7

Energy Efficiency
Best Practice Guide
Steam, Hot Water and
Process Heating Systems
Best Practice Guide
Steam, Hot Water & Process Heating

Contents

1 Introduction 4

2 The business benefits of steam system, hot water system and process heating system efficiency 5

3 What is your opportunity? 6

4 Steam systems 7
4.1 Solution 1: Improve the efficiency of your existing system 7
4.2 Solution 2: Design a new system 15

5 Hot water systems 18

5.1 Solution 1: Improve the efficiency of your existing system 18
5.2 Solution 2: Design a new system 21

6 Process heating systems 23

6.1 Solution 1: Improve the efficiency of your existing system 23
6.2 Solution 2: Design a new system 27

7 Selecting a service provider 28

7.1 Questions to ask service providers 28
7.2 Database of sustainable service providers 28

Appendix A Steam system overview 29

Appendix B Hot water system overview 35

Appendix C Process heating system overview 36

Appendix D Glossary 40

Appendix E Further Reading / References 42

Table of Contents i
Best Practice Guide
Steam, Hot Water & Process Heating

List of Figures

Figure 1: Typical lifecycle costs of a steam system. 5

Figure 2: Typical boiler losses for a shell boiler. 9
Figure 3: Flash steam recovery vessel. 14
Figure 4: Typical basic steam circuit. 29
Figure 5: Typical flow path through fire-tube shell boiler. 30
Figure 6: Modern package boiler. 30
Figure 7: Water tube boiler. 31
Figure 8: Pressurised de-aerator. 31
Figure 9: Economiser principle and example for a packaged boiler. 32
Figure 10: Cut away section of a strainer. 33
Figure 11: Cut away section of a separator showing operation. 33
Figure 12: Condensate return system. 33
Figure 13: Steam accumulator (side and end view). 34
Figure 14: Typical gas-fired hot water system. 35
Figure 15: Key components of a process heating system. 36

List of Tables

Table 1: Some quantified energy saving opportunities for boilers. 10

Table 2: Steam leakage rates. 12
Table 3: Heat loss from uninsulated piping. 13
Table 4: Advantages and disadvantages of various water heating systems. 22
Table 5: Process heating classification. 38

Table of Contents 3
Best Practice Guide
Steam, Hot Water & Process Heating

1 Introduction

This document is a step-by-step guide to improving By following this guide, you will be able to determine
energy efficiency in boilers, steam systems, hot water what changes can be made to improve the operation
systems and process heating and achieving best and performance of equipment, reduce operating costs
practice that will lead to benefits for your business. and improve environmental outcomes. The guide has
There are several questions and issues covered by been developed to lead decision makers and service
this guide, including: providers through system changes; it is not intended
to be a thorough technical guide. References for more
• What are the basis components of industrial steam, detailed technical information are provided.
hot water and process heating systems?
• How can I tell if the system is functioning efficiently?
• What are the areas where systems can be improved
to operate more efficiently?
• What energy source should I use?

Introduction 4
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Steam, Hot Water & Process Heating

2 The business benefits of steam system,

hot water system and process heating
system efficiency
Steam, hot water and process heating are all essential Not only is energy cost a large part of the overall cost of
resources of many industries. They often provide owning a steam system, but steam generation systems
convenient, reliable and cost effective energy with in the US typically account for 34% of all energy used in
which to undertake the processes that are fundamental production.1 In addition, process heating systems can
to your business. As such an indispensable tool, there account for 17% of total industrial energy use.2
are great benefits to be gained from running these In the UK, up to one third of all energy consumption is
systems at their optimum efficiency, providing the best used to heat water.3 These statistics show that running
performance, safety and energy efficiency possible. an energy-efficient steam, hot water or process heating
system will greatly improve your business’ energy
Figure 1 illustrates that the cost of energy consumption consumption, bringing benefits both for your bottom
in a steam system is almost the entirety of the system’s line and the environment.
cost (based on data for boilers with a high rate of capacity
utilisation over a 20-year life). It makes good business
sense, therefore, to run an energy-efficient system.

Maintenance
1%
Installation
cost 3%

Energy cost
96%

Figure 1: Typical lifecycle costs of a steam system.1

The business benefits of steam system, hot water system and process heating system efficiency 5
Best Practice Guide
Steam, Hot Water & Process Heating

3 What is your opportunity?

Delivering the best outcomes for your business requires Solution 2: Design a new system
a whole systems approach to the design, installation, If you are planning a new steam, hot water or process
operation and maintenance of your steam, hot water heating system, this process outlines the steps required
or process heating system. to ensure you achieve excellent design and to help you
understand where to spend your valuable capital.
Defining the limitations of your current system is the
key to finding the best solution to achieving energy If your requirements have changed, for example,
efficiency for your business: if there have been significant upgrades to the process
• How do I make my existing system more efficient? plant or equipment, you may need to install more
• Do I need some new system components? efficient equipment or expand your current system.
• How do I expand my existing system? This will involve elements of both solutions. Firstly,
• What do I need to know to install a new system? ensure your existing system is running efficiently
(Solution 1) and secondly, design the new components
This guide offers step-by-step solutions to help you of the expanded system (Solution 2). Following this
identify the opportunities to implement best practice process will ensure that you are not wasting money
to achieve energy efficiency of your steam system, hot purchasing more than you actually need. Additionally,
water system or process heating system. information gained from reviewing efficiency may guide
the selection and design of the new components of
Solution 1: Improve the efficiency of your the system.
existing system
Is your steam, hot water or process heating system
fulfilling needs but could run more efficiently?
Perhaps your system is struggling to meet the
plant needs at particular times of the day or week?
This process may only involve a small investment,
but can provide significant savings and costs.

What is your opportunity? 6

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Steam, Hot Water & Process Heating

4 Steam systems

4.1 Solution 1: Improve the

efficiency of your existing system
There are many practical and proven methods for
improving the efficiency of your existing steam system,
and it is important to choose the ones appropriate
to your circumstances.

A suggested process to follow for improving

the efficiency of your steam system is summarised
as follows:

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

Establish Design piping, Select fuel Select boiler Plan for Select control
fittings and
steam needs condensate type type efficiency and monitoring
recovery systems

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4.1.1 Step 1: Review how you

use steam
The first step to improving your steam system is
to review how you use steam and why you need
it. Ask yourself the following questions for each of
your processes that use steam:

• What pressure, temperature and flow does it require?

• How do these requirements match with your steam
supply conditions?
• Could you lower the temperature of your steam supply?
• Could you use another source of heat, such as waste
heat from another process or piece of equipment?
• Can you alter the times at which steam is needed in
order to create a more constant load at the boiler?
• Could you use steam storage and therefore a
smaller boiler?
• Is steam being used for unsafe or inappropriate uses,
such as heating water directly (the energy and cost
spent in treating the steam is then lost as compared
to returning the condensate)?
• Is the steam use very small and the distance from
the boiler large?

Your steam system may not be meeting your needs

efficiently, in which case a steam service provider can
be consulted to suggest how your system may be
improved. Request that they take a systems approach
and keep your business needs in mind.

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4.1.2 Step 2: Review

boiler efficiency
Heat and energy losses in a typical packaged boiler
can be illustrated by the following diagram, along with
typical energy saving initiatives.

Minimise trim control

Flue gas losses
Minimise by plant
scheduling
Steam
Minimise return of condensate
Feedwater
Minimise temperature

Heat transfer gas Minimise by online and offline cleaning

and water side Minimise by good water treatment

Minimise by insulation
Radiation losses
Minimise by plant scheduling

Minimise by water treatment

Blowdown losses
Minimise blowdown heat recovery

Figure 2: Typical boiler losses for a shell boiler.4

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Opportunities for efficiency improvement are therefore Key steps to improving boiler efficiency5
related to reducing losses in these areas. Table 1
illustrates some boiler energy efficiency improvements 1. Improve operation and maintenance
and the expected energy saving potential.
The first step to running a more energy-efficient boiler
Table 1: Some quantified energy saving is to measure its current efficiency as a baseline and
opportunities for boilers.4 determine if its efficiency is within a good operating
range as compared to the boiler specifications.
Technique/ Energy Saving With some simple measurements of steam temperature
Method Potential and pressure, feedwater temperature and pressure,
Improved operation and Up to 5% steam flow rate and fuel consumption rate you can
maintenance of boilers accurately determine boiler efficiency.

Improved water treatment and Up to 2% Secondly, you could investigate the boiler shell for
boiler water conditioning hot spots. The presence of boiler hot spots can indicate
Total dissolved solids (TDS) control Up to 2% an unhealthy boiler. Hotspots can lead to accelerated
and boiler blowdown deterioration of boiler parts and a decrease in efficiency
and performance of the boiler. Techniques such as
Blowdown heat recovery Up to 3.75%
infrared imaging can be used to detect hot spots.
Boiler and burner management Up to 5%
systems, digital combustion 2. Investigate opportunities for feedwater
controls and oxygen trim quality improvement
Variable speed drives (VSDs) –
for combustion air fans Improving the feedwater quality will lead to a decreased
blowdown rate and other benefits throughout the steam
Flue gas shut-off dampers Up to 1% distribution system. However, any opportunity that
Economisers Up to 5% will require higher energy or cost in treating the water
Combustion air pre-heating Up to 2% should be carefully evaluated against boiler blowdown
energy losses to ensure the lowest energy and lowest
cost solution is found.
Note: Individual energy savings measures are not
usually cumulative, and doing one will reduce the 3. Determine boiler blowdown rate
potential savings of another. (% of feedwater flow, kg/h)

Boiler blowdown is an important part of maintaining

boiler performance. Too frequent and you are wasting
high value energy; too infrequent and you risk the steam
quality and boiler condition. Determine the optimum
blowdown rate based on the energy and cost required
for blowdown compared with water treatment costs,
and then consider automating it based on acceptable
concentrations of total dissolved solids (TDS).

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4. Investigate blowdown heat recovery The concentration of combustible material in the flue
opportunities gas is not only an efficiency matter but also one of
safety. High concentrations are dangerous and may
The blowdown water contains significant energy show that there is insufficient combustion intake air.
that can be recovered. Two main methods are Combine this measurement with that of the oxygen
used. Flash steam is created when blowdown concentration to determine if the combustion intake
occurs and if the blowdown stream is directed air amount should be changed. Problems may also
to a flash steam vessel, the flash steam can be be due to insufficient time for the reaction, temperature
recovered for low‑pressure steam applications or or insufficient mixing of oxygen and the fuel.
sent to the de‑aerator. Blowdown water from either
the blowdown stream or the liquid drain of the Unburned carbon loss is generally a problem in
flash steam vessel could also be used to pre-heat coal‑fired and other solid fuel boilers. By analysing
feedwater (or other water) using a heat exchanger. the carbon concentration of the ash it is possible to
Since the water has a high concentration of dissolved see if your unburnt carbon levels are within a normal
solids, the heat exchanger should be resistant to range. High levels are a sign of inefficient combustion,
fouling and able to be easily cleaned. which is increasing your fuel costs. Changes may
need to be made to your stoker or grate arrangements.
5. Boiler combustion management
6. Economiser
Minimising excess air in combustion is one of the
key energy efficiency initiatives for boilers. The more Consider the application of an economiser.
hot oxygen and nitrogen that escapes from the flue, This equipment recovers heat from your exhaust for
the more energy you lose. By analysing the oxygen pre‑heating of boiler feedwater or other process water.
concentration of the flue gas (%), you can easily
determine if too much excess intake air is being used.
This can then be controlled through regular checking
and adjustment, or through an automatic oxygen
trim control.

The flue gas exhaust temperature is also a good

indicator of the efficiency of your boiler. By measuring
the flue temperature daily and seeing how it changes
as compared to steam load, ambient temperature
and the oxygen content, you can quickly pick up any
efficiency problems with the boiler. Keeping the flue
gas temperature as low as possible is important in
maintaining energy efficiency.

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4.1.3 Step 3: Reduce steam 2. Implement a steam trap management program

distribution system losses Steam traps are devices that collect condensate in
the steam line. Once a sufficient amount of water has
While the boiler itself is an important area for been collected, the trap will drain to the condensate
improvement, the rest of the steam system is just return network. The act of draining the condensate
as important for improving energy efficiency and unavoidably means loss of steam from the system.
performance. If a trap is operating properly, this loss will be minimal.
Normal wear and tear, debris in the steam system, or
Key steps to reducing steam distribution improper application of steam traps can lead to trap
system losses failure. If the trap fails while open, steam will be vented
continuously, leading to a large energy loss from the
1. Find and repair steam leaks system. If a trap fails while closed, condensate can
back up within the steam system, damaging equipment
Steam leaks are a big cause of energy loss from steam and reducing the performance of your steam system.
systems. Leaks generally occur in pipe sections or
connections and steam traps that drain condensate. Faulty steam traps that are leaking badly must be
Table 2 shows the cost of steam leaks at various replaced to avoid large leaks. Typically, a well-
pressures and hole sizes. maintained steam system will experience failure in
10% of its traps within a one-year period5 To avoid
Table 2: Steam leakage rates.5 large energy losses, a steam trap management
program should be put in place that:
Hole Leak Rate (kg/hour) at Steam
Diameter Temperature 260 °C Steam Pressure • trains personnel
• inspects every steam trap at least annually
(mm) (kPa above atmospheric) • assesses its operating condition
• maintains a database of all steam traps,
345 689 1034 1379 1724 2068 2413 both operational and faulty
3.2 12 21 30 39 48 60 67 • acts on the assessment findings.
6.4 46 82 118 153 191 239 268
Green fact
9.5 103 183 265 347 430 538 604
Even in a well-maintained steam system, 10% of steam
12.7 183 326 470 616 764 956 1073 traps will fail every year
19.1 411 733 1058 1387 1719 2151 2413
25.4 731 1303 1881 2465 3056 3824 4290
31.8 1143 2036 2938 3851 4776 5975 6703
38.1 1645 2931 4231 5546 6877 8604 9653

Leaks can be detected by sight and hearing, while

ultrasonic leak detection can be used for smaller leaks.
The most effective repairs on steam pipe leaks can
be made when the steam system is not operating,
as the maintenance crew gets extensive and safe
access to the piping. If the leak is a safety hazard or
system downtime will not occur for some time, then
repairs can be made while the steam system is online.
However, only trained technicians should do the work
and the repair may not be as effective.

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3. Investigate potential areas for 4. Check insulation

condensate return
Maintaining your insulation in good condition is vital
Condensate is the condensed water that has dropped to an energy efficient steam system. Without effective
out of the steam system as it loses energy through the insulation on all piping, vessels and other equipment,
distribution system. This water is then drained by steam you are constantly losing energy to the environment.
traps. In the vast majority of cases, this condensate is Table 3 below shows the cost of uninsulated piping.
returned to a receiver, where the water is pumped to
the boiler feedwater system and recirculated through Table 3: Heat loss from uninsulated piping.5
the steam system. The advantages of returning this
water are: Nominal Heat Transfer from uninsulated pipe
Pipe exposed to 0.4m/s wind and 21ºC ambient
• Less energy is required to heat the feedwater as Diameter temperature (MJ/h/metre) Process Fluid
the condensate is still at a relatively high temperature. (mm) Temperature (ºC)
• Less water is drawn from the main supply and so
you save water. 93 204 316 427 538 649
• Effort, energy and money have already been invested 12.7 1 3 4 7 10 14
in treating the feedwater that is no longer lost.
25.4 1 3 6 9 14 20
Maximising the percentage of your condensate 50.8 2 5 9 14 22 32
returned to your boiler will raise your energy efficiency. 76.2 2 6 12 19 30 44
Unavoidable losses exist in certain steam applications,
such as sparging steam into a tank. Opportunities for 101.6 3 8 14 24 37 55
increasing your condensate return should be identified, 127.0 3 10 18 28 44 66
including: 152.4 4 11 20 34 51 76
• running return lines to distant parts of the system 203.2 5 13 25 42 66 96
• ensuring the size of condensate return piping 254.0 5 16 30 50 79 119
is sufficient for changing plant heat loads
304.8 6 18 34 58 92 139
• identifying and fixing leaks in the condensate
return system. 406.4 7 21 42 71 113 172
508.0 9 26 50 86 139 211
609.6 10 30 59 101 164 250

Carrying out an inspection of all elements of your

steam system, identifying and rectifying areas of no
insulation, inadequate or deteriorating insulation will
ensure that you can properly insulate you system.
Ensure that you are using the correct type of insulation
for your equipment.

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5. Investigate opportunities to reintroduce A flash steam recovery vessel allows the low-pressure
flash steam steam to be separated from the condensate and
creates a low-pressure steam supply line. The
When water at a saturated temperature and high condensate liquid is pumped to the boiler feedwater
pressure is collected in a steam trap, a portion of tank. This flash steam supply can then be used in
it will be converted to steam when it is released to multiple ways. If the flash recovery vessel is located
lower pressures. This is called flash steam. In most near the process, the flash steam could be used for
condensate return systems, flash steam is transported additional heating of the original process to which
to the feedwater system with the liquid condensate. it lost its heat. The flash steam may then condense
Even though the flash steam is at a lower temperature and be drained back to the common condensate
and pressure than the main steam system, this flash return line. Alternatively, the flash steam can be used
steam can still be useful in low-pressure applications. in other processes for heating, or for cooling if there
A flash steam recovery system can be installed to is a high‑temperature process that needs cooling.
make use of this steam. If the flash steam cannot be used for a process, it
can still be condensed and returned to the feedwater,
as significant energy has been invested in treating it.
However, condensing it may require large volumes of
water and a cost-benefit study should be conducted.

4.1.4 Step 4: Undertake

boiler maintenance
Boiler maintenance is essential in obtaining good
performance, efficiency and longevity. A regular
maintenance schedule, which involves logging of
boiler efficiency indicators and thorough cleaning of
heat transfer surfaces is essential. Inspection of boiler
insulation and refractory is also key. The maintenance
instructions provided by the boiler manufacturer should
be followed closely and at the recommended intervals.

Figure 3: Flash steam recovery vessel.5

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4.2 Solution 2: Design a

new system
A suggested process to follow when designing a new
steam system is summarised as follows:

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

Establish Design piping, Select fuel Select boiler Plan for Select control
fittings and
steam needs condensate type type efficiency and monitoring
recovery systems

4.2.1 Step 1: Establish 4.2.2 Step 2: Design your piping,

steam needs fittings and condensate recovery
When planning a new system or boiler, it is important Once your steam needs have been identified,
to take stock of exactly what you use steam for and you can begin to layout your steam distribution
how it is used to help meet your business needs. and recovery system. This will consist of piping,
Compile a list of all end uses of steam, the temperature, fittings, valves, steam traps and possibly flash steam
pressure and flow they require, their location and vessels and condensate receivers. The design of
their options for heat recovery. From this list, you can your heat recovery opportunities should also be
establish the correct temperature and pressure and the considered at this stage. Particular thought can be
average flow required by your system. It is important given to the angling of your steam pipes to allow
to ensure that steam will not be used for unsafe or for more convenient condensate recovery through
inappropriate uses for which other technologies are natural drainage, rather than requiring dedicated
better suited and more efficient; after all, steam is a condensate pumps.
relatively expensive form of energy.

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4.2.3 Step 3: Select the fuel type Steam accumulators

Steam accumulators can be used to store steam
Selection of the most suitable fuel for your boiler for use at peak steam demand times. While the use
application is an important and sometimes difficult of accumulators has declined recently, they should
choice. Options may include natural gas, fuel oil, be considered when selecting a boiler, as the ability
coal and others. You should also include waste to store steam allows for the selection of a boiler
heat from other parts of your plant, or from an on-site that can supply average demand without needing to
cogeneration system. Your decision should include supply peak demand. Installation of a smaller boiler
considerations such as: will mean both a cheaper installation and, more
importantly, cheaper running costs.
• boiler type required
• relative cost of fuels Steam usage
• stability of the fuel costs The steam generated by boilers can be used in two ways:
• changes to prices or your circumstances
in a carbon‑constrained world • at high pressure (> 4200 kPa) to drive turbines or
• current/future government or company policies reciprocating engines
that may affect supply of the chosen fuel • at lower pressure (700–1400 kPa) to supply heat to
• availability of a continuous supply of the fuel heating coils and so on, or by direct injection into fluid
(for example, supply interruptions)
• the potential for fouling and the cleaning time required In some plants, a combination of these uses is
• maintenance and downtime requirements employed. The resulting high-pressure superheated
• efficiency steam is used to drive a turbine for the generation
• net environmental impact. of electricity, and the turbine exhaust steam is used
for heat transfer applications. In these systems, the
condensate is generally returned to the boiler for
4.2.4 Step 4: Select boiler type reuse and the overall efficiency is almost 80%.

There are two key types of boilers – water tube boilers In most industrial and commercial plants, steam
and fire tube boilers. is only used for process and environmental heating.
It is important to optimise the efficiency of each part
Water tube boilers of such systems through proper selection, sizing,
Water tube boilers are usually used in large industrial operation and maintenance.
and power generation situations where extremely
high heat transfer rates are required to produce large
quantities of steam. The water is heated in tubes
and the fire (combustion process) is contained in
the space around the tubes. 6

Fire tube boilers

Fire tube boilers are used in the more typical industrial
and commercial boilers, which generally require lower
steam generation quantities, or have limited space.
In this case, the fire, or the hot combustion gases,
are contained inside tubes within the boiler and the
water is circulated around these tubes.

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The pressure at which you choose to distribute steam

will be a balance between high pressures, which
4.2.6 Step 6: Select boiler control
minimise pipe sizes and subsequent heat losses, and and monitoring systems
low pressures, which minimise the formation of flash
steam from the discharged condensate. Your boiler’s control system will largely depend on
your fuel selection. They can range from more simple
In industrial processes, the decision to use either mechanisms to complicated digital control and
heating coils/jackets or direct steam injection is monitoring systems. Some of the essential control
determined by the: systems required are outlined below.

• required rate of heat transfer Combustion control system

• agitation of solutions This control system regulates the fuel air mixture.
• nature of the product Systems range from simple physical linkage systems
• operating temperatures that vary the fuel and air intake with the steam pressure,
• cost of feedwater treatment. to electronic systems that monitor the fuel and air intake
and steam pressure independently. This system makes
A typical steam system uses the steam for direct use of the intake dampers and the fuel regulating valve.
process heating in the injection vessel and for
indirect heating through an indirect heating coil. Burner flame safeguard system
This system ensures that the burner flame remains
stable and safe by monitoring the flame, boiler pressure,
4.2.5 Step 5: Plan for efficiency water level and other variables. This system makes use
of the safety shutoff valve on the fuel supply.
Integrating the boiler operation with the steam system
demands is an important step towards obtaining Water level control
the most energy-efficient steam system possible. This system controls the water level in the boiler by
Often, the operation of the boiler at higher capacity sensing the water level and controlling the pumping
or for longer periods than are actually required by of feedwater into the boiler. More advanced systems
plant processes causes a large waste of energy. also sense the steam flow rate and other factors.
Scheduling plant processes to create as constant a
steam demand as possible, over as short a time as Steam pressure control
possible, is ideal. This will reduce the time the boiler is This system regulates the pressure in the steam header
operating at low capacity or the number of times that around the set point by controlling the burner firing rate.
the boiler must be shutdown and fired up. The use of
sophisticated monitoring and control systems will assist Safety valves
in implementing the most efficient system turndown As well as the safety shutoff valve that ceases fuel
when demand is low. supply, there is a safety release valve that releases
excess pressure from the boiler and a non-return
valve on the steam line that protects against steam
flow back into the boiler.

Monitoring systems
As part of the boiler monitoring system, important
variables that should be monitored include fuel supply,
steam flow and feedwater flow meters. This enables
a range of data to be analysed, boiler efficiency to be
assessed and trends in efficiency to be analysed.

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5 Hot water systems

5.1 Solution 1: Improve the

efficiency of your existing system
A suggested process to follow for improving the
efficiency of your hot water system is as follows:

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Step 7 Step 8

Check Reduce boiler Review/select Undertake Reduce hot Conserve hot Review system Replace boiler
insulation exhaust losses boiler controls regular water water layout
maintenance temperature consumption

5.1.1 Step 1: Check insulation 5.1.2 Step 2: Reduce boiler

Insulation (or ‘lagging’) is essential in reducing heat
exhaust losses
losses from the boiler, pipes and valves. New boilers
The exhaust flue of a boiler is one of the major sources
are often very well insulated, however, older boilers
of heat losses. You can do things to reduce these
may require more insulation or the insulation may
losses. The flue draws air through the boiler, even
have degraded. Poor insulation can account for
when the boiler is not firing. This cools the boiler and,
losses of up to 10%.7 Adding or replacing insulation
therefore, more energy will be required to get it back
is a simple and cost-effective measure that can
up to the correct temperature. A flue damper can be
improve your hot water system’s efficiency.
installed that will automatically close the flue when
the boiler is not firing, thereby conserving heat.

While the boiler is running, a lot of heat is lost in the

exhaust gases. Recovering this heat is a good way
of improving efficiency. Condensing boilers have this
feature built-in. The exhaust gas can be passed through
a heat exchanger with either the return water (in a
circulating system) or the intake air to the boiler in order
to reduce the energy required by the boiler. Increasing
the temperature of the intake air by 20°C will increase
the efficiency of the boiler by 1%.7 This sort of system
is called a recuperative burner system, and may need
special modifications to your burner and its controls.

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5.1.3 Step 3: Review/select 5.1.4 Step 4: Maintenance

boiler controls Regular maintenance of your hot water generator is
essential to keep it running efficiently. A maintenance
The effectiveness of your boiler control system is
routine, maintenance manual and logbook for tracking
one of the key factors in running an efficient hot water
are all important features in a maintenance plan.
system. Check which type of control your boiler is
A number of specific maintenance tasks should be
using and whether it suits the demands of your boiler.
performed to ensure the best performance and lifetime
You may wish to consult a service provider on whether
for your boiler.
your system could be adjusted to run more efficiently.
A number of special control features can be employed
Analyse flue gas
to improve efficiency.
If using gas, an analysis of the flue exhaust gases and
the concentrations of oxygen, carbon monoxide and
Burner controls
carbon dioxide will give an indication of combustion
Possible types of burner control are on/off, high/low
efficiency, which can be compared against the
and modulating, increasing in efficiency from the former
specifications of how your boiler should perform. This
to the latter.
is a good way of determining the health of your boiler.
Boiler interlock
Remove soot build-up
By integrating the control of the boiler with thermostats
Gas boilers will create a build-up of soot over time. This
on the heating distribution system, it is possible to avoid
soot is a layer of unburnt fuel particles that builds up on
‘dry-cycling’, which is the firing of the boiler while there
the fireside of the heat exchanger. This layer will insulate
is no demand for heat. This is quite a simple yet effective
the water and reduce efficiency. A 1mm layer of soot
measure if your boiler experiences this problem.
will increase the energy required by the boiler by 10%.7
Removal of this soot is an important maintenance task.
Sequence control
If multiple boilers are used, it is possible to use sequence
Lime-scale build-up
control to turn unnecessary boilers off and avoid running
If the water supply is particularly hard water, then
multiple boilers at part load.
lime‑scale build-up can occur on the water side of
the heat exchanger. As with the soot build-up, this
Optimised start/stop control
inhibits the heating of the water. Removal of lime-scale
Often boilers have time switches to ensure the boiler
is best done with chemical treatment. Again, this task
is only operating during the times that production is
is important, as a 1 mm layer of lime-scale will create
running, for example, 8am – 6pm. An optimiser can be
a 7% increase in the energy input to the boiler.7
installed which receives input from process thermostats,
allowing the boiler to operate for the shortest length of
day possible while still maintaining the required heating 5.1.5 Step 5: Reduce hot water
for the process.
temperature
The temperature set point of your boiler is a major
factor in determining the heat lost throughout your
system. By reducing the temperature of your hot water
supply to the minimum required for your application,
you can save significant amounts of energy.

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5.1.6 Step 6: Conserve hot water • Third/final rinse water: store in a tank to be
used as the second rinse of the next cycle
consumption • Fresh water: use as the final rinse only

A key efficiency measure is to stop hot water going

down the drain. This can be done a number of ways. 5.1.7 Step 7: Review system
layout
Repair leaks
Any leaks in the hot water system are causing your Minimising the distance between your hot water
system to lose water and waste energy. Find and repair boiler and the end uses of your hot water will save
any leaks as far as possible. The staff on the shop floor you significant heat losses from piping.
can act as your eyes and ears in detecting any leaks,
so make use of them.
5.1.8 Step 8: Replace your boiler
Use efficient fittings
Use efficient nozzles and taps wherever possible. It may While the above key energy efficiency measures will
involve an initial cost but will soon pay off in both water help your hot water system run more efficiently, if your
and energy savings. boiler is quite old or is in poor condition, then it may be
beneficial to replace the boiler. Typical boiler lifetimes
Separate hot/cold outlets are 15 years.7 While replacing the boiler may appear
Using separate hot and cold water outlets instead of to be a large cost, the potential savings in energy
a combined warm water tap may also save hot water and maintenance costs of running the new boiler,
if a manual outlet control is used, as no hot water will as compared to the old, one could make it worthwhile.
be used when only cold is needed.
Replacing the boiler is not as simple as reading the
Appropriate uses specifications on the nameplate of the old boiler and
While hot water is often easily available for use in jobs ordering a new one with those specifications. A review
on the shop floor, a significant energy cost is involved should be undertaken that looks at your site’s heating
in creating hot water, which means using hot water demand, with your business needs in mind. To ensure
inappropriately is wasting energy. Ensure that hot this review is thorough and accurate a boiler technician
water is not being used for jobs for which there is or specialist engineer should be consulted. Such a
a more suitable alternative. review should consider the following points:

Consider higher system pressure • What is the site’s heating requirements?

There is a trade-off between using higher pressure • What fuel supply will be used?
water sprays (which use more electricity, but less hot • Where will the new boiler be located?
water and therefore heating energy), and low-pressure • Is the new boiler a condensing boiler?
systems. Consider the application of high pressure • Will it be compatible with the current site heating system?
systems for cleaning or other uses. • How will maintenance costs compare to the old boiler?
• Will there be the reduction in emissions of carbon
Pre-heating and reuse in clean-in-process dioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide?
(CIP) systems
CIP systems can require a lot of hot water. Through Condensing Boilers
the use of multiple holding tanks, water and energy Condensing boilers have an in-built second heat
efficiency gains can be made as follows: exchanger that extracts waste heat in the exhaust
gases and returns it to the system. It also allows more
• Water from the first rinse: to drain water vapour in the exhaust to condense and also
• Water from the second rinse: store in a tank returns this to the system, reducing the water and
to be used in the first rinse of the next cycle energy consumption. Using a condensing boiler as
the replacement can save between 10% and 20%
of annual energy costs.7

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5.2 Solution 2: Design a new system

You may need to install a brand new system, perform
a major refurbishment, or conduct a major upgrade.
In order to ensure that your new hot water system
performs well and is energy efficient, a comprehensive
review of your system requirements and the
installation options is needed. Engaging a service
provider to perform this role is advisable, as it will
require considerable knowledge and resources.
While all of the above information about hot water
systems is applicable to new systems, a general
outline of the review sequence is as follows:

Installing a Establish hot Design your Select boiler(s) Plan for

new hot water water needs piping and control and efficiency
system fittings monitoring
systems

5.2.1 Distributed and 5.2.2 Fuel selection

centralised systems Gas
Gas is a common and convenient fuel used for hot
The generation of hot water can be performed in one
water boilers. While natural gas is normally used,
central location and distributed to all the end uses,
it is possible to use LPG. A burner provides heat
or the hot water can be generated with a number of
via the heat exchanger. Air intake can be through
smaller systems located close to where you need
natural convection or forced with intake fans.
it. The choice between these two methods can be
difficult and is different for each site. Some of the
Electricity
factors to consider are:
Electricity is another popular way of heating water.
These boilers normally consist of a resistive element,
• Are the end uses of the hot water located within
which heats the water directly. Usually this is more
one building, or many?
expensive than gas, but can be more cost effective
• What is the distance over which you would need
when used in a heat-pump system. If there is no natural
to distribute the hot water, and what would the
gas available, then an electric heat pump should be
thermal losses be?
considered as well as LPG or other fuel sources.
• What is the volume of hot water you need and
at which location?

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Steam Solar
If you have steam generation on-site, you can use this Solar hot water systems work by using the sun’s
steam to produce hot water. Steam and cold water are thermal energy to heat water. These systems commonly
passed through a heat exchanger, with heat transferring run water through a series of pipes that are exposed to
to the water as the steam condenses. This can be the sun, often on a roof. The water is then returned to
an efficient method as you already have the steam a storage tank. Solar energy can also be supplemented
generation system running and heat exchangers can by other fuels or heat sources in order to maintain a
be designed to operate quite efficiently. continuous flow of hot water during extended operation.

Waste heat recovery Heat pump

Waste heat from other processes (such as air A heat pump works by extracting heat from the
conditioning, heat pumps or cogeneration systems) surrounding environment and transferring it to your hot
can be used to heat water. This may be in the form water, much like a refrigerator works but in reverse.
of flash steam, hot process liquids, flue gases from
combustion, or air that has already passed through Comparative analysis
a process but may still have significant heat that can The following table illustrates the relative advantages
be transferred to water via a heat exchanger. and disadvantages of some water heating systems.
What is not taken into account in this table is the
infrastructure cost to use the particular fuel source.
This can have a significant bearing on the overall cost
of the hot water generation.

Table 4: Advantages and disadvantages of various water heating systems.

Energy Source Fuel Cost Fuel Efficiency Greenhouse Gas Emissions

(excluding cost
of equipment)
Gas $3–7/GJ 70–90% Medium – gas has a lower greenhouse gas coefficient
than electricity
Electricity $25–35/GJ Up to 100% May be high depending on your electricity supply
resistance characteristics
Steam $4–10/GJ 50–80% Medium if gas fired – gas has a lower greenhouse gas
coefficient than electricity. High if electricity is used to
raise steam
Waste heat Low 70–90% Low
recovery
Solar Free 70–90% Low – there may still be pumping required in the system
Heat pump $25–35/GJ Up to 400%* Medium – electricity is still required to run the heat pump

*It is difficult to represent overall system efficiency with a heat pump. The coefficient of performance (COP) of the
heat pump may be as high as 4, meaning up to 4 units of heat are provided for one unit of electricity.

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6 Process heating
systems

6.1 Solution 1: Improve the

efficiency of your existing system
While process heating systems can be complex,
relatively simple improvements can be made with
minimal investment or time but that yield significant
energy savings and performance improvements.
Note that, while most of the steps outlined here will
be applicable to all process heating systems, some
will apply solely to a combustion system as opposed
to electricity-based heating technologies. A suggested
process to follow for improving the efficiency of your
process heating system is summarised as follows:

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

Review heat Review Review heat Review heat Review controls Replace
generation insulation and transfer recovery and material components
containment handling

6.1.1 Step 1: Review heat Pre-heat combustion air

A common method of pre-heating the combustion air
generation is to pass the intake air through a heat exchanger with
the exhaust gases from the furnace itself. In this way,
Air-to-fuel ratio heat that would otherwise be vented to the atmosphere
Like hot water generators and boilers, any direct is transferred to the intake air. Other methods would be
combustion will need its efficiency managed. to pre-heat combustion air with return steam or cooling
See Section 5.1.3 on boiler combustion controls water from another process in a heat exchanger. Intake
and maintaining efficiency over time. air pre-heating can save between 15% and 30% of your
energy costs.2

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Oxygen enrichment Air infiltration

Oxygen enrichment has not been widely used in The operation of a combustion system creates negative
the past, but recent technology improvements pressure within the furnace as the exhaust gases move
mean that it is again becoming a useful technique. out through the flue. While this ensures combustion
It involves supplementing the combustion intake air gases do not escape to the surroundings, it may lead
with oxygen, creating intake air with a higher oxygen to the infiltration of ambient air into the furnace through
concentration. This higher concentration leads to leaks and openings. As this surrounding air is at a
more efficient combustion and so less fuel is used. low temperature, it forces the furnace to work harder,
The saving from this technique can be between 5% therefore using more energy. To avoid this, the furnace
and 25% of energy cost.2 should be regularly inspected and any cracks, leaks or
openings due to improper seals on doors should be
Process temperature fixed. A pressure control system can also be installed
Ensure the process temperature is set at the minimum to ensure that the furnace pressure does not encourage
required to maintain the desired product quality, thereby air infiltration. These measures can save up to 5% of
reducing heat losses from the system. Recent changes energy costs.2
in your process or the materials you are using may now
allow you to set a lower process temperature. Hot spots
Regular inspection for localised hot and cold spots can
help act as an early warning for problems with your
6.1.2 Step 2: Review insulation furnace or boiler’s health. Infrared imaging can be used
and containment to assist with this task.

Insulation is vitally important in maintaining energy Extended parts

efficiency. Containing heat loss must be a priority in order Some furnaces of boilers may have parts that protrude
to ensure your process heating system is running well. from the body of the furnace, such as roller shafts.
These parts cause heat to be lost to the surrounding
Insulation atmosphere. If these parts cannot be removed
At the very least, ensure that adequate insulation in or shortened, then perhaps insulation should be
good condition is installed on the following equipment. considered for them.

• furnace walls
• heat transfer pipes
6.1.3 Step 3: Review heat transfer
• intake air pipes if pre-heated
The transfer of heat from combustion to the product
• heat recovery piping.
is another area in which energy savings can be made.
Heat that is lost from the process is absorbed by
Cleaning
the surrounding ambient atmosphere. If your process
Ensure that heat transfer surfaces are clean to allow
heating takes place within a building that is temperature
for maximum transfer. Removing soot, scale, carbon
controlled by a HVAC system, then poor or no insulation
and other deposits from furnaces, boilers, radiant
means that you are creating extra load for the HVAC
tubes and heat exchangers will improve efficiency.
system, and are losing money from two sources.
Ensuring that your insulation is adequate can save
Burners
up to 5% in energy costs.2
The correct and most efficient use of burners will
assist in process efficiency and product quality.
Ensure that in each location within the burner that
the proper type of burner is being used, the layout
is optimum for your process and that all burners are
in proper working condition.

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Recirculation Product pre-heating

Recirculating fans or jets can be used to ensure Where your process allows, it may be possible to use
that the temperature throughout the furnace or oven the exhaust gases (or other sources) to preheat the
is consistent, increasing efficiency and improving product before it enters the process furnace. As with
product quality through consistent heating. combustion air pre-heating, this leads to significant fuel
savings. This is particularly applicable if your product
Furnace zone temperature is a liquid, as a heat exchange can easily be utilised.
Zoning can be used within the furnace to apply It may also be possible to use the exhaust gases to
different temperatures to the product at different aid the process heating itself by making a number of
stages of the process, by varying the temperature passes through the furnace.
over time, as in a batch process, or by creating
different temperature zones within the furnace, as in Cascading
a continuous process. The proper use of zoning can If you have multiple process heating applications, you
allow a higher temperature to be applied in the initial may be able to cascade waste heat from one process
stages, which will increase the rate of heat transfer to another. If you have exhaust gases from one process
while maintaining the product quality. that are, for example, at 120°C, while another process
is being heated to only 80°C, then you can use the
waste heat of the exhaust of the first to assist in heating
6.1.4 Step 4: Review heat the second. This technique can be used to cascade
recovery waste heat through multiple different processes,
either by using the exhaust of the original process
Heat recovery is the best option for improving your in subsequently lower temperature processes, or by
process heating system efficiency. It is almost ‘free’ using the waste heat from each process in the next.
energy from gases or liquids that you would otherwise
vent or remove. In high process-temperature Hot water and steam generation
applications, heat recovery is doubly important, as Waste heat from a process can be used to assist in
the higher the temperature of your combustion gases the generation of hot water or even steam for your
the more energy you are losing to the surroundings. site. Using the exhaust gases of a process to preheat
intake water for a hot water boiler, or the return steam
You may wish to consult a process heating service of your steam generation boiler, is a very simple and
provider in order to gain an independent view of the yet efficient way to reduce your total energy costs.
best heat recovery system specific to your plant.
Some of the more common heat recovery techniques Absorption cooling
are discussed below, most of which can save between As well as using exhaust gases for heating, it may also
5% and 20% of your energy costs.2 be possible to use them for cooling. You can use the
exhaust to absorb heat and vent it to the atmosphere,
Combustion air pre-heating thereby reducing the load on your cooling system
The simplest and yet one of the most effective techniques and saving energy. The possibilities for absorption
is to pass the exhaust gases through a heat exchanger cooling are highly dependent on your processes and
to transfer heat to the intake combustion air, thereby a service provider could be used to assess the viability
reducing the fuel required to heat the process. This of opportunities. Maintenance costs can be significant
technique can save between 10% and 30% of your and should be investigated thoroughly.
fuel cost.2

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6.1.5 Step 5: Review process Advanced materials

Many parts of a process heating system may need to
control and material handling be cooled to ensure proper functionality and longevity.
With the advent of new materials, you may be able to
Opportunities for energy savings through heat replace these parts with new technology, which will
generation, transfer, containment and recovery have provide the same function without requiring cooling,
been considered. There are also opportunities for which saves energy. Also, many parts that are exposed
savings by optimising the process control, material to large amounts of heat have considerable mass in
handling and auxiliary systems of the process heating order to maintain integrity. Newer materials can be
system. These will be dependent on your system – used that will withstand those temperatures while
ensure that any efficiency improvement study takes having a smaller mass, meaning that less energy
a whole-systems approach. is required to heat them during furnace start up.

Process control Sensors

A significant saving in process heating energy costs In order to obtain efficient process control, effective
can be made by minimising the amount of starting and use of sensors is required. Ensure that your sensors
stopping of the furnace, and the amount of idle time are correctly placed and in good working order. New
between batches of the process. While the furnace is sensor technology is constantly being developed that
running with no product within it, you are using energy may assist your control system in optimising your
with no benefit. Additionally, each time the furnace is process. Accurate sensing of the furnace temperature
started, a very large amount of energy is required to (in various locations) and the oxygen and unburnt fuel
heat the thermal mass of the furnace itself. This energy content of the flue gases is essential.
is then lost when the furnace is cooled. By optimising
your process to run the furnace continuously with Auxiliary systems
minimal delays between batches, for the shortest Process heating systems require many auxiliary
time possible, you can gain big savings. systems, including forced draft fans, fluid pumps and
material handling system motors. Effective and efficient
Material handling operation of each of these systems is part-and parcel
If your material handling system that loads product into of running an efficient process heating system.
your furnace is slow, you can waste time and energy
in waiting for your product to move on. Upgrading this
system to run faster can save energy. 6.1.6 Step 6: Replace your
equipment
Turndown
Process heating systems often have a minimum limit on If, after the key energy efficiency measures have been
the capacity that they can support before needing to be implemented, your process heating system is not
shut down. Turndown is the ratio of the highest capacity performing well, due to either old age or poor condition,
to the lowest. By increasing this ratio, you are making replacing your process heating equipment may be the
your process heating system more efficient. best option. If so, it is a great opportunity to carry out
a review of your process heating needs, rather than
simply buying the same. Considering your heating
requirements, material handling systems, heat recovery
options and control systems is important in planning
for the system that will give you the best performance
with the lowest energy costs possible. Remember, the
installation cost of typical industrial heating systems is
only a fraction of their energy cost over their lifetime.

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6.1.7 Performance
improvement tools
A number of free software-based tools are available that
can be used to assist in the assessment of your process
heating system and identify options for energy‑efficiency
improvements. These tools are:

• Process Heating Assessment and Survey Tool

• NOx Emission Assessment Tool
• The Combined Heat and Power System Application
Tool for the Process Heating Industry

For details of these tools, and where to find them,

see Reference 2.

6.2 Solution 2: Design a

new system
If you are planning a new process heating system
you should plan for efficiency by considering the
measures mentioned in this guide. A comprehensive
study of your heating requirements, both at start-up
and in the foreseeable future, should be undertaken.
A process heating service provider can assist with this
study and the design of the system in order to provide
the most comprehensive options and the best energy
efficiency achievable.

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7 Selecting a service provider

Many of the suggestions made in this guide to improve

the efficiency of your hot water, steam or process
7.2 Database of sustainable
heating system can require substantial time, expertise, service providers
equipment and resources. In such cases, you may
prefer to contact a service provider to perform some Sustainability Victoria maintains a Sustainable
or all of the work for you. In either case, there are Manufacturing Directory, which lists service providers
some questions you should ask before you begin. for a whole range of industries, products and services.
You can easily find a service provider to help you
with your steam, hot water or process heating project
7.1 Questions to ask by searching the directory, which can be found at:
service providers www.sustainability.vic.gov.au

Will the provider take a systems approach?

It is important that your service provider considers how
to optimise your entire system, not only one or two of
its components.

Will the provider examine the demand side as well

as the supply?
While the supply side of equipment is an important
consideration, the provider should also be investigating
the demand side of your system.

Other questions:
• What analysis services do they offer (for example,
boiler efficiency)?
• What training does the provider’s staff have in
energy efficiency?
• Are they qualified to work on all relevant equipment
and install metering?
• Do they provide emergency service response?
• Will they take care of parts shipping?
• Will they contract out any of the work themselves?
• Do they have the capability to remotely monitor
your system?
• Can they provide emergency rental equipment
if required?

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Appendix A
Steam system overview

Steam systems are very common in industrial and

manufacturing plants around the world.

Figure 4 shows a typical basic steam layout for an

industrial plant.

Figure 4: Typical basic steam circuit.8 Fire tube boilers: There are many different types
of boilers and it is not possible to show them all
A brief description of each component follows. here. Figure 5 illustrates the typical flow path for the
combustion gases and the likely temperatures in a
Gas burner systems: In typical packaged boilers typical fire-tube boiler installation. In these boilers,
that run on gas, burners mix the air and fuel in the combustion gases from the burner flow through
an appropriate ratio to support reliable and safe the inside of the tubes, with the water that will be
combustion. Too much fuel and there will be boiled to steam on the outside of the tubes.
incomplete combustion and increased harmful
emissions. Too little fuel (or too much air) and the
air will carry away a lot of useful heat out of the flue.
Burners come in different types including:
• pressure jet burners
• rotary cup burner
• gas burners (low and high pressure)
• dual fuel burners
• recuperative and regenerative burners.

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Steam at 150ºC

3rd Pass tubes 200ºC

350ºC

400ºC
2nd Pass tubes

1600ºC 1st Pass (furnace tube/s)

Figure 5: Typical flow path through fire-tube shell boiler.8

Figure 6: Modern package boiler.8

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Water tube boilers: Water tube boilers are often used Blowdown system: Over time, the water inside the
in larger boiler applications such as power stations and boiler will accumulate sludge and suspended solids
large industry. This is because the smaller diameter of formed from the chemicals used in dosing of the
the water tubes allows higher steam pressures to be feedwater, or dissolved solids naturally occurring
generated, such as those required for power generation in the feedwater itself. If not removed, these can
using steam turbines. accelerate corrosion and decrease the performance
of your boiler and steam system. A blowdown routine
should be implemented, which can be a manual or
automated system.

De-aerator: The purpose of a de-aerator is to remove

oxygen and other gases such as carbon dioxide,
thereby reducing the potential corrosion in your
steam system without significant use of chemicals.
Whilst pressurized de-aerators require venting of
steam with the oxygen, the reduction in the use
of chemicals can reduce blowdown, prevent any
contamination of foodstuffs in plant heat exchangers
or direct use, and may be cheaper than chemical use.

Figure 7: Water tube boiler.8

Figure 8: Pressurised de-aerator.8

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Boiler feed pump: To overcome the pressure in the Steam piping: International and national standards
boiler created by the heating process, boilers are fed stipulate the material and wall thickness of steam
by boiler feed pumps. Sometimes they are driven by piping. Generally, steam piping should be the minimum
electric motors and sometimes by steam motors from size required for the duty. This not only minimises
the boiler itself. Flow from the boiler feed pump is the cost of the pipes, but also reduces the cost
usually controlled by a throttling valve that is connected of insulation, fittings, flanges, supports and so on.
to a water-level sensor in the boiler. As the water level Steam pressure is related to this, as generating steam
drops due to steam production, more water is supplied at high pressures requires a lower pipe size to deliver
with the boiler feed pump. the same amount of energy.

Economiser: Economisers have the potential to Insulation: To minimise heat loss from a steam system,
reduce your fuel consumption by around 4–6% it is common to insulate pipes, joints and fittings, but
through capturing the waste heat contained in the to leave safety valves uninsulated. Insulation comes
flue gas, and pre-heating the feedwater to your in various types, including aluminium clad fibreglass,
boiler. The main consideration (apart from cost) is the aluminium-clad mineral wool and calcium silicate.
acidic conditions that may result from condensation
of contaminants in your flue gas if you are using an Steam traps: The primary purpose of a steam trap
oil‑fired boiler. Economisers can be factory-fitted with is to discharge condensate, whilst not allowing
a new installation, or retrofitted to some boilers. live steam to escape. Due to the wide variety of
applications under which steam traps are required
to operate, they come in many shapes and sizes
to suit those applications, including:
• thermostatic (operated by changes
in fluid temperature)
• thermodynamic (operated by changes
in fluid dynamics)
• mechanical (operated by changes in fluid density).

Strainers: High steam quality is usually important for

your process equipment, and any solids contained in
the steam can reduce its performance.

Figure 9: Economiser principle and example for a packaged boiler.9

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Figure 10 illustrates a typical strainer, which acts like a Condensate return system (return lines, return
sieve or filter. As such, it should be regularly cleaned to tank): Inevitably, as steam passes through your steam
avoid blockage in your system. distribution network, it condenses, and in so doing
gives up heat to pipes and steam equipment, your
process and ultimately the atmosphere through heat
losses. Bringing hot condensate back to your boiler
(rather than discharging it to drain) will improve energy
efficiency of your steam system, and reduce water
make-up and water treatment costs (because the
condensate will, by definition, be high-quality water).
Several things could prevent condensate return,
Figure 10: Cut away section of a strainer.8 including contamination by the process or the cost
of piping a small amount of condensate from part
Separators: Separators are also part of the solution to of the plant that is far away from the boiler. These
maintaining high steam quality, which in turn minimises costs should be weighed up against the benefits
production downtime and reduces the degradation of recovering the heat.
of your equipment. In particular, separators assist by
removing steam that has condensed (condensate)
from your system, as well as air. Air, when dissolved
into condensate, is corrosive and an accumulation
of condensate reduces the heat transfer performance
of your steam system.

Figure 12: Condensate return system.8

Figure 11: Cut away section of a separator

showing operation.8

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Condensate return tank: When steam gives up its

latent heat, it condenses to form high-pressure water,
and when released through steam traps, can be
returned to the boiler house for reuse. Sometimes,
condensate is collected at the lowest point of a plant
in a condensate return tank and then pumped to the
boiler feedwater tank.

Steam accumulator: A steam accumulator is a method

of storing steam for use during high-demand periods.
Steam from the boiler is injected into the accumulator,
which contains water under pressure at its saturation
temperature. When the demand for steam exceeds the
boiler’s capability, the discharge valve opens and flash
steam is created, as the discharge pressure is below
that of the accumulator. In this way, the accumulator
provides for the excess demand that the boiler cannot
handle, allowing for a smaller boiler to be used but still
providing for peak capacity. Also, when demand is
low, the boiler will charge the accumulator with steam,
providing extra demand on the boiler and so flattening
its load profile.

Figure 13: Steam accumulator (side and end view).8

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Appendix B Hot water system overview

An industrial hot water system generally consists of:

• Hot water generator (sometimes called a hot water

boiler): produces hot water at temperatures required
by your process usually less than 100°C.
• Hot water pump: supplies hot water to the plant.
• Flue: extracts the exhaust gases from the boiler.
• Piping: carries the hot water around the plant.
• Insulation: (sometimes called lagging): reduces heat
loss from piping and other equipment.

Figure 14: Typical gas-fired hot water system.10

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Appendix C Process heating system overview

Process heating systems generally transfer energy

from a fuel source to a product. The enormous range
of industry-specific processes and technologies
makes it impossible to consider all variants in this guide.
A typical process heating system can be characterised
as follows (Figure 15).
Heat losses

Heat recycling/recovery
Heat generation
Fuel
Combustion
•Gas
•Oil
Energy •Coal
Source •By-product fuel
Thermal Exhaust Emission
processing gases control
Electricity of
Thermal conversion
product
•Induction
•Arc material
•Resistance
Material
Material
handling
Handling
losses

Heat losses
Crosscutting enabling technologies
(Applications for improving process heating efficiency)
Sensors/process controls Advanced materials Design tools/systems

Figure 15: Key components of a process heating

system.2

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Key components in a process heating system are: The heating method is usually one of the following:

• fuel or electricity supply – gas line, electricity • Direct: heat from combustion is applied directly to
distribution board the material, therefore, the combustion gases are in
• heat generation equipment – boiler, furnace, contact with the material and open burners or heating
dryer, resistance elements are used.
• heat transfer method – convection, radiation, • Indirect: the material is separated from combustion.
fluid heat transfer Heat is transferred using gases or liquids and heat
• material handling system – fluid, conveyor, roller, exchange takes place with the material. Indirect
rotary heater heating equipment includes radiant burner tubes
• heat recovery system – heat exchange between and covered electrical heating elements.
exhaust gases and intake combustion air
• exhaust emissions – furnace flue. There are also a large range of energy sources and
material handling systems used.
Process heating systems can be classified in a number
of ways, as shown in Table 5 below. Two such
classifications are the mode of operation and the
heating method. The mode of operation distinguishes
how the material is moved through the process:

• Batch: a set amount of material is processed

at a time, before moving on to allow the next batch,
in a start/stop fashion.
• Continuous: The material moves through the process
at a constant rate.

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Table 5: Process heating classification.2

Furnace Equipment/Application Comments Primary Industries
Classification Method
Batch and continuous
Batch Furnaces used in almost all industries for a variety Steel, aluminium,
of heating and cooling processes chemical, food
Continuous Furnaces used in almost all industries for a variety Most manufacturing
of heating and cooling processes sectors
Type of heating method
Direct fired Direct-fired furnaces using gas, liquid or solid fuels, Most manufacturing
or electrically heated furnaces sectors
Indirect fired Heat treating furnaces, chemical reactors, distillation Metals, chemical
columns, salt bath furnaces
Type of energy used
Fuel fired Process heaters, aluminium and glass melting Most manufacturing
furnaces, reheat furnaces, ovens sectors
Electrically heated Infrared ovens, induction melting and heating Metals, chemical
furnaces, electric arc melting furnaces
Steam heated Dryers, fluid heating systems, water or slurry Pulp and paper,
heaters, tracing chemical, petroleum
refining, food
Other Air heaters, polymerising heaters, frying ovens, Chemical, food
digesters, evaporators
Material handling system
Fluid heating (flowthrough) Gaseous and liquid heating systems including Petroleum refining,
systems fluid heaters, boilers chemical, food, mining
Conveyor, belts, buckets, rollers Continuous furnaces used for metal heating, Metals, chemical,
heat treating, drying, curing pulp and paper, mining
Rotary kilns or heaters Rotary kilns used in cement, lime, heat treating, Mining, metals,
chemical and food industry chemical
Vertical shaft furnaces Blast furnaces, cupolas vertical shaft calciners, Metals, petroleum
and coal gasifiers refining
Rotary hearth furnaces Furnaces used for metal or ceramics heating or heat Metals
treating of steel and other metals, iron ore palletising
Walking beam furnaces Primarily used for large loads such as reheating Metals (steel)
of steel slabs, billets, ingots
Car bottom furnaces Used for heating, heat treating of material in metals, Metals, chemical,
ceramics and other industries ceramics
Continuous strip furnaces Continuous furnaces used for metal heating, heat Pulp and paper,
treating, drying, curing metals, chemical
Vertical handling systems Primarily for metal heating and heat treating for long Metals, chemical,
parts and in pit, vertical-batch and salt-bath furnaces mining
Other Pick and place furnaces Most manufacturing
sectors

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Efficient energy sources Cogeneration is the generation of electricity and use of

waste heat in the same step. Gas is combusted on-site
A number of different energy sources can supply to drive an engine. This engine is then used to drive an
your process heating application. These include: electric generator and so some electricity needs of the
site can be met. The gas engine requires considerable
• heat recovery amounts of cooling water and has hot exhaust gases.
• natural gas Through the cooling process, water may be heated to
• electricity as high as 90°C. Steam can also be recovered. The
• steam cost effectiveness of this is very dependent upon the
• liquid propane gas relative prices of gas and electricity at your business.
• diesel
• fuel oil Your choice of the energy source for your process
• coal is a very important one and is worth reassessing at
• cogeneration. regular intervals. While your current energy source may
have been suited to your business needs at the time
Heat recovery is the use of exhaust or return fluids of installation, a change in your process needs may
from a process to heat a process or assist in making mean that a different energy source may now be more
combustion more efficient. It should always be appropriate, and more effective. Also, changes in the
considered first as a supplement to your primary market price of different energy fuels may mean that
energy source. Examples of heat recovery are: is now cost effective to switch fuel source, despite the
high installation cost. In order to make an informed
• Using furnace exhaust gases to heat intake decision on the best choice of energy source for your
combustion air via a heat exchanger. process heating application you may wish to contact
• Using engine cooling water to heat a process. a process heating service provider.
• Using return low-pressure steam to heat a process.

While in some cases the ease of access to gas or

electricity might make it tempting to perform heat
generation solely with these fuels, the extra time
and investment required to make use of heat recovery
techniques may save you money in the long term.

Appendix C Process heating system overview 39

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Appendix D Glossary

Term Meaning
absorption cooling A form of chilling to produce process cooling (cold air or chilled water) that
uses heat as the predominant input energy source, as opposed to an electric
chiller that uses electricity to drive a compressor
blowdown system System for removing sludge and suspended solids that build up internally in a
boiler system. Improves efficiency and increases life of boiler
boiler Device that produces steam for use in a process
boiler interlock Mechanism for preventing dry-cycling in a boiler
capacity utilisation A ratio of the average output/throughput of a boiler (or other piece of process
equipment) compared to the rated capacity/throughput
cascading A method of using waste heat from the first process to be used in a
subsequent process and so on
condensate In the context of an enclosed industrial steam system, it is steam which has
been converted from a vapour to a liquid, and in the process, has given up the
majority of its heat
condensate return System for recapturing condensate back to a boiler, and that allows the heat
within condensate to be reused
coefficient of performance (COP) A measure of the efficiency of a refrigeration system defined as cooling
duty (kW) / input power (kW)
de-aerator System for removing oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases that could
potentially increase corrosion in a boiler system
dry-cycling Unnecessary firing cycles in the boiler when heating is not required in the process
economiser System to capture waste heat from boiler exhaust to pre-heat feed water or
some other process
flash steam Saturated steam generated as a result of hot condensate going from a high
pressure to a low pressure
flue Exhaust for hot water boiler
heat pump In industrial applications, hot water can be generated by a heat pump that
moves heat from one process, or the atmosphere, to a hot water system
heat recovery The capture of waste heat to be used in another processes (such as domestic
hot water, preheating of boiler make-up water)
hot water pump Circulates hot water around the plant for use in processes
pre-heating The act of heating a product before the intake to the primary heating system

Appendix D Glossary 40
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Term Meaning
separator Separators are used to removed condensate as well as air from a boiler
system to help prevent corrosion
sequence control Ability to control multiple boilers such that only required number of boilers
are switched on
steam accumulator A method of storing steam for use in high demand periods, which can help
stabilise the boiler operation
steam piping Pipe meeting national and international standards of material and wall thickness
for carrying steam
steam trap System for preventing live steam from escaping the steam system, usually by
collecting condensate before ejecting as water
turndown ratio The ratio of the lowest heating capacity to the highest heating capacity
in a boiler

Appendix D Glossary 41
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Appendix E Further Reading / References

Further Reading Hot water

Low Temperature Hot Water Boilers, Technology
More information about developing a business case Overview CTV008, Carbon Trust, UK, March 2006
for investing in your plant’s energy efficiency, as well www.carbontrust.co.uk/publications
as detailed technical information about hot water,
steam and process heating systems, can be found in Steam and High Temperature Hot Water Boilers,
the following resources available freely on the Internet. Technology Overview CTV018, Carbon Trust, UK
www.carbontrust.co.uk/publications
Steam
Energy Efficient Operation of Boilers, Good Practice Process heating
Guide GPG369, Carbon Trust, UK, March 2004 Improving Process Heating System Performance –
www.carbontrust.co.uk/publications A Sourcebook for Industry, US Department of Energy
– Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,
Fundamentals of Steam System Design: A Self- US, September 2004
Directed Learning Course, American Society of Heating, www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/
Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers, US proc_heat_sourcebook.pdf
www.ashrae.org/education/page/761
Process Plant Insulation and Fuel Efficiency, Fuel
Improving Steam System Performance – A Sourcebook Efficiency Booklet FEB019, Carbon Trust, UK, 1993
for Industry, US Department of Energy – Office of Energy www.carbontrust.co.uk/publications
Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US, October 2004
www.eere.energy.gov/topics/industry.html Case studies
There are many examples of businesses that have
Is Oxygen Trim Worth the Price?, Blesi-Evans, US, recognised inefficiency in their business processes and
November 2007 made an investment in becoming more energy efficient,
www.blesi-evans.com/techarticles.htm with huge benefits for their bottom lines. Detailed case
studies of the businesses can be found at Sustainability
Steam System Survey Guide, Harrell G., Victoria’s website at www.sustainability.vic.gov.au
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, US, May 2002
www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/
steam_survey_guide.pdf

Appendix E Further Reading / References 42

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References 5 Steam System Survey Guide, Harrell G., Oak Ridge

1 Improving Steam System Performance: National Laboratory, pp 2-19, US, May 2002
A Sourcebook for Industry, US Department of Energy,
pp 3 & 30, October 2004 6 Sustainability Victoria

2 ImprovingProcess Heating System Performance: 7 LowTemperature Hot Water Boilers Technology

A Sourcebook for Industry, US Department of Energy, Overview, Carbon Trust, UK, pp 2–18, March 2006
p 3, September 2004
8 Spirax
Sarco International website, November 2007
3 LowTemperature Hot Water Boilers Technology www.spiraxsarco.com
Overview, Carbon Trust, UK, p 2, March 2006
9 BIB
Cochran International website, November 2007
4 EnergyEfficient Operation of Boilers, Carbon Trust, www.bibcochran.com
UK, pp 4–6, March 2004
10 NSW Dept of Energy, Utilities and Sustainability

For further information and enquiries, please contact:

Energy Efficiency Best Practice Guide Steam Systems, Sustainability Victoria

Hot Water Systems and Process Heating Systems Urban Workshop
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Acknowledgments
Sustainability Victoria would like to acknowledge
Climate Managers for preparing this report and
Spirax Sarco Pty Ltd for their review of this guide.