SIGNALS & SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 1

BASIC SIGNALS

A. Prof. Dr. Yazen A K

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1. INTRODUCTION:
The concept and theory of signals and systems are needed in
almost all electrical, electronic and computer engineering fields
and in many other engineering and scientific disciplines as well.

In this chapter we introduce the

mathematical descriptions and
representations of signals and
systems with their classifications
and basic operations.
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Signal processing is the Mathematics,
Algorithms and Techniques that manipulate
and process the Signals after they have been
converted into electrical / electronic form.

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These signals comes from different sensors from the real world like:
Temperature, speed, Light, Speech, Sound, Visual Images, Pressure,
Vibration, movement . . . etc.

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2. SIGNALS AND CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS
A signal is a function representing a physical quantity or variable.
It contains information about the behaviour or nature of this
quantity. For instance, in a the electrical circuit, the signal may
represent the voltage across the element or the current flowing in.
Mathematically, a signal is represented as a function of an
independent variable t. Usually t represents time. Thus, a signal is
denoted by x(t). It is called “time domain signal”.
For example:

x(t)= t+2 , f(t)=t2-3 , g(t)=2t –t3+8

Signal Parameters:
1. Type: sin, cos, square, triangle, sawtooth, pulse, … etc.
2. Amplitude or Peak Value (P),
3. Peak to Peak Value (P-P).
4. Frequency (f ): it is the number of complete cycles per time,
1Hz = 1 cycle per sec, 2 Hz= 2 cycles per sec, 1 KHz = 1000 cycles
per sec and so on.
5. Time Period (T): The duration of one complete cycle (sec)

and
𝟏 𝟏
𝐓= 𝐟=
𝐟 𝐓

If f = 100 Hz then T=0.01 sec

6. Phase (F): the delay or lead between signals (phase shift).
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Remember that:

and
𝟏 𝟏
𝐓= 𝐟=
𝐟 𝐓

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Signals Phase Shift (F)

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Classification of Signals:
The time domain signals can be classified by different ways as following:

1. Continuous-Time vs Discrete-Time Signals.

2. Analog vs Digital Signals.
3. Deterministic vs Random Signals.
4. Even vsOdd Signals.
vs = versus
5. Periodic vs Nonperiodic Signals
6. Energy vs Power Signals.
7. Real vs Complex Signals.

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Continuous-Time Vs Discrete-Time Signals:
A signal x(t) is a continuous-time signal if t is a continuous variable. If t is a
discrete variable, then it is defined at discrete times, and called discrete-time
signal x(n) . Since a discrete-time signal is defined at discrete times.

The discrete-time signal is often identified as a sequence of numbers denoted by

xn or x(n), where n is integer. Only at some discrete time points 0, 1, 2, ….
there is a value of the signal x. ts is defined as the sampling time or time
between adjacent samples (sec). 13
Sampling Process Techniques: converting continuous time x(t) signal into
discrete time signal x(n).
1. Multiplication Technique:

2. Switching Technique:

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Sampling
Process

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Analogue Vs Digital Signals:

If a time signal can take on any value in an interval, then the signal x(t)
is called an analogue signal. If a signal can take on only a finite number of
distinct values, then we call this signal a digital signal.

 Infinite set of values means Analogue

 Finite set of values means Digital

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Deterministic Vs Random Signals:

Deterministic signals are those signals whose values are completely

specified for any given time. Thus, a deterministic signal can be modelled
mathematically by a known function of time t.

Random signals are those signals that take random values at any given
time and then it must be characterized statistically.

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Even Vs Odd Signals:
A signal x ( t ) or x(n) is referred to as an even signal if
x ( - t ) = x ( t ) continuous
x ( - n ) = x ( n ) discrete

A signal x ( t ) or x[n] is referred to as an odd signal if

x( - t )= - x( t ) continuous
x( - n )= - x ( n ) discrete

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Different examples of Even Vs Odd Signals:

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Periodic Vs Nonperiodic Signals:
A time signal is said to be periodic with period T if it repeats itself at
each time T for which: x(t + T ) = x ( t ) for all t

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Famous Types of Periodic Signals

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Energy versus Power Signals:

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Real versus Complex Signals:
A signal is a real signal if its values are real numbers. A signal is a
complex signal if its value is a complex number. A general complex signal
x(t) is a function of the form:
x ( t ) = x1 ( t ) + i x2 ( t )

 The Real signal can be represented graphically by only ONE plot which
is called (Magnitude Characteristics c/cs). Denoted by |x(t)|.

 The Complex signal should be represented graphically by TWO plots

which are called:
1. (Magnitude Characteristics c/cs) plot, denoted by |x(t)|.
2. (Phase Characteristics c/cs) plot, denoted by q measured in Rad or Deg.

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Basic Time Signals (Functions):

1. Unit Impulse Signal (Delta Function).

2. Unit Step Function.
3. Ramp Function.
4. Exponential Function.
5. Sinusoidal Function.

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1. Impulse Signal (Delta Function):
The unit impulse function d(t), also known as the Dirac delta function,
plays a central role in system analysis. It is defined as following:

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2. Unit Step Signal:
The unit step function u(t), also known as the Heaviside unit function, is
defined as:

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 The Relation between Impulse function and Unit step Function

 The impulse function is the  The unit step function

derivative of the unit step is the Integration of
function is : the impulse function
is :
𝑑𝑢(𝑡) ∞
𝛿 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 = න 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝜏=0
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3. Ramp Signal:
The ramp function r(t) is defined as following:

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Relation between ramp function and unit step function:

 The derivative of a ramp function is unit function:

𝐝𝐫(𝐭)
𝐮 𝐭 =
𝐝𝐭

 The Integration of the unit step function is a ramp function:

𝑟 𝑡 = න 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝜏=0
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4. Exponential Signal:
The exponential function x(t)= exp (at) or x(t) = eat , a is real number

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MATLAB: Write a MATLAB program to simulate the following functions:

et , e-t , e1/t , e-1/t y(t)=expt y(t)=exp -t

150 1

100
0.5
50

0 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60

x 10
4
y(t)=exp1/t y(t)=exp -1/t
3 1

2
0.5
1

0 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 33
5. Sinusoidal Signal:
The Sinusoidal function could be sine or cosine.
Then: x(t) = Asin(wt+F) or x(t) = Acos(wt+F)

A: Amplitude (Magnitude),
w: Angular Frequency (rad/sec), where w = 2pf
F: Phase shift (rad)
If A = 1 and F = 0, then x(t) = sin(wt) and x(t) = cos(wt) , as shown
below:

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Complex Exponential Signals:

x(t) = 𝒆±𝒋𝝎𝒐 t = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒐 𝒕 ± 𝒋𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒐 𝒕 [Euler's Formula]

Euler's Formula:

𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ± 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

1 𝑗𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = [𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 ]
2

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = [𝑒 𝑗𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 ]
2𝑗 35
 Special Angles
q (Rad) q (Rad) sin cos
0 0 0 1
p/2 90 1 0
p 180 0 -1
3p/2 270 -1 0
2p 360 0 1 36
Homework (HW):
If Z = 3+j4 , find Z in polar and exponential
If A = 3-j4 , find A in polar and exponential
If B = j4 , find B in polar and exponential
If M = -j4 , find M in polar and exponential
If C = 3 , find C in polar and exponential
If D = -3 , find D in polar and exponential
If E = j4 , find E in polar and exponential
If F = 10 , find F in Rectangular and exponential
If N = 5 , find N in Rectangular and exponential

If G = 20ejp , find F in Rectangular and Polar

If H = 4e-jp/2 , find H in Rectangular and Polar

Find: Z+A , A-Z , B+A , C+B , Z*A , Z/A , F+N , F/N , G*H , H/G , G+A , G*F ,
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BASIC OPERATIONS ON SIGNALS: there are THREE types of operations:
1. SHIFT OPERATIONS:
• Time Shift [ DELAY or ADVANCE]
• Magnitude Shift [ UP or DOWN]
2. SCALE OPERATIONS:
• Time Scale [ EXPAND or COMPRESS]
• Magnitude Scale [ AMPLIFY or ATTENUATE (shrink)]
3. FLIP OPERATIONS:
• Time Flip [HORIZONTAL FLIP]
• Magnitude Flip [ VERTICAL FLIP}

In following slides, all operations will be

applied on the Signal shown as an
example: 38
Time Shift Operations
[Right or Left]

x(t ± b)

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Magnitude Shift [ UP or DOWN]

x(t) ± c

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Time Scale [ Compress or Expand]

x(mt)

If m > 1 then compress (fast)

If m < 1 then Expand (slow)

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Note:

 To achieve the time scale, the important points in time domain (points where
the signal value changes) have to be divided by the value of the time scaling
coefficient “m”.

 In the case (when the signal does not start from t = zero) for example: start at
t = ±1 , then we can not divide the important points by alpha since this will
change the start point value and the new signal will be delayed or advanced
its start point and this will be wrong.

 The most important thing here is the total width of the original signal ( in the
previous example is 4) must be divided on m =2 to get the new compressed
width that is 2 (i.e. half of original one). then all sub-widths or intervals of the
signal will be also be half of their corresponding in original. In Expanding, these
time points must be divided on m =0.5 to get the new expanded width that is
8 (i.e. doubled of original). then all sub-widths of the signal will be also
doubled.
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Magnitude Scale [Magnify or Shrink]

ax(t)

If a > 1 then Magnify

If a < 1 then Shrink

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Flip Operations (Horizontally or Vertically)

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Magnitude Scale Time Scale
coefficient “a” coefficient “m”

Magnitude Shift
coefficient “c”

Time Shift
coefficient “b”

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Construction of other Signals using basic signals:
Other Signals can be got by applying one or more of the previous
operations on the basic signals as shown in the following examples:
Ex:
Plot the following signals x(t)=d(t-1), x(t)=d(t-2), x(t)=d(t+2), x(t)=3d(t-4)

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Ex:

Plot the following signals: x(t)=-2d(t+3), x(t) = d(t+2)+ d(t)+d(t-1)+ 2d(t-2)-d(t-3),

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Ex: Draw the following signals:
x(t)= u(t-1), x(t)= u(t+2), x(t)= 2u(t-4), x(t)=-3u(t+2), x(t)=2u(-t+1), x(t)=-u(-t-1)

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Ex: Draw the following signals: x(t)= r(t-1), x(t)=r(t+2), x(t)= 2r(t) , x(t)= -r(t)

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Ex: Draw the following Ex: Draw the following
signal: x(t)=u(t) + u(t-1) signal: x(t)=u(t) + 2u(t-1)

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Ex: Draw the following signals
x(t)= u(t) + 2u(t-2) -3u(t-4)

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Ex: Draw the following signal:
x(t)= u(t+2) - u(t-2)

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Ex: Write the mathematical functions of the signals x(t) and h(t) shown
below:

Sol:
x(t)= 2u(t+2)-u(t-2) –u(t-4) h(t)=-2u(t+1)+3u(t-1)-u(t-4)

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Ex: Draw the following signal:
if x1(t)= u(t) - u(t-4) and x2(t)= 2u(t-1) -2u(t-2),
Find and plot x1(t) + x2(t)

Sol:
f(t) = x1(t)+x2(t)= u(t)+2u(t-1)-2u(t-2)-u(t-4)

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Ex: Draw the following signals: x (t)= sin(wt) [u(t-2) – u(t-5)]

Sol: Time Window

HW: Draw the following signals:

x (t)= e-t u(-t)

SEE questions bank 1, more

HW there 56