Stalin

What were Stalin’s Aims?

Secure his own position as the leader of the party and the state
● By end of 1920s - Stalin had emptied the politburo of his rivals
● … still not in complete control (Eg: Rutin, Kirov)
● Via Purges/Terror/Cult of Personality, he aimed to secure his position as
undisputed leader

Socialism in One Country

● Given the defeat of all the communist revolutions in Europe in 1917–1921, Stalin
believed the Soviet Union should begin to strengthen itself internally.
● Shift towards national communism from previously held Marxist notion of ‘world
revolution’ was a big change
○ Leon Trotsky had advocated for permanent revolution

Defend & Strengthen the USSR

○ Stalin believed USSR was a fragile state … didn’t have very developed industrial
economy
○ Many bordering nations disliked communism
○ Early 1930s - communist-hating fascists in Italy + on this rise in Nazi Germany
■ In a war - USSR wd/ need to defend its border w/ well-trained and
equipped army
○ Stalin didn’t want the USSR to ‘lag behind’ as it had in the past
○ Stalin wanted to increase military strength + achieve self-sufficiency to make
USSR independent of western manufactured goods.
3.1 Rise to Power
General: What political conditions/circumstances enabled a single party ruler to come to power?
May 2015: “Popular support, rather than the use of force, was vital to the establishment of single-
party states.” With reference to two states, each chosen from a different region, to what extent do you
agree with this statement?
Nov 2011: Assess the role of each of the following in the rise to power of Stalin and Hitler: ideological
appeal; underestimation by opponents; propaganda.
May 2012: Assess the contribution of economic instability and lack of a united opposition to the rise to
power of two leaders of single-party states, each chosen from a different region.
May 2012 (Paper 3): Analyse the reasons for Stalin’s emergence as Lenin’s successor by 1929.

Stalin’s Rise to Power

Introduction
● Stalin rose to power because of his own personal qualities (determination/manipulation, eg:
portraying himself as close comrade to Lenin), his political flexibility, the weakness of his
opponents, and his position as General Secretary of the Communist Party
● When Lenin died in 1924, he left no clear successor
● As a result, a power vacuum/power struggle ensued
● By 1929, Stalin had secured the position as leader of the USSR
● IDEOLOGY was important,

P1 - Position as General Secretary since 1922 & Propaganda

● Stalin = only leading member of the communist party in all three councils (Politburo, Orgburo,
Secretariat)
○ gave him the advantage of being able to have a ‘unique overview’ over the every day
runnings of the USSR
● Stalin controlled party membership as the General Secretary
● 1924 Lenin Enrolment
○ Enrolled more Proletariat into the party, allowing him to push his own supporters into
the party
● From this position, he was able to build a power base within the party
● As the General Secretary, Stalin was given the task of supervising Lenin’s health.
○ He was therefore well informed about matters such as the whereabouts of his
Testament / was one of the first to hear about his death
● Propaganda:
○ After Lenin died, Stalin portrayed himself as a close Comrade to Lenin + acted as
chief mourner → He understood the IMPORTANCE OF LEGACY (renamed Petrograd
Leningrad)
○ He established a ‘cult of Lenin’ … which he assiduously cultivated
○ Stalin was portrayed as the disciple of Lenin
● ^ All in spite of the fact that Lenin had described Stalin as ‘too rude’
● He also gave Trotsky the wrong date for Lenin’s funeral (manipulation)

P2 - Stalin’s Removal of his Rivals (Political Flexibility)

● Trotsky seemed at one point like the obvious successor (Civil war hero + Strategist behind
the October Revolution)
● Trotsky made enemies by attacking NEP (seemed like he was attacking Lenin’s legacy)
● Zinoviev/Kamenev wouldn’t support Trotsky in 1924 → formed ‘Troika’ w/ Stalin in 1924
○ Trotsky pushed out of Politburo for advocating for a ‘peasant revolution’ and for
advocating to push for communism by using harsh methods
○ With Zinoviev and Kamenev, Stalin also managed to hide Lenin’s Testament
○ Testament not released until 1980s
● Once Trotsky gone … Zinoviev/Kamenev rose to prominence
● In 1925 → Debates over the NEP took place
○ (Left Opp) Zinoviev/Kamenev argued it favoured peasants over workers and should
be stopped
○ Bukharin saw it as effective + econ. beneficial
 ● At 14th Party Congress 1925 → Kamenev attacked NEP + Stalin’s ‘Socialism in one country’
● However … central commitee slowly being filled w/ Stalin supporters → Kamenev/Zinoviev
voted out
● Politburo membership now 9 → Molotov/Kalinin/Voroshilov voted in (all Stalin supporters)
● Stalin branded the newly formed ‘United Opposition’ (Trotsky/Zinoviev/Kamenev) as
‘factionalists’
○ Lenin had made the 1921 ban on factionalism
○ They were expelled from the party
● Soon... Grain crisis/war scare 1927/28 convinced Stalin that NEP should be abandoned in
favour of rapid industrialization
● Stalin also argued NEP = non-communist to get rid of Right Opp (Bukharin, Rykov, Tomsky)
○ They were voted off 1929
● By 1929, Politburo had been filled w/ his supporters + Stalin emerged as leader

P3 - Weakness of his Opponents

● Trotsky had been a Menshevik prior to the October Revolution → regarded w/ Suspicion
● Had committed cardinal sin of not going to Stalin’s funeral, seen as disrespectful
● Had questioned Lenin’s policies → made him seem arrogant
● Trotsky absent too often from Moscow
● Lacked the political will to fight … unlike Stalin
● As a Jew - unsure he would have enough support in the USSR
● Trotsky failed to form strong ties w/ other members of the Politburo
● Most importantly … underestimated Stalin’s will + manipulative ability
○ Never demanded for the Publication of Lenin’s testament, which would have ruined
Stalin
● Bukharin was never a serious contender as he was ‘too capitalist’
● Stalin used the 1921 ban on factionalism to remove him from the Politburo

P4 - Economic Conditions
● Temporary econ boom brought by NEP in early 20s (agricultural production rose 75%)
○ This allowed him to ally w/ Rightists, Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky
○ He abandoned Leftists Kamenev and Zinoviev
○ Steady econ growth enabled him to attack the leftists for econ failure
● After 1927-28 Grain crisis
○ He adopted a LEFTISTS course…. Kamenev and Zinoviev had already been
dismissed
○ Grim econ situation enabled Stalin to blame the Rightists as ‘petty capitalists’
● Stalin’s political flexibility took advantage over ever-changing econ conditions
3.2 Consolidation/Maintenance of Power
General: To what extent was the use of force the most important factor in the maintenance of power
of a single-party ruler?
General: What methods were used by a single-party ruler to consolidate power and with what
success?
May 2012: Evaluate the importance of the Cult of personality in Castro, Mao or Stalin maintenance of
power.
General: In what ways/with what success/to what extent was a totalitarian state achieved?
May 2013: By what methods, and with what success, did one single-party leader try to eliminate
domestic opposition?

Method Key Points

Labour Labour Discipline during the Five Year Plans

Discipline & ● Harsh laws introduced - punishing workers who were late/absent
Gulags ● Breaking machinery/stealing = crime
● Losing job = losing right to accommodation + food rations
● If managers failed to meet state targets, it was punishable by
death

Gulags
● During 1930s, Gulags were built in resource-rich areas w/gold/
coal, etc
● Gulags = labour camps for kulaks/political prisoners during
‘purges’
● 1929, Stalin called for ‘liquidation of the Kulak class’
● Gulags located in inhospitable/remote locations, hard to escape
○ Conditions so harsh that most wd/ die
Terror Terror = key method for Stalin to rule USSR + consolidate authority
(Elimination ● Who was punished?
of Opp.) ○ Peasants who resisted collectivization
○ Factory workers who didn’t work hard enough
○ Managers who didn’t meet targets
○ Party members considered too passive
● After, Ryutin Affair 1932, Stalin convinced organized resistance
still a threat. He was PARANOID. Believed opposition was
everywhere.
● Purges created an ATMOSPHERE OF FEAR

Methods of Control:
● 1933-34 Stalin centralized all major law enforcement agencies
(civilian police, security guards, labour camp commandants, etc)
● All these bodies were put under the authority of the NKVD

The Post Kirov Purges, 1934-36

● Dec 1934, secretary of Leningrad Soviet, Kirov, murdered (no
proof that Stalin was implicated… but it is likely)
● Kirov had been highly popular figure, elected to politburo. He was
unhappy w/ rapid pace of industrialization + didn’t approve of
purges.
○ Stalin afraid opposition might rally behind Kirov
● 2 days after Kirov’s murder signed the ‘Decree Against Terrorist
Acts’
● New laws: children 12+ could be executed, system of appeal
removed
● Began fresh purge of Leningrad party, led by Yagoda, head of
NKVD
● Suspected conspirators in Leningrad party imprisoned/executed
… filled up vacant spots with HIS supporters
● This sent the message that no party members were safe
● From this point on… Soviet Communist party 100% under
Stalin’s control
● Stalin Enrollment 1931-34 - CPSU recruited more skilled
workers/industrial managers… new members supported the
elimination of anti-Stalinist elements as it improved their chances
of promotion

The Great Terror, 1936-39

● Stated that USSR ‘in a state of siege’ & enemies needed to be
eliminated
● Were they legal? Technically yes… torture was legalized
● Purge of the Party
○ 1936, Kamenev and Zinoviev (+14 others) tried/executed
○ 1937, 17 Bolsheviks denounced as ‘Anti-Soviet Trotskyist
Centre’ tried w/ spying for Germany … all but 3 executed
○ 1938, Bukharin, Rykov, Tomsky + 20 others branded as
‘Trotskyist rightists’ were executed or committed suicide
○ Most of them confessed guilt after torture
○ Trotsky executed in Mexico 1940
● Purge of the Army
○ Stalin didn’t trust his officers… feared army was still loyal
to Trotsky (he created the Red Army)
○ 1937 announced a ‘conspiracy had been uncovered in
Red Army’
Popular Popular Policies
Policies ● Stalin’s rejection of NEP in 1927, gained him support amongst
workers, who felt that USSR had slipped back into capitalism
● Punishment of kulaks was supported by many peasants
● Many supported the executions of Bolshevik politicians, after they
publicly confessed their guilt (even though they were forced to)
● 1930s saw large population increase in cities, more opportunity
for education + job promotion
● Terror brought employment opp/promotion to those who weren’t
put on trial/sent to gulags … in a way, terror contributed to social
mobility

Enthusiasm
● Despite harsh conditions … some workers liked Stalin’s ambition
● Many enthusiasts felt they were contributing to an important
cause
● Enthusiasm helped the building of the city of Magnitogorsk
(Despite harsh conditions and lack of machinery, man power
alone built the city)

Cult of Stalin’s Cult of Personality

Personality ● Cult = propaganda campaign
● Aim of cult of personality = maintain loyalty, suppress criticism,
cover up miscalculations/mistakes/crimes made by Stalin
● Paintings, photographs + statues of Stalin around USSR
● Speeches/messages were carried to people by the Pravda
● No one wanted to be the first one to end clapping after Stalin’s
speeches
● Stalin given credit for all of the USSR’s great achievements
● 1932, party historians rewrote history, discrediting his enemies,
and emphasizing Stalin’s role in party history
● Stalin portrayed as Lenin’s closest comrade + made it seem as if
Stalin had been a key figure in the civil war … (in reality his role
was humble)
● ‘The cult penetrated all levels of society and played a central role
in stabilizing the country in confusing, difficult times’

Propaganda Propaganda
● Strict censorship ensured writers only wrote things that glorified
socialism
● Almost all newspaper articles spoke of Stalin’s greatness
● Stalin printed speeches of Five Year Plan’s success in Pravda
(Soviet Newspaper)
● Workers could actually see progress of factories/electric plants
being built
● USSR was catching up w/ capitalist powers
● Workers told that conditions in capitalist countries = poor (photos
from the great depression supported this)
● News about work camps within USSR was concealed from
citizens
○ No one knew that Stalin set quotas for political prisoners
● Ideological indoctrination → Stalin published Short Course on the
History of the Communist Party in 1938
○ Included the ‘new’ history of the Bolshevik revolution
 Language ● Enemies defined as ‘kulaks’ or ‘Trotskyists’ … even if they
weren’t rich peasants, or even if they didn’t have the slightest
connection to Trotsky
● Important for Stalin to be able to easily label
counterrevolutionaries
● Even officials spoke ‘Stalinist’ in order to conform/survive
Essay Outline: In what ways/to what extent was a totalitarian state achieved?

Introduction
● Totalitarian implies TOTAL POWER + TOTAL CONTROL over the state
● This means control over social life, the economy, the political party… etc
● Argument: NO. Stalin may have been totalitarian by aspiration… but in actuality this was
difficult given certain circumstances

P1 - The Centralized Economy

P2 - Propaganda/Censorship/Cult of Personality
● Cult of Personality = key feature of a Totalitarian State
● If Stalin criticized a literary work… their career would be over (this atmosphere of repression
was a key totalitarian feature)
● Getty + Naumov stress that communication difficult across all regions of USSR… no
telephone connection
○ If party officials struggled to carry messages across the country… how could Stalin
maintain a close eye on local happenings?

P3 - Purges
● When Stalin ordered purges of party/military… did he really have complete control over what
exactly took place?
● Getty and Naumov: “Although by the end of the decade he was unquestionably the supreme
leader, he was never omnipotent, and he always functioned within a matrix of other groups
and interests”
○ Stalin couldn’t have acted alone in the purges; he needed the cooperation of society,
… or at least it's understood acceptance of these punishments
● Support for him had been dwindling early 1930s… support for Kirov was rising. Even Stalin
himself questioned the solidity of his power, which is why he commenced the purges.

P4 - The Law/Constitution
● On the 5th December 1936 the USSR adopted a new constitution, which was one of the most
democratic constitutions of all times and which for example included, right to demonstrate,
freedom of speech/press, etc.
● Constitution = False → only for appearance, eg: showing the world how democratic they were
Essay Outline: Opposition to Stalin

Introduction
● To Stalin, Everyone was a potential traitor.
● Communist party and military officials were at greater risk of being purged than the average
peasant, because competent people represented a threat.
● The communist revolution was all about overthrowing the old power structure.
○ Anyone who held any power before the revolution, any factory owner, military leader,
etc was highly suspect and could be be killed or sent to the gulag on the slightest
suspicion.
● Stalin was paranoid: he believed that he encountered a great deal of opposition + once stated
that he trusted no one: ‘I trust no one, not even myself’
● Stalin had an inferiority complex → thought he was less educated, less intellectual, less
popular than other Bolshevik leaders

P1 - Opposition During Stalin’s Rise to Power

● According to Lenin's "Last Testament," Lenin thought Stalin was a rude, an arrogant paper-
pusher and didn't work well others, esp. Leon Trotsky.
● Dec 1922, Joseph Stalin had a phone conversation with Lenin’s wife, Krupskaya:
○ i insulted her with a series of extremely rude comments.
○ incident = last straw for Lenin, (he was already against making Stalin his successor)
● When Stalin still backed the NEP, Trotsky openly opposed it
○ believed it would divert them from achieving a socialist state
● At 14th Party Congress in 1925, Kamenev attacked NEP + Stalin’s policy of ‘Socialism in one
country’ → but he was voted out
● Left Opposition Formed in 1926 w/ Trotsky, Kamenev + Zinoviev
● In 1928, Stalin faced opposition from Bukharin, who advocated for the continuation of the
NEP, while Stalin spoke of the need to industrialize + bring agriculture under state control
● In the early years, due to ban on factionalism/pushing his supporters into the politburo, he
was able to get rid of his opponents

P2 - Opposition from Within the Party: Ryutin Affair 1932 and Kirov 1934
● People in the party did not think Stalin’s policies were the right way to build socialism
● Party members were horrified by the cruelty in Stalin’s policies, esp. Purges
● There was also opposition to Stalin in the higher levels of the party. Top officials wanted to
slow down the pace of collectivization and industrialization.
● In 1932, followers of Ryutin, a right communist, published an attack on Stalin, describing him
as an ‘evil genius’ who brought the revolution to the verge of destruction
○ They were put on trial and expelled from the party
● This affair convinced Stalin that organized resistance was still a possible threat
● He believed opposition was everywhere (largely why he commenced the purges)
● Dec 1934, secretary of Leningrad Soviet, Kirov, murdered (no proof that Stalin was
implicated… but it is likely)
○ Kirov had been highly popular figure, elected to politburo. He was unhappy w/ rapid
pace of industrialization + didn’t approve of purges.
○ 17th Party Congress, 1934 - Stalin received far more negative votes than Kirov. Stalin
afraid opposition might rally behind Kirov, so he signed ‘Decree Vs. Terrorist Acts’
■ Still Stalin retained power, and it was very unlikely that opposition would
manifest itself into a resistance group. He was PARANOID.
● Stalin purged the party during the Great Terror 1936-38, including many OG Bolsheviks
P4 - Opposition from the Workers
● Many workers opposed the first Five-Year Plan.
● Industrial saw a drop in standards of living
● There were individual and collective acts of protest, including mass demonstrations, food
riots, strikes, violent attacks against officials, and subversive letters to the authorities.
● Male and female workers in one of Russia’s oldest, largest, and “reddest” manufacturing
centers—the textile plants of the Ivanovo Industrial Region—actively resisted Stalinist policies
that consigned them to poverty, illness, and hunger.
● In 1932, waves of strikes, eg: miners

P5 - Opposition from the Peasants

● Collectivization + industrialization had alienated large sections of the people from the party.
● Collectivization involved grain requisitioning
● 1929 → kolkhozi (collective farms) established → replaced individual peasant-owned farms
○ 25 mil. peasant farms into 200,000 kolkhozi … by 1936, 90% peasant homes
● People who disagreed/refused to go along w/ orders = kulaks … sent to labour camps
○ Kulaks = enemies of the working class
● Many peasants burned their crops in protest/killed their animals

P6 - Opposition from the Church

● 1928, campaign to close churches begun (orthodox church = main target)
○ Churches destroyed + priests went to Gulags w/ kulaks
○ Islam also banned → mosques destroyed, Imams sent to Gulags, veils banned...
○ Destroying religious relics/icons led to widespread peasant resistance
○ Resistors were branded as Kulaks
● Due to widespread opposition… Stalin was forced to slow down his campaign against
religion, but it continued during the Great Terror → hundreds of clergy, priests imprisoned, and
by 1940 only 1% of churches from 1917 remained open
● WWII saw change in attitude to religion

Conclusion Was Opposition Real? To what extent was there opposition?

3.3 Domestic Policies
General: Economic Policies outline
Nov 2010 (Paper 3): In what ways, and with what results, had Stalin developed the Soviet Union into
a major industrial power by 1941?
General: To what extent were the domestic policies of Stalin beneficial to the USSR?
General: Social Policies outline (Education, Youth Groups, Women, Religion, Minorities)
General: Cultural Policies outline (Art, Film, Music, etc)
May 2010 (Paper 3): A colleague said of Stalin: “His last years were the most dangerous. He swung
to extremes”. To what extent do you agree with this view?
Nov 2013: To what extent is it possible to argue that Stalin’s political, economic and social policies
transformed the Soviet Union?

Essay Outline: Stalin’s Economic Policies

Introduction
● 1927 - after years supporting NEP, Stalin worked on new econ. system: the five year plan
● Gosplan setup 1921 by Lenin (Gosplan = agency responsible for central economic planning)
● Stalin’s believed only via strict centralized control could the USSR urbanize/industrialize
● USSR had been trying to urbanize/industrialize since 1855… mostly unsuccessful. USSR was
predominantly AGRICULTURAL based … wanted to become URBAN based
● To industrialize econ… new tech needed … tech wd/ be purchased via agriculture exports
● Stalin wanted to industrialize to compete w/ other world powers
● Determination for strong econ driven by determination to re-arm in prep for two front war.
● To maintain control during 5 year plans: Gulags 1931, harsh labour laws, stakhanovite, etc

Collectivization of Agriculture
● Peasants = 80% of population
● Stalin wanted land + food under FULL CONTROL of state → COLLECTIVIZATION
○ Collectivization also = way to instill ‘communalism’
○ Collectivization involved grain requisitioning
● 1929 → kolkhozi (collective farms) established → replaced individual peasant-owned farms
○ 25 mil. peasant farms into 200,000 kolkhozi … by 1936, 90% peasant homes
● People who disagreed/refused to go along w/ orders = kulaks … sent to labour camps
○ Kulaks = enemies of the working class
● 1929 - Stalin called for the liquidation of the Kulak class.
● Why Stalin believed collectivization was advantageous:
○ Collectivization gave state control to main source of national wealth; Collectivization
wd/ ensure state control over production of food; Agriculture wd/ ‘pay tribute’ to
industry → cheap food could feed cities + be exported to finance purchase of
machinery from abroad; Authority of comm. party wd/ be spread in countryside -
peasants couldn’t revolt; machinery could be shared
● Collectivization = NOT POPULAR … peasants burned crops, killed animals, etc.
● 1930 → terrible harvest
○ Stalin published ‘Dizzy with Success’ article in Pravda … suggested it happened to
quick so officials were ‘dizzy w/ success’ … pace slowed down, but resumed soon
● Stalin sent party activists: ‘25,000ers’ to improve performance on kolkozy
● Collectivization led to poor harvest → 1932-33 famine killed 5-8 mil (mostly in Ukraine)
● Grain requisitioning = brutal policy
● Success?
○ YES in terms of grain produced + grain exports (929 - 66.8 mil. tonnes of grain →
1934 - 77.5 mil. tonnes of grain)
 ○ NO in terms of cattle/pigs/sheeps/goats & consumer goods
○ NO in terms of human life/brutality of grain requisitioning
○ NO because people escaped famines by moving to cities… cities couldn’t cope,
disease spread/supplies limited/many children abandoned

P2 - The First Five Year Plan (1928/29-32)

● Five year plans = way to respond to problems of NEP
● Involved taking full state control of resources/labour so industrialization could be achieved
○ wd/ result in econ growth/self-sufficiency + increase in state control over USSR
○ wd/ create disciplined proletariat
● First 5 year plan Unofficially began 1928 … officially adopted 1929
● Called for increase in industrial output → over ambitious for skill-lacking workforce
● Stalin aimed to create a Proletariat → moved peasants from countryside to cities … or areas
where cities would be built
● Aim of plan = “Increase the production of the means of production”, ie: build iron/steel
manufacturing plants, electrical power stations, infrastructure/railways, increase iron/coal prod
● Quota system imposed in 1929 abolished 1935 … due to 70% failing to reach them
● To access necessary skills… skilled technicians/engineers encouraged to come from abroad
● To import tech, they accumulated foreign exchange from the sale of grain
● To discipline factory workers… harsh labour laws introduced (eg: arriving late was
punishable)
● To prevent workers from leaving jobs… internal passport system introduced
● To explain why targets set by 5 year plans were not achieved… statistics were manipulated or
‘foreign experts’ were blamed

P3 - The Second (1932-37) and Third Five Year Plan (1937 - …)

● Focus of these two five year plans shifted to production of heavy industrial goods
● Iron/Steel/electricity production sufficient … now needed Trains/Trucks/Tractors
● Context: Hitler re-arming Germany / many nations in Europe opposed communism
● Stalin wanted to make sure that USSR wd/ have resources to re-arm
● Coal/Iron/Crude Oil/Copper etc…. Output ALL Increased vastly
● Third Five Year Plan interrupted by German invasion of USSR

Conclusion - Was Industrialization Successful?

Yes No
● Workers benefited w/ education/ ● Statistics manipulated
training due to need for skilled ● Focus on heavy industry meant
workforce that many workers/peasants lacked
● 1928-41, 400% increase in steel, basic goods eg: clothes
600% increase in coal ● Rapid industrialisation led to
● Clearest proof of econ success = terrible social condition… safety
USSR’s ability to defend herself vs. neglected/wages dropped/gulags
Nazi Germany ● Rapid industrialisation = drop in
● Most historians agree that living standards
industrialization achieved ● Human cost was massive.
spectacular results even though ● Gulags built in 1930s, located in
unrealistic targets lead to bribery, rich-resource areas, eg: gold/
corruption etc. uranium/coal, but also in
● Alan Bullock- "none of Stalin's inhospitable conditions… many
targets were achieved, but in every died
case output was raised".
Did Stalin plan his ‘Revolution from Above’ (ie: did he have a plan?)

Viewpoint One: He didn’t have a Plan

● Many historians suggest that Stalin didn’t have a master plan. Industrialization =
response to grain crisis and was an emergency short term measure that sparked
more drastic changes
● Stalin’s constant interference, eg: increasing quotas) interfered w/ plans being
effective

Viewpoint Two:
● Stalin clearly intended to modernise the USSR and adopted deliberate
Agricultural policies to do so.
● Some argue that he was trying to complete the 1917 Bolshevik revolution;
Revolution considered incomplete because peasants had been allowed to
privately own land with the NEP
● Once he felt politically secure, he launched a second revolution ‘from above’
Stalin’s Domestic Policies KEY Questions

Were his Domestic Policies BENEFICIAL to the USSR?

Aims = economic development, both industrial and agricultural; a move from an
agricultural to an urban society; the elimination of opposition to himself and the Party
and complete political control.

Stalin’s domestic policies for economic development involved a series of 5 year plans.
These plans may be seen as successful in developing certain aspects of the
Soviet economy such as iron and steel, and large engineering machinery as well
as infrastructure such as canals and hydroelectric projects. They were much less
successful in providing consumer goods and improving the standard of living. Basic
necessities such as food and housing were often in short supply. The emphasis on heavy
industry meant that Soviet citizens saw little improvement in their lives and faced
increased hardships as few goods were made available.

Agricultural policy which involved forced collectivization of land proved less successful
and led to widespread famine in which millions died as well as a permanent weakness in
the Soviet economy as food production never reached the necessary levels. It did
achieve political goals of eliminating potential opponents of the regime but was not a
sound economic policy.

The transformation from an agricultural society to a more urban one was achieved
through policies of forced collectivization of land + transfer of millions of people to
new industrial cities. These new industrial cities were centres for increased industrial
production which allowed Russia to develop armament and other industries necessary for
defence against invasion. This was a key goal of Stalin. This industrial policy was
successful in achieving the goals of the government but involved considerable cost in
human lives, family dislocations and other hardships.

The elimination of opposition and political control were achieved through purges,
mass arrests, labour camps and deportations as well as extensive propaganda. These
were successful in removing all internal dissent and challenges to the authority of
the government. They could be seen as less successful in terms of the numbers of
casualties, the loss of talented individuals and the enormous resources devoted to
internal security. In addition an atmosphere of terror and fear was created. The
need to diminish the influence of various ethnic groups as part of national unity and
elimination of rival groups led to the Ukrainian famine in the 1930s in which
millions died as well as the relocation and internal deportation of many ethnic
groups – all of which led to considerable hardship.

Did his Domestic Policies contribute to his MAINTENANCE of

Power?
Essay Outline: Stalin’s Social Policies

P1 - Women
● According to marxism, marriage = bourgeoisie institution. Lenin had made divorce easier
○ Stalin was doubtful… there was a halt in population growth
● By 1930, Stalin wanted to restore conservative values → ‘The Great Retreat’
○ Orphaned children on streets convinced Stalin that family-structure = necessary
○ Women's role emphasized as being homemaker/child bearers
● 1936 decrees:
○ Unregistered marriages not recognized, Divorce was made more difficult, Right to
abortion was severely restricted (encouraged pop. growth), Family = basis of Soviet
society, Homosexuality was outlawed
● Slight improvement in birth rates in 1936 … but fell again in 1939 w/ war. During war… w/
many soldiers dying and pop. growth slowing down:
○ Abortion outlawed, Mothers w/ more than two children = heroines of the USSR (given
rewards eg: medals for 10+ children), Heavier taxes on parents with less than two
children
● Did women have equal rights?
○ 1929 - announced that 14% of students entering higher technical education had to
be women (14% not EQUAL)
○ Upper echelons of comm. society still didn’t have women in its ranks/or in politburo
○ Stalin’s emphasis on motherhood allowed little room for notion of independent female
○ Soviet propaganda spoke equally of women… but no practical advances
○ ‘Housewives movement’ 1936 → intended to ‘civilize’ + improve conditions of the
workers… but few resources given to such movements. Women orgs = irrelevant
● During war → women’s role on farms + in factories became increasingly important
○ Trained as pilots, worked in industry… 500,000 fought w/ Soviet armed forces
● Women’s pay rate dropped between 1930 and 1945

P2 - Religion
● For centuries, Russian orthodox church = centerpiece of Russian society
● Under Lenin, attending church was condemned → Religion + Communism don’t mix
● Demonizing religion = important for collectivization … many peasants still deeply religious
● 1928, campaign to close churches begun (orthodox church = main target)
○ Churches destroyed + priests went to Gulags w/ kulaks
○ Islam also banned → mosques destroyed, Imams sent to Gulags, veils banned...
○ Destroying religious relics/icons led to widespread peasant resistance
○ Resistors were branded as Kulaks
 ● Due to widespread opposition… Stalin was forced to slow down his campaign against
religion, but it continued during the Great Terror → hundreds of clergy, priests imprisoned, and
by 1940 only 1% of churches from 1917 remained open
● Religion driven underground: Geoffrey Hosking: centuries of religious worship could not
simply be eradicated → many people formed ‘underground’ churches
● During WWII, Stalin changed his approach to religion
○ Used church to gather support from people for war effort
○ They could appeal to peasants by saying it was a war against ‘godless workers’
○ Improved State-Church relations continued after war, by 1953, 200,000 churches had
reopened.
○ Still, Orthodox Churches didn’t have much freedom… Stalin didn’t want churches to
become a place where political opposition could gather
○ Church = arm of gov
P3 - Minorities
● Although Stalin himself was Georgian, he was concerned w/ promoting the dominance of
Russia within the Soviet State
● Unlike Lenin, he feared that to allow minority rights would threaten his authoritarian power
● One motive behind his purges = to suppress any signs of national independence by removing
potential leaders of breakaway movements
● 1940, took over Baltic states
● 1942, Stalin ordered Kalmyks, Chechens, Ukrainians, Tatars, Volgas to be sent to Siberia
● By 1945, 20 million Soviet people had been uprooted

P4 - Education
● 1928 - Stalin announced that 65% of people entering higher technical education had to be
from the working class
● 1289/29 → 1932/33 - working class students in higher education increased 30%
● By 1931 - Members of politburo had to be literate + have knowledge in science
● Result = Literacy rates improved
● Mid 1930s education reforms:
○ Textbooks were prescribed … they all taught that Stalin was ‘the master builder of the
Soviet nation and inspiration to his people’, teaching of history focused on politics
○ Uniforms were compulsory + had to pay fees for attending secondary school
● Aim = create a disciplined generation of young people ready to join the workforce
● Education under Stalin was about ‘textbook’ knowledge AND about practical work
○ Emphasis on history
○ Upper middle school became = tekhnikuny (vocational training colleges)
○ End of 1930s - all schools attached to an enterprise (eg: children wd/ learn to mine)
● Teachers who were not party members were dismissed → opened up teaching posts for
young ‘red specialists’
● Urbanization + increased access to education led to more social mobility
○ People had new opportunities for work/education … some peasants even rose the
ranks of their new jobs in the cities.

P5 - Konsomol Youth Group

● Konsomol = youth movement which had begun under Lenin
● Open to those ages between 14-18
● It pledged itself totally to Stalin and the Party
● Membership as not compulsory, but it offered the chance for young members to eventually
become part of the CPSU
● It grew from 2 million members in 1927 to 10 million in 1940
● They were enthusiastic about the five year plans
● They organized/form the bulk of parades on Labour day and Stalin’s Birthday
Essay Outline: Stalin’s Cultural Policies

P1 - Literature
● Literature had to capture ‘soviet social realism’
● Soviet Union of Writers formed in 1934
○ They all had to include the theme of struggle for socialist realism in their work
○ Writers had to make sure their work was acceptable w/ party guidelines
○ Written in a style UNDERSTOOD BY THE WORKERS
● Robert Service notes: ‘More great intellectuals perished in the 1930s than survived’
● 1934, Osip Mandelstam, a leading literary figure, read a mocking poem of Stalin and later
was sent to + died in a gulag
● If Stalin criticized a literary work… their career would be over
● Famous prosecuted writers included Pasternak + Solzhenitsyn
○ Solzhenitsyn wrote documentary like novels, eg: day in the life of a gulag, describing
the horrible conditions … too critical of Soviet system → banned (but acclaimed in
West)
P2 - Film
● Filmmaking, opera, ballet, all had to respond to Stalinist demand for social realism
● Abstract films were prohibited… not easily understandable by the public
● Between 1936-37, 68 of 150 films withdrawn mid-production
● 10 out of 19 plays/ballets were ordered to be withdrawn
● 1937-38, 60 plays banned … many theaters closed in Moscow/Leningrad
● Vsevolod Meyerhold was a theater director, who wanted to bring theater closer to the people
○ He wanted more freedom/artistic liberty
○ He was arrested/beaten/shot
● Sergei Eisenstein produced many Soviet films … including two films that celebrated the
October Revolution: Battleship Potemkin and October
○ Later, his works were censored, because his film Ivan the Terrible was an ‘unflattering
portrait of a great Russian leader, and therefore by implication, disrespectful to Stalin’

P3 - Music
● Since Music essentially an abstract art form… difficult to create guidelines
● No other dictatorship had such fine music
● Prokofiev + Shostakovich were world famous composers
● Stalin didn’t fear music, in fact he regarded himself as an expert in the field
● Music did however … have to be ‘optimistic’
● He banned some works which were too ‘bourgeois and formalistic’
● Shostakovich produced patriotic orchestral pieces that pleased Stalin, that depicted the
struggle of the Soviet people

P4 - Art
● Soviet realist art was the only type allowed → it helped educate/entertain the masses
● Paintings of Stalin would have to paint him as the glorious leader he was
● Artists were forced to conform
3.4 Foreign Policy
May 2016: Evaluate Stalin’s Foreign policies up to 1941.
May 2011: To what extent was Stalin’s foreign policy dominated by the desire for security up until
1941?
Nov 2012: Compare and contrast the aims and methods of Stalin’s foreign policy in the 1930s and
the post-war years.
May 2016: “Successful foreign policy was essential for the maintenance of power by authoritarian
leaders.” With reference to one authoritarian leader, to what extent do you agree with this statement?

Stalin’s Foreign Policy 1929-1941

Introduction
● 1920s USSR = Isolated … diplomatic links established gradually
● 1933 Hitler appointed → Soviet Policy centered on looking towards collective security (Joined
League 1934), Security for USSR (Avoid Two Front War)

(Context)
● Bolshevik Revolution caused fear in many european states → USSR increasingly boycotted
● Brest-Litovsk March 1918 ended Russian involvement in WWI … allies decided to intervene
in Civil war (by 1920 - 14 states incld Br/France/Pol/Jap/USA) + sent armies to help Whites
○ After Red Army won → Boycotts on trade
● Comm Russia not invited to Paris Peace negotiations 1919/20 & not invited to League
● Set Up Comintern 1919 → aim = help rev movements in Ger/Hung/It.
● Most rev. movements suppressed by 1923 → Comms had to look for new diplomatic ties
● Germany ALSO isolated post WWI: 1922 Treaty of Rapallo → German wd/ secretly
manufacture arms + train military, in USSR, and in exchange Ger. wd/ provide econ
assistance & trade links

P1 - Impact of Great Depression on Foreign Relations/the Nazi Threat

● Despite Rapallo, Treaty of Locarno 1925 (Improved West/Ger relations) + Germany’s
acceptance into League 1926 → made Stalin think West was forming alliance vs. USSR
● By end of 1920s, USSR/France and USSR/Br relations once again deteriorated (short
improvement by 1924)
● Great Depression 1929 → econ conditions fueled support for Nazi party … rose in 1930s
● France’s fear of Nazis caused them to sign a Franco-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact Nov 1932
○ Aim = Prevent German expansionism
● Stalin’s fears confirmed when Nazis came to power 1933 (at one point in Nov 1932… seemed
like communist party was doing well … but Night of Long Knives/SA suppression etc)
● Nazi ideology = ANTI COMMUNIST/Lebensraum in East → THREAT to USSR Security
● Nazis left Disarmament conf. 1933 + League 1933 → Stalin stopped military coop w/ Ger.
● Stalin had for a time underestimated the Nazi threat… but by 1934 he was paranoid
● Now Stalin looked towards COLLECTIVE SECURITY → Accepted to League in 1934
● Litvinov = Soviet Foreign Commissar for Foreign affairs → suggested looking towards Br/Fr
● 1935 France / USSR treaty agreed to protect CZ from attack from Nazi Ger (largely symbolic
… as France was still afraid to make military commitments w/ out British support)
● Stalin helped the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War, from 1936-39, to prevent the spread
of fascism … but the Nationalists won anyway
● Lack of response from League/Br/Fr after Abyssinia 1935/Rhineland 1936/Spain 1936 …
frightened Stalin
● Br followed appeasement … Nazi Germany = Bulwark vs. Communism + saw TOV as harsh
○ France unwilling to take action w/out Britain

P2 - Events in Asia
● Growing Influence of Japan in Manchuria / Jap strike north vs. strike south faction → Scared
Stalin
 ● He followed appeasement after Manchurian crisis 1931 → sold them Manchurian Railway
● Nov 1936 Japan/Germany Anti Comintern pact, 1937 Italy joined
● 1937 full scale Japanese invasion of China made Stalin believe 2 front war was near
● By 1938, he was encouraging the CCP to collab w/ the GMD, to counter the threat of Japan
● Stalin sent military aid to GMD in the hopes they would fight Japan
● USSR fought manchukuo forces at battle of Khalkhin Gol 1939 and won
○ This helped the ‘Strike South’ Faction win

P3 - A Turn in Western/Soviet Relations & the Nazi-Soviet Pact

● 1938 - Br/France didn’t oppose Hitler’s anschluss with austria
● Despite France promising to protect CZ ... unwilling to act w/out Br. (result = Munich 1938,
Sudetenland given to Hitler)
● Munich Conference marked a CHANGE in aim for Stalin → no longer would seek collective
security… he no longer trusted the West
● March 1939 Nazis invaded rest of CZ, Br + Fr. still didn’t take action
● After CZ incident … Br FINALLY decided that Pol should be protected: held talks USSR/Fr
○ France’s popular front gov collapsed, new Right gov = suspicious of Stalin
○ Br cabinet still had second thoughts about allying w/ communists
○ TALKS FAILED
● Stalin INCREASINGLY SUSPICIOUS of Br/Fr foreign policy
● 1939, to avoid two front war and to buy time for war, New Foreign Commissar signed Nazi-
Soviet Non Agression Pact on August 23rd (Molotov-Ribbentrop)
○ Secret clauses divided Poland / Eastern Europe (Baltics, Fin, Bessarabia = USSR)
○ Molotov had replaced Litvinov who was a Jew… so Molotov had better relations w/
Germany
○ Would prevent immediate two front war… would give Stalin time to prep for war
○ Gained lost land from 1918
● On Sept. 1st 1939 Germany invaded Poland … it was in ‘its’ sphere of influence
● Stalin soon advanced into Eastern Poland… this was a defensive move
● Attack on Finland Nov 1939-40 was also defensive… as USSR needed naval bases

Conclusion
● Two Historian Opinions:
○ Stalin/Litvinov genuinely seeking alliance w/ France & Br even after Munich …
alliance w/ West was Stalin's favoured option
○ Stalin favoured forming close links w/ Germany, eg: Rapallo 1922
■ (However 1991 archives showed that soviet contact w/ Germany infrequent
between 1935-39)
● Ultimately … France/Britain reluctance to negotiate w/ USSR left stalin little choice but to
coop w/ Germany
● Driven by motives for security/avoiding two front war which Stalin had seen as imminent
Stalin’s Foreign Policy 1941-1945

Course of WWII
● Stalin had feared two front war w/ Japan + Germany
○ This threat became reality in 1936 when they signed the anti-comintern pact.
● 1939 Nazi-Soviet pact ensured no attack from Germany… until 1941
● 1940 NKVD carried out a terror campaign against ‘anti-Soviet’ elements in Poland
● Katyn Massacre 1940, 4,000 Polish army officers/police etc murdered + placed in mass grave
● Finland refused to cede territory… 1939 November, Winter War w/ Finland broke out
○ 200,000 Red army soldiers killed (weakness of post-purge Red army evident)
● Hitler’s policy of Lebensraum led to invasion of USSR June 1941: Operation Barbarossa
○ Stalin ignored 84 warnings about the invasion
○ Stalin feared that defensive action taken by USSR wd/ be seen as an attack
● Siege of Leningrad, 1941-44
○ bombardements/starvation ensued during the 900-day siege
○ 600,000 of 2.5 million Leningrad’s population died, but USSR victorious
● The Battle of Moscow, Oct 1941-January 1942
○ Aka Operation Typhoon… Hitler aimed to occupy Moscow
○ Defense led by General Zhukov + harsh winter conditions enabled Red’s to resist
● Battle of Kursk, 4th July - 23rd August 1943
○ USSR victory… despite heavy loss of life and tanks
● Siege of Stalingrad
○ Stalingrad next to River Volga… key to severing Soviet oil supplies from Caucasus
○ Germans nearly succeeded… but Soviet counter offensive was successful
○ German defeat at Stalingrad = TURNING POINT
● Over next two years… no more German advances. Red army marched Westwards
● Red army ‘claimed’ to liberate Baltic States, Poland, & lots of Eastern Europe
● Germany surrendered May 8th 1945, and 9th August, joined war vs. Japan
● 27+ MILLION Soviets died in WWII

Reasons for Stalin’s Victory in WWII

● Planned econ by 1941 made transition to ‘total war’ econ seamless (gov already controlled
production/distribution of resources)
○ Ater 1943, looser centralized control saw an increase in production levels, indicating
that local control of production = more effective than central planning
● State Committee of Defense (GOKO) set up June 1941, w/ Stalin as Chairman
○ Stalin was in control of EVERY aspect of the defense of USSR
○ Made it clear that retreat was not an option
● Order 270 declared ‘those who surrender to Germans should be destroyed’ and deserters
should be shot and their families arrested
● Stalin used propaganda effectively during war
○ Conflict was called, ‘Great Patriotic War’ to save Mother russia… not to save
communism (this made the war more popular… nationalism appealed to all)
● Orthodox Church returned to its prominent position in Russia
● Weakness of Germans = brutality which they treated occupied civilians with
● To prevent internal disturbances, Stalin ‘re-settled’ Chechens, Tatars, Ukrainians, etc
● Severe winter climate halted German advances in 1941 … allowed Red Army to recover
● Geographically, Soviets could retreat Eastwards + Factories could be moved across Urals
● Stalin received substantial aid from USA, from Lend-Lease agreement after 1941
● British Navy shipped equipment to USSR

3.5 Stalin Post-WWII

May 2010 (Paper 3): A colleague said of Stalin: “His last years were the most dangerous. He swung
to extremes”. To what extent do you agree with this view?
Introduction - USSR’s Position after WWII
● According to State Propaganda, Stalin had saved the USSR vs. Nazis
○ Statues/postcards/posters praised his heroism
● Soviets emerged WWII w/ territorial gains lost in 1919
● USSR was now a SUPERPOWER
● Still… economy was in ruins/20+ million civilians had died
○ “70,000 villages, 98,000 kolkhozi, 17 million cattle, 65,000 km of railway track, 1.2
million houses…. etc” ALL DESTROYED

P1 - Economic Recovery
● Enormous hardship ensued:
○ Hard to find enough food/clothing/shelter
○ Limited vegetables, barely any meat, etc
● Lots of land devastated by war, eg: Kiev
● 1946 Fourth Five Year Plan announced
○ Called upon citizens to put aside hope for more consumer goods and focus on
industrial/agricultural production
○ Called for restoration of all industries ruined by war + to increase industrial output
50% MORE Than pre-war level
● Official claim → By 1950, industrial production 75% higher than 1940
● Re-arming became priority as Cold War heightened
● Labour/Resources diverted to building A-bomb 1949
● Agriculture much slower to recover… didn’t reach pre-war levels by 1950

P2 - Domestic Policies
● Pushed forward w/ ‘Russification’, imposing Russian culture/language into Baltic states
● In Baltic States + Moldova, purging of local pop + ‘planting’ of ethnic Russians
● Anti-semitism resurfaced (crackdown of Jewish lit, journalism, culture, etc)
● Zhdanovshchina = movement to remove ‘Western’ influence from Music/Literature
○ Eg: Prokofiev + Shostakovich now criticized
○ Einstein’s theory of relativity was criticized for being ‘bourgeois

P3 - Terror/Propaganda after 1945

● 1948 Purge of Leningrad Party: ‘Leningrad Affair’
● ‘Doctor’s Plot’ Nov 1952, Jewish doctors in Kremlin arrested + accused of killing patients
● Stalin’s death in 1953 saved the life of his closest comrades, Beria, Molotov, Mikoyan +
Malenkov
● Declining health had led to increase paranoia, he said: ‘I trust no one, not even myself’
● Purges of 1940s not on same scale as 1930s ones
● Many returning prisoners from German camps were arrested/interrogated/shot/sent to camps
● New labour camps built to hold ‘bandits’ (bandits = nationalists in Ukraine/Baltic states)
● By 1947, 20 million prisoners in Gulags
● By 1947, 27 additional camps had been built
● Local communist parties in Soviet satellite states were purged (just as randomly as in 1930s)

Conclusion
● No matter what hardships ensued post 1945… for most nothing was as bad as WWII years