MA313 Real and Complex Analysis

Lecture 2.1

The Real Numbers R 2

Algebraic Properties of R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Algebraic Properties of R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Positive real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Theorem: Properties of R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Order Axioms for R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Theorem: Ordering Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
ACTIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Absolute Values and R 13

Absolute value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Theorem: Properties of absolute value. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Corollary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Corollary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
ǫ–neighbourhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
ACTIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Theorem: Properties of absolute value. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Corollary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
ǫ–neighbourhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Cardinality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Uncountability of (0, 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Cantor’s Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Cantor’s Argument ...continue... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Cantor’s Argument ...continue... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

1
The Real Numbers R 2 / 34
Algebraic Properties of R
The set R comes equipped with two binary operations denoted by + (addition) and ·
(multiplication). Let a, b, c ∈ R. The above operations satisfy the following properties.
A1. a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
A2. a+b=b+a
A3. a+0= a
A4. There exists −a ∈ R such that a + (−a) = 0.
M1. a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c
M2. a·b=b·a
M3. a·1= a
M4. If a , 0, then there exists a−1 ∈ R such that a · a−1 = 1.
RSH MA313L2.1 – 3 / 34

Algebraic Properties of R
The set R comes equipped with two binary operations denoted by + (addition) and ·
(multiplication). Let a, b, c ∈ R. The above operations satisfy the following properties.
DL. a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c
RSH MA313L2.1 – 4 / 34

Theorem
(a) If z, a ∈ R with z + a = a, then z = 0.

(b) Let u, b ∈ R with b , 0. If u · b = b, then u = 1.

(c) If a ∈ R, then a · 0 = 0.
Proof. Exercise. 
RSH MA313L2.1 – 5 / 34

Theorem
Let a, b ∈ R.

(a) If a , 0 such that a · b = 1, then b = 1/a.

(b) If a · b = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0.

Proof. Exercise. 
RSH MA313L2.1 – 6 / 34

2
 Theorem
√
2 is an irrational number.

Proof. Discuss in class. 

RSH MA313L2.1 – 7 / 34

Positive real numbers

There is nonempty subset P of R, called the set of positive real numbers, that satisfies
the following properties:

(i) a, b ∈ P ⇒ a+b∈P

(ii) a, b ∈ P ⇒ ab ∈ P

(iii) a∈R ⇒ (a ∈ P ∨ a = 0 ∨ −a ∈ P)
RSH MA313L2.1 – 8 / 34

Theorem: Properties of R
Let a, b, c ∈ R.
(i) a+c=b+c ⇒ a= b
(ii) a0 = 0
(iii) (−a)b = −ab
(iv) (−a)(−b) = ab
(v) ac = bc, c , 0 ⇒ a = b
(vi) ab = 0 ⇒ a = 0 ∨ b = 0

Proof. Exercise. 
RSH MA313L2.1 – 9 / 34

Order Axioms for R

Let a, b, c ∈ R.
O1. Either a ≤ b or b ≤ a.
O2. If a ≤ b and b ≤ a, then a = b.
O3. If a ≤ b and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c.
O4. If a ≤ b, then a + c ≤ b + c.
O5. If a ≤ b and 0 ≤ c, then ac ≤ bc.
RSH MA313L2.1 – 10 / 34

3
 Theorem: Ordering Properties
Let a, b, c ∈ R.
(i) a ≤ b ⇒ −b ≤ −a
(ii) a ≤ b, c ≤ 0 ⇒ bc ≤ ac
(iii) 0 ≤ a, 0 ≤ b ⇒ 0 ≤ ab
(iv) 0 ≤ a2
(v) 0<1
(vi) 0 < a ⇒ 0 < a−1
(vii) 0 < a < b ⇒ 0 < b−1 < a−1

Proof. Exercise. 
RSH MA313L2.1 – 11 / 34

ACTIVITY
Refer to Bartle–Sherbert’s Introduction to Real Analysis (3rd Edn).

 Read Section 2.1

 Do Exercises 2.1: 1–25 (odd)

RSH MA313L2.1 – 12 / 34

Absolute Values and R 13 / 34

Absolute value
Recall that the absolute value of x ∈ R is
(
−x if x < 0.
|x| =
x if x ≥ 0
RSH MA313L2.1 – 14 / 34

Theorem: Properties of absolute value

Let a, b ∈ R.

(a) |a| ≥ 0

(b) |ab| = |a||b|

(c) |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| (Triangle Inequality)

Proof. To be discussed in tutorial. 

RSH MA313L2.1 – 15 / 34

4
 Corollary
Let a, b ∈ R.

(a) ||a| − |b|| ≤ |a − b|

(b) |a − b| ≤ |a| + |b|

Proof. Discuss in class. 

RSH MA313L2.1 – 16 / 34

Corollary
If a1 , a2 , . . . , an are real numbers, then

|a1 + a2 + · · · + an | ≤ |a1 | + |a2 | + · · · + |an | .

Proof. Discuss in class. 

RSH MA313L2.1 – 17 / 34

ǫ–neighbourhood
Let a ∈ R and ǫ > 0. Then the ǫ–neighbourhood of a is the set

Vǫ (a) := {x ∈ R : |x − a| < ǫ} = {x ∈ R : −ǫ < x − a < ǫ}

= {x ∈ R : a − ǫ < x < a + ǫ}.
RSH MA313L2.1 – 18 / 34

Theorem
Let a ∈ R. If x belongs to the neighbourhood Vǫ (a) for all ǫ > 0, then x = a.

Proof. Exercise. 
RSH MA313L2.1 – 19 / 34

ACTIVITY
Refer to Bartle–Sherbert’s Introduction to Real Analysis (3rd Edn).

 Read Section 2.2

 Do Exercises 2.2: 1–17 (odd)

RSH MA313L2.1 – 20 / 34

5
 Theorem: Properties of absolute value
Let a, b ∈ R.

(a) |a| ≥ 0

(b) |ab| = |a||b|

(c) |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| (Triangle Inequality)

Proof. Discuss in class. 

RSH MA313L2.1 – 21 / 34

Corollary
If a1 , a2 , . . . , an are real numbers, then

|a1 + a2 + · · · + an | ≤ |a1 | + |a2 | + · · · + |an | .

Proof. Discuss in class. 

RSH MA313L2.1 – 22 / 34

ǫ–neighbourhood
Let a ∈ R and ǫ > 0. Then the ǫ–neighbourhood of a is the set

Vǫ (a) := {x ∈ R : |x − a| < ǫ} = {x ∈ R : −ǫ < x − a < ǫ}

= {x ∈ R : a − ǫ < x < a + ǫ}.
RSH MA313L2.1 – 23 / 34

Theorem
Let a ∈ R. If x belongs to the neighbourhood Vǫ (a) for all ǫ > 0, then x = a.

Proof. Exercise. 
RSH MA313L2.1 – 24 / 34

Cardinality
‘Cardinality’ of a set is a property that describes the size of the set.

Two sets S, T have the same cardinality if there is a bijection f from S to T such that
D( f ) = S and R( f ) = T. We then write

card(S) = card(T).
RSH MA313L2.1 – 25 / 34

6
 Example
Clearly if S = {1, 2, 3} and T = {a, b, c}, then card(S) = card(T) since

1 ↔ a
2 ↔ b
3 ↔ c

,
RSH MA313L2.1 – 26 / 34

Example
The intervals (0, 1) and (5, 7) have the same cardinality since f (x) = 2x + 5 is a bijection
between the intervals. ,
RSH MA313L2.1 – 27 / 34

Example
card((3, 4)) = card((10, 15)) since
15 − 10
f (x) − 10 = (x − 3) ⇔ f (x) = 5x − 5
4−3
is a bijection between the open intervals (3, 4) and (10, 15). ,
RSH MA313L2.1 – 28 / 34

Exercise
Find a bijection between the open intervals (a, b) and (c, d). ,
RSH MA313L2.1 – 29 / 34

7
 Theorem
Let S, T, U be sets. If

card(S) = card(T) and card(T) = card(U),

then card(S) = card(U).

Proof. Since card(S) = card(T), there exists a bijection f : S → T. Since

card(T) = card(U), there exists a bijection g : T → U.

Claim: g ◦ f : S → U is bijective.

Let s1 , s2 ∈ S.

s1 , s2 ⇒ f (s1 ) , f (s2 ) (since f is 1–1)

⇒ g f (s1 ) , g f (s2 ) (since g is 1–1)
⇒ g ◦ f is 1-1

Since f, g are both onto, g ◦ f is onto. 

RSH MA313L2.1 – 30 / 34

Uncountability of (0, 1)
The interval (0, 1) is uncountable.

Note Well.
• Every real number x ∈ (0, 1) has a decimal expansion

x = 0.a1 a2 a3 a4 . . . ,

where each ai is an integer between 0 and 9.

• Each decimal expansion corresponds to a different number, except for expansions

ending in 0’s, which correspond to numbers that can be represented by expansions
ending in 9’s.
1
For example, can be written as 0.5000 . . . or as 0.4999 . . . .
2
RSH MA313L2.1 – 31 / 34

8
 Cantor’s Argument
Suppose (0, 1) is countable. Then there exists a bijection f : N → (0, 1).

Denote
x(n)
j

the jth integer in the decimal expansion of f (n).

(1) (1) (1) (1)
f (1) = 0.x1 x2 x3 x4 . . .
(2) (2) (2) (2)
f (2) = 0.x1 x2 x3 x4 . . .
..
.
(n) (n) (n) (n)
f (n) = 0.x1 x2 x3 x4 . . .
..
.
RSH MA313L2.1 – 32 / 34

Cantor’s Argument ...continue...

Let
x = 0.x1 x2 x3 x4 . . . xn . . .
where:
(1)
◮ x1 is any integer between 2 and 8 that is not equal to x1 ;
(2)
◮ x2 is any integer between 2 and 8 that is not equal to x2 ;
..
.
(n)
◮ xn is any integer between 2 and 8 that is not equal to xn ;
..
.
The decimal expansion of x ∈ R is unique and 0 < x < 1 since it doesn’t end in 0’s or 9’s.
RSH MA313L2.1 – 33 / 34

Cantor’s Argument ...continue...

Thus:
⊲ x , f (1) since x differs in the first place of the decimal expansion.
⊲ x , f (2) since x differs in the second place of the decimal expansion.
..
.
⊲ x , f (n) since x differs in the nth place of the decimal expansion.
..
.
That is, x , f (n) for all n and hence

x < ran( f ),

a contradiction. Therefore (0, 1) is not countable.

RSH MA313L2.1 – 34 / 34