Chapter 7

MHD PLASMA WAVES

7.1 Introduction
Plasma is a complex fluid that supports many plasma wave modes. Restoring
forces include kinetic pressure and electric and magnetic forces. Wave phenomena
are important for heating plasmas, instabilities and diagnostics etc.
In vacuum, there is only one wave mode - the electromagnetic wave with
ω/k = c and having oscillating E and B components perpendicular to k. In air,
both sound waves and electromagnetic waves propagate. In plasma, both elec-
trostatic waves and electromagnetic waves will propagate. In the former case, the
electric field perturbation associated with the wave is parallel to the wave propoa-
gation direction E
k so that there are no magnetic perturbations associated
with the wave:
∇×E = ik×E = iωB = 0
While in air, sound waves propagate through collisions, in a highy ionized plasma,
these collisions occur through the wave electric fields.
There are a great variety of possible plasma waves modes, since the wave phase
velocity depends on both the wave frequency and its angle of propagation with
respect to the background magnetic field. Important characteristic frequencies
are ωpe , ωce and ωci .

7.2 Waves
Though conventionally we write

n = ñ exp (ik.r − iωt) 3−D

n = ñ exp (ikx − iωt) 1−D
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the observable quantity is n = ñ cos(kx − ωt). The exponential notation is

useful for analysis of linear systems where Fourier synthesis and superposition
are valid.

7.2.1 Phase velocity

The phase velocity is the velocity on the wave of a point of constant phase. Thus

kx − ωt =

constant

ω constant
⇒ x = t+ (7.1)
k k
and
w
vφ = (7.2)
k
is the phase velocity.
The wave complex amplitude carries the phase information

E = Ẽ cos (kx − ωt + δ)
⇒ Ẽ exp [i(kx − ωt + δ)]
= Ẽ c exp (ikx − iωt) (7.3)

where the wave amplitude is the complex quantity:

Ẽ c = Ẽ exp (iδ). (7.4)

By the principle of superposition an arbitrary composite time varying waveform

is constructed from its Fourier components:
 ∞
dω
E(t) = Ẽ c (ω) exp (ik.r − iωt) (7.5)
−∞ 2π
where the complex amplitude is now frequency dependent.
Henceforth we shall omit the tilde notation that distinguishes the complex
Fourier amplitude. The meaning should be evident from the context.
In order to take advantage of superposition and linear theory, we shall usually
“linearize” the fluid equations by performing a Taylor series expansion about
equilibrium values u0 , E 0 , B 0 etc. and keep only first order perturbations u1 ,
E 1 , B 1 etc. The perturbations are the wave-related quantities. Thus

n = n0 + n1 exp (ikx − iωt)

or simply n = n0 + n1 with the phasor understood. Non-linear combinations of

small terms are always dropped e.g. n1 u1 , as these are of second order in small
quantities.
7.3 Overview of plasma ion waves 149

7.2.2 Group velocity

Information is usually encoded on a carrier wave as either a modulation of its
phase or amplitude (or polarization). A simple amplitude modulated wave can
be constructed by combining two carriers of slightly different frequency ω and
ω + dω. The resulting beat pattern (the information) travels at the group velocity

dω
vg = <c (7.6)
dk

The group velocity is closely related to the concept of Poynting flux which we
will encounter later. The distinction between phase and group velocities is shown
schematically in Fig. 7.1

vg =dω/dk
ω

vφ = ω/k

Dispersion curve

Figure 7.1: The phase and group velocities of a wave can be determined from its
dispersion relation.

7.3 Overview of plasma ion waves

The treatment given here largely follows the account given in [7]. We commence
by briefly reviewing the propagation of sound waves in air. The extension to
a compressible magnetized plasma is intuitively clear. The formal derivations
follow.
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7.3.1 Sound waves in air

Variations in air pressure and density obey the adiabatic law
∇p ∇ρ
=γ (7.7)
p ρ
or
 
γp
∇p = ∇ρ
ρ
≡ vS2 ∇ρ (7.8)

where vS is the adiabatic sound speed:

 1/2
γp
vS =
ρ
 1/2
γkB T
= . (7.9)
m

We can draw an analogy from this for MHD waves — i.e. waves in a compressible
conducting fluid in a magnetic field.

7.3.2 Alfvén waves

We have established that the MHD fluid feels magnetic tension B 2 /µ0 along
the field lines and an isotropic pressure B 2 /2µ0 . The field lines thus behave as
mass-loaded strings under tension – plasma particles are tied to the field lines.
We therefore expect the magnetic field to execute transverse perturbations when
perturbed which propagate with velocity
 1/2  /2
tension B2
VA = = . (7.10)
density µ0 ρ

This is the Alfvén velocity. It was encountered earlier in relation to the polariza-
tion drift (see Sec. 4.3.1). Figure 7.2 illustrates the transverse nature of the fluid
motion and the frozen magnetic lines of force. There are no density or pressure
fluctuations associated with this wave. The wave is often called the torsional or
shear Alfvén wave.

7.3.3 Ion acoustic and Magnetoacoustic waves

By further analogy, we should also expect longitudinal oscillations due to pressure
fluctuations. For motion of the particles and propagation of the wave along the
7.3 Overview of plasma ion waves 151

Figure 7.2: Torisonal Alfvén waves in a compressible conducting MHD fluid prop-
agating along the lines of force. The fluid motion and magnetic perturbations
are normal to the field lines.

field there will be no field perturbation since the particles are free to move in
this direction (B 1 = 0 ⇒ electrostatic wave). These waves will therefore be
compresional waves, called ion acoustic waves propagating at velocity
 1/2
γe kB Te + γi kB Ti
VS = (7.11)
mi
along the field lines as shown in Fig. 7.3.
In the direction perpendicular to B a new type of longitudinal oscillation
is made possible by the magnetic restoring force (magnetic pressure). This is
the magnetoacoustic, magnetosonic or simply compressional wave that involves
compression and rarefaction of the magnetic lines of force as well as the plasma.
This wave propagates at velocity VM that satisfies
 
B2
∇ p+ = VM2 ∇ρ (7.12)
2µ0
 
d B2
⇒ VM2 = p+
dρ 2µ0 ρ0
 
2
d B
= VS2 + (7.13)
dρ 2µ0 ρ0

where ρ0 is the background density of the unperturbed fluid. Observe that we

have included the magnetic pressure in the restoring force. Since particles are
tied to field lines, B/ρ = B0 /ρ0 and we have
 
d B02 ρ2
VM2 = VS2 +
dρ 2µ0 ρ20 ρ0
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k
Rarefaction

Compression

Figure 7.3: Longitudinal sound waves propagate along the magnetic field lines in
a compressible conducting magnetofluid.

= VS2 + VA2 (7.14)

where as previously, VA is the Alfvén velocity. The nature of the magnetoacoustic

wave is illustrated in Fig. 7.4

7.4 Mathematical treatment of MHD waves

Our starting point is the set of ideal MHD fluid equations which, for convenience,
we reproduce here:

∂ρ
+ ∇.(ρu) = 0 continuity (7.15)
∂t
∂u
ρ + ρ(u.∇)u = j×B − ∇p force (7.16)
∂t
∇p = VS2 ∇ρ equation of state (7.17)
∇×B = µ0 j Ampere s law (7.18)
∂B
∇×E = − Faraday s law (7.19)
∂t
E + u×B = 0 Ohm s law. (7.20)

Combining equations (7.16)-(7.18) yields

∂u 1
ρ + ρ(u.∇)u = −VS2 ∇ρ + (∇×B)×B (7.21)
∂t µ0
7.4 Mathematical treatment of MHD waves 153

Figure 7.4: The magnetoacoustic wave propagates perpendicularly to B com-

pressing and releasing both the lines of force and the conducting fluid which is
tied to the field.

while (7.19) and (7.20) give

∂B
= ∇×(u×B). (7.22)
∂t
We now make a perturbation expansion about the equilibrum values
ρ → ρ0 + ρ1
B → B0 + B1
u → u1
where u0 = 0 (fluid is at rest). With these substitutions, we linearize equations
(7.15), (7.21) and (7.22):
∂ρ1
+ ρ0 ∇.u1 = 0 (7.23)
∂t
∂u1 1
ρ0 + VS2 ∇ρ1 + B 0 ×∇×B 1 = 0 (7.24)
∂t µ0
∂B 1
− ∇×(u1 ×B 0 ) = 0. (7.25)
∂t
The linearized equations can now be used to develop a wave equation for u1 .
First we differentiate Eq. (7.24) with respect to time:
∂ 2 u1 ∂ρ1 1 ∂B 1
ρ0 + VS2 ∇ + B 0 ×∇× = 0. (7.26)
∂t 2 ∂t µ0 ∂t
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We then substitute from Eq. (7.23) and Eq. (7.25) to obtain

∂ 2 u1
− VS2 ∇(∇.u1 ) + V A ×{∇×[∇×(u1 ×V A )]} = 0 (7.27)
∂t2
where we have defined
B0
VA= . (7.28)
(µ0 ρ0 )1/2
We now assume a plane wave solution

u1 (r, t) = u1 exp (ik.r − iωt) (7.29)

and replace the derivatives

∂
∇ → ik → −iω
∂t
to obtain the dispersion relation

−ω 2 u1 + VS2 (k.u1 )k − V A ×{k×[k×(u1 ×V A )]} = 0. (7.30)

Expanding the vector triple cross product using

A×(B×C) = (A.C)B − (A.B)C (7.31)

finally gives

−ω 2 u1 + (VS2 + VA2 )(k.u1 )k + (k.V A )[(k.V A )u1 − (V A .u1 )k − (k.u1 )V A ] = 0.

(7.32)
This complex expression has simple solutions!

7.4.1 Propagation perpendicular to B 0

This is the magnetoacoustic wave. For K ⊥ B 0 we have k.V A = 0 and the
dispersion relation reduces to

−ω 2 u1 + (VS2 + VA2 )(k.u1 )k = 0. (7.33)

The vector nature of the equation requires that u1 – the perturbed fluid velocity
– be parallel to the propagation direction k and hence k.u1 = ku1 . The wave is
longitudinal in nature and its dispersion relation becomes
ω
vφ = = (VS2 + VA2 )1/2 (7.34)
k
which is the same as Eq. (7.14) derived above.
7.4 Mathematical treatment of MHD waves 155

The magnetic field perturbation associated with the wave is obtained using
Eq. (7.25):
−ωB 1 − k×(u1 ×B 0 ) = 0. (7.35)
Expanding the triple product and using k.B 0 = 0 (i.e. k.V A = 0) gives
u1
B1 = B0 (7.36)
vφ

and the perturbation is parallel to the background field. Ohm’s law can be used
to obtain the electric field perturbation

E 1 = −u1 ×B 0 . (7.37)

Summarizing the wave properties we find

B1 ⊥ k u1
k (compressional)
E1 ⊥ B1 E 1 ⊥ u1 (like transverse electric too!) (7.38)

The wave produces compressions and rarefactions in the B field without magnetic
line bending. Since the fluid is ideal (infinite conductivity), the magnetic lines and
fluid move together in the direction of k. The restoring force involves pressure and
magnetic stresses working together. The various perturbed wave components are
shown in Fig. 7.5. When displacement current is included in Maxwell’s equation
1 ∂E
∇×B = µ0 j + (7.39)
c2 ∂t
(as is required for frequencies approacing ωci where the polarization drift is im-
portant), the phase velocity becomes
 1/2
VA2 + VS2
vφ = . (7.40)
1 + VA2 /c2

This reduces to vφ = VM for VA  c.

7.4.2 Propagation parallel to B 0

For k
B 0 we have k.V A = kVA and Eq. (7.32) reduces to
 
2 VS2
(k VA2 2
− ω )u1 + 2
− 1 k 2 (V A .u1 )V A = 0 (7.41)
VA

This relation supports two possible wave motions. Let us take u1
B 0 . The
dispersion relation gives
ω
vφ = = VS (7.42)
k
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B0

B1

k
u1 u1 u1

E1

Figure 7.5: The perturbed components associated with the compressional mag-
netoacoustic wave propagating perpendicular to B 0

which is the longitudinal ion acoustic, or sound wave encountered earlier. There
are no perturbed components E 1 , j 1 and B 1 associated with this wave.
A transverse wave, in which the fluid velocity perturbation is perpendicular
to B 0 is the other possibility. We set u1 .B 0 = 0 and u1 .k = 0 to obtain
ω
vφ = = VA (7.43)
k
which is the torsional Alfvén wave dispersion relation. All of the Alfvén waves
exhibit no dispersion i.e. vφ is independent of ω and the group velocity is the
same as the phase velocity.
The magnetic perturbation accompanying this wave is found using Eq. (7.35):
u1
B 1 = − B0 . (7.44)
vφ
Thus the perturbation is antiparallel to the fluid perturbation velocity (perpendic-
ular to B 0 ). The electric perturbation is again given by Eq. (7.37). Summarizing
the wave properties we find
B1 ⊥ k u1 ⊥ k (transverse magnetic)
E1 ⊥ B1 E1 ⊥ k (like transverse electric too!). (7.45)
There are no fluctuations in ρ although the fluid and magnetic field lines oscillate
together. The relationship of the perturbed quantities to the wave are shown in
Fig. 7.6.
For the torsional wave, the fluid and magnetic perturbations are in antiphase,
indicating an exchange of energy between the fluid kinetic energy and the mag-
netic energy (i.e. p + B 2 /2µ0 is constant):
B12 B 2 u1 B 2 u2 1
= 0 2 = 0 12 = ρu21
2µ0 2µ0 vφ 2µ0 VA 2
7.4 Mathematical treatment of MHD waves 157

where we have used Eq. (7.10).

y Magnetic line of force

B = B0 + B1
B1
k
z B0
x
E1
u1

Figure 7.6: The perturbed components associated with the torsional or shear
wave propagating along B 0

We have obtained the dispersion relation for these waves assuming an es-
sentially unbounded plasma in a uniform magnetic field and plane wave solu-
tions. For bounded plasmas, it is necessary to consider the field structure and
the boundary conditions. In our usual cylindrical plasma model, the geometry for
the perturbed quantities is shown in Fig. 7.7 and the reason for the designation
torsional Alfvén wave is clear.

B0
u1

E1

Figure 7.7: The perturbed components associated with the torsional wave in a
cylindrical plasma column

If the displacement current is included in the analysis, there is no effect for

the acoustic wave but the torsional wave dispersion becomes
ω VA
vφ = = (7.46)
k (1 + VA2 /c2 )1/2
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7.4.3 Propagation at an arbitrary angle to B 0

At angles other than perpendicular or parallel to B 0 , a third wave called the
pure Alfvén wave is found to propagate. The various wave mode disperions can
be combined in a single wave normal diagram as shown in Fig. 7.8. In this
diagram, the wave phase velocity is plotted as a function of polar angle measured
from the direction of the background field B 0 . For obvious reasons, the curve
of largest radius is associated with the “fast” wave and the innermost curve is
called the “slow” wave. The identification of the various wave modes with either
fast or slow branches is shown in the table.
θ (degrees) Fast Slow
0 (VA > VS ) torsional ion acoustic
0 (VA < VS ) ion acoustic torsional
90 magnetosonic none

Problems
Problem 7.1 Show that Alfven waves propagating along the magnetic field are
circularly polarized. Show that the left and right handed waves reduce to the torsional
Alfven wave in the limit ω → 0.

Problem 7.2 For the fast and slow MHD waves, let ul and ut be the components
of the velocity of mass flow which are longitudinal and transverse respectively to the
direction of propagation. Show that ul and ut are in phase for the fast wave and anti-
phase for the slow wave. Show that the same is true for the associated perturbations
of the kinetic and magnetic pressures.

Problem 7.3 Consider the propagation of a low frequency MHD wave at an angle
θ to the direction of the magnetic field B 0 as shown in the figure below. Using
Eq. (7.32), write down expressions for the x, y and z components of this equation and
show that a linearly polarized wave involving oscillations in the direction perpendicular
to k and B 0 with phase velocity

ω/k = VA cos θ

can exist. Show that the field components associated with this wave are B1y , v1y ,
E1x and J1x so that it is a transverse wave. This mode is known as the pure Alfven
wave or oblique Alfven wave.
7.4 Mathematical treatment of MHD waves 159

B0
Fast MHD
VA > VS VA
VS
Pure Alfven
1/2
0 (VA2 + VS2 )

Slow MHD

Fast MHD
VS
VA < VS
VA
Pure Alfven
1/2
0 (VA2 + VS2 )

Slow MHD

Figure 7.8: Wave normal diagrams for the fast, slow and pure Alfvén waves for
(a) VA > VS and (b) VA < VS . The length of the radius from the origin to a point
on the associated closed curve is proportional to the wave phase velocity
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