Load blinding stabilisation for DOC relays subjected to

reverse load flow

A Wixon*, K Venkataraman#, P.Newman¥, K Maleka

*Alstom Grid Substation Automation Solutions, UK, [email protected]

#
Alstom Grid Substation Automation Solutions, UK, [email protected]
¥
Alstom Grid Substation Automation Solutions, UK, [email protected]

Alstom Grid Substation Automation Solutions, UK, [email protected]

1. ABSTRACT acceptable for suppliers in or around urban load centres,

but it can prove to be a limitation for remote wind farms
Evolution of modern power systems have seen an with minimal local demand. Furthermore, as the
increase in the generation at the distribution end of the demand for renewable energy increases, it is possible
system, thus bringing to an end the uni-directional that the DNO’s will have no alternative but to permit
power flow of traditional systems. Reverse load flow increasing levels of reverse load flow to ensure supply
from distribution to transmission is now becoming more meats the demand.
common, which is problematic for the DOC protection
This paper investigates this issue in detail and proposes
which could mal-operate if the exported load exceeds
a novel solution that works in conjunction with the
the current threshold. This paper discusses the use of
standard DOC relays without the need for sensitivity
load blinders to prevent mal-operation of the DOC relay
adjustments. Moreover, this solution permits excess
during export conditions, whilst maintaining maximum
power to be transmitted to distant load centres without
sensitivity for resistive faults on the sub-transmission
the inconvenient curtailing limits.
network.
2. INTRODUCTION 3. SUB-TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION

In today’s modern power systems, the radial approach Typical sub-transmission protection schemes often
to generation is rapidly being supplemented with a more employ plain distance protection without any channel
meshed / bi-directional topology. Power generation is aided schemes for clearing all line faults. Intertripping is
moving closer to the load centres at the distribution end frequently used to open the LV breaker of the load
of the system and introducing numerous problems in the transformer to prevent any back-feed from the embeded
process. A major issue facing the Distribution Network generation and the adjacent unfaulted line. The DOC
Operators (DNO’s) is the reverse load flow that occurs protection provides back-up against HV faults if the
when the embedded generation exceeds the local intertripping scheme fails to operate due to an
demand. Excess generation forces reverse load current interruption in communications. Generally a DOC
to flow back on to the sub-transmission network setting of 0.5IN ensures adequate sensitivity for faults at
(typically 132kV), which has an impact on the back-up the remote feeding ends near to CB1 and CB2 (see
DOC relays situated on the transformer LV side. Failure Figure 1).
to raise the current threshold of the DOC relay will
Figure 1 clearly illustrates the protection philosophy
inevitably result in a mal-operation of the protection
commonly employed by the DNO’s for their 132kV
when the reverse load is excessive. However, increasing
lines. It can be seen that a fault at F1 would be cleared
the current threshold compromises the sensitivity of the
by the main protection relays at CB1 and CB2, with the
back-up protection that the DOC relays provide,
intertripping scheme providing the LV clearance of the
resulting in potential “blind-spots” for distant faults on
back-feed via CB4. The protection and intertripping
the sub-transmission network.
scheme associated with CB2 and CB4 is also replicated
One solution currently being employed by some DNO’s on CB1, thus completing the scheme for a single 132kV
is to limit the reverse load flow on to the sub- feeder.
transmission network by means of multi-stage
intertripping. Each stage is associated with a level of
reverse power flow, the first of which may be an alarm
to warn the supplier to curtail the generation. The
second stage would be configured as a time delay trip
should the generation remain unchanged.
Whilst this approach eliminates the problem from a
protection perspective, it does restrict the export
generation to areas further afield. This may be
1
 particularly for faults at the extremities of the 132kV
line. In extreme circumstances the fault current
CB1 132kV Network CB2 magnitudes, when back-fed through the parallel
Bulk Supply transformers, can be as low as full load current,
MAIN Point particularly if the fault is not solid in nature. It is for
PROT

F1 this reason that such low settings, described above, are

IT
SEND essential to guarantee adequate fault clearance for faults
on the 132kV network.
DOC
Intertripping
CB3 CB4 Channel Sub- Transmission Network

LV Network Bulk Supply

Embedded IF Point
generation
LV Load F1(A-B)
Inter-connector
Operate
IAF1
VA RCA
Figure 1- Typical 132kV Protection Arrangement for Restrain
a Double Circuit Line Normal
Load
The protection scheme shown in Figure 1 is ideally Direction DOC +45° VBC
(VPOL)
suited to systems with little or no embedded generation, (ILOAD)
where the direction of load flow is guaranteed to be VC VB
IA-LOAD
from HV to LV. When embedded generation is LV Network
employed, the DOC relay current threshold should be
raised above the full load rating of the transformer to
avoid mal-operation. This compromises the sensitivity Figure 2- Direction of current flow for HV fault fed
of the DOC relay particularly for faults at location F1, from adjacent line
shown in Figure 1. The following sections discuss the
finer points of this problem in detail. The principles of quadrature connected DOC relays,
discussed above, were developed and documented by
4. PERFORMANCE OF QUADRATURE W.K.Sonnemann [1] back in 1954. They have stood the
CONNECTED DOC RELAYS DURING BACK- test of time and remain the cornerstone of most LV
FEED protection systems even today. However, evolution of
the powers system has resulted in a greater reliance on
The following section reviews the operating principle of embedded generation which threatens the basic
principles that we have become so heavily dependent
DOC protection and also discusses the effect reverse
upon. Section 4.2 discusses the problem that embedded
load flow has on it when embedded generation is added
generation creates.
to the network.
4.2 Effects of embedded generation of quadrature
4.1 Principles of quadrature connected DOC relays
connected DOC relays
It is well understood that DOC relays are commonly
Conventional DOC principles are totally dependent
employed as either main or back-up protection on
upon uni-directional load flow from transmission to
parallel transformer circuits. Conventional schemes rely
distribution. The advent of embedded generation upsets
upon the DOC protection relay to “look-back” in to the
this well understood principle by creating the potential
transformer from the LV side, thus permitting operation
during faults on the sub-transmission networks when for reverse load current from the distribution system
“back-fed” via the adjacent transformer. Figure 2 back to the transmission network. As more and more
localised stations become connected, the potential back-
illustrates the normal direction of load flow when
feed is likely to be in excess of the 0.5 to 0.866In setting
compared to the directional characteristic for the A-
described in section 4.1. Failure to raise the setting or
Phase element of a quadrature connected DOC relay.
curtail the generation will result in mal-operation of the
The vector diagram clearly shows the direction of
normal load (IA-LOAD) is in the restraining region, DOC protection during peak export periods.
whereas the A-Phase current (IAF1), for an A-B fault at Figure 3 illustrates that the exported load current (IA-
F1, is in the operating region thus tripping the LV EXP) is firmly in the operate region of the DOC
breaker. Since the direction of load is firmly in the characteristic. Unless measures are taken, to either
restraining region of the characteristic and will result in reduce the current or increase the current threshold, the
no operation, a sensitive overcurrent threshold of 0.5In DOC relay will mal-operate. Whilst an increase in
to 0.866IN is typically chosen [2]. Low settings such as current threshold might seem to be the simplest
this are ideal for detecting low fault current magnitudes, solution, it does limit the DOC relay’s potential for
2
clearing faults at the extremities of the 132kV line when sensitive back-up protection should the main protection
the current magnitude is low and the intertripping system fail. Care must be taken to ensure that the DNPS
scheme has failed. This is more likely to occur when the threshold is greater than the standing unbalance
embedded generation is out of service. In essence the expected during normal operation of the system. This is
back-up protection is rendered inert when it is needed of particular importance when single phase traction
the most. loads are supplied by the sub-transmission network
being protected. It must also be noted that this method is
Curtailing the generation is a favoured technique at
incapable of detecting 3 phase balanced faults due to
present; however this does require elaborate
their lack of negative sequence content. Whilst 3 phase
intertripping schemes and also needs a signalling
faults are very rare and are only likely to occur during
infrastructure to be available or installed. This method
“switch on to fault” or evolving fault conditions, it may
can be expensive and also puts an undesirable cap on
be reason enough to deter engineers from adopting this
the embedded generation limits. The following section
technique.
discusses potential solutions to this issue without the
excessively stringent export limits. DVCO, on the other hand, is superior to DNPS in that it
is capable of detecting all fault types including 3 phase.
This method relies upon the voltage sag during fault
Sub- Transmission Network conditions to trigger a reduction in the overcurrent
threshold. Under normal load conditions the current
Bulk Supply
Point threshold would be set to approximately 110 to 120% of
full load current; however under fault conditions the
Operate threshold would be reduced to typically 50% of rated
Exported
Load VA RCA current to fall in line conventional DOC settings. Figure
Direction Restrain IA-EXP 4 illustrates how the current threshold is adjusted by
(IEXP) means of the variable “K”, which in turn is dependent
+45° VBC upon the voltage threshold “VS”. During fault
Normal
Load DOC
(VPOL) conditions the relay current setting is reduced to K.Is
Direction VC VB once the voltage falls below VS.
IA-LOAD
(ILOAD)

Overload
Embedded Time Characteristic
LV Load Inter-connector generation

Fault
Figure 3- Effects of reverse load flow from Characteristic
embedded generation on DOC relays
Current
K.Is Is
5. BENEFITS OF LOAD BLINDING ON DOC Time
RELAYS DURING REVERSE LOAD FLOW Min. IF Max. IF
CONDITIONS K

5.1 Reverse load flow solutions currently in use K=1

Some of the network operators, faced with the reverse

load flow issue, have adopted numerous techniques to KMIN
ensure sensitive back-up protection without the need for
expensive intertripping systems to curtail the embedded System
VS Voltage
generation. The most common of which include
directional negative phase sequence overcurrent
protection (DNPS) and directional voltage controlled Figure 4- Adjustment of current threshold using
overcurrent protection (DVCO). Both methods have voltage threshold (DVCO)
their merits, but require a completely different setting Care must be taken to ensure that the voltage threshold
philosophy when compared to conventional direction VS is set below the minimum voltage sag expected
overcurrent protection. during normal load conditions, whilst also being greater
DNPS is designed to operate from the negative than the minimum voltage expected during primary
sequence current generated by unbalanced faults on the fault conditions without the embedded generation. A
sub-transmission network and is naturally insensitive to superior scheme design is when the VT is located on the
normal load. This allows the protection to be set HV side of the transformer where the voltage sag will
considerably lower than normal load thus ensuring be at its greatest.

3
Both techniques described above provide adequate To prevent operation of the DOC protection during
back-up protection providing the user is comfortable heavy export conditions, MiCOM AGILE relays
with the idea of abandoning the conventional DOC employ a load blinder which is based upon the
protection. The following section introduces a method measured positive sequence impedance (Z1 = V1/I1).
that permits conventional DOC setting procedures to be The resulting measurement is compared with a settable
maintained, whilst maintaining the performance characteristic to ascertain the location of the impedance.
advantages of the DVCO protection above. Directional overcurrent protection will be inhibited if
Z1 falls with the load portion of the characteristic
5.2 Load blinding defined by two settings. One setting defines the
minimum load impedance (ZMIN) and the second defines
Load blinding is a technique that most engineers the maximum load angle (), which is dictated by the
experienced in setting distance protection relays will be power factor of the load. Whilst this application only
familiar with. The principle relies upon the change in requires the DOC protection to be inhibited in the
impedance measured by the relay during load and fault export region, MiCOM AGILE relays also replicates the
conditions. Under normal load conditions the measured characteristic in the import region if required. Figure 6
impedance resides in one of two regions, depending clearly illustrates the load blinder characteristic and its
upon whether power is being imported or exported associated settings.
through the relaying point. Referring to Figure 5 below,
it can be seen that during periods of imported power the
system impedance will be situated in the load locus on jX
the left hand side. Conversely, during export periods the
impedance will be situated in the locus on the right hand
side. It can also be seen that for a fault at F1 the ZMIN
impedance quickly migrates from one of the load loci to Load Load
a position equal to ZT-B plus ZLINE-B, as denoted in the Locus   Locus
R
diagram. It is this migration of impedance, together with (Import)   (Export)
the direction of current flow during import and export
conditions, which form the basis of the load blinding
principle.
ZLINE-A

CB1 132kV Network CB2 Figure 6- Positive Sequence Load blinder

ZLINE-B Bulk Supply characteristic
Point (ZS)
This characteristic is further enhanced with an under
Power F1 voltage threshold (V<) and a negative sequence current
ZT-A ZT-B
Export threshold (I2>), which disables the load blinder during
Power fault conditions, i.e. when it is unwanted. The complete
Import setting philosophy for the characteristic is discussed
DOC
later in the paper.
CB3
Embedded Combining the load blinder with the normal DOC
LV Network generation
feature gives a hybrid characteristic illustrated in Figure
7a. During import conditions it can be seen that the
LV Load Inter-connector normal load current (IA-IMP) falls within the restraining
jX region thus preventing operation of the DOC relay.
Fault Location
(F1)
Exporting power in excess of the normal 0.5In current
Max. threshold, on the other hand, results in a vector
Imported ZLINE-B
Load approximately equal to IA-EXP. Vector IA-EXP would
ZT-B normally reside in the operate area; however the load
Load Load
Locus Locus blinding feature creates an extended restraining region
(Import) (Export) R sufficient to prevent operation of the DOC relay.
ZT-A
A fault on the sub-transmission network results in a
Max. vector approximately equal to IAF1 situated in the
ZLINE-A
Exported
Load
operate region, as illustrated in Figure 7b. Whilst there
ZS is no doubt that the relay would operate for this
condition, the collapse in system voltage caused by the
fault, further assists operation by removing the extended
retraining region. It is accepted that the voltage collapse
Figure 5- System impedance during fault at F1 with
may be minimal when a fault occurs during peak export
inter-connector out of service
4
periods. However, the negative sequence element can be b). Permit the export of load up to the transformer
configured to disable the load blinder in these cases. In rating.
the rare case of a three phase fault during peak export
c.) Guarantee operation for a remote sub-transmission
conditions, the extended restraining region will remain
fault when back-fed from the adjacent line.
active; but the increased fault current magnitude should
still ensure positive operation of the DOC protection. Objective “a” is naturally achieved by the use of load
blinding; however to achieve objectives “b” and “c” we
Extended restraining Maximum load
current (minimum must establish the following:-
region due to load blinder
load impedance) RCA
VA i). The minimum load impedance expected during
peak export conditions.
  ii). The nominal power factor during export
IA-EXP conditions.
iii.) The system voltage for a remote sub-transmission
+45° fault with and without embedded generation.
Restrain VBC
(VPOL) Items “i” and “ii” above are used to determine the ZMIN
Is = 0.5In and  settings of the load blinder characteristic; whereas
IA-IMP
VC item “iii” is used to establish the voltage threshold
VB where the load blinder is disabled (V<). The following
sections discuss the setting criteria for all three settings
Restrain mentioned above.

6.1 ZMIN and  selection process

7a – Load conditions To ensure that the DOC protection is inhibited during

maximum reverse load flow conditions, it is essential
Extended restraining region that the minimum load impedance is evaluated. Since
removed due to voltage RCA the minimum load impedance occurs at the full load
collapse VA
current value and that the CT primary rating is normally
selected to be larger than the circuit rating; it is sensible
to use the CT rating as the maximum current for the
calculation. This gives :
Rated Primary Voltage (ph - ph)
Restrain
+45°
VBC Z MIN (primary) 
(VPOL) 3  CT Primary Rating

Is = 0.5In Hence for a 33kV system with a 600/5 CT (details taken

VC from the relaying point), the ZMIN setting will be:
VB
33  103
Z MIN (primary)   31.8 primary 
Restrain 3  600
The setting  is governed by the power factor angle
during export conditions. To ensure that the load blinder
fully encompasses the load locus, it is advisable to add
7b – Fault type A-B an additional 15° tolerance to the maximum expected
load angle. Hence, with a minimum power factor of
Figure 7- Combined DOC and pseudo load blinder 0.85, the  setting will be:
  COS -1 Power Factor  15
characteristic (A-Phase Element)
The following section describes the setting philosophy
of the load blinding feature.   COS -1 0.85  15  47
It should be noted that the ZMIN and α settings calculated
6. LOAD BLINDER SETTING PHILOSOPHY
above refer to the export power region only (i.e. positive
resistance). Whilst these settings can be mirrored in the
The main objective of the load blinder settings is to
import region (i.e. negative resistance), they serve no
achieve the following:-
purpose to this application as the DOC blinder
a). To enhance, but not interfere with, the DOC characteristic naturally inhibits operation anyway.
protection settings. However, there will be no detriment to the scheme if the
negative resistance settings are inadvertently left in
5
service. Figure 8 illustrates the selected settings in the
impedance domain.
Considering scenario 1 (no embedded generation,
Approximate fault ZSLV=∞), it can be shown that voltage VF will be
jX
impedance for HV approximately 50% of nominal, which is true if ZLINE-A
fault = ZLINE-B, ZT-A = ZT-B and ZSHV is negligible. In this case
a V< threshold of 70% is acceptable, as it ensures that
the load blinder will be disabled during fault conditions,
ZMIN but will remain active for load conditions when the
Restraining region
Import region =31.8Ω (Export – lagging voltage stays close to nominal.
naturally blocked
power factor)
by DOC blinder When the embedded generation is significant (i.e.
characteristic. 47° R scenario 2) the voltage collapse for a HV fault may be
Load blinder 47° negligible; particularly when the source impedance
settings for this Restraining region (ZSLV) is substantially lower than the transformer
region are not (Export – leading impedance (ZT-B). However, in this case the strength of
required. power factor)
the embedded generation should ensure that the fault
current is approximately twice that of scenario 1, which
will place the measured impedance (ZF) beyond the load
blinder (i.e. ZF < ZMIN). In this case a 70% V< threshold
Figure 8- Practical load blinder settings could still be adopted, but the fault current (IF) must be
verified to be greater than the CT primary rating, which
6.2 Under voltage threshold (V<) selection process was used to calculate the ZMIN setting.
ZLINE-A
The under voltage threshold V< is designed to remove
132kV Network
the load blinder in the event of a system fault. During CB1 CB2

the fault, the voltage collapse is primarily governed by ZLINE-B Bulk Supply
the ratio between the impedances in front and behind Point (ZSHV)
the relay. These ratios will vary depending upon the
ZT-A ZT-B F1
strength of the embedded generation; hence to select the
most appropriate voltage threshold (V<) we must
consider two different scenarios:
1) Back fed HV fault with no embedded DOC
generation CB3
2) Back fed HV fault with maximum embedded Embedded
generation LV Network generation
(ZSLV)
It must be noted that the derivation of the fault voltage
(VF) and current (IF) under both of these conditions Inter-connector
assumes that the faulted line has been tripped on the HV
side and the fault is being back fed via the LV. Figure 9
ZSHV ZLINE-A ZT-A ZT-B ZLINE-B
illustrates the equivalent circuit for calculating the fault
voltage (VF) and current (IF) at the relaying point. The
equivalent circuit gives the following equations for VF ZA
and IF for a three phase fault at F1:- ZSLV F1
 VS (pu) 
I F     I BASE- LV
 ZA //ZSLV   ZTB  ZLINE 

 ZTB  ZLINE  ZA
VF  VS (pu)     VBASE- LV
 ZA //ZSLV   ZTB  ZLINE 
ZT-B ZLINE-B
ZSLV
IF
Where: VS
VF
VS (pu) = Per unit source voltage
IBASE-LV = Base current on LV side
Figure 9- Equivalent circuit for HV 3ph fault at F1
VBASE-LV = Base voltage on LV side
with CB1 and CB2 open
Impedances = All in (pu), see Figure 9 for details

6
6.3 Problems with under voltage threshold during To ensure the load blinder is inhibited at I S or above we
unbalanced faults must assume that IS = IF.

During unbalanced fault conditions the collapse of IF = IS = I1R + I2R and I1 = I 2

voltage may be less significant than a three phase fault,
particularly when arc resistance is present. Since the IS = I2  3  j0.5  + I2  3  j0.5 
DOC relay is situated on the opposite side of the delta /  2   2 
star transformer to the fault, the zero sequence IS = √3 I2
component will be eliminated leading to a phase to
phase voltage collapse rather than phase to ground. Hence for ground faults the I2 threshold must be set to:-
Clearly a phase to neutral based voltage threshold would
be less likely to inhibit the load blinder during fault
conditions, thus leading to the conclusion that a phase to I2 threshold =  IS  or 0.577 IS
 3
phase based voltage threshold would be more suitable.
6.4.2 Phase to phase:
Furthermore, the presence of arc resistance will supress
the voltage collapse possibly to a point where even Under phase to phase fault conditions it accepted that
phase to phase based measurements are incapable of there is zero I0 and that I1 and I2 are equal in magnitude
inhibiting the load blinder. For situations like this, but anti-phase [4]. Much like the phase to ground fault,
which are difficult and time consuming to manually the delta / star transformer causes the I1 and I2
evaluate, an alternative approach for inhibiting the load components to shift by 30° in opposite directions. This
blinder must be employed, such as a negative current results in the following :-
sequence threshold instead.
I2 = I1180°

I1 at relaying point, I1R = I1-30° = I1  3  j0.5 

6.4 Negative sequence current load blinder inhibit
during unbalanced faults  2 
 
I2 at relaying point, I2R = I1+210° = I1   3  j0.5 
In order to establish a threshold for the negative
sequence threshold it is necessary to consider the three  2 
main types of unbalanced fault that the relay must  
detect:-
To ensure the load blinder is inhibited at I S or above we
- Phase to ground must assume that IS = IF.
- Phase to phase
- Phase to phase to ground IF (B Phase) = IS = a2.I1R + a.I2R

To ensure that the relay disables the load blinder at a Where: a = 1120° =  - 0.5  j 3 
value of current greater than or equal to the DOC  2
threshold (IS), the analysis will evaluate the negative a2 = 1240° =  - 0.5  j 3 
sequence as a multiple of IS for the above conditions,  2
taking in to account a 30° vector shift through the Hence:
transformer. The negative sequence threshold must then
be set to the lowest value calculated for the above three IS = I1(1240° x 1-30° + 1120° x 1210°)
fault types.
IS = I1(1210° + 1-30°)
6.4.1 Phase to ground: IS = I1   3  j0.5  3  j0.5  = -jI1
 2 2 
During phase to ground faults it can be shown that the
positive (I1), negative (I2) and zero sequence (I0) and |I1| = |I2|
currents are of equal magnitude and phase [3].
However the delta / star transformer, between the relay Hence for phase to phase faults the I2 threshold must be
and the fault, effectively eliminates the I0 component set to:-
and causes the I1 and I2 components to shift by 30° in
opposite directions. This results in the following :- I2 threshold = IS

I1 at relaying point, I1R = I1-30° = I1  3  j0.5  However, since this is greater than the value calculated
 2  for the phase to ground fault condition, the phase to
I2 at relaying point, I2R = I2+30° = I2  3  j0.5 
ground value of 0.577IS should be selected, to ensure
 2  operation for both of the above fault conditions. Now

7
let us consider the impact of double phase to ground Referring to Figure 10, it is clear that the negative
faults. sequence current I2 magnitude is heavily dependent
upon Z0. Assuming the embedded generation is
6.4.3 Phase to phase to ground: disconnected (ZSLV = ∞) and that the two transformers
impedances dominate, it can be shown that the Z2 will
Unlike the previous two fault conditions, the negative
be approximately 2Z0. This results in a minimum I2
sequence current threshold requirement is no longer a
component of approximately 1/3∙I1, with the ratio
fixed proportion of the fault current when a double
increasing as the fault resistance RF gets larger.
phase to ground fault is considered. This is consequence
of the split of currents between the negative and zero
I2 = 1/3∙I1180° hence: |I1| = |3I2|
sequence networks, which is governed by the ratio of Z2
and Z0, together with any intervening arc resistance RF.
I1 at relaying point, I1R = I1-30° = 3I2  3  j0.5 
ZLINE-A  2 
 
132kV Network
= I2  3 3  j1.5 
CB1 CB2

ZLINE-B Bulk Supply  2 

Point (ZSHV)  

ZT-B --G I2 at relaying point, I2R = I2+210° = I2   3  j0.5 

ZT-A
 2 
 
DOC
To ensure the load blinder is inhibited at I S or above we
CB3 must assume that IS = IF.
Embedded
LV Network generation IF (B Phase) = IS = a2.I1R + a.I2R
(ZSLV)
Hence:

Inter-connector IS = I2(1240° x 3-30° + 1120° x 1210°)

IS = I2(3210° + 1-30°)
ZSLV
 

IS = I2   3 3  j1.5  3  j0.5  = I2  3  j2 
 2 2 
IS = 2.65 I2
ZSHV ZLINE-A ZT-A ZT-B ZLINE-B
Hence for phase to phase to ground faults the I2
threshold must be set to:-

--G I2 threshold =  IS  = 0.38IS

 2.65 
ZSLV1
ZT-B1 ZLINE-B1
VS Since, this is the lowest value of the three fault types
I1R I1 investigated, it can be deduced that the I2 threshold
ZSHV1 ZLINE-A1 Z
T-A1
should be set to 0.38∙IS.

6.4.4 Summary of negative sequence inhibit settings

ZSLV2
ZT-B2 ZLINE-B2 Investigation of the 3 main fault types revealed that an
I2 threshold setting of 0.38∙IS is the most appropriate
I2R I2 setting to ensure correct operation. However, for typical
ZSHV2 ZLINE-A2 Z
T-A2 3RF applications where the DOC setting (IS) is equal to
0.5IN, the corresponding I2 threshold would be as low
as 19% of rated current (IN). Whilst it is unlikely the
ZT-B0 ZLINE-B0 standing unbalance of the system would exceed this
I0R=0
figure, where doubt exists it is recommended that an
I0
I2/I1 element be used as alternative method of inhibiting
the load blinder, as it is less susceptible to the
magnitude of the unbalance current.

Figure 10- Sequence network for double phase to

ground on sub-transmission network

8
6.5 Summary of load blinder settings and DOC
settings

Consolidating the load blinder and DOC settings

discussed above, we get :-
Rated Primary Voltage (ph - ph)
ZMIN (primary) =
3  CT Primary Rating

α = COS -1 Power Factor   15

V< = 0.7 x Nominal Voltage

I2 Threshold = 0.38 x IS
IS = No change required
RCA = No change required

7. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

It is clear from this paper that load blinding using

MiCOM AGILE relays is an effective technique for
dealing with reverse load flow caused by embedded
generation. Unlike the present techniques employed by
the network operators, load blinding permits the
standard settings of the back-up DOC protection to be
retained even if the main intertripping system fails. This
is of great benefit to the setting engineer as they do not
need to familiarise themselves with new and unfamiliar
protection methods, such as directional negative
sequence overcurrent.
Load blinding allows the DNO to keep their sensitive
DOC settings, ideal for detecting HV faults when the
embedded generation is minimal, whilst permitting
excess generation to be exported to remote locations.
Without this feature, DNO’s will need to place more
stringent limits on the maximum generation the LV
suppliers are allowed to export. In the coming years
where renewable alternatives are being favoured over
conventional generating means, such as coal and gas,
the ability to export more power from these LV
suppliers will increase dramatically. Load blinding now
allows the DNOs to import more power from embedded
generation without such strict curtailing limits being
applied.

8. REFERENCES

1. W.K.Sonnemann, “A study of Directional Elements

for Phase Relays”.
2. Paul Hindle, “Co-ordination of Directional
Overcurrent Protection With load Current For
Parallel Feeders”, section 8.
3. GEC Measurements, “Protective Relay applications
Guide”, section 3.3.1, third edition, 1987
4. GEC Measurements, “Protective Relay applications
Guide”, section 3.3.2, third edition, 1987