The Molecular Basis of Inheritance: Colonies) - The S Samples Had A Polysaccharide Coating That
The Molecular Basis of Inheritance: Colonies) - The S Samples Had A Polysaccharide Coating That
- He was an Austrian monk who brought experimental and - Probability that 2+ independent events will occur together in a
quantitative approach to genetics. specific combination; multiply probabilities of each event.
- Famous for his pea plant experiment to study inheritance
Rule of Addition
o P Generation: parental; true breeding plants
o F1 Generation: offspring of the P generation - Probability that 2+ mutually exclusive events will occur; add
o F2 Generation: offspring of the F1 generation together individual probabilities.
o Alleles: alternate versions of a gene
Complete Dominance
Mendel’s Principles
- Heterozygote and homozygote for dominant allele are
1. Alleles cause variations in inherited characteristics among offspring. indistinguishable.
2. For each character, every organism inherits one allele from each
Incomplete Dominance
parent.
3. If 2 alleles are different: - F1 hybrids have appearance that is in between of the appearance of
a. Dominant allele: fully expressed in the offspring. the parents.
b. Recessive allele: will have no noticeable effect on the
Codominance
offspring’s appearance
4. Law of Segregation: the two alleles for each character separate - Phenotype of both alleles is expressed in the offspring.
during gamete formation.
a. Homozygous: 2 similar alleles (PP or pp) Multiple Alleles
b. Heterozygous: 2 different alleles (Pp) - gene has 2+ allele groups such as human blood groups.
c. Phenotype: expressed physical traits o Blood Transfusion: must match blood type because if two
d. Genotype: genetic make-up different blood types are mixed will result to clumping, and
Punnett Square eventually death.
Origin of Species Adaptive Radiation: rise of species from a single common ancestor. Occurs
when:
Speciation: origin of species; evolutionary process by which populations
evolve to become distinct species. 1. Few organisms make way to new distant areas
2. Niche survivors from mass extinctions.
Microevolution: changes within a single gene pool; change in allele
frequencies that occurs over time. Gradualism Punctuated Equilibrium
Macroevolution: evolutionary changes above the species level Common ancestor Long periods of stasis separated by
Slow, constant change short bursts of significant changes.
o Cumulative effects of speciation over long periods of time
Tempos of Evolution
1. No mutations
2. Random Mating
Evolution of Populations 3. No natural selection
Genetic Variation: term used to describe the variation in DNA sequence in 4. Extremely large population size
each of our genomes. They result from the subtle changes in DNA. 5. No gene flow
Mendelian genetics supports Darwin’s theory on evolution. IF one of them is not satisfied, then the population is evolving.
Sources: Minor Causes Major Causes
o Point Mutations: changes in one base (refer to CO1) Mutations: rare, small changes in Natural Selection: individuals with
o Chromosomal Mutations (refer to CO1) allele frequencies variations better suited to their
o Sexual Recombination: contributes to most of genetic environment pass more alleles to
variation in a population the next generation
1. Crossing Over during Meiosis – Prophase I
2. Independent Assortment of Chromosomes Survival of the Fittest
3. Random Fertilization
Non-random mating: affects Genetic Drift: small populations
Population Genetics: study of how populations change genetically over time genotype but not allele have a higher chance of
and involves the examination and modelling of changes in the frequencies frequencies. fluctuations in allele frequencies
of genes and alleles of populations. from one generation to another
Population: group of individuals that live in the same area and Founder Effect: certain
interbreed to produce fertile offspring. alleles are under/over
Gene Pool: all of the alleles for all genes in all the members of the represented due to few
population; collection of different genes within an interbreeding individuals isolated from
population larger populations.
o Diploid Species: 2 alleles for a gene Bottleneck Effect: sudden
Fixed Alleles: all members of a population only have 1 allele for a change in environment
particular trait; homozygous for all members of the population drastically reduces the size
of the population.
o More fixed alleles, lower species’ diversity.
Gene flow: movement of fertile
Hardy-Weinberg Theory individuals between populations;
reduces genetic differences
The allele and genotype frequencies of a population will remain between populations.
constant from generation to generation unless they are acted upon by Causes of Evolution
forces other than Mendelian segregation and recombination of alleles.
Fitness: contribution of an individual makes to the gene pool of the next
Equilibrium is achieved when allele and genotype frequencies remain generation. Natural Selection can alter frequency distribution of heritable
constant. If all conditions these conditions are achieved, then there is a H- traits through:
W equilibrium:
1. Directional Selection: an extreme phenotype is favored over other a. Gradualism: geologic change results from slow, continuous
phenotypes causing the allele frequency to shift over in time in the process. Variation is gradual in nature and happens over
direction of the favored phenotype. time as opposed to large steps (Lyell)
2. Disruptive Selection: also called diversifying selection; extreme b. Uniformitarianism: rate of change in the past is the same in
values for a trait is favored over intermediate traits. Variance of trait the present. Theory that suggests that the Earth is changing
increases and the population is divided into two groups. continuously at the same rate. (Hutton)
3. Stabilizing Selection: the population mean stabilizes on a non- 5. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck: published theory of evolution although his
extreme trait value. Most common mechanism as most traits do not explanation was flawed.
appear to change drastically over time. a. Use and Disuse: the more a particular part of an organism is
used, the more it is enhanced or strengthened.
Natural Selection cannot fashion perfect organisms as:
b. Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics: modifications on
1. Selection can only act on existing variations. an organism can be passed to an offspring.
2. Evolution is limited by historical constraints 6. Thomas Malthus: overpopulation may cause war, famine, disease
3. Adaptations are often compromises or anything that may limit a population.
4. Chance, natural selection, and the environment interact. a. Overproduction: leads to competition for resources.
7. Charles Darwin: English naturalist that collected and studied plant
Descent with Modification and animal specimens, bones, and fossils.
Evolutionary change is based on the interactions between a. Natural Selection: Darwin’s mechanism for evolution.
populations and the environment which results in adaptations to increase b. Descent with modification: Darwin’s term for evolution.
fitness. It is simply the passing of traits from parent to offspring. Adaptations: increase or enhances an organism’s ability to survive in its
Historical Process of Science environment.
1. Aristotle: scala naturae; life-forms are arranged on a scale of Evolutionary Fitness: individuals with more favorable phenotypes are more
increasing complexity; there is a hierarchy. likely to survive and pass on their traits to the next generation.
2. Carolus Linnaeus: Father of Modern taxonomy. Most notably Populations evolve, not individuals.
known for naming and classifying organisms (taxonomy). Invented
the binomial nomenclature system or two-term naming system. Natural Selection Artificial Selection
a. Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Nature decides Man decides
- Genus Species (DKPCOFGS) Works on individual Selective Breeding
b. His system of classification is based on anatomy and Inbreeding occurs
morphology. Humans can create substantial change over short periods of time,
3. George Cuvier: studied fossils and opposed the idea of evolution. however nature can create substantial change over long periods of time.
a. Catastrophism: catastrophe destroyed many living species 1. Direct Observation Examples: Insects become resistant
and are then replaced by immigrant species. to pesticides, antibiotic resistant
4. James Hutton and Charles Lyell: influential geologists in history that bacteria
influenced Charles Darwin’s theories. 2. Fossil Records: shows Fossils: remains of organisms from
evolutionary changes that occurs the past that are found in
over time and the origin of major sedimentary rocks
new groups of organisms
Paleontology: study of fossils.
3. Homology: characteristics in Homologous Structure: similar
related species can have anatomy, different function
underlying similarities even though
functions may differ. Analogous Structure: different
anatomy, similar function