MA313 Real and Complex Analysis

Lecture 1.2

Dr. Robin S. Havea

Functions 2
Cartesian product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Mapping and image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Direct and inverse images. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Special types of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Inverse function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Composition of functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Cardinality of a Set 14
Countability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Cantor’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1
Functions 2 / 21
Cartesian product
If A, B are nonempty sets, then the Cartesian product of A and B is the set of all
ordered pairs
A × B := {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.

Example. The Cartesian plane R2

R × R = {(x, y) : x ∈ R, y ∈ R}.

,
RSH MA313L1.2 – 3 / 21

Function
In a nutshell,

A function f from a set A into a set B is a rule of correspondence that assigns

to each element x in A a uniquely determined element f (x) in B.

More formally,

A function from A to B is a set f of ordered pairs in A × B such that for each

a ∈ A there exists ‘unique’ b ∈ B with (a, b) ∈ f .

The set A of first elements is called the domain of f denoted by D( f ); note that
D( f ) = A.

The set of second elements in f is called the range of f denoted by R( f ); note that
R( f ) ⊆ B.
RSH MA313L1.2 – 4 / 21

Mapping and image

When the context is clear we write f : A → B to mean that f is a mapping of A into B, or
that f maps A into B.

If b = f (a), we say that b is the value of f at a, or that b is the image of a under f .

RSH MA313L1.2 – 5 / 21

2
 Direct and inverse images
Let f : A → B be a function with D( f ) = A and R( f ) ⊆ B.

• If E is a subset of A, then the direct image of E under f is

f (E) := { f (x) : x ∈ E} ⊆ B.

• If H is a subset of B, then the inverse image of H under f is

f −1 (H) := {x ∈ A : f (x) ∈ H} ⊆ A.
RSH MA313L1.2 – 6 / 21

Example
Consider f : R → R defined by f (x) = x2 . The image of

E = {x : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}.

under f is
f (E) = {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}.
The inverse image of
H = {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}
under f is
f −1 (H) = {x ∈ R : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1}.
Notice that D( f ) = R and
R( f ) = {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0} ⊆ R.
What are f (Z) and f −1 (T) if T = {81}? ,
RSH MA313L1.2 – 7 / 21

3
 Special types of functions
Let f : A → B. We say that f is:

• one–to–one or injective if
 
∀a1 ∈ A∀a2 ∈ A f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) ⇒ a1 = a2 ,

that is, each element in R( f ) has unique pre–image.

• onto or surjective if R( f ) = B, that is

∀b ∈ B∃a ∈ A(b = f (a)),

in other words every element in B has at least a pre–image in A.

• bijective if it is injective and surjective.

RSH MA313L1.2 – 8 / 21

Example
(a) f : R → R defined by
f (x) = x2
is not one–to–one. Why?

(b) g : R → R defined by (
x−1 if x≥0
g(x) =
x+1 if x<0
is onto R but fails to be one–to–one. Why?

(c) f : R → R defined by
f (x) = ex
is one–to–one but not onto R. Why? ,
RSH MA313L1.2 – 9 / 21

Why?
(a) f (−1) = f (1) = 1.
(b) g(−1) = g(1) = 0
(c) Graph f (x) = ex .
RSH MA313L1.2 – note 1 of slide 9

4
 Example
Let h : R → R defined by h(x) = 3x + 2. Then:
(a) h is a one–to–one function.
(b) h is onto R.

Exercise: Justify. ,
RSH MA313L1.2 – 10 / 21

Justification
(a) One–to–one: Suppose h (x1 ) = h (x2 ). Then 3x1 + 2 = 3x2 + 2 implying x1 = x2 .
(b) Onto: Suppose y ∈ R(g) = R. Then for x = 31 (y − 2) ∈ D(g) = R we have

1 1
   
h(x) = h (y − 2) = 3 (y − 2) + 2 = y.
3 3
RSH MA313L1.2 – note 1 of slide 10

Inverse function
If f : A → B is a bijection of A onto B, then

g := {(b, a) ∈ B × A : (a, b) ∈ f }

is a function on B into A. This function is called the inverse function of f and is denoted
by f −1 . The function f −1 is also called the inverse of f .

Notice that
 
• D( f ) = R f −1 ,
 
• R( f ) = D f −1 .
RSH MA313L1.2 – 11 / 21

Composition of functions
If f : A → B and g : B → C, and if R( f ) ⊆ D(g) = B, then the composition function g ◦ f
is the function from A into C defined by

(g ◦ f )(x) := g( f (x)) for all x ∈ A.

N.B. Order of composition is important! For instance, if f (x) = x + 1 and g(x) = x2 , then

( f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = g(x) + 1 = x2 + 1

and
(g ◦ f )(x) = g( f (x)) = [ f (x)]2 = (x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1.
RSH MA313L1.2 – 12 / 21

5
 Theorem
Let f : A → B and g : B → C be functions and let H be a subset of C. Then
 
(g ◦ f )−1 (H) = f −1 g−1 (H) .

Proof. Omitted. 
RSH MA313L1.2 – 13 / 21

Cardinality of a Set 14 / 21

Countability
The set S is said to be:
• denumerable (or countably infinite) if there exists a bijection of N onto S.
• countable if it is either finite or denumerable.
• uncountable if it is not countable.
RSH MA313L1.2 – 15 / 21

Example
(a) The function f : Z → N, defined by
(
2n if n ≥ 1
f (n) = ,
1 − 2n if n ≤ 0

is bijective. Thus Z is countably infinite.

(b) The set of even number E := {2n : n ∈ N} is denumerable since f : N → E defined by

f (n) := 2n is a bijection.

(c) The set of odd numbers O := {2n − 1 : n ∈ N} is denumerable since f : N → O

defined by f (n) := 2n − 1 is a bijection. ,
RSH MA313L1.2 – 16 / 21

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 Theorem
The set N × N of all ordered pairs of positive integers is countable/denumerable.
Proof. (SKETCH) List all ordered pairs and count by following the arrows.

(1, 1) → (1, 2) (1, 3) → (1, 4) ···

ւ ր ւ ր
(2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) ···
↓ ր ւ ր ւ
(3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) ···
ւ ր ւ ր
(4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) ···
↓ ր ւ ր
.. .. .. ..
. . . .

Since we are able to enumerate all elements in the above table, the set must be
countable. 
RSH MA313L1.2 – 17 / 21

Theorem
Let S, T be sets such that T ⊆ S.

(a) If S is countable, then T is countable.

(b) If T is uncountable, then S is uncountable.

Proof. Omitted. 
RSH MA313L1.2 – 18 / 21

Theorem
The following are equivalent conditions.

(a) S is a countable set.

(b) There exits a surjection of N onto S.

(c) There exits an injection of S into N.

Proof. Omitted.
RSH MA313L1.2 – 19 / 21

7
 Theorem
If Am is a countable set for each m ∈ N, then the union
∞
[
Am
m=1

is countable.

Proof. Omitted. 
RSH MA313L1.2 – 20 / 21

Cantor’s Theorem
If A is a set, then there is no surjection of A onto the set P(A) of all subsets of A.

Proof. Discuss in class.

RSH MA313L1.2 – 21 / 21

Proof
(Contradiction) Suppose there is a surjection f : A → P(A). Because f (a) ⊆ A, either
a ∈ f (a) or a < f (a). Let
D := {a ∈ A : a < f (a)} ⊆ A.
If f is a surjection, then D = f (a′ ) for some a′ ∈ A.
Thus we must have either a′ ∈ D or a′ < D. If a′ ∈ D, then since D = f (a′ ), we must have
a′ ∈ f (a′ ), contradicting the definition of D. Similarly, if a′ < D, then a′ < f (a′ ) so that
a′ ∈ D, another contradiction.
Therefore, f cannot be a bijection. 
RSH MA313L1.2 – note 1 of slide 21