
older than two years.
2. Other factor that limit llama husbandry are the degradation of the
native pastures, external parasites, the high grade of inbreeding in
many llamas populations, the high rates of mortality, and the use
communal of natural pastures.
3. The breeding systems are placed, almost exclusively, in areas of
extreme soil poverty and high climatic risk.
Despite to these limitations, llama is one of the species of highest
potentialities in the Altiplano of Bolivia, which explains why families
have continued in lama breeding activity. On the order hand, the
Altiplano extended areas of natural pastures, paticularly adequate to
camelids. These species are best adapted to this environment, being highly
resistant to the effects of the altitude and climate and, differently from
sheep or cattle, they do not disturb the fragile ecosystem of the Andean
mountain during grazing activity.
Furthermore, as log as Sarcosystiosis can be controlled, the demand of
lama meat will increas in both national and international markets,
because its taste is similar to beef, the protein content is high, the fat
content is low, and it does not promote the cholesterol formation in the
humans. The amount of cholesterol for each 10 ml of serum blood of
lama ranges fom 5 to 50 mg while in beef is 200 mg and in sheep is
300 mg. Table 4 describes the chemical composition of meat for four
species including lama meat.
It is possible to reduce the mortality rate of the llamas by controlling
external parasites, improving animal management and nutrition of the
flocks. The actual llama meat production is near to 17 thousands tons,
but it could be feasible to increase it to 34 tons as a result of the control of
actual limiting factors.

Table 4. Chemical composition (%) of four species.

Species Humidity Protein Fat Ash

Llama 69.17 24.82 3.69 1.41
Alpaca 70.80 21.88 5.13 1.30
Cattle 72.72 21.01 4.84 0.91
Sheep 72.74 18.91 6.53 2.16
Source: MACA, 2002.

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The shearing of lama is completely random and it occurs on same animal

each two to three years. Technically, the annual shears is bette because Fiber production
the environmental factors cause less fleece damage, allows a better
external parasites control and facilitates the selection for productive
ability. Lamas fiber production is hardly influenced by genetic variation,
as a result of the improvement and technician selection by this criteria.
The present fiber production is probably the result of the natural selection
for a better protection against adverse climatic conditions. Figure 4
illustrates the actual importance of fiber handcrafts for the altiplanic
people.

Figure 4. Fiber handcrafts elaboration by the altiplanic people.

Today, the national fiber production is in rapid development, with a

potential production of 714 tons. This production includes fiber and hair.
The participation of the last one in the fleece, on the base of weight, is
around 20%.
The de-haired lama fleece is possible through a manual or mechanical
process. The fiber results without coarser hairs giving a soft, shiny and
long hair. At the present, it is highly appreciated by the textile industry.
The average general weight production of dirty fleece of llama in Bolivia
is 1.14 ± 0.25 kg per animal (MACA, 2002), although, this information
does not discriminate age of the fleece or shearing frequency. For Peruvian
alpacas, Fernández reported averages of 2 600 g of fiber; while; average
of 0.98 kg and of 2.6 kg of wool for Creole and Corriedale sheep,
respectively were reported by Cardoso in Patacamaya (Bolivian
Altiplano).
It is probable, that the length of camelids fiber has an average of
6.8 ± 1.5 cm; while the hair had a long average of 7.9 ± 2.0 cm. These
values are smaller than 8.3 ± 0.7 cm reported for llamas originating in
the Experimental Station of Patacamaya by Rodriguez (1982).

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Nevertheless, this length is adequate to the characteristics requested by

the industrial processes, and it is similar to many sheep breeds, higly
productive in wool as the merino, that has a length of 8.1±0.1 cm.

The llama has a peculiar skin. Its collagen is very compact and provides
Leather a high elasticity to skin . For this particular structure, the camelids skin
has a high versatility for manufacture production. This skin, appropriately
processed, is used to produce jackets, boots, travel bags, suitcases.
The annual average production of skins by llama and alpaca is
434 000 units in Bolivia. Only the 20% of this production is used by
national toners, being 25% exported legal and illegally to the Republics
of Chile and Peru, and the remainder is badly utilized by rural people or
simply is wasted.
In the last years, the demand for camelids skin or manufactured articles
higly increased. This occurred not only in local markets but also in the
international markets. It is a demonstration that the offer of manufactures
with camelids leather, in case it posses a good quality, can contribute to
increase the familiar in-comes.

In Bolivia, the economic activity of the camelids chain is very dynamic.

Economic In the 2002, it represented 0.7% of to Gross National Product (GNP),
importance of generating 48 million dollars. This was possible with the participation of
South 54 thousandth of productive units and an indefinite number of small
American handcrafters. However, its distribution is not equal and primary sector
Camelids is the least favourable and recieved back an income of only 160 dollars
per year. A productive unit works with an average of 49 lama and
41 sheep.
During the last decade, with a investment of 11.3 millions dollars financed
by the Bolivian Government, the camelid activity had, in average, an
increase of near 6.2% per year. Its annual rhythm of growth was twice
than the national economy and was bigger than agricultural production.
In the context of this economy, the meat and dry meat of lama production
grew at an average of 9%(MAA, 2002).
The dynamism of the camelids activity is reflected, also, by the positive
growth of its export. In the period 1997-2002, the value of the export of
camelids’ fiber was increased by 5.2%; while, the exports of leather and
leather manufactures was increased by 2.6%.
Moreover, in the chapter of the export, the most dynamic component
was the exportations of manufactured products, as tops, textiles, clothes,
processed leathers and leather manufactures. The export of these products
represented between 23 and 27% of total camelids exports.
1. In the Altiplano ecosystem, besides to its fragility, other restriction or
disadvantages are the marginality and inaccessibility. However, it also
presents opportunities or advantages that should be use to improve

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the actual agropastoral production systems. These advantages are its

biological diversity and the extreme conditions that have generated Conclusions
traditional practices of Altiplano management.
2. In Bolivia as in other countries, the llamas’ productive systems are,
still, traditional and based on the extensive used of the native pastures.
The productivity of the grasslands, not only is scare but it has low
quality, too. Moreover, it is the result of the extreme climatic
fluctuations, characterized by prolonged periods of frost and dry
seasons. Probably, the fiber, meat and leather productions are the
best opportunity that the region has to solve the secular poverty.
3. From the ecological point of view, the Altiplano ecosystems are
susceptible to fast changes and loss of its ability to keep a sustainable
crop-livestock production. Soils in most of the areas are acid, little
fertile and of limited depth; however there are areas with better
physical and chemical condition, particularly those of volcano origin.
Consequently, an important problem in the Andean region is the soil
erosion. Lands dedicated to agricultural and livestock systems need
special attention. The action of the natural losses, plus the intervention
of the man with inadequate agricultural and livestock practices
contributes to the disappearance of native forage species.
4. Lamas have historically been used for their high protein meat,
transporting goods along the Incan mountain roads, and in religious
rituals. Alpaca fur is a finer fiber, and therefore alpacas have been
historically been used for their fiber.
5. The resulting degradation of topsoil in the Altiplano region is a problem
that has been more visible and publicized in the past few years, but
its roots extend back to 400 years ago. In addition to other factors,
this condition may be the root of traditional poverty cycle.
6. The impact of research on the feed resources has been limited and
localized. The main constrains to adoption of research results are the
heterogeneity of the region determined by factors such as altitude,
climate, soils, quantity and quality of feed resources, and ethnic
background.

In order to increase lama productiity, the following points need to be

addressed:
Recommenda-
1. To develop new national and international markets for the fiber, tions
leather, meat.
2. To execute an integral plan of development focussed in the productive
chain. This plan should consider that this activity represents the
principal economic source for thousands of small livestock keepers,
artisans and merchandises, whose optimized incomes will permit
them to fight the poverty.
3. To establish a sanitary program associated to control or eradicate
Sarcosystiosis and external parasites.
4. To promote recovery and management programs for native pasture.

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5. To promote the continuity of the investigation and transfer of

technology in the genetic aspects, improvement of pastures, credit
programs for small producers.

Alzérreca H. 1992. Producción y utilización de los pastizales en

References la Zona Andina de Bolivia. REPAAN/IBTA (Red de pastizales
Andinos/Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología Agropecuaria). Imprenta
Papiro. La Paz, Bolivia, 146 pp.
Beck E. 1992. Las regiones ecológicas y las unidades fisiográficas
de Bolivia. En: Manual de Ecología. Editor Morales C. Instituto de
Ecología., Universidad mayor de San Andres. La Paz, Bolivia.
Campero, J. R., F. Campero y A. Medina. 2004. Situación de los
Recursos Zoogenéticos en Bolivia. Documento de Trabajo Nº 20.
Dirección de Ganadería. Ministerio de Asuntos Campesinos y
Agropecuarios. La Paz, Bolivia.
Caro, Deborah A. 1992. The Socioeconomic and Cultural
Context of Andean Pastoralism, Sustainable Crop-Livestock Systems
for the Bolivian Highlands: Proceedings of an SR-CRSP Workshop,
University of Missouri, USA.
Le Baron A., Bond L., Aitken P., and Michaelsen L. 1979. An
explanation of the Bolivian highlands grazing-erosion syndrome.
Journal of Range Management 32: 2101-208.
Ministerio de Asuntos Campesinos y Agropecuarios (MACA).
2002. La situación de la producción pecuaria en Bolivia. Documento
de trabajo Nº 9. Dirección de Ganadería, MACIA. La Paz, Bolivia.
Quiroz, R., Estrada, R.D., León-Valverde, C.U., and Zandstra,
H.G. 1995. Facing the challenge of the Andean Zone: the role of
modeling in developing sustainable management of natural resources.
In: Ecoregional Approaches for Sustainable Land Use and Food
Production: proceeding of a Symposium on Eco-regional Approaches
in Agricultural Research. 12 -16 December 1994, ISNAR. The Hague,
The Netherlands. J. Bouma, A. Kuyvenhoven, B.A.M. Bouman,
J.C. Luyten and H.G. Zandstra (Eds), pp 13-31.

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Production and handling systems of alpaca and

vicuñas
Daniel Aréstegui Otazú

Consejo Nacional de Camélidos Sudamericanos,

Camuide Street 805 Lima II, Lima 51, Peru

As a domestic breed, alpaca is raised in farms and its principal use is the
fibre that presents many colors, mainly white. The animals are sheared
The alpaca:
once in a year and produce from 1.5 to 3 kilos of fleece (vellón).
general
The meat production is complementary and it is mainly used in the local characteristics
market. However it can be submitted to a transformation process in dry-
salty meat, commonly known as “charqui” (meat/dry-salty). As well, its
skin can also be used to produce leather and coats.
The alpaca begins its reproduction between the 2 and 3 years of age, it
has a gestation period of 11.5 months and gives one baby alpaca per
year.

Figures 1 describes the distribution of the breeds and recalls the

production system used for alpaca Breeders
distribution

Medium and high

technology
Flock size: > 300 alpacas 5–

Potential breeders
90 - 95 %
Low and very low
Technology
Flock average: 50 alpacas

Figures 1. Distribution of the breeders and the production system used for
alpaca.

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Family income
distributions Activities Percentage
Alpaca breeding 36.9
Sheep breeding 17.5
Salary for work 15.0
Commercial activities 8.0
Llamas breeding 7.8
Craft 6.7
Bull breeding 4.8
Others activities 3.1
Poultry breeding 0.3
Total 100.0

Low Low Mean Ideal

Productive
Indices Unit technology technology technology technology
indicators
Reproducers
percentage % 8.0 6.0 5.0 5.0
Natality % 55.0 55.0 60.0 70.0
Litter
mortality % 15.0 12.0 10.0 8.0
Shering
percentage % 35.0 45.0 60.0 65.0
Fiber
production
per alpaca Kg 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
Meat
production Kg 20.0 25.0 28.0 30.0
Reproducer
price US $ 100.0 200-300 300-500
Fiber price US $ 1.00 1.20 2.00 2.50
Meat price US $ 1.00 1.00 1.10 1.20
Source: Bustinza 2001, Gutierrez 1993, Corpuno 1982, CONACS 2003.

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Rural Urban
Rural sector sector/commercialization sector/commercialization Commercial
Raising/Cattle and transformation and transformation productive
Alpacas and llamas
Fiber Categorization/sorting/top/spinning/ structure of the
Preparation/clothes
Meat Fresh and meat/dry-salty/jam, inlays/other
worth chains
Skins Skins/tannery in the domestic
Animals Reproducers/pets camelids sector
Other Tourism, semen, embryos
International
Production area Regional market
market
National market

The countries involved in the agreement (Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile

and Ecuador), have developed some mechanisms to control the Vicuña:
production systems of the specie, that allow the increase of population conservation
and maintain its sustainable use. A resolution is emitted by the agreement, and
to the requesting country, to endorse the CITES Agreement and to modify management
the appendices.

The CITES Convention is the entity that supervises the vicuña fiber’s
commerce, allowing the commerce only to countries that reach a certain Convention
credit of population as described in the Appendices II (threaten), and CITES
not in the Appendices I (extinction danger). Peru and Bolivia are the
only countries that have the total of their species that respect the criteria
contained in Appendices II.

The following are the countries who signed the agreement for vicuñas
conservation and care that also established a management system: Vicuña’s
1. Under Captivity: Argentina1 and Chile2. management
2. Under Semi captivity: Peru, Argentina, Chile3 and Bolivia4. systems
3. Wild: All countries.

1
Reports 20 deposits in the Jujuy province and 1 in the Salta province.
2
Reports 3 captivity installations in the Tarapacá region.
3
Reports 2 wild handling modules in the Tarapacá region.
4
Reports 94 Vicuña’s Conservation and handling units.
Source: Reports 2002-2003 of the countries members of the Agreement for the Vicuña
Conservation and Handling.

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 Alpaca &vicuñas production systems

This production system consists of a complete system for the vicuña

Captivity species, that includes infrastructures, shears, fiber handling, food
production system handling, productive and health handling aspects.

This production system is defined as management system within the

Semi-captivity vicuña ecosystem or habitat, in extensive confinement conditions. (Define
production system in the Resolution Nº 259-03, Agreement for the Vicuña Conservation
and Handling).
This management system has adequate conditions of territorial extension,
of natural grass, similar to their wild habitat with a good health plan,
without supplementary food and taking into account the species
sociobiology, in other words, with an adequate relation between males
and female vicuñas.

Module of
Sustainable Use The Module of Sustainable Use (MUS) involves a progressive program of
(MUS) new technologies acquisition in the altoandinas communities, until the
country could reach a complete capacity in executing and keeping the
protection activities of the Vicuña, such as their conservation, handling
and use.
The MUS involves three aspects in the management of the species:
1. The production of vicuña fibre obtained from the alive animal.
2. Guarantee the vicuña’s protection against furtive hunters.
3. Provide an add value to the obtained fiber through the sorting and
cleaning activity, generally performed by women.

Vicuñas’ capture and shears operative in Pampas Galeras - Ayacucho

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In Peru some activities have already started trough the MUS activities,
that allow: A Peruvian
• Conservation and handling of the Vicuñas species performed by the case
farmers communities.
• Pre-treatment, preparation and processing of the fibre, before its
transportation to the collecting centers.
• Correct management of sheared and not sheared Vicuñas in Chaccu
of Pampa Galeras - Ayacuho.

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Main conclusions of the seminar

The variety and broad scope of the topics covered, the different and
rather unique species which are autochthonous to many different parts
of the world, reflected also by the wide range of countries of origin of the
authors and other participants of the workshop, make the consolidation
of the conclusions of the workshop a difficult task. The listing of the
main conclusions follows.
• The general impression persisted that the level of research in camelids
lags behind the needs and that it is less than what these species deserve,
given their importance for food security and sustainable livelihoods
of communities living mainly in harsh and difficult environments.
• More needs to be known about the physiology of lactation, the relation
of milk production to dry matter intake, lactation curves and the
causes of the large variations observed in milk composition.
• Meat production is largely not a market oriented activity and more
information is needed on precision and accuracy of weighing, factors
affecting live animal and carcass weights, growth curves, performance
measurements and carcass and meat evaluation.
• Unusually large variations in performance are observed among
individuals of the same ecotype especially under harsh conditions.
The degree to which emphasis should be put on genetic changes by
selection and on improvement of the environmental conditions is still
not known, since parameters like heritability and genetic correlations
in general have not been estimated, and cost analyses of inputs relative
to outputs have not been done.
• From the point of view of camelid genetic resources, breed definitions
and the corresponding characterizations should be started as a first
step in defining guidelines for genetic improvement.
• Although conscious that it will be hard for camelids to compete with
other species for attention in a global organization such as ICAR, it
was recommended that in the near or at least mid-term future camelids
are considered of interest by ICAR.
• Also FAO is encouraged to enhance efforts in camelid development,
recognizing though, that important publications have been produced
by FAO in particular in camel reproduction and dairy products and
that some important field projects have been conducted;
• Individual identification is not common and not at all standardized,
and the evaluation and development of suitable identification systems
for camelids should be the first step to consider by ICAR.
• Dairy recording in camelids is still very rudimentary. In order to
develop reasonable recording systems, even the most simple ones,
much more basic information than is available today has to be
produced.

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 Conclusions

• Meat recording systems depend on the knowledge of growth curves

and factors affecting growth, genetic variability, and the development
of practical methods to estimate carcass quality and meat quality, and
research in these topics should be encouraged.
• Fiber recording systems are more developed in South American
camelids but their use is limited, among other factors, by the need to
have laboratories to measure fiber quality.
• The need to raise awareness of issues affecting camelid production at
academic, research and policy levels was widely recognized and it
was felt that this workshop has contributed towards that goal.
• Finally, supporting networking among researchers, teachers,
extensionists, veterinarians, agronomists and other professionals,
producers, administrators, market people and the whole range of
stakeholders should enhance attention towards these camelid species
and improve the chances of directing research more efficiently.

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The seminar, organised during the 34th ICAR Session,
held in Sousse, Tunisia, offered the possibility:
• to get acquainted with camelid production systems
in Africa, Asia and South America, including
environmental, management, health, breeding,
reproductive and market aspects
• to gain insignt on the status of camelid genetic
resources in several countries of Africa, Asia and
South America
• to discuss actual - if existing - and potentiel recording
systems for camelids with emphasis on milk, meat and
fiber production
• to evaluate the need for reasearch and development
in camelids at regional and global level
• to exchange experiences among participants coming
from different world areas