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The Molecular Basis of Inheritance: Colonies) - The S Samples Had A Polysaccharide Coating That

The document summarizes key discoveries and experiments in understanding DNA as the genetic material: 1. Griffith's 1928 experiment showed that bacteria can undergo transformation through DNA. Avery later showed in 1944 that the transforming agent was DNA. 2. Hershey and Chase in 1952 used radioactive isotopes to confirm that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material in viruses. 3. Chargaff in 1947 established rules of base pairing in DNA. Franklin in 1950 deduced DNA structure using X-ray crystallography. 4. Watson and Crick in 1953 discovered the double helix structure of DNA using this evidence.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
71 views12 pages

The Molecular Basis of Inheritance: Colonies) - The S Samples Had A Polysaccharide Coating That

The document summarizes key discoveries and experiments in understanding DNA as the genetic material: 1. Griffith's 1928 experiment showed that bacteria can undergo transformation through DNA. Avery later showed in 1944 that the transforming agent was DNA. 2. Hershey and Chase in 1952 used radioactive isotopes to confirm that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material in viruses. 3. Chargaff in 1947 established rules of base pairing in DNA. Franklin in 1950 deduced DNA structure using X-ray crystallography. 4. Watson and Crick in 1953 discovered the double helix structure of DNA using this evidence.

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BIO02 After of which, the virus and bacteria are separated using a

The Molecular Basis of Inheritance centrifuge.

Transforming Principle by Frederick Griffith (1928) In the two experiments:


o no radioactivity enters the E. Coli bacteria when the 35S
- It was one of the first experiments showing that bacteria can get
strands were used, proving that protein was not the
DNA through a process called transformation.
genetic material.
- Method: Two strains of streptococcus pneuomoniae were used. He
o E. coli bacteria showed radioactivity when infected with 32P
used a type III-S (smooth shiny colonies) and type-II R (rough
strands, proving that DNA was the genetic material.
colonies). The S samples had a polysaccharide coating that
protected it from the host’s immune system while the R samples did Edwin Chargaff (1947)
not. The mice injected with the S samples died while the ones with
the R samples were unharmed. - Pursued the study on genetic material after reading about Avery’s
discoveries.
Griffith then heat-killed the S samples and injected them into the - Chargaff’s Rules: states that DNA from any cell of any organism
mice, but were mostly unaffected. He then mixed heat-killed S should have a 1:1 ratio of pyrimidine and purine bases.
samples with R samples and injected them into the mice. The mice 1. First Parity Rule: states that a double strand DNA should
died. have percentage base pair equality where:
- Conclusion: The R strain bacteria had been transformed by the S %A = %T and %G = %C
strain bacteria. 2. Second Parity rule: states that both base pair equalities are
- Griffith’s experiment helped discover the existence of hereditary valid for each of the two DNA strands.
material but fails to explain its biochemistry. Rosalind Franklin (1950)
Oswald Avery (1944) - Worked with Maurice Wilkins an X-ray crystallography to solve the
- Avery and his team continued Griffith’s experiments and discovered DNA problem at King’s College.
that the transforming agent was DNA. - She was able to get two sets of high-resolution photos of
- Their discovery revised the concept of protein as genetic material. crystallized DNA fibers.
- Two fibers were used where one was more hydrated than the
Hershey and Chase Experiments (1952) other. From this she was able to deduce the basic dimensions of
DNA that the phosphates were on the outside of the structure.
- It was known then that a virus consisted of DNA and a protein coat.
Confirmed that DNA was the genetic material in living things. James Watson and Francis Crick (1953)
- Method: Viruses were grown in one of two isotopic mediums to
radiolabel a specific viral component. - Discovered the double helix structure by building models that
conform to Franklin’s images and Chargaff’s Rules.
Viruses grown in radioactive Sulfur (35S) had radiolabeled proteins.
Viruses grown in radioactive Phosphorus (32P) had radiolabeled
DNA. The bacteriophages were then injected to E. coli bacteria.
Structure of DNA
Double Helix Structure: Two strands of DNA molecule that wind around
each other like a twisted ladder. Each strand consists of:

1. Backbone: made of alternating groups of sugar


(deoxyribose) and phosphate groups.
2. Rungs: nitrogenous bases attached to each sugar. These
bases are:
a. Adenine
b. gUanine pUrines
c. ThYmine
d. CYtosine pYrimidines

Base pairs are joined together by hydrogen bonds. Pairings


of nitrogenous bases are as follows:
a) A = T
b) G = C

Antiparallel: one DNA strand runs in a 5’  3’ direction while the other


strand runs in a 3’  5’. While both strands can grow in the 5’  3’
direction, they are run opposite because of the opposite orientation of the
sugar molecules in them.

Prokaryotic DNA Eukaryotic DNA


Double Stranded Double Stranded
Circular Linear
One Chromosome Usually 1+ chromosomes
Found in the cytoplasm Found in the nucleus
No histones Wrapped around histones
Supercoiled DNA Forms Chromatins
DNA Comparison
Central Dogma of Biology Coding Strand is the DNA strand not used as a template for transcription
because it corresponds to the same sequence as the mRNA.
It provides a basic framework that describes the three-step process
by which the information in genes flows to proteins. This process of genetic Codons are mRNA triplets that code for amino acids in the polypeptide
information flowing from DNA to RNA is called gene expression. chain.

Replication  Transcription  Translation Replication


DNA  RNA  Protein
It is the process by which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied
DNA RNA to produce two identical DNA molecules.
Nucleic acids are composed of Nucleic acids are composed of
nucleotides nucleotides Meselson and Stahl Experiment
Double-stranded Single-stranded - Demonstrated the correctness of the semiconservative model of
Deoxyribose = sugar Ribose = sugar DNA replication.
Thymine Uracil - Method: Two sets of bacteria were cultured in 15N and 14N isotopes.
Template for individual Many roles One was heavier than the other. The bacteria cultured in the 15N
One gene = One RNA molecule most accurate hypothesis isotopes were then mixed into the 14N.
pre-mRNA Precursor; newly transcribed and
not edited After one replication cycle, they were centrifuged where all the DNA
mRNA Carries the code from DNA that present were of intermediate density, ruling out the conservative
specifies amino acid model where both heavy and light densities should be present.
tRNA Carries a specific amino acid to
ribosome based on its anticodon to After two replication cycles, DNA of intermediate density and light
mRNA codon density were found, which is what the semiconservative model is
rRNA 60% of the ribosome; site of predicting. The dispersive model was ruled out because it predicts
protein synthesis that all DNA molecules become gradually lower so no
snRNA Small nuclear RNA; part of the intermediates will remain after the second cycle.
spliceosome that has structural and
catalytic roles
- Conclusion: Replication is semiconservative where daughter strands
srpRNA Signal recognition particle that
consist of one parental strand and one new strand.
binds to signal peptides
RNAi Interference RNA; regulatory Replication Process
molecule
Ribozyme RNA that functions as an enzyme 1. Helicase unwinds the DNA at a particular sequence in the genome
Functions of RNA called replication origin. Replication forks are formed after the DNA
is unwound.
Genetic Code 2. Single stranded binding proteins binds and stabilizes single-
Template Strand, also called antisense strand, is a DNA strand where the stranded DNA until it can be used as a template. Keeps the strands
mRNA is built on. The mRNA is complementary to the template strand. separated. A replication bubble is then formed.
3. Primase is an enzyme that adds the RNA primer to both strands. Elongation Stage
RNA primers are short sequences that serves as a starting point for
replication. 1. RNA polymerase adds RNA nucleotides from 5’ end to 3’ end
4. DNA polymerase III adds nucleotides in the 5’  3’ direction only. of the growing chain.
This is the leading strand. 2. The RNA polymerase untwists DNA then rewinds it after the
mRNA has been made
This causes the primase to set extra primers in the lagging strand
(3’5’), creating Okazaki fragments which are fragments of Termination Stage
synthesized DNA. Ligase then seals these fragments together. 1. RNA polymerase transcribes a terminator sequence in DNA.
The mRNA and polymerase then detach.
5. DNA polymerase I then replaces the RNA primers in the lagging
a. Prokaryotes: it is now an mRNA ready for use.
strand with DNA nucleotides.
b. Eukaryotes: a pre-mRNA has been synthesized.
DNA Polymerase has the ability to proofread the strand while bases are
Pre-mRNA to mRNA
being added.
5’ cap (modified guanine) and 3’ poly-A-tail (50-520A’s) are added.
Nucleotide excision repair: are done by nucleases which cut damage DNA
They help in the export from the nucleus, protection from enzyme
then of which DNA polymerase and ligase fill in these gaps.
degradation, and attaching to ribosomes.
Telomeres are repeated units of short nucleotide sequences that are added to the
ends of DNA. They postpone/delay the erosion of genes.
RNA Splicing

Introns are noncoding sequences found in the pre-mRNA sequence,


Transcription
as well as Exons which are codes for amino acids. Pre-mRNA are spliced so
It is the first step of gene expression wherein information in a that introns are cut out and exons are joined.
strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of mRNA.
Small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPS) recognize splice sites
a) Transcription Unit: stretch of DNA that codes for a polypeptide or and join with other proteins to form a spliceosome. Spliceosomes catalyze
RNA. the process of RNA splicing.
b) RNA polymerase: separates DNA strands and transcribes mRNA.
a. mRNA elongates in the 5’  3’ direction Translation
b. Uracil replaces thymine when pairing with Adenine It is the process of translating the sequence of mRNA to a sequence
c. Attaches promoter and stops at terminator of amino acids during protein synthesis. The following are the components
of translation:
Transcription Process
1. mRNA: messenger RNA
Initiation stage
2. tRNA: interpreter
a) Bacteria: RNA polymerase binds directly to the promoter a. It is transcribed in the nucleus
b) Eukaryotes: transcription factors must first recognize TATAA boxes b. Specific to each amino acids and transfer them to
before RNA polymerase can bind to DNA promoter. ribosomes.
c. Anticodon: pairs with complementary mRNA codon.
d. Wobble: base pairing rules between 3 rd base of codon and
anticodon are not as strict. Termination Stage
e. Aminoactyl-tRNA-synthetase: enzyme that binds tRNA to 1. Once the stop codon UAG or similar is reached, translation
specific amino acid
stops.
3. Ribosomes: site of translation which is made of rRNA + proteins.
2. Release factors binds to stop codon then the polypeptide is
a. Made in the nucleolus and has 2 subunits: large and small
b. Active Sites of subunits: released.
i. A site: holds the amino acids to be added 3. Ribosomal subunits then dissociate.
ii. P site: holds the growing polypeptide chain Protein Folding
iii. E site: exit site for the tRNA.
c. Polyribosomes: mRNA is translated by multiple ribosomes Chaperonin: protein that helps polypeptides fold correctly.
at the same time.
1. An unfolded polypeptide enters the chaperonin from one end.
d. Free Ribosomes: synthesize proteins that stay in the cytosol
2. The cap attaches, causing the cylinder to change shape in such a
and function there
way that it creates a hydrophilic environment for the folding of
e. Bound Ribosomes: make proteins of endomembrane
polypeptides.
system & proteins for secretion; uses signal peptide to
3. The cap comes off and the properly folded protein is released.
target location.
Mutations
Translation Process
- Changes in the genetic material of a cell. Has two types:
Initiation Stage
o Large Scale Mutation: chromosomal; always causes
1. The small subunit of the rRNA attaches to the mRNA’s start codon disorders or even death.
AUG. Ex: nondisjunction, translocation, inversions, duplications,
2. A tRNA carrying methionine attaches to the P site of the subunit. large deletions.
3. The large subunit then reattaches to the small subunit.
o Point Mutations: alter I base pair of genes.
Elongation Stage  Base-pair mutation: replace I with another
1. Amino acid chain is elongated based on the codons on the mRNA. A  Missense: different amino acid
tRNA anticodon matches with the codon on the A site.  Nonsense: stop codon
2. The amino acid carried by the tRNA that attached to the A site forms  Frameshift: mRNA is read incorrectly; causes
a peptide bond with methionine. nonfunctional proteins.
3. The tRNA in the P site exits the subunit while the tRNA from the A Caused by insertions or deletions.
site moves to the P site.
4. The cycle repeats until…
Mendel and the Gene Idea Laws of probabilities on Mendellian Inheritance

Gregor Mendel Rule of Multiplication

- He was an Austrian monk who brought experimental and - Probability that 2+ independent events will occur together in a
quantitative approach to genetics. specific combination; multiply probabilities of each event.
- Famous for his pea plant experiment to study inheritance
Rule of Addition
o P Generation: parental; true breeding plants
o F1 Generation: offspring of the P generation - Probability that 2+ mutually exclusive events will occur; add
o F2 Generation: offspring of the F1 generation together individual probabilities.
o Alleles: alternate versions of a gene
Complete Dominance
Mendel’s Principles
- Heterozygote and homozygote for dominant allele are
1. Alleles cause variations in inherited characteristics among offspring. indistinguishable.
2. For each character, every organism inherits one allele from each
Incomplete Dominance
parent.
3. If 2 alleles are different: - F1 hybrids have appearance that is in between of the appearance of
a. Dominant allele: fully expressed in the offspring. the parents.
b. Recessive allele: will have no noticeable effect on the
Codominance
offspring’s appearance
4. Law of Segregation: the two alleles for each character separate - Phenotype of both alleles is expressed in the offspring.
during gamete formation.
a. Homozygous: 2 similar alleles (PP or pp) Multiple Alleles
b. Heterozygous: 2 different alleles (Pp) - gene has 2+ allele groups such as human blood groups.
c. Phenotype: expressed physical traits o Blood Transfusion: must match blood type because if two
d. Genotype: genetic make-up different blood types are mixed will result to clumping, and
Punnett Square eventually death.

- Device used for predicting offspring from a cross. Polygenic Inheritance


- Testcross: determines if dominant trait is homozygous or - The effect of 2 or more genes acting upon a single phenotypic
heterozygous by crossing it with a recessive allele. character.
Law of Independent Assortment Pedigree
- Each pair of alleles segregates independently during gamete - Diagram that shows the rel’nship between parents/offspring across
formation. 2+ generations.
o Monohybrid Cross: studies 1 character
o Dihybrid Cross: studies 2 characters
Pleiotropy 2. Embryo Gonads indifferent at 2 months.
3. SRY gene: sex determining region of Y chromosomes
- One gene is able to affect multiple phenotypic characters.
4. Codes for protein that regulate other genes
Autosomal Recessive Autosomal Dominant
Genetic Recombination
Cystic fibrosis Huntington’s disease
Tay-Sachs disease - Lethal dominant Allele - Production of offspring with new combination of genes of parents
Sickle-cell disease o If offspring look like parents, they are parental types.
Phenylketonuria o If offspring look different from parents, they are
Genetic Disorders recombinants.
o If results do not follow Mendel’s Law of Independent
Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
Assortment, then genes are probably linked.
Chromosome Theory of Inheritance  Linked Genes: located on the same chromosome
and tend to be inherited during together during cell
1. Genes have specific locations or loci on chromosomes.
division.
2. Chromosomes segregate and assort independently.
 Crossing over: explains why some linked genes get
Thomas Hunt Morgan separated during meiosis
 Further apart on the same chromosomes,
- Performed an experiment that would eventually help identify the
the higher the probability of crossing over
role chromosomes play in inheritance.
and recombination frequency.
- Method: Morgan bred thousands of Drosophila or fruit flies and
 Linkage Map: genetic map that is based on % of
finally was able to breed a white-eyed fly. He began breeding the
cross-over events.
white-eyed fly and found that in one generation of the flies, the
 1 map unit = 1% recombination frequency
white-eyes were only present in the male flies.
Nondisjunction
Through more experimentation, he found that the genetic factor
- Chromosomes fail to separate properly in Meiosis I or II
controlling eye color was the same of that determines the sex. This
- Karyotyping can detect nondisjunction.
helped him and his colleagues establish that chromosomes carry
- Aneuploidy: incorrect number of chromosomes
the genes that allow offspring to inherit traits from their parents.
o Examples: monosomy and trisomy
Sex-linked genes - Polyploidy: 2+ complete sets of chromosomes
o Examples: 3n or 4n
1. Males express recessive trait on the single X (hemizygous)
2. Females can be affected or a carrier Chromosomal Mutations
Barr body: regulate gene dosage in females during embryonic development. a) Deletion: removes a chromosomal segment
b) Duplication: repeats a segment
Human Development
c) Inversion: reverses a segment within the chromosome
1. Y Chromosome is required for the development of testes
d) Translocation: moves a segment from one chromosome to a b) Mineralized: hard body structures
nonhomologous chromosome. c) Organic: rare in fossils but may be found in amber, tar pits, or in
frozen states.
History of Life on Earth
Relative dating: uses rock order to determine the relative age of fossils.
How did life Arise?
 Lower strata = older fossils; upper strata = younger fossils.
1. Synthesis of small organic molecules
2. Small molecules became macromolecules Radiometric Dating: measure the decay of radioactive isotopes present in
3. Macromolecules were packaged into protocells which are layers where fossils are found.
membrane-containing droplets
 Half-life: time it takes for the 50% of an original sample to decay
4. Self-replicating molecules allow for inheritance
a. RNA world: the first genetic material to have existed was Eon  Era  Period  Epoch
most likely RNA. Geologic time scale (shortest to longest)
b. First catalysts are the ribozymes (See CO1)
Key Events of Life’s History
Synthesis of Organic Compounds on Early Earth
1. 3.5 bya: appearance of first prokaryotes
Oparin and Haldane 2. 2.7 bya: accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere
3. 2.1 bya: appearance of first eukaryotes
- They suggested that if the primitive atmosphere was reducing as
4. 1.2 bya: appearance of first multicellular eukaryotes
opposed to oxygen-rich, and if there were a significant supply of
5. 535-525 mya: Cambrian Explosion: burst in diversity of animal forms
energy, then a wide range of organic compounds may be
6. 500 mya: colonization of land by fungi, animal and plants
synthesized.
7. 200, 000 years ago: appearance of first humans
- Earth’s primitive atmosphere consisted of H2O vapor, N2, CO2, H2,
H2S, methane and ammonia. Sources of energy came from lightning Endosymbiotic Theory: mitochondria and plastids formed from small
and UV radiation. prokaryotes living in larger cells.
Miller & Urey  Endosymbiont: an organism that lives inside another organism.
 Evidences:
- Conducted an experiment which demonstrated that several organic
o Replication by binary fission
compounds could be formed by recreating Earth’s primitive
o Single, circular DNA (absence of histones)
atmosphere.
- Method: They designed an apparatus which held a mix of Earth’s o Ribosomes that make proteins
gases over a pool of water with electrode. After allowing the o Enzymes similar to living prokaryotes
experiment to run for a week, amino acids formed spontaneously o Two membranes.
from the inorganic substances. Pangaea: super continent that was formed 250 mya.
Fossil Records: used to reconstruct history  Continental Drift: explains many biogeographic puzzles
a) They are sedimentary rocks in between layers or strata.
o The movement of continental plates change the geography Biological Species Concept
and climate of Earth thus extinction and speciation arise.
Species: population or group of populations whose members have the
 Mass Extinctions: gives rise to diversity of life.
potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring.
Earth’s major periods end with these.
 Adaptive Radiations: start of new periods.  Reproductive Isolation: barriers that prevent members from two
different species to interbreed.
Major Events of each Era
 Morphological Species: classified by structural features
 Precambrian Era: stromatolites or microscopic fossils  Ecological Species: based on their role in the community or niche
o Photosynthesis and Endosymbionts  Phylogenetic: based on common ancestry
 Paleozoic Era: Cambrian Explosion
Prezygotic Barriers Post-zygotic Barriers
o Diversity of plant life and animals; ends with the Permian
These barriers impede or prevent These prevents hybrid zygotes from
Mass Extinction
mating and/or fertilization developing into viable adults
 Mesozoic: Age of reptiles, dinosaurs, and plants Types: Types:
o Formation of Pangaea and ended with the Cretaceous Habitat isolation Reduced hybrid viability
Extinction (asteroid impact on Mexico’s coast) Temporal Isolation Reduced hybrid fertility
 Cenozoic: Primates Behavioral Isolation Hybrid breakdown
Mechanical and Gametic Isolation
Evolutionary Developmental Biology: compares the developmental
processes of different organisms to infer ancestral relationships between Types of Reproductive Barriers
them
Allopatric Speciation Sympatric Speciation
 Evolution of new forms results from change in DNA or regulation of Formation of a new species while Subset of a population forms a new
developmental genes. geographically isolated from its species without geographic
 Heterochrony: evolutionary change in rate of developmental events parent population separation.
 Pedomorphosis: adult organism retains juvenile/offspring Caused by geologic events Gene flow is blocked by:
structures in ancestral species Evolution by natural selection and Polyploidy, sexual selection, and
 Homeotic Genes: master regulatory genes determine location and genetic drift. habitat differentiation
organization of body parts Modes of Speciation

Origin of Species Adaptive Radiation: rise of species from a single common ancestor. Occurs
when:
Speciation: origin of species; evolutionary process by which populations
evolve to become distinct species. 1. Few organisms make way to new distant areas
2. Niche survivors from mass extinctions.
 Microevolution: changes within a single gene pool; change in allele
frequencies that occurs over time. Gradualism Punctuated Equilibrium
 Macroevolution: evolutionary changes above the species level Common ancestor Long periods of stasis separated by
Slow, constant change short bursts of significant changes.
o Cumulative effects of speciation over long periods of time
Tempos of Evolution
1. No mutations
2. Random Mating
Evolution of Populations 3. No natural selection
Genetic Variation: term used to describe the variation in DNA sequence in 4. Extremely large population size
each of our genomes. They result from the subtle changes in DNA. 5. No gene flow

 Mendelian genetics supports Darwin’s theory on evolution. IF one of them is not satisfied, then the population is evolving.
 Sources: Minor Causes Major Causes
o Point Mutations: changes in one base (refer to CO1) Mutations: rare, small changes in Natural Selection: individuals with
o Chromosomal Mutations (refer to CO1) allele frequencies variations better suited to their
o Sexual Recombination: contributes to most of genetic environment pass more alleles to
variation in a population the next generation
1. Crossing Over during Meiosis – Prophase I
2. Independent Assortment of Chromosomes Survival of the Fittest
3. Random Fertilization
Non-random mating: affects Genetic Drift: small populations
Population Genetics: study of how populations change genetically over time genotype but not allele have a higher chance of
and involves the examination and modelling of changes in the frequencies frequencies. fluctuations in allele frequencies
of genes and alleles of populations. from one generation to another

 Population: group of individuals that live in the same area and Founder Effect: certain
interbreed to produce fertile offspring. alleles are under/over
 Gene Pool: all of the alleles for all genes in all the members of the represented due to few
population; collection of different genes within an interbreeding individuals isolated from
population larger populations.
o Diploid Species: 2 alleles for a gene  Bottleneck Effect: sudden
 Fixed Alleles: all members of a population only have 1 allele for a change in environment
particular trait; homozygous for all members of the population drastically reduces the size
of the population.
o More fixed alleles, lower species’ diversity.
Gene flow: movement of fertile
Hardy-Weinberg Theory individuals between populations;
reduces genetic differences
The allele and genotype frequencies of a population will remain between populations.
constant from generation to generation unless they are acted upon by Causes of Evolution
forces other than Mendelian segregation and recombination of alleles.
Fitness: contribution of an individual makes to the gene pool of the next
Equilibrium is achieved when allele and genotype frequencies remain generation. Natural Selection can alter frequency distribution of heritable
constant. If all conditions these conditions are achieved, then there is a H- traits through:
W equilibrium:
1. Directional Selection: an extreme phenotype is favored over other a. Gradualism: geologic change results from slow, continuous
phenotypes causing the allele frequency to shift over in time in the process. Variation is gradual in nature and happens over
direction of the favored phenotype. time as opposed to large steps (Lyell)
2. Disruptive Selection: also called diversifying selection; extreme b. Uniformitarianism: rate of change in the past is the same in
values for a trait is favored over intermediate traits. Variance of trait the present. Theory that suggests that the Earth is changing
increases and the population is divided into two groups. continuously at the same rate. (Hutton)
3. Stabilizing Selection: the population mean stabilizes on a non- 5. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck: published theory of evolution although his
extreme trait value. Most common mechanism as most traits do not explanation was flawed.
appear to change drastically over time. a. Use and Disuse: the more a particular part of an organism is
used, the more it is enhanced or strengthened.
Natural Selection cannot fashion perfect organisms as:
b. Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics: modifications on
1. Selection can only act on existing variations. an organism can be passed to an offspring.
2. Evolution is limited by historical constraints 6. Thomas Malthus: overpopulation may cause war, famine, disease
3. Adaptations are often compromises or anything that may limit a population.
4. Chance, natural selection, and the environment interact. a. Overproduction: leads to competition for resources.
7. Charles Darwin: English naturalist that collected and studied plant
Descent with Modification and animal specimens, bones, and fossils.
Evolutionary change is based on the interactions between a. Natural Selection: Darwin’s mechanism for evolution.
populations and the environment which results in adaptations to increase b. Descent with modification: Darwin’s term for evolution.
fitness. It is simply the passing of traits from parent to offspring. Adaptations: increase or enhances an organism’s ability to survive in its
Historical Process of Science environment.

1. Aristotle: scala naturae; life-forms are arranged on a scale of Evolutionary Fitness: individuals with more favorable phenotypes are more
increasing complexity; there is a hierarchy. likely to survive and pass on their traits to the next generation.
2. Carolus Linnaeus: Father of Modern taxonomy. Most notably Populations evolve, not individuals.
known for naming and classifying organisms (taxonomy). Invented
the binomial nomenclature system or two-term naming system. Natural Selection Artificial Selection
a. Domain  Kingdom  Phylum  Class  Order  Family Nature decides Man decides
- Genus  Species (DKPCOFGS) Works on individual Selective Breeding
b. His system of classification is based on anatomy and Inbreeding occurs
morphology. Humans can create substantial change over short periods of time,
3. George Cuvier: studied fossils and opposed the idea of evolution. however nature can create substantial change over long periods of time.
a. Catastrophism: catastrophe destroyed many living species 1. Direct Observation Examples: Insects become resistant
and are then replaced by immigrant species. to pesticides, antibiotic resistant
4. James Hutton and Charles Lyell: influential geologists in history that bacteria
influenced Charles Darwin’s theories. 2. Fossil Records: shows Fossils: remains of organisms from
evolutionary changes that occurs the past that are found in
over time and the origin of major sedimentary rocks
new groups of organisms
Paleontology: study of fossils.
3. Homology: characteristics in Homologous Structure: similar
related species can have anatomy, different function
underlying similarities even though
functions may differ. Analogous Structure: different
anatomy, similar function

Embryonic Homologies: similar


early developmental stages

Vestigial Homologies: structures


with little to no use for the
organism

Molecular Homologies: similar


DNA and amino acid sequences.
4. Biogeography: geographic Continental Drift and Pangaea
distribution of a species. Species in explains similarities of species from
nearby geographic areas resemble different continents.
each other.
Endemic species: are found only at
a certain geographic location.
Evidences for Evolution

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