The Concept of Sustainable Development:
From its Beginning to the Contemporary Issues
the concept of sustainable development evolving in the 70s and especially in the 80s of the last century.
The concept of sustainable development is based on the concept of development (socio-economic
development in line with ecological constraints), the concept of needs (redistribution of resources to
ensure the quality of life for all) and the concept of future generations (the possibility of long-term usage
of resources to ensure the necessary quality of life for future generations). The essence of the concept of
sustainable development derives from the Triple bottom line concept, which implies the balance between
three pillars of sustainability – environmental sustainability focused on maintaining the quality of the
environment which is necessary for conducting the economic activities and quality of life of people,
social sustainability which strives to ensure human rights and equality, preservation of cultural identity,
respect for cultural diversity, race and religion, and economic sustainability necessary to maintain the
natural, social and human capital required for income and living standards. Complete sustainable
development is achieved through a balance between all these pillars, however, the required condition is
not easy to achieve, because in the process of achieving its goals each pillar of sustainability must respect
the interests of other pillars not to bring them into imbalance. So, while a certain pillar of sustainable
development becomes sustainable, others can become unsustainable, especially when it comes to
ecological sustainability, on which the overall capacity of development depends.
Development and Sustainability
Two fundamental elements of the concept of sustainable development, i.e. development and
sustainability, preceded the creation of the concept itself. According to Sharpley (2000), development and
sustainability could be in the juxtaposition, where both could have possible counterproductive effects,
while neoclassical economists emphasize that there is no contradiction between sustainability and
development (Lele, 1991). Sachs (2010: 28) also suggests how there is no development without
sustainability or sustainability without development. The notion of development is related to the past
western concept of imperialism and colonialism, and in that period it implied infrastructure development,
political power, and economic policy, serving imperialists as an excellent tool for marginalization and
diminishing the power of certain countries (Tangi, 2005). Certain authors link
the meaning of development to economic development and the term “underdeveloped areas” (later called
“Third World Countries”), which US President Harry Truman introduced in the mid-20th century,
signifying areas with the significantly lower standard of living than developed areas (Estevo, 2010: 2).
Classical theories of development consider development within the framework of economic growth
and development. According to these theories, development is a synonym for the economic growth that
every state in a particular stage has to undergo, driven by the transformation of traditional agriculture into
modern industrialized production of various products and services, i.e. shifting from the traditional
society to the stage of maturity and high consumption. These theories consider developing countries as
countries limited by the poor allocation of the resources emerging as a result of the firm hand of
government and corruption, inefficient and insufficient economic initiatives, but also political,
institutional and economic austerity, whereby being captured in dependence and domination of developed
wealthy states (Todaro and Smith, 2003). According to several neoliberal and modern development
theories established over the past 60 years (Willis, 2005: 27) and the contemporary understanding,
development is a process whose output aims to improve the quality of life and increase the self-sufficient
capacity of economies that are technically more complex and depend on global integration (Remeny,
2004: 22). Fundamental purpose of this process is a creation of stimulating environment in which people
will enjoy and have long, healthy and creative life (Tangi, 2005). Romer’s new or endogenous growth
theory suggests that economic growth is a result of the internal state or corporate system, and the crucial
role in economic growth is knowledge and ideas (Romer, 1986; Todaro and Smith, 2003). The
endogenous growth theory model consists of four basic factors: 1) capital measured in units of consumer
goods, 2) labour involving the individual skills, 3) human capital comprising education, learning,
development and individual training, and 4) technological development. In accordance with this model, if
countries want to stimulate economic growth, they have to encourage investment in research and
development and the accumulation of human capital, considering that appropriate level of the state capital
stock is the key of economic growth.
In the literature different taxonomies of the meaning of the term development are found, and most
often the following meanings are emphasized: 1) development as structural transformation, 2) human
development, 3) development of democracy and governance, and 4) development as environmental
sustainability (Vázquez & Sumner, 2013). Lele (1991: 609) describes development as a process of
targeted change, which includes goals and resources to achieve these goals. According to Thomas (2004),
development involves the positive changes that society has experienced throughout history, and still
experiences, while Sharpley’s (2009: 30) development outlines the plans, policies, programmes and
activities undertaken by certain institutions, governments and other governmental and non-governmental
organizations. Accordingly, the most acknowledged development indicator is the Human Development
Index (HDI) which integrates different categories of socio- cultural, economic, ecological and political
development of particular areas (Willis, 2005; UNDP, 2015a; WB, 2015). The term sustainability literally
means “a capacity to maintain some entity, outcome, or process over time” (Jenkins, 2009: 380) and
carrying out activities that do not exhaust the resources on which that capacity depends. Since this is a
general understanding of sustainability, this meaning can be placed analogously to all human activities
and business processes. Thus, according to the general definition, each activity can be carried out in
volume and variations without leading to self-destruction, but allowing a long-term repetition and
renewal. However, Shiva (2010: 240) points out that the general understanding of sustainability is
dangerous because it does not respect the environmental limits and the need for adapting human activities
to the sustainability of natural systems. Natural systems enable people to live and support the outcomes of
human activities, therefore sustainability can hardly be considered without an ecological aspect (Jenkins,
2009; Sachs, 2010; Shiva, 2010). Accordingly, ecological sustainability has become a fundamental
framework for considering socio-cultural and economic sustainability, but also a subject of arguing in the
concept of sustainable development.
History of the Concept of Sustainable Development
In the 18th century economic theoreticians such as Adam Smith pointed out issues of development, in the
19th century Karl Marx and classical economists Malthus, Ricardo and Mill also argued about certain
elements of sustainable development, while later neoclassical economic theory emphasized the
importance of pure air and water and renewable resources (fossil fuels, ores) as well as the need for
government intervention in the case of externalities and public goods (Willis, 2005: 147; Bâc, 2008: 576;
Črnjar & Črnjar, 2009: 79). Previous periods, and even the following century, saw the dominance of the
economic doctrine with focus on human as a ruler of natural resources (Šimleša, 2003: 404; Črnjar &
Črnjar, 2009: 61). The term sustainable development was originally introduced in the field of forestry, and
it included measures of afforestation and harvesting of interconnected forests which should not undermine
the biological renewal of forests (Črnjar & Črnjar, 2009: 79). This term was firstly mentioned in the
Nature Conservation and Natural Resources Strategy of the International Union for Conservation of
Nature published in 1980 (IUCN, 1980). Although initially sustainable development primarily viewed an
ecological perspective, soon it spread to social and economic aspects of study.
Development based on economic growth remained until the 1970s when it was obvious that
consumerism and economic growth put pressure on environment with the consequences of polluted and
inadequate living space, poverty and illness (Šimleša, 2003: 404). At the same time, the exploitation of
natural resources, in particular the stock of raw materials and fossil fuels, has led to deliberation of the
needs of future generations and created a prerequisite for defining the attitude of long-term and rational
use of limited natural resources. The imbalance between human development and ecological limits has
pointed to the growing environmental problems and possible consequences with disastrous proportions.
Črnjar & Črnjar (2009) summed up the basic causes of environmental pollution: 1) anthropogenic causes
of environmental pollution (economic growth, technical and technological development, industrial
development, development of traffic and transport infrastructure, population growth and urbanization and
mass tourism), 2) natural causes of environmental pollution (soil erosion, floods, earthquakes, volcano
eruptions, fires, droughts and winds) and 3) other causes of environmental pollution (wars, insufficient
ecological consciousness, imbalance between development and natural ecosystems and limited scientific,
material, organizational and technological opportunities of society). The consequences of these factors −
seen in various ecological problems, ecosystem disturbances, global climate change, natural catastrophes,
hunger and poverty, and many other negative consequences − have been warning about the sustainability
of the planet.
Aspiration of developed countries to improve the socio-economic and ecological situation of
developing and undeveloped countries gathered scientists, economists and humanists from ten countries
in Rome in 1968 to discuss the current problems and future challenges of humankind (limited natural
resources, population growth, economic development, ecological problems, etc.). Grouped as an
independent global organization called the Roman Club, these scientists have published two significant
editions – Limits of Growth in 1972 and Mankind at the Turning Point in 1974, containing the results of
their research and appealing the world to change the behaviour toward the planet, while in the first edition
the term sustainability was clarified in the framework of the contemporary concept of sustainable
development (Drljača, 2012: 20; Meadows et al., 1972). The Roman club warned that excessive
industrialization and economic development would soon cross the ecological boundaries. In 1971
Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen published The Entropy Law and the Economic Process, similarly warning
about the dangers of economic development and marking the beginning of the ecological economics and
environmental economics (Levallois, 2010).
Different organizations and institutions participated in the creation of the concept of sustainable
development. The most significant is the United Nations (UN), founded in 1945 with headquarters in New
York (UN, 2015e), which nowadays includes more than 190 member states. Its main goals include:
maintaining the peace and security in the world, promoting sustainable development, protecting the
human rights and fundamental freedoms, promoting the international law, suppressing the poverty and
promoting the mutual tolerance and cooperation. Since its establishment, UN has been active in the field
of sustainable development by organizing numerous conferences, taking actions and publishing various
publications aimed to achieve the goals of sustainable development and the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs). A total of 33 programmes, funds, specialized agencies and affiliated organizations are
active within the United Nations, while some of them play a significant role in the creation and
implementation of the concept of sustainable development. The United Nations Division for Sustainable
Development (UNDSD) has also been established to promote and coordinate the implementation of
sustainable development, particularly in Table 1: Overview of the various activities related to the concept
of sustainable development
Year Activities Brief description
1969 UN published the report Man and Activities focused to avoid global environmental degradation. More
His Environment or U Thant than 2,000 scientists were involved in creation of this report.
Report.
1972 First UN and UNEP world Under the slogan Only One Earth, a declaration and action plan for
Conference on the Human environmental conservation was published.
Environment, Stockholm, Sweden.
1975 UNESCO conference on education Setting up a global environment educational framework, a statement
about the environment, Belgrade, known as the Belgrade Charter.
Yugoslavia.
1975 International Congress of the Emphasized the same problems as in Stockholm in 1972.
Human Environment (HESC),
Kyoto, Japan.
1979 The First World Climate Focused on the creation of the climate change research and
Conference, Geneva, Switzerland. programme monitoring.
1981 The first UN Conference on Least A report with guidelines and measures for helping the
Developed Countries, Paris, underdeveloped countries.
France.
1984 Establishment of United Nations The task of the Commission is the cooperation between developed
World Commission on and developing countries and the adoption of global development
Environment and Development plans on environmental conservation.
(WCED).
1987 WCED report Our Common A report with the fundamental principles of the concept of
Future or Brundtland report was sustainable development.
published.
1987 Montreal Protocol was published. Contains results of the researches on harmful effects on the ozone
layer.
1990 The Second World Climate Further development of the climate change research and monitoring
Conference, Geneva, Switzerland. programme and the creation of global Climate Change Monitoring
System.
1992 United Nations Conference on In the Rio Declaration and Agenda 21 Action Plan principles of
Environment and Development sustainable development were established and the framework for the
(Earth Summit or Rio Conference), future tasks as well.
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
1997 Kyoto Climate Change The Kyoto Protocol was signed between countries to reduce CO2
Conference, Kyoto, Japan. and other greenhouse gas emissions, with commencement in 2005.
2000 UN published Millennium Declaration containing eight Millennium Development Goals
declaration. (MDGs) set by 2015.
2002 The World Summit on Sustainable Report with the results achieved during the time from the Rio
Development, Johannesburg, South Conference, which reaffirmed the previous obligations and set the
Africa. guidelines for implementation of the concept in the future.
2009 The Third World Climate Further development of the global Climate Change Monitoring
Conference, Geneva, Switzerland. System with the aim of timely anticipation of possible disasters.
2009 World Congress Summit G20, G20 member states made an agreement on a moderate and
Pittsburgh, USA. sustainable economy.
2012 UN conference Rio +20, Rio de Twenty years from the Rio conference, report The future we want
Janeiro, Brasil. renewed the commitment to the goals of sustainable development
and encouraged issues of the global green economy.
2015 UN Sustainable Development The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was published,
Summit 2015, New York, SAD. setting up 17 Millennium Development Goals which should be
achieved by 2030.
2015 UN conference on climate change Agreement on the reduction of greenhouse gases in order to reduce
COP21Paris Climate change and limit global warming.
Conference, Paris, France.
Source: interpretation of author according to IISD, 2015; SDKP, 2015; UN, 2015ab; UNEP, 2015ab; UNDP, 2015c; WMO, 2015; UNFCCC,
2016.
the field of intergenerational and international co-operation. The Division also serves as a support to
policy management and management of sustainable development, and especially as a communication
platform for knowledge and data dissemination (UNDSD, 2015). Along with this, the UN has established
a Global Network of Sustainable Development (GNSD) geared to achieve the Millennium Development
Goals (UNSDSN, 2015).
Since the introduction of the concept, many international conferences, congresses, summits and
meetings have been held, resulting in various declarations, reports, resolutions, conventions and
agreements and dealing with the environmental problems. Table 1 gives a chronological overview of
significant activities directly and indirectly related to the creation and development of the concept of
sustainable development. In the table the variety of events and activities is evident, so it is impossible to
cover all of them in past years. Additionally, in the past seventy years only UN has published more than
seventy documents significant for human development (UN, 2015b).
Among the various activities, three key events set the fundaments and principles of sustainable
development. According to them, the history of the concept of sustainable development is divided into
three periods. The first period covers the period from economic theories, where certain theorists (Smith,
Marx, Malthus, Ricardo and Mill mentioned above) recognized the boundaries of development and
environmental requirements, through the activities of the Roman Club, which warned on the negative
consequences of economic development, to the First United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment held in Stockholm in 1972 (Mebratu, 1998; Drexhage & Murphy, 2010). This conference
marked the introduction of the concept of sustainable development, and although it did not fully associate
environmental problems with development, it stressed the need for changes in economic development
policy (UN, 1972; Mebratu, 1998; Drexhage & Murphy, 2010). In the report published after the
conference, the necessity of balance between economic development and environment was proclaimed
and 28 principles were set aimed to preserve environment and reduce poverty. Within the action plan, 109
recommendations (socioeconomic, political and educational) were given for quality environmental
management, and finally, after the conference, resolution on institutional and financial agreements was
signed between the states (UN, 1972).
Years after the Stockholm conference represent the second period of the concept of sustainable
development. The terms such as development and environment, development without destruction and
development in accordance with the environment were increasingly used in publications, while the term
eco-development was first described in edition of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
published in 1978 (Mebratu, 1998). In 1980, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) set
an idea of linking economics and the environment through the concept of sustainable development
(IUCN, 1980). A few years later, more precisely in 1983, the United Nations World Commission on
Environment and Development (WCED) was established to develop a global change programme. This
programme was aimed to raise awareness and concern about the negative impact of socio-economic
development on the environment and natural resources as well as provision of perspectives of a long-term
and sustainable development in accordance with the environmental protection and conservation (WCED,
1987: 5; Drexhage & Murphy, 2010: 7). After several years of work, in 1987 the Commission of 19
delegates from 18 countries, led by Gro Harlem Brundtland (the then Norwegian Prime Minister),
published a report Our Common Future, better known as the Brundtland Report, where the concept of
sustainable development was introduced in its true sense (WCED, 1987; Drexhage & Murphy, 2010). In
its twelve chapters this report analysed and provided a clear overview of the conditions in the world
(socio-economic development and order, environmental degradation, population growth, poverty, politics,
wars, etc.) and elaborated the concept of sustainable development. As a new approach, this concept
should be able to respond to future challenges, such as achieving balance between socio-economic
development and the environment, reducing pollution and environmental degradation, exploiting natural
resources, reducing harmful gas emissions and climate impacts, reducing poverty and hunger, achieving
world peace and other serious challenges and threats faced by humanity (WCED, 1987). In the second
chapter, the concept of sustainable development is defined as “development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED 1987:
43), which contains the core of the concept and soon became a generally accepted and probably the most
cited definition in the literature, no matter where the context of sustainable development is being
discussed.
The fundamental objective of the concept outlined in the document is to provide basic human needs to
all people (home, food, water, clothing, etc.), with a tendency to improve living standards, as well to
achieve the aspiration of a better life. An imperative of the Brundtland report is: rational and controlled
use of resources focused on renewable and long-term usage, protection and conservation of nature, raising
ecological awareness, stricter national regulation and international co-operation, stopping population
growth, using industry and technology in line with environmental requirements, developing technological
innovations in order to reduce impact on environmental (WCED, 1987). Thus, according to the Report,
the underlying principles of the concept of sustainable development are assurance of the human needs,
while respecting certain environmental constraints. The Brundtland report marked the beginning of a new
global socio-economic policy in which the concept of sustainable development has become a key element
in environmental management and other areas of human activities (Mebratu, 1998).
This event was followed by the third, so-called After Brundtland period, which lasts until today and
included several significant events. Marking the twentieth anniversary of the conference in Stockholm,
UN conference on environment and development called the Earth Summit or the Rio Conference was held
in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The conference saw the participation of numerous governmental and non-
governmental organizations from 178 countries. Its focus was to define a global framework for solving
issues of environmental degradation through the concept of sustainable development, considering that in
the 20-year period the integration of environmental concerns and economic decision-making was ignored
and the state of the environment was worse (UNCED, 1992ab; Mebratu, 1998; Drexhage & Murphy,
2010). More than 10,000 international journalists transmitted the conference to millions of people around
the world, witnessing the importance of the conference. The preparation of the conference began in 1989
and as a result the following documents were adopted: 1) Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development, 2) Agenda 21, 3) Non-legally binding authoritative statement of principles for a global
consensus on the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests, 4)
Climate Change Convention and 5) Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCED, 1992ab; UNDSD,
1992). The first two documents are key for the concept of sustainable development.
The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development contains 27 principles of sustainable
development on the rights and responsibilities of the United Nations. These principles also form the basis
for future policy and decision making and balance between socio-economic development and the
environment (UNCED, 1992b). The Declaration gives people the right for development but also the
obligation for preserving the environment, and since the environment is a public and common good, it
also highlights the need for cooperation and understanding between the public and private sectors and
civil society. Among the principles, it is emphasized how humans are in the centre of concern for
sustainable development and should not delay measures to prevent environmental degradation. At the
same time, it is emphasized that each country has the sovereign right to exploit its own resources, if this
does not endanger the environment of other countries, thereby polluters should bear the costs of pollution.
Eradication of poverty, reduction of inequalities and assuring basic living standards and peace in the
world are essential for sustainable development, therefore developed countries have the responsibility to
ensure sustainable development, particularly for technology and financial resources (UNCED, 1992b).
Agenda 21 is a global programme with objectives of sustainable development and action plans and
resources for their implementation set in 40 chapters (UNDSD, 1992). The document comprehensively
provides guidelines for socio-economic development in line with the environmental conservation. The
document highlights the need for international cooperation and consensus between development and
environmental protection, whereby governments play an important role in the adoption and
implementation of policies, plans and programmes, although the participation of all other stakeholders is
also necessary. Further on, developed countries play a key role, particularly in providing financial funds
to developing countries. As a priority goal, the document emphasizes the suppression of poverty,
especially in poor countries where it is also necessary to preserve and protect natural resources. At the
same time, in these countries there is a need for improvement of the protection of human health and
gender equality. It is also necessary to change patterns of behaviour in production and consumption in
order to rationally exploit natural resources and fossil fuels which would result in reduced negative impact
on the environment. Finally, Agenda 21 highlights the importance of educational programmes focused on
raising awareness and promotion of the sustainable development which are necessary for its
implementation (UNDSD, 1992).
From these fundamental activities and documents the three key elements of the concept were
identified: 1) the concept of development (socio-economic development in line with ecological
constraints), 2) the concept of needs (redistribution of resources to ensure the quality of life for all) and
3) the concept of future generations (the possibility of a long-term usage of resources to ensure the
necessary quality of life for future generations). At the same time, concept of sustainable development
outlined core principles, namely: ensuring needs and care for the community of present and future
generations, continuously improving the overall quality of life and equality, protecting and preserving the
environment, biodiversity and ecosystems, protecting and preserving the natural resources, with the
rational use of renewable resources and reduced depletion of non-renewable resources, changing
production and consumption respecting the ecological constraints, using renewable energy and innovative
technologies to reduce the negative impact on the environment, strengthening international cooperation at
the national, regional and local level, creating an institutional framework with a strong network of
stakeholders interested in implementing the concept of sustainable development, etc. Here it could be
mentioned how the three key elements of the concept were also described by the Maslowian portfolio
theory (MaPT) and the hierarchy of needs (De Brouwer, 2008).
Contemporary Challenges of the Concept of Sustainable Development
From its origins until today the concept of sustainable development has been faced with different
interpretations and criticisms. The Brundtland report stated how concept of sustainable development had
different meanings and referred to holistic planning and adoption of strategies, ecology, heritage
protection and biodiversity and long-term sustainable development (WCED, 1987). A few years after
Brundtland report, Dobson (1996) identified more than 300 definitions and interpretations of the concept
of sustainable development. The definitions largely follow the core of the concept set out in the basic
definition of the WCED. In these definitions sustainable development is mostly perceived as a socio-
economic system that enables human needs, but also a long-term progress towards well-being and
improvement of overall quality of life in accordance with environmental constraints. An overview of
certain interpretations of sustainable development in the period 1987 – 2015 is given in Table 2.
Table 2: Chronological overview of the meaning of sustainable development in the period 1987 – 2015
Authors/publication
Meaning and understanding of sustainable development
and year
WCED, 1987 Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Pearce et al., 1989 Sustainable development implies a conceptual socio-economic system which ensures the
sustainability of goals in the form of real income achievement and improvement of
educational standards, health care and the overall quality of life.
Harwood, 1990 Sustainable development is unlimited developing system, where development is focused
on achieving greater benefits for humans and more efficient resource use in balance with
the environment required for all humans and all other species.
IUCN, UNDP & Sustainable development is a process of improving the quality of human life within the
WWF, 1991 framework of carrying capacity of the sustainable ecosystems.
Lele, 1991 Sustainable development is a process of targeted changes that can be repeated forever.
Meadows, 1998 Sustainable development is a social construction derived from the long-term evolution of
a highly complex system – human population and economic development integrated into
ecosystems and biochemical processes of the Earth.
PAP/RAC, 1999 Sustainable development is development given by the carrying capacity of an ecosystem.
Vander-Merwe & Sustainable development is a programme that changes the economic development
Van-der-Merwe, process to ensure the basic quality of life, protecting valuable ecosystems and other
1999 communities at the same time.
Beck & Wilms, 2004 Sustainable development is a powerful global contradiction to the contemporary western
culture and lifestyle.
Vare & Scott, 2007 Sustainable development is a process of changes, where resources are raised, the
direction of investments is determined, the development of technology is focused and the
work of different institutions is harmonized, thus the potential for achieving human needs
and desires is increased as well.
Sterling, 2010 Sustainable development is a reconciliation of the economy and the environment on a
new path of development that will enable the long-term sustainable development of
humankind.
Marin et al., 2012 Sustainable development gives a possibility of time unlimited interaction between
society, ecosystems and other living systems without impoverishing the key resources.
Duran et al., 2015 Sustainable development is a development that protects the environment, because a
sustainable environment enables sustainable development.
Source: interpretation of author according to the sources
