FOUNDATIONS

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PHYSICS
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 FOUNDATIONS
OF
PHYSICS

Steve Adams

MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION

Dulles, Virginia
Boston, Massachusetts
New Delhi
Reprint and Revision Copyright ©2019 by MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION LLC.
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For Alison
 CONTENTS

Preface xxv

Chapter 1 The Language of Physics 1

1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 The S.I. System of Units 1
1.2 Dimensions 3
1.2.1 Method of Dimensions 4
1.3 Scientific Notation, Prefixes, and Significant Figures 5
1.4 Uncertainties 6
1.4.1 Types of Uncertainty 7
1.4.2 Combining Uncertainties 7
1.5 Dealing with Random and Systematic Experimental Errors 8
1.6 Differential Calculus 9
1.6.1 Derivatives and Rates of Change 9
1.6.2 Maximum and Minimum Values 11
1.7 Differential Equations 13
1.8 Integral Calculus 14
1.9 Vectors and Scalars 15
1.9.1 Adding Vectors 16
1.9.2 Resolving Vectors into Components 16
1.9.3 Multiplying Vectors 17
1.10 Symmetry Principles 19
1.11 Exercises 21

Chapter 2 Representing and Analyzing Data 23

2.0 Introduction 23
2.1 Experimental Variables 23
2.2 Recording Data 24
2.3 Straight Line Graphs 26
2.3.1 Interpreting Straight Line Graphs 26
2.3.2 Analyzing Straight Line Graphs 26
2.4 Plotting Graphs and Using Error Bars 27
2.4.1 Plotting Graphs by Hand 27
2.4.2 Finding a Gradient from a Straight Line Graph 28
2.4.3 Using a Spreadsheet Program 29
2.4.4 Using Error Bars 30
2.5 Logarithms 32
2.5.1 Logarithmic Scales and Logarithms 32
2.5.2 Using Logarithms 32
viii • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

2.6 Testing Mathematical Relationships Between Variables 33

2.6.1 Direct Proportion 33
2.6.2 Inverse Proportion 33
2.6.3 Inverse-Square Law 34
2.6.4 Power Law 34
2.6.5 Exponential Decay or Growth 34
2.7 Exercises 35

Chapter 3 Capturing, Displaying, and Analyzing Motion 37

3.0 Introduction 37
3.1 Motion Terminology 37
3.2 Graphs of Motion 38
3.3 Equations of Motion for Constant Acceleration:
The “Suvat” Equations 39
3.3.1 Derivation 1: From Graphs of Motion 40
3.3.2 Derivation 2: Using Calculus 41
3.4 Projectile Motion 41
3.4.1 Independence of Horizontal and Vertical
Components of Motion 41
3.4.2 Parabolic Paths 42
3.4.3 Range of a Projectile 43
3.5 Equation of Motion 43
3.6 Methods to Capture and Display Graphs of Motion 44
3.6.1 Motion Sensors and Dataloggers 44
3.6.2 Light Gates 45
3.6.3 Mobile Phones and Tablets 46
3.7 Exercises 48

Chapter 4 Forces and Equilibrium 51

4.1 Force as a Vector 51
4.1.1 Free Body Diagrams 51
4.1.2 Resolving Forces 52
4.1.3 Finding a Resultant Force 52
4.2 Mass, Weight, and Center of Gravity 54
4.2.1 Mass 54
4.2.2 Weight 55
4.2.3 Center of Gravity 55
4.3 Equilibrium of Coplanar Forces 57
4.3.1 Using the Triangle of Forces to Solve Equilibrium Problems 57
4.3.2 Resolving Forces to Solve Equilibrium Problems 58
4.4 Turning Effects of a Force: Moments, Torques, and Couples 59
4.4.1 Moments and Torques 59
4.4.2 Resultant Moment 60
 CONTENTS • ix

4.4.3 Couples 60
4.4.4 Principle of Moments 61
4.5 Stability 63
4.5.1 Types of Mechanical Equilibrium 63
4.5.2 Degrees of Stability 65
4.6 Frictional Forces 66
4.6.1 Origin of Frictional ForcesBetween Surfaces in Contact 66
4.6.2 Static and Dynamic (Kinetic) Friction 67
4.6.3 Coefficients of Friction 67
4.6.4 Measuring the Coefficient of Static Friction 68
4.6.5 Measuring the Coefficient of Dynamic (Kinetic) Friction 69
4.7 Exercises 69

Chapter 5 Newtonian Mechanics 73

5.0 Introduction 73
5.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion 73
5.1.1 Newton’s First Law of Motion 73
5.1.2 Galilean Relativity 74
5.1.3 Newton’s Second Law of Motion 75
5.1.4 Free Fall 76
5.1.5 Newton’s Third Law of Motion 78
5.2 Linear Momentum 80
5.2.1 Newton’s Second Law in Terms of Linear Momentum 80
5.2.2 Impulse and Change of Momentum 80
5.2.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum 81
5.3 Work Energy and Power 84
5.3.1 Work 84
5.3.2 Gravitational Potential Energy Changes (Uniform Field) 86
5.3.3 Kinetic Energy 87
5.3.4 The Law of Conservation of Energy 87
5.3.5 Energy and Momentum in a 2D Collision 88
5.3.6 Energy Transfers 89
5.3.7 Power 90
5.4 Energy Resources 91
5.5 Propulsion Systems 92
5.5.1 Jet Propulsion 92
5.5.2 Rockets 93
5.5.3 Radiation Pressure 94
5.6 Frames of Reference 95
5.6.1 The Center of Mass Frame 96
5.6.2 Galilean Transformation 97
5.7 Theoretical Mechanics 98
5.7.1 Force and Energy 99
x • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

5.7.2 Lagrangian Mechanics 99

5.8 Exercises 101

Chapter 6 Fluids 103

6.0 Introduction 103
6.1 Hydrostatic Pressure 104
6.1.1 Excess Pressure Caused by a Column of Fluid 104
6.1.2 Atmospheric Pressure 105
6.1.3 Measuring Pressure Differences 106
6.1.4 Barometers 107
6.1.5 Dams 108
6.2 Buoyancy and Archimedes Principle 109
6.2.1 Buoyancy Forces 109
6.2.2 Archimedes’ Principle 110
6.2.3 Flotation 111
6.3 Viscosity 111
6.3.1 Coefficient of Viscosity 111
6.4 Fluid Flow 112
6.4.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 112
6.4.2 Equation of Continuity 113
6.4.3 Drag Forces in a Fluid 113
6.4.4 Stoke’s Law 114
6.4.5 Turbulent Drag 115
6.4.6 Bernoulli Equation 116
6.4.7 Bernoulli Effect 116
6.4.8 Viscous Flow Through a Horizontal Pipe:
The Poiseuille Equation 117
6.4.9 Measuring the Coefficient of Viscosity 119
6.5 Measuring Fluid Flow Rates 120
6.5.1 A Venturi Meter 120
6.5.2 A Pitot Tube 121
6.6 Exercises 122

Chapter 7 Mechanical Properties 127

7.1 Density 127
7.2 Inter-Atomic Forces 128
7.3 Stretching Springs 130
7.3.1 Spring Constant 130
7.3.2 Springs in Series and in Parallel 131
7.3.3 Elastic Potential Energy (Strain Energy) 132
7.4 Stress and Strain 133
7.4.1 Young’s Modulus 133
7.4.2 Experimental Measurement of Young’s
Modulus for a Metal Wire 134
 CONTENTS • xi

7.4.3 Stress vs. Strain Graph for a Ductile Metal 136

7.4.4 Rubber Hysteresis 137
7.5 Material Terminology 138
7.6 Material Types 139
7.7 Exercises 140

Chapter 8 Thermal Physics 143

8.0 Introduction 143
8.1 Thermal Equilibrium 143
8.2 Measuring Temperature 144
8.3 Temperature Scales 144
8.4 Heat Transfer Mechanisms 146
8.4.1 Conduction 146
8.4.2 Convection 148
8.4.3 Radiation 148
8.5 Black Body Radiation 149
8.6 Heat Capacities 150
8.6.1 Specific Heat Capacity 150
8.6.2 Molar Heat Capacities of Gases 151
8.6.3 Measuring Specific Heat Capacity 151
8.7 Specific Latent Heat 153
8.8 Exercises 154

Chapter 9 Gases 157

9.1 Gas Laws 157
9.1.0 Introduction 157
9.1.1 Boyle’s Law 158
9.1.2 Charles’s Law 159
9.1.3 Gay Lussac’s Law (The Pressure Law) 160
9.2 Ideal Gas Equation 161
9.3 Kinetic Theory of Gases 162
9.3.1 Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory 162
9.3.2 Explaining Gas Pressure 162
9.3.3 Molecular Kinetic Energy and Temperature 164
9.3.4 Molar Heat Capacities of an Ideal Monatomic Gas 166
9.3.5 Equipartition of Energy 166
9.3.6 Law of Dulong and Petit 167
9.3.7 Graham’s Law of Diffusion 168
9.3.8 Speed of Sound in a Gas 168
9.4 Maxwell Distribution 168
9.5 Boltzmann Factor and Activation Processes 170
9.6 First Law of Thermodynamics 171
9.6.1 Internal Energy 171
9.6.2 Heating, Working, and the First Law of Thermodynamics 172
xii • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

9.6.3 Work Done by an Ideal Gas 172

9.6.4 Thermodynamic Changes 173
9.7 Heat Engines and Indicator Diagrams 174
9.7.1 What is a Heat Engine? 174
9.7.2 Indicator Diagrams 175
9.7.3 The Otto Cycle 176
9.7.4 Diesel Cycle 179
9.8 Exercises 180

Chapter 10 Statistical Thermodynamics and the Second Law 185

10.0 Introduction 185
10.1 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 185
10.2 Second Law of Thermodynamics as a
Macroscopic Principle 187
10.2.1 Macroscopic Statements of the Second Law 187
10.2.2 Heat Transfer and Entropy 188
10.2.3 Entropy and Maximum Efficiency of a Heat Engine 189
10.3 Entropy and Number of Ways 190
10.3.1 Macro-State and Micro-States 190
10.3.2 Entropy and Number of Ways 193
10.3.3 Poincaré Recurrence 194
10.4 What is Temperature? 194
10.5 Absolute Zero and Absolute Entropy 195
10.5.1 Entropy at Absolute Zero 195
10.5.2 Calculating Absolute Entropy 196
10.5.3 Entropy Changes for an Ideal Gas 196
10.6 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 197
10.6.1 Refrigerators 197
10.6.2 Heat Pumps 198
10.7 Implications of the Second Law 199
10.7.1 The Second Law, the Arrow of Time, and the Universe 199
10.7.2 Second Law and Living Things 200
10.7.3 Entropy and Energy Availability 200
10.8 Exercises 201

Chapter 11 Oscillations 203

11.0 Introduction 203
11.1 Capturing and Displaying Oscillatory Motion 203
11.1.1 Graphs and Equations of Displacement,
Velocity, and Acceleration 205
11.1.2 Phase and Phase Difference 207
11.2 Simple Harmonic Motion 207
11.2.1 Equation of Motion for Simple Harmonic Motion 207
11.2.2 Physical Conditions for Simple Harmonic Motion 208
 CONTENTS • xiii

11.3 Mass-Spring Oscillator 208

11.4 Simple Pendulum 209
11.5 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion 210
11.5.1 Variation of Energy with Time 210
11.5.2 Variation of Energy with Position 211
11.5.3 Damping 212
11.6 Forced Oscillations and Resonance 213
11.7 Exercises 215

Chapter 12 Rotational Dynamics 219

12.0 Introduction 219
12.1 Angles 219
12.1.1 Measuring Angles in Radians 219
12.1.2 Small-Angle Approximations 220
12.2 Describing Uniform Circular Motion 221
12.2.1 Angular Displacement, Angular Velocity, and
Angular Acceleration 221
12.3 Centripetal Acceleration and Centripetal Force 222
12.3.1 Centripetal Acceleration 222
12.3.2 Centripetal Force 223
12.3.3 Centripetal Not Centrifugal! 223
12.3.4 Moving in Uniform Circular Motion 225
12.4 Circular Motion, Simple Harmonic Motion, and Phasors 228
12.5 Rotational Kinematics 228
12.5.1 Equations of Uniform Angular Acceleration 228
12.5.2 Rotational Kinetic Energy 229
12.5.3 Angular Momentum 231
12.5.4 Second Law of Motion for Rotation 233
12.5.5 Conservation of Angular Momentum 234
12.6 Deriving Expressions for Moments of Inertia 235
12.6.1 Moment of Inertia of One or More Point Masses 235
12.6.2 Moment of Inertia of a Rod 235
12.6.3 Moment of Inertia of a Cylindrical Shell and a
Uniform Cylinder 236
12.6.4 Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Sphere 237
12.7 Torque Work and Power 238
12.8 Rotational Oscillations—The Compound Pendulum 239
12.9 Exercises 240

Chapter 13 Waves 243

13.0 Introduction 243
13.1 Describing and Representing Waves 243
13.1.1 Basic Wave Terminology 243
13.1.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves 245
xiv • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

13.1.3 Graphs of Wave Motion 246

13.1.4 Equation for a One-Dimensional Traveling Wave 247
13.1.5 Amplitude and Intensity 248
13.2 Reflection 248
13.3 Refraction 249
13.3.1 Refraction at a Boundary Between Two Different Media 249
13.3.2 Snell’s Law of Refraction 250
13.3.3 Absolute and Relative Refractive Indices 253
13.3.4 Total Internal Reflection 254
13.3.5 Optical Fibers 255
13.3.6 Dispersion 255
13.4 Polarization 256
13.4.1 What is Polarization? 256
13.4.2 Polarizing Filters 257
13.4.3 Rotation of the Plane of Polarization 259
13.4.4 Polarization by Reflection and Scattering 259
13.5 Exercises 260

Chapter 14 Light 263

14.1 Light as an Electromagnetic Wave 263
14.1.1 Waves or Particles? 263
14.1.2 Electromagnetism 263
14.1.3 Electromagnetic Waves 264
14.1.4 Measuring the Speed of Light 266
14.1.5 Maxwell’s Equations and the Speed of Light 268
14.1.6 Defining Speed, Time, and Distance 269
14.2 Ray Optics 269
14.2.1 Thin Lenses 269
14.2.2 Predictable Rays for Thin Lenses 270
14.2.3 Images 272
14.2.4 Image Formation with a Convex Lens 272
14.2.5 Image Formation with a Concave Lens 274
14.2.6 Object at Infinity 274
14.2.7 Lens Equation 275
14.2.8 Virtual Image Formed by a Plane Mirror 276
14.2.9 Real and Apparent Depth 277
14.3 Optical Instruments 278
14.3.1 Astronomical Refracting Telescope 278
14.3.2 Astronomical Reflecting Telescope (Newtonian Telescope) 280
14.3.3 Compound Microscope 281
14.4 Doppler Effect 281
14.4.1 Doppler Effect for Electromagnetic Waves 282
14.4.2 “Red Shifts”and “Blue Shifts” 283
14.5 Exercises 284
 CONTENTS • xv

Chapter 15 Superposition Effects 287

15.0 Superposition Effects 287
15.1 Two-Source Interference 287
15.1.1 Demonstrating Superposition Effects with Sound 288
15.1.2 Demonstrating Superposition Effects with Light 289
15.1.3 Using the Double Slit Experiment to Find the
Wavelength of Light 291
15.1.4 Superposition of Harmonic Waves 291
15.2 Diffraction Gratings 293
15.2.1 Diffraction Grating Formula 294
15.2.2 Spectroscopy 297
15.2.3 Spectrometers 299
15.3 Diffraction by Slits and Holes 300
15.3.1 Diffraction by a Narrow Slit 301
15.3.2 Analysis of the Single Slit Diffraction Pattern 302
15.3.3 Diffraction Through a Circular Hole 303
15.3.4 Resolving Power and the Rayleigh Criterion 304
15.4 Standing (Stationary) Waves 305
15.4.1 Standing Waves on a String (Melde’s Experiment) 306
15.4.2 Mathematics of Standing Waves 308
15.5 Exercises 309

Chapter 16 Sound 313

16.1 Nature and Speed of Sound 313
16.2 Decibel Scale 314
16.3 Standing Waves in Air Columns 315
16.4 Measuring the Speed of Sound 317
16.5 Ultrasound 318
16.6 Analysis and Synthesis of Sound 319
16.7 Exercises 320

Chapter 17 Electric Charge and Electric Fields 323

17.1 Electric Charge 323
17.2 Electrostatics 324
17.2.1 Charging by Friction 324
17.2.2 Gold Leaf Electroscope 325
17.2.3 Using a Coulomb Meter 327
17.3 Electrostatic Forces 327
17.3.1 Coulomb’s Law 328
17.3.2 Investigating Electrostatic Forces 328
17.4 Electric Field 329
17.4.1 Electric Field Strength 329
17.4.2 Electric Field Strength of a Point Charge 331
xvi • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

17.4.3 Gauss’s Law 333

17.4.4 Using Gauss’s Theorem 334
17.5 Electric Potential Energy and Electric Potential 335
17.5.1 Electric Potential and Potential Difference 336
17.5.2 Electric Potential Gradient and Electric Field Strength 336
17.5.3 Accelerating Charged Particles in an Electric Field 338
17.5.4 Deflecting Charged Particles in an Electric Field 339
17.5.5 Absolute Electric Potential of a Point Charge 340
17.6 Exercises 342

Chapter 18 D.C. Electric Circuits 345

18.0 D.C. Circuits and Conventional Current 345
18.1 Charge and Current 346
18.1.1 Charge Carriers and Charge Carrier Density 346
18.1.2 Measuring Current 347
18.1.3 Currents in Circuits—Kirchhoff’s First Law 348
18.2 Measuring Potential Difference 348
18.2.1 EMF Potential Difference and Voltage 349
18.2.2 Kirchhoff’s Second Law 350
18.3 Resistance 351
18.3.1 Measuring Resistance 351
18.3.2 Current–Voltage Characteristics 353
18.3.3 Resistors in Series and in Parallel 357
18.3.4 Resistivity 358
18.4 Electrical Energy and Power 360
18.4.1 EMF and Internal Resistance of a Real Cell 360
18.4.2 Measuring the Internal Resistance and EMF of a Cell 362
18.4.3 Power Transfer From a Real Cell to a Load Resistor 363
18.5 Resistance Networks 364
18.6 Semiconductors and Superconductors 366
18.6.1 Semiconductors 366
18.6.2 Variation of Resistance of a Metal with Temperature 367
18.7 Exercises 369

Chapter 19 Capacitance 373

19.1 What is a Capacitor? 373
19.1.1 Capacitors and Charge 374
19.1.2 Capacitance 374
19.1.3 Energy Stored on a Charged Capacitor 376
19.1.4 Efficiency of Charging a Capacitor 377
19.2 Parallel Plate Capacitor 377
19.3 Capacitor Charging and Discharging 379
19.3.1 Equations for Capacitor Discharge 379
 CONTENTS • xvii

19.3.2 Equations for Capacitor Charging 381

19.4 Capacitors in Series and Parallel 382
19.4.1 Capacitance of Capacitors in Series 383
19.4.2 Capacitors in Parallel 383
19.5 Capacitance of a Charged Sphere 384
19.6 Exercises 384

Chapter 20 Magnetic Fields 387

20.0 Magnetic Field 387
20.1 Permanent Magnets 389
20.2 Magnetic Forces on Electric Currents and
Moving Charges 390
20.2.1 Magnetic Force on an Electric Current 390
20.2.2 Force on a Moving Charge 392
20.2.3 Path of a Moving Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field 393
20.2.4 Velocity Selector: Crossed Electric and Magnetic Fields 394
20.3 Magnetic Fields Created by Electric Currents 396
20.3.1 Biot-Savart Law 396
20.3.2 Magnetic Field at the Center of a Narrow Coil 397
20.3.3 Magnetic Field of a Long Straight Current-Carrying Wire 398
20.3.4 Magnetic Field Along the Axis of a Solenoid 399
20.3.5 Ampère’s Theorem 400
20.4 Electric Motors 401
20.4.1 Turning Effect on a Coil in a Uniform Magnetic Field 401
20.4.2 A Simple D.C. Electric Motor 402
20.5 Exercises 403

Chapter 21 Electromagnetic Induction 405

21.1 Induced EMFs 405
21.1.1 What is Electromagnetic Induction? 405
21.1.2 Electromagnetic Induction Experiments 406
21.2 Laws of Electromagnetic Induction 409
21.2.1 Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Flux Linkage 409
21.2.2 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction 411
21.2.3 Changing the Flux Linkage in a Coil 412
21.3 Inductance 413
21.3.1 Self-Inductance 414
21.3.2 Rise of Current in an Inductor 414
21.3.3 Energy Stored in an Inductor 415
21.3.4 Mutual Inductance 416
21.4 Transformers 416
21.4.1 An Ideal Transformer 417
21.4.2 Transmission of Electrical Energy 418
21.4.3 Real Transformers 419
xviii • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

21.5 A Simple A.C. Generator 420

21.6 Electromagnetic Damping 421
21.7 Induction Motors 423
21.8 Exercises 425

Chapter 22 Alternating Current 429

22.1 A.C. and D.C. 429
22.1.1 A.C. Power and RMS Values 430
22.2 Resistance and Reactance 431
22.2.1 Resistors in A.C. Circuits 431
22.2.2 Capacitors in A.C. Circuits 431
22.2.3 Inductors in A.C. Circuits 433
22.3 Resistance, Reactance, and Impedance 434
22.3.1 Phasor Diagrams for A.C. Series Circuits 434
22.3.2 Impedance 435
22.4 A.C. Series Circuits 436
22.4.1 RC Series Circuit 436
22.4.2 RL Series Circuit 437
22.4.3 RCL Series Circuit 438
22.4.4 Parallel Circuits Containing Resistors, Capacitors,
and Inductors 439
22.5 Electric Oscillators 440
22.5.1 Mechanical Analogy 442
22.6 Exercises 442

Chapter 23 Gravitational Field 445

23.1 Gravitational Forces and Gravitational Field Strength 445
23.1.1 Newton’s Law of Gravitation 445
23.1.2 Gravitational Field Strength 446
23.1.3 Gravitational Field Strength of the Earth 447
23.2 Gravitational Potential Energy and Gravitational Potential 449
23.2.1 Change in Gravitational Potential Energy 449
23.2.2 Gravitational Potential 450
23.2.3 Gravitational Field Lines and Equipotentials 451
23.2.4 Gravitational Potential Energy in the Earth’s Field 452
23.2.5 Escape Velocity 453
23.3 Orbital Motion 454
23.3.1 Early Ideas about Planetary Motion 455
23.3.2 Circular Orbits 457
23.3.3 Artificial Satellites 458
23.4 Tidal Forces 459
23.4.1 Origin of Tidal Forces 459
23.4.2 Earth’s Ocean Tides 461
 CONTENTS • xix

23.5 Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation 463

23.5.1 Space–Time Curvature 463
23.5.2 Equivalence Principle 464
23.5.3 Gravitational Time Dilation 466
23.5.4 Gravitational Waves 467
23.6 Exercises 469

Chapter 24 Special Relativity 473

24.1 The Postulates of Special Relativity 473
24.1.1 Absolute Space 473
24.1.2 Einstein’s Ideas About the Laws of Physics 476
24.2 Time in Special Relativity 477
24.2.1 Time Dilation 477
24.2.2 The “Twin Paradox” 480
24.2.3 Relativity of Simultaneity 481
24.3 Length Contraction 483
24.4 Lorentz Transformation 484
24.4.1 Lorentz Transformation Equations 484
24.4.2 Velocity Addition Equation 485
24.5 Mass, Velocity, and Energy 486
24.5.1 Mass and Velocity 486
24.5.2 Mass and Energy 487
24.6 Special Relativity and Geometry 488
24.6.1 Invariants 488
24.6.2 Space-Time 489
24.6.3 Mass, Energy, and Momentum 491
24.7 Exercises 491

Chapter 25 Atomic Structure and Radioactivity 495

25.1 Nuclear Atom 495
25.1.1 Rutherford Scattering Experiment 495
25.1.2 Closest Approach and Nuclear Size 497
25.1.3 Using Electron Diffraction to Measure Nuclear Diameter 498
25.1.4 Nuclear Atom 499
25.2 Ionizing Radiation 500
25.2.1 Types of Ionizing Radiation Emitted by Radioactive Sources 500
25.3 Attenuation of Ionizing Radiation 501
25.3.1 Inverse-Square Law of Absorption 501
25.3.2 Exponential Absorption and Attenuation Coefficient 502
25.3.3 Absorption of Beta-Radiation 503
25.3.4 Absorption of Alpha-Particles 504
25.4 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation 505
25.4.1 Natural Background Radiation 505
25.4.2 Measuring Radiation Dose 506
xx • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

25.4.3 Effect of Radiation Dose on Human Health 507

25.4.4 Reducing Risks in the Laboratory 508
25.5 Radioactive Decay and Half-Life 509
25.6 Nuclear Transformations 511
25.6.1 Alpha Decay 511
25.6.2 Beta-Minus Decay 511
25.6.3 Gamma Emission 512
25.6.4 Beta-Plus Emission 513
25.6.5 Electron Capture 514
25.7 Radiation Detectors 514
25.7.1 Spark Counter 515
25.7.2 Geiger Counter 515
25.7.3 Using a Geiger Counter to Measure Count Rates 517
25.8 Using Radioactive Sources 517
25.8.1 Radiological Dating 518
25.8.2 Radiological Dating of Rocks 519
25.8 Exercises 519

Chapter 26 Nuclear Physics 523

26.1 Nuclear Energy Changes 523
26.1.1 Nuclear Binding Energy 523
26.1.2 Atomic Mass Units (A.M.U.) 525
26.1.3 Energy Released by Nuclear Decays 525
26.2 Nuclear Stability 527
26.2.1 Nuclear Configuration and Stability 527
26.2.2 Nuclear Binding Energy and Stability 528
26.3 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion 529
26.3.1 Nuclear Fission 530
26.3.2 Principle of the Atomic Bomb 531
26.3.3 Nuclear Reactors 533
26.3.4 Plutonium 534
26.3.5 Nuclear Fusion 535
26.3.6 Nucleosynthesis 536
26.3.7 Thermonuclear Weapons 538
26.3.8 Fusion Reactors 539
26.4 Particle Physics 541
26.4.1 Leptons 541
26.4.2 Hadrons and Quarks 541
26.4.3 Fundamental Interactions 542
26.4.4 Conservation Laws 544
26.4.5 Standard Model 544
26.4.6 Dark Matter and Dark Energy 545
26.5 Exercises 547
 CONTENTS • xxi

Chapter 27 Quantum Theory 551

27.1 Problems in Classical Physics 551
27.1.1 Planck and Black Body Radiation Spectrum 553
27.1.2 Explaining Heat Capacities 554
27.1.3 Explaining the Photoelectric Effect 554
27.1.4 Characteristics of Photoelectric Emission 555
27.1.5 Measuring the Planck Constant 556
27.2 Matter Waves 558
27.2.1 de Broglie Relation 559
27.2.2 Electron Diffraction 559
27.2.3 Compton Effect 562
27.3 Wave–Particle Duality 562
27.3.1 Young’s Double Slit Experiment Revisited 563
27.3.2 Interpreting Wave–Particle Duality 566
27.3.3 Schrodinger Equation 567
27.4 Quantum Atom 568
27.4.1 Bohr’s Model of the Hydrogen Atom 569
27.4.2 Explaining the Hydrogen Line Spectrum 571
27.4.3 Electron Waves in Atoms 572
27.4.4 Schrodinger Atom 573
27.5 Interpretations of Quantum Theory 577
27.5.1 Copenhagen Interpretation 577
27.5.2 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty (Indeterminacy) Principle 579
27.5.3 Sum-Over-Histories Approach 581
27.5.4 Many-Worlds Theory 583
27.5.5 Schrodinger’s Cat 585
27.6 Exercises 586

Chapter 28 Astrophysics 591

28.0 Physics Astrophysics and Cosmology 591
28.1 Stars 592
28.1.1 Mass 592
28.1.2 Stars as Black Bodies 594
28.1.3 Stellar Spectra and the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram 595
28.2 Distances 597
28.2.1 Trigonometric Parallax 597
28.2.2 Inverse-Square Law and Cepheid Variables 598
28.2.3 Hubble Law 599
28.3 Cosmology 601
28.3.1 Origin and Age of the Universe 601
28.3.2 Evidence for the Big Bang 603
28.4 Exercises 604
xxii • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Chapter 29 Medical Physics 607

29.1 Ultrasound 607
29.1.1 Overview of Ultrasound 607
29.1.2 Ultrasound and the Eye 608
29.1.3 Doppler Ultrasound for Blood Flow Measurements 609
29.1.4 Using Ultrasound to Break Kidney Stones 610
29.2 X-rays 610
29.2.1 Overview of Medical X-Rays 610
29.2.2 Generating X-Rays 611
29.2.3 Attenuation of X-Rays in Matter 613
29.2.4 Creating X-Ray Images 613
29.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 616
29.3.1 Overview of MRI 616
29.3.2 Physics of MRI 616
29.4 Radioactive Tracers 617
29.4.1 Overview of the Use of Radioactive Tracers 617
29.4.2 Gamma-Camera 618
29.5 Positron Emission Tomography (PET scans) 619
29.5.1 Physics of PET Scans 619
29.6 Exercises 620

Appendix A Estimations and Fermi Questions 623

A.0 Fermi and the Trinity Test 623
A.1 Making Estimations 625
A.1.1 How Many Air Molecules in the Earth’s Atmosphere? 625
A.1.2 What is the Minimum Area for a Parachute? 627
A.2 Useful Values 628
A.3 Fermi Questions 630
A.4 Drake Equation 631
A.5 Estimates and Fermi Questions 632

Appendix B Experimental Investigations 635

B.0 Introduction: Nature of Science 635
B.1 Carrying Out an Experiment 636
B.1.1 Variables 637
B.1.2 Selecting Measuring Equipment 638
B.1.3 Planning a Procedure 639
B.1.4 Risk Assessments 639
B.1.5 Writing Upon Experiment 640
B.2 Investigations 642

Appendix C Units, Constants, and Equations 645

C.1 S.I. Units 645
C.2 Simple Approximate Combinations of Uncertainties 646
 CONTENTS • xxiii

C.3 Useful Derivatives 646

C.4 Differential Equations 647
C.5 Differentials and Integrals 647
C.6 Equations 647
C.7 Constants 659

Appendix D Solutions to Exercises 661

Glossary 683

Index 709
 PREFACE

The aim of this book is to draw on the essential physical principles that typical
physics courses use to provide a strong conceptual base for the further study of
more advanced topics. As such this book provides support for both introductory
courses (calculus-based) and for readers interested in a basic review of key topics
in physics. It will also be a useful reference work for instructors.
The focus is on physical principles. Applications are used to exemplify the
physics but do not divert attention from the underlying concepts. Mathematics
is the language of physics and a mathematical approach is taken throughout,
drawing mathematical techniques including basic calculus. The approach here
acknowledges this and helps to secure a foundation of relevant mathematical skills
in the context of real physical problems.
Practical techniques, including the collection, presentation, analysis, and
evaluation of data, are discussed in the context of key experiments linked to the
theoretical spine of the work. There are also sections on testing mathematical
relationships, the analysis of uncertainties, and how to approach, carry out, and
write-up experimental investigations.
Every chapter concludes with a set of exercises and an appendix on Fermi
problems provides an open-ended challenge that allows the reader to practice
their skills in unfamiliar contexts.

How to use the book

Although the order of topics in this book mirrors that of most physics courses,
it is not intended to be read in order or from cover to cover, and most chapters
can be read in isolation. The book is there to be consulted, as and when a topic is
studied or revised. The early sections on the language of physics and representing
and analyzing data can be referred back to from any of the other sections. The
appendices contain summary lists of units and useful data, equations, solutions
to exercises, and a guide to planning, carrying out, and writing up experiments.
There is also an extensive glossary of terms.
 CHAPTER

1
THE LANGUAGE OF PHYSICS

1.0 Introduction
NASA’s Mars climate orbiter was launched in 1998 and should have gone into
orbit around Mars 286 days later. Instead it fell too close to the planet and
broke up in the atmosphere. The mission had cost upwards of $100,000,000.
Why did this happen? Because Lockheed Martin, who was calculating the
thrust to maneuver the spacecraft, used English units (pound-seconds),
while NASA, which controlled the thrusters, was expecting metric units
(newton-seconds). Units matter!

1.1 The S.I. System of Units

The international system of units is based on seven base units:
Quantity Name Symbol
S.I. base unit
Length Meter M
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd
The definition of each base unit is related to the experimental method that
is used to establish the unit in the laboratory. All mechanical quantities can
2 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

be expressed in terms of just three base units—length, mass, and time—

and the definitions of each of these is given below.
Base unit Definition
Meter The distance traveled by light in a vacuum in a time of 1/299,792,458
seconds
Kilogram The mass of the international prototype of the kilogram, a platinum–
iridium block kept under controlled conditions at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures
Second The duration equal to 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of a cesium 133 atom

You will notice that the meter is actually defined in terms of the speed of
light. This has been the case since 1983 when the speed of light, which
had been measured with ever-increasing precision, was defined to have the
value 299,792,458 ms1.

Derived units
Many physical quantities are measured in derived units. These are
combinations of base units such as m3 (for volume) or kgm3 (for density).
Some common derived units that are given their own names are shown in
the table.
Derived quantity Name Symbol
S.I.-derived units S.I. base units
Force Newton N kgms2
Pressure Pascal Pa kgm1s2
Energy Joule J kgm2s2
Power Watt W kgm2s3

When you come across a new physical quantity that is unfamiliar, you can
work out its S.I. units by making sure that an equation containing the new
quantity is balanced. All equations in physics must balance in terms of units.
Here are two examples.

Energy
Any equation involving energy will suffice, e.g., E  ½ mv2. The units of
the right-hand side are kgm2s2, so these must be the units of energy. The
name “joule” is a convenient alternative for such a common physical unit, so
1 J  1 kgm2s2.
 THE LANGUAGE OF PHYSICS • 3

Viscosity
There is an equation for viscous drag on a sphere moving through a fluid
called “Stoke’s law.” This has the form F  6rv where r and v are the
radius and velocity of the sphere, respectively.  is the viscosity of the fluid.
What are the S.I. units of viscosity? First of all, rearrange the equation to
give   F/6rv and then balance the units (6 has no units; it is simply a
number). The right-hand side has units of Nm2s or Pas (this is because
1 Nm2  1 Pa). This can be reduced to base units by substituting for N
( kgms2). The base units for viscosity are, therefore, kgm1s1.

1.2 Dimensions
All mechanical quantities depend on mass (M), length (L), and time (T).
These are the fundamental dimensions of mechanics and are measured in
terms of the base units of kg, m, and s. All equations in physics must balance
in terms of numerical value, units, and dimensions. When they do, they
are said to be homogeneous. This can be very useful for checking your
working during a derivation (if you made a mistake in the algebra, then the
dimensions might not balance) and for testing proposed equations to see
if they are viable. It can also be used to construct possible equations if you
have an idea of the relevant parameters.
To indicate that we are dealing with dimensions, we use square brackets
so that [E] means “the dimensions of” energy and [v] means “the dimensions
of” velocity. The fundamental dimensions are related in a similar way to
base units, so it is possible to work them out by balancing simple equations.
For example, if we want to find the dimensions for energy, we can use the
equation E  mgh. The dimensions of E will be the same as the dimensions
of mgh:
[E]  [m][g][h]  MLT 2 L  ML2T 2
If the dimensions are now replaced by base units, we see that the S.I. unit
of energy is kgm2s2 as before.
Five basic dimensions can be used to express most quantities in physics.
Dimension Mass Length Time Current Temperature
Symbol M L T I 
Dimensionless numbers play an important role in many areas of physics.
These are combinations of physical quantities where the dimensions cancel
so that the result is a pure number. These often have (or seem to have) great
4 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

significance. The fine structure constant  in quantum electrodynamics is

a good example:
e2
  0.0072973525664
20 hc
where e is the charge on an electron, 0 is the permittivity of free space, h is
the Planck constant, and c is the speed of light. This dimensionless constant
determines the strength of the interactions between electrons and photons.
It is also, approximately, the speed of an electron in units of the velocity
of light. Since  << 1 the motion of electrons in atoms does not have to be
treated relativistically.
Another interesting dimensionless number is the ratio of the mass of a
proton to the mass of an electron.
mp
  1836.15267389
me
Physicists think that we should be able to derive numbers such as  from a
fundamental physical theory. The fact that, so far, we have been unable to
do this suggests that there is more new physics to be discovered!

1.2.1 Method of Dimensions

The method of dimensions uses the requirement that all physical equations
must balance to construct possible equations for physical quantities. The
starting point must be some physical intuition about the system. For
example, a few experiments with a mass spring oscillator should convince
you that the time period of the oscillator depends only on the mass m and
spring constant k. If this is correct and if the equation for time period has
the form
T  constant × mx × ky
we can find x and y by balancing the dimensions (the constant is assumed
to be dimensionless).
[T]  [m]x × [k]y
Dimensions of k are MT2
T 1  Mx(MT2)y  MxyT 2y
Equating powers of each dimension:
For the dimension of time: 1  − 2y, so y  − 1/2
For the dimension of mass: 0  x  y, so x  1/2
 THE LANGUAGE OF PHYSICS • 5

This suggests that a coherent form of the equation could be:

T  constant × m1/2 × k 1/2
m
or T  constant
k
Theory shows that the equation is actually
m
T 2
k
The method of dimensions cannot determine the numerical value of the
constant (because it is dimensionless), but it can show a possible coherent
form for the equation.

1.3 Scientific Notation, Prefixes, and Significant Figures

Physicists have to deal with a huge range of numerical values. For
example, the charge on an electron is 0.000000000000000000160 C and
the breaking stress of steel is 210000000000 Pa. Writing numbers out in
full like this is tedious and makes them hard to manipulate, so physicists
use scientific notation that reduces them to a number between 1 and 10
multiplied by a power of 10. In scientific notation,
Charge on an electron  1.60  1019 C
Young modulus of steel  2.10  109 Pa
Another way to deal with very large and very small values is to use
prefixes. These represent multiplication by a power of 10. For example, the
prefix “milli-” represents multiplication by 103, so 1 mm  103 m  0.001 m.
Here is a list of common prefixes and their multiplication factors.
Name Symbol Multiplier
milli- m 103
micro-  106
nano- n 109
pico- p 1012
femto- f 1015
atto- a 1018
kilo- k 103
mega- M 106
giga- G 109
tera- T 1012
peta- P 1015
exa E 1018
6 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

These go up (or down) in multiples of 103, but there are some prefixes
that are in common use that do not fit this pattern: “centi-” multiples by
102 and “deci-” multiplies by 101. In chemistry it is quite common to state
volumes in decimeters-cubed. 1 decimeter is 10 cm or 0.10 m, so this is a
volume of 1000 cm3 or 1 liter. In S.I. base units, it is 0.001 m3. Beware!
When presenting data it is important to use an appropriate number
of significant figures, even if some of these are zeroes. The number of
significant figures used represents the precision of the data, so a length
of 1.20 m is more precise than 1.2 m. In principle, 1.2 m could have been
rounded from anything between 1.150 m and 1.249 m, with an uncertainty
of 0.05, whereas a length of 1.20 m must really lie between 1.195 m and
1.205 m, with an uncertainty of  0.005. Quoting the third significant figure
has increased the precision by a factor of 10.
However, it is also important not to quote data to too many significant
figures, if this is not justified by the measurements that were used to obtain
the data. For example, if you were trying to calculate the density of a block
of wood and had measured a mass of 40.5 g and a volume of 24.2 cm3,
the value of density is 40.5/24.2  1.673553719 gcm3. The result must be
rounded off so that it is consistent with the data used to calculate it. In this
case, data was given to three significant figures, so an appropriate result is
1.67 gcm3.
Q A useful rule of thumb: Quote calculated values to the same number
of significant figures as the least precise piece of data used in the
calculation.

1.4 Uncertainties
In 2012, the discovery of the Higgs boson was announced at the Large
Hadron Collider at CERN. Physicists had tuned the collider to the energy
range in which the particle was expected to be found and sure enough
it turned up! This allowed physicists to measure the mass of the Higgs:
125.090.21 GeV/c2 (the GeV/c2 is a convenient mass unit used in particle
physics). The quoted uncertainty is < 0.2% of the mass. This pins the mass of
the Higgs into a small enough range so that its properties can be compared
with theoretical predictions.
If the uncertainty in a measured value is too large, it is not very
useful. For example, if you were asked to measure the acceleration due to
gravity in a laboratory and you got a value of 9.8 ms2, you might be quite
 THE LANGUAGE OF PHYSICS • 7

happy and feel that you had done a good job. However, if the uncertainty
associated with that value was 1.0 ms2 then the acceleration due to gravity
as measured in your experiment could lie anywhere between 8.8 and
10.8 ms2, so the fact that the actual value turns out to be close to the true
value was probably just by chance. If you repeated the experiment in the
same way, you would probably get a very different value.
Q Whenever you calculate a value from experimental data, you should
include the estimated uncertainty. This is a measure of the reliability of
the measured value.
While a detailed analysis of uncertainties and their effect on calculated
values involves a lot of statistics, there are some simple methods that will
give a reasonable estimate and that can be used quite easily.

1.4.1 Types of Uncertainty

The table below defines types of uncertainty. In each case the measured
quantity is a variable x.
Type Example
Absolute uncertainty x g  9.81  0.05 ms2
Fractional uncertainty x x Fractional uncertainty in g is 0.05/9.81  0.0051
x x
Percentage uncertainty x Percent uncertainty in g is 0.0051 × 100  0.51%
100%
x

1.4.2 Combining Uncertainties

It is often important to be able to calculate the uncertainty in a calculated
quantity that depends on several other measured quantities, each with its
own uncertainties. The simplest way to do this is to calculate the maximum
and minimum possible values of the quantity using the known uncertainties
in the measured values and then to use these extreme values to find
the average and range. For example, in an experiment to measure the
acceleration of free fall, the following results are obtained:
Distance fallen from rest, s  2.5000.005 m
Time taken, t  0.7100.020 s
From theory, g  2s/t2
gmax  (2 × 2.505)/(0.690)2  10.52 ms2
gmin  (2×2.495)/(0.730)2  9.36 ms2
g  9.93  0.58 ms2
8 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

While this method can be used, there are also some simple ways in
which uncertainties can be combined mathematically. Here are some
simple rules.
Combination Rule
Uncertainty in a sum: y  a  b Add absolute uncertainties y  a  b
Uncertainty in a product: y  ab Add fractional uncertainties y a b
 
y a b
Uncertainty in a quotient: y  a/b Add fractional uncertainties y a b
 
y a b
Uncertainty in a power: y  an Multiply fractional uncertainty y a
by power n
y a

Using the data from the example above (acceleration of free fall) and
applying the rules from the table, we have:
g  2s/t2  (2 × 2.500)/(0.710)2  9.92 ms2
g s t 0.005 0.020
 2  2  0.058
g s t 2.500 0.710
g  0.58 ms2
This gives a result of g  9.92  0.58 ms−2 (almost identical to the first
method).

1.5 Dealing with Random and Systematic Experimental Errors

In 2011, results from CERN suggested that neutrinos might be traveling
faster than the speed of light. This made it to the front page of newspapers
around the world. However, the scientists whose data had led to the claim
realized that, if it was true, it would turn physics upside down, so they
invited other scientists to check their work and to repeat the measurements.
A year later it was confirmed that the original experiment had introduced
measurement errors, which had not been accounted for. When they were
included, it was clear that neutrinos had not traveled faster than the speed
of light. It is always important to consider possible sources of error in your
experiments and to try to reduce them as much as possible. Of course, it
will be impossible to reduce them to zero, so you must try to estimate their
size in order to calculate the uncertainty in your results.
 THE LANGUAGE OF PHYSICS • 9

Random errors
If a quantity is measured repeatedly, the results are likely to vary as a result
of measurement errors. If these errors are random, the results will be
scattered above and below the actual value of the quantity being measured.
Q The best way to reduce the impact of random errors is to use a large
number of repeats and to take an average.
Repeated measurements are also helpful for estimating experimental
uncertainties. A useful estimate is half the range of the data (but it is
important to eliminate any anomalous results before calculating the range).

Systematic errors
A systematic error is one that introduces a consistent bias to all of the
measured data, usually making it all too big or too small. Taking an average
will not help to reduce the impact of a systematic error. However, if a
systematic error is known, then it can be corrected for by adjusting the
measurements. For example, if there is a zero error, this must be subtracted
from all subsequent measurements.
If a systematic error is present but unidentified, the final result might
seem very precise and yet disagree with an accepted value. It is always
important to compare your results with accepted values (where these exist).
If you have carried out a good experiment, your value with its uncertainties
should overlap the accepted value for the quantity measured.

1.6 Differential Calculus

1.6.1 Derivatives and Rates of Change

Calculus was invented by Isaac Newton in order to solve physics problems.
Newton realized that he needed to be able to deal with quantities that
were continuously changing, so he needed a technique that could cope
with changes that occurred in vanishingly small (infinitesimal) intervals of
time. Differential calculus deals with instantaneous rates of change. For
example, to find the velocity of a moving object we need to measure its
change in displacement s during a time t, but if velocity is changing
continuously, the value of s/t will be an average during the interval t
and the instantaneous velocity will vary during the time interval. In order
to find the instantaneous velocity at a particular moment, we would need to
use an infinitesimally short time interval t  0. This is not possible in an
experiment, but mathematically the derivative of displacement with respect
10 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

to time (ds/dt) represents this instantaneous value. It is a mathematical limit

of the ratio ds/dt as t0.
ds s
v  lim
dt t0 t
This approach is used for rates of change throughout physics:
Velocity  ds/dt
Acceleration  dv/dt
Electric current  dQ/dt
Rate of change of flux-linkage  d(N/dt)
…
The “operator” (d/dt ) … can be read as “rate of change of….”
All of the above examples are rates of change with time, but rates of
change with respect to other variables are also common. For example,
dV/dx can represent a potential gradient in an electric field.
The process of deriving a rate of change is called “differentiation” and
the result is a “derivative.” Derivatives can be represented graphically as
the gradient of a graph. The graph below shows how the charge builds up
on a capacitor as it is charged. The gradient is dQ/dt, which is equal to the
current that flows at a particular instant as the capacitor charges.

Charge

Gradient represents
current at this instant:
I = dQ/dt =gradient

Time

Some common derivatives (rates of change) that often occur in physics are
listed in the table below.
 THE LANGUAGE OF PHYSICS • 11

Function (y)  
dy
Derivative (rate of change) dx

Constant value, e.g., y  8 0

Power law, e.g., y  Axn dy
 nAx n1
dx
Exponential function, y  ex dy
 ex
dx
Exponential relationship, e.g., y  Aebx dy
bAe bx
dx
Sine function, y  sin x dy
 cos x
dx
Cosine function, y  cos x dy
sin x
dx
Sinusoidal variation, e.g., y  A sin (bx) dy
 bA cos(bx)
dx
Cosinusoidal variation, y  A cos (bx) dy
bA sin(bx)
dx

Second derivatives
A derivative is a rate of change, so the derivative of displacement with
respect to time is velocity and the derivative of velocity with respect to time
is acceleration. This means that acceleration is the rate of change of the rate
of change of displacement.
dv d  ds 
a   
dt dt dt 
This is called the second derivative of displacement and is written as:
d2 s
a
dt 2
Whereas first derivatives are equal to gradients, second derivatives are
related to the sharpness of curvature of a graph (the rate of change of the
gradient). Acceleration is related to the sharpness of curvature of a graph of
displacement against time.

1.6.2 Maximum and Minimum Values

Calculus can be used to find where something has its maximum or minimum
value. Look at the graph below, which shows how the power transferred
from a supply to a resistor in an electric circuit depends on the value of the
load resistor.
12 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The maximum power Pmax occurs at some resistance Rpeak. This is where
the curve has a gradient of zero. However, gradients are equal to derivatives,
so we can find the maximum value if we can find where the gradient is zero.
To do this we need an equation for power in terms of the resistance, P(R).
It turns out that this is easy to find (see Section 18.5.1). Once we have the
equation, we differentiate it, set it equal to zero, and solve the resulting
equation to find the value of R.

Power

Pmax

Resistance
Rpeak

dP(R)
0
dR
To find a maximum or minimum of some function y(x):
Q Differentiate to find the derivative dy
dx
dy
Q Set the derivative equal to zero, 0
dx
Q Solve for x
Calculus can be used to show the nature of the stationary point:
2
Q Find d y
dx2
2
Q If d y is positive, the gradient is increasing: minimum position
dx2
2
Q If d y is negative, the gradient is decreasing: maximum position
dx2
2
Q If d y is zero, the position is a saddle point, neither a maximum nor a
dx2
minimum
 THE LANGUAGE OF PHYSICS • 13

y Maximum: gradient
decreasing through zero
d2y
negative
dx2
Minimum: gradient
increasing through zero
d2y
positive
dx2
Saddlepoint
gradient stationary
d2y
zero
dx2
x

1.7 Differential Equations

An algebraic equation such as s  ut  12 at 2 can be solved to find the value
of one of the variables if all of the others are known. For example, if we know
the initial velocity, acceleration, and time for which an object accelerates,
we can use the equation to find its displacement. Differential equations
include derivatives and their solution is not a value but a function.
For example, the simple equation for constant velocity v,
ds
 v,
dt
is an example of a first-order differential equation. It is called first order
because it only involves first derivatives; there are no second- or higher-order
derivatives in the equation. Its solution is an expression for displacement as
a function of time s(t) that satisfies the equation. It turns out that there are
an infinite number of such expressions. One of them is
s  vt
where k is a constant (representing a constant velocity).
We can show that this is a solution by differentiating it:
ds d
  vt   v
dt dt
However, the expression
s  vt 10
is also a solution.
ds d
  vt 10   v
dt dt
14 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The general solution to this differential equation is

s  vt s0
where s0 is another constant (equal to the initial displacement at t  0).
Differential equations are used to express many of the fundamental
relationships in physics, including Newton’s laws of motion, Maxwell’s
equations of electromagnetism, and Schrodinger’s equation in quantum
theory. If you study physics at a higher level, you will need to get to grips
with a range of methods for solving differential equations. The table below
lists some examples of differential equations that will feature later in this
book along with some useful solutions.
Topic Differential Solution Conditions
equation
Radioactive decay dN N  N0 at t  0
t N  N0 et
dt
Capacitor discharge dQ Q 
t
Q  Q0 at t  0
 Q  Q0 e RC
dt RC
Newton’s second law d2 x F 1 F  F, m, u constants
(constant acceleration)  x  ut   t 2 x  0 at t  0
dt 2 m 2 m 
Simple harmonic d2 x x  A cos(t  ) A, ,  constants
2 x
motion* dt 2 (  2f)

The equations for Newton’s second law and for simple harmonic motion are second-order
differential equations because they involve second derivatives. Whereas first-order differential
equations generate one arbitrary constant, second-order differential equations generate two.

1.8 Integral Calculus

Integration is the inverse process to differentiation and is related to the
limit of a sum. The graph below shows how velocity varies with time for
a particular object. The area under the graph represents displacement
and can be approximated by adding up a large number of thin rectangular
strips, each of width t.
The area of the small shaded strip, v(t)t, approximates to the extra
displacement during a short time t at time t. The area between any two
times t1 and t2 is equal to the displacement during that time interval and
is given, approximately, by the sum of the areas of all such strips between
those two times: t 2

s v(t)t
t1
 THE LANGUAGE OF PHYSICS • 15

Velocity

δt
v(t)

Time
t 1
t t
2

This becomes a better approximation to the actual area if we take thinner

and thinner strips by making t smaller and smaller. It would be a precise
value in the limit that t approached zero: t0. In this limit the sum
becomes a continuous process called an integral:
t2 t2

s  lim
t0
v(t)t  vt  dt
t1 t1

The table below gives some derivatives and related integrals that are used
in this book.
Context Differential form Integral form
Dynamics
v
ds
dt

s  vdt

Dynamics dv
a
dt 
v  adt
Newton’s laws
F
d(mv)
dt
mv  mu  Fdt 
Electric circuits
I
dQ 
Q  Idt
dt
Radioactivity dN
dt
  dN
N
dt
Capacitors dQ Q dQ dt
dt

RC  Q  RC

1.9 Vectors and Scalars

Scalars are physical quantities that have magnitude but no direction, e.g.,
distance, speed, mass, energy, power, and temperature. Scalar quantities
simply add together, so if 3.0 kg is added to a body of mass 7.0 kg, the
16 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

resulting body has a mass of 10 kg. Scalars do not have a direction but can
have a sign, and this must be taken into account when they are added.
Vectors are physical quantities that have magnitude and direction, e.g.,
displacement, velocity, force, momentum. Vectors can be represented by
arrows; the length of the arrow represents magnitude, and the direction of
the arrow is the direction of the vector. They are often distinguished from
scalar quantities by underlining them, e.g., v is a velocity vector and v is its
magnitude.

1.9.1 Adding Vectors

When vectors are combined we need to consider their direction as well as
their magnitude, so we cannot simply add the magnitudes. For example,
if I walk 10 m north and then 10 m east I have walked a distance of 20 m
(scalar), but my displacement is 14 m NE (vector). This can be shown on a
vector diagram.
10 m

10 m 10 m 10 m
14 m + =
14 m

A displacement vector 10 m north has been added to a displacement vector

10 m east to obtain a resultant displacement vector of 14 m northeast. The
resultant vector is found by placing all the vectors to be added end to end
and then connecting the start of the first vector to the end of the last vector.
Q This diagrammatic method of adding vectors can be used to solve
problems if all the vectors are drawn to the same scale.
Q Pythagoras’ theorem and trigonometry can be used to find the resultant
vector from the vector diagram.
Q Vector subtraction is carried out by adding the negative of the vector
(i.e., reversing its direction).

1.9.2 Resolving Vectors into Components

If a projectile is fired at some angle to the ground, its velocity will be partly
vertical and partly horizontal. The velocity has a horizontal component
and a vertical component.
 THE LANGUAGE OF PHYSICS • 17

Any vector can be resolved into two perpendicular components using

trigonometry.
y

A sin θ A

θ
x
A cos θ

The vector A has been resolved into two components:

Q x-component has magnitude Ax  A cos 
Q y-component has magnitude Ay  A sin 
The components can also be used to reconstruct the original vector:
Q The magnitude of A is, by Pythagoras’s theorem, A2  Ax2  Ay2
Ay
Q The angle  is found from tan  
Ax
Vector addition can also be carried out by adding components along a
common set of perpendicular axes:
Q If C  A  B then Cx  Ax  Bx and Cy  Ay  By

1.9.3 Multiplying Vectors

There are two different ways to multiply two vectors: the scalar product and
the vector product.

Scalar product
The work done by a force is the product of the force and the displacement
of the point of action of the force parallel to the force. Since both force and
displacement are vectors but work is a scalar, this is an example where the
product of two vectors results in a scalar. For this reason it is called a scalar
product (sometimes referred to as a “dot product”).
The magnitude of a scalar product is equal to the product of the
magnitudes of the two vectors multiplied by the cosine of the angle between
them.
18 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

F
θ Scalar product = F . s = Fs cos θ
s

The scalar product is zero when the vectors are perpendicular.

Vector product
The force on a moving charged particle in a magnetic field has a magnitude
given by F  qvB sin where B is the magnetic field strength, v is the velocity
of the particle, and  is the angle between v and B. Since force, magnetic
field strength, and velocity are all vectors, this is an example where the
product of two vectors results in another vector. For this reason it is called
the vector product (sometimes referred to as the “cross-product”). The
direction of the resulting force is found by using a right-hand rule and is
perpendicular to both of the vectors v and B.
A vector product is written as: vector product of v and B  v^B
The force on a moving charge in a magnetic field is therefore
F  q (v^B)
The magnitude of the vector product is equal to the product of the
magnitudes of the two vectors multiplied by the sine of the angle between
them.
The direction of the vector product is perpendicular to the plane defined
by the two vectors being multiplied together. To work out the direction of
the product vector, imagine rotating from the first vector to the second
vector and then the resultant is in the direction of movement of a right-
handed screw! The vector product is zero if the vectors are parallel (  0).

v^B
Direction of resultant

B B

v v
 THE LANGUAGE OF PHYSICS • 19

1.10 Symmetry Principles

Symmetry in nature is often linked to beauty. Apparently human beings
with more symmetrical faces are more attractive to others. But in physics,
symmetry is a powerful tool that can be used as a guide to the underlying
laws of nature and that makes the equations of physics both powerful and
beautiful.
A geometrical symmetry leaves a shape unchanged under certain
rotations or reflections. For example, if an equilateral triangle is rotated
through 60° or reflected about a line passing through a vertex and
perpendicularly through the opposite side, it is unchanged. The diagram
shows three symmetry axes of an equilateral triangle. A circle would have
an infinite number of these, all parallel to diameters.

The shape of the triangle is invariant under these rotations and reflections.
In Newtonian mechanics the laws of physics are the same in all uniformly
moving (inertial) reference frames, so Newton’s laws are invariant under a
change of velocity. Einstein’s theory of special relativity goes further and
includes all of the laws of physics (see Chapter 24). Hermann Minkowski
realized that Einstein’s equations for relativity were similar to those for a
geometrical rotation and identified physical quantities that are the same
for all inertial observers—these are four-dimensional quantities called
invariants and are constructed from space and time components.
Emmy Noether showed that symmetry principles are linked to
conservation laws. This is not really surprising because a conservation law
identifies some quantity that stays the same (is invariant) when other things
change. For example, the total linear momentum of a collection of colliding
bodies is the same before and after the collisions, and the total energy of
20 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

the universe is the same before and after an explosion. Noether showed
that conservation of momentum is linked to the laws of physics remaining
the same under translation; conservation of angular momentum is linked
to the laws staying the same under rotation; and the law of conservation of
energy is linked to the laws staying the same at all times. This link between
mathematical symmetries and conservation laws is a powerful idea in
theoretical physics.
In particle physics, the search for symmetry in mathematical equations
can lead to the prediction and discovery of new types of particle. Paul Dirac
realized that the equation for the rest energy of an electron is a quadratic
equation, one that has both positive and negative solutions:
E2  p2 c2  m02 c 4
When p  0 we can write
E2  m02 c 4
which has the solutions
E m0 c2
The positive solutions correspond to normal electrons. By taking the negative
energy solutions seriously, he predicted the existence of anti-electrons or
positrons. The symmetry between matter and antimatter is now built into
the Standard model and is linked to other fundamental symmetries such as
time reversal. There is even a sense in which anti-matter can be regarded
as ordinary matter traveling backward in time!
The time reversal symmetry in particle physics is one of three symmetries
that are fundamentally linked:
T: Time reversal symmetry—changing the sign of the time coordinate
P: Parity symmetry—changing the sign of all three spatial coordinates
C: Charge (charge conjugation) symmetry—changing the signs of all of
the charges
It turns out that none of these symmetries are observed in all interactions,
but if C, P, and T are all applied, the symmetry is observed. No violation of
CPT symmetry has ever been seen.
The Standard model also contains some apparent symmetries that have
not been explained. There are three pairs of leptons and three pairs of
quarks (see Section 26.4.5) but no known physical process that links them
 THE LANGUAGE OF PHYSICS • 21

or that will allow the transformation of quarks into leptons or vice versa.
Attempts to construct a theory that would allow this has led physicists to
predict the existence of additional “super-symmetric” particles for all the
existing particles. So far none have been discovered.
Symmetry principles have also been used to investigate alternative
approaches to physics. Richard Feynman and John Wheeler, for example,
realized that Maxwell’s equations for electromagnetism could be solved both
forwards and backwards in time. This sounds odd, but by including both
solutions they were able to construct a version of the theory that worked
just as well as the original one and did not neglect half of the solutions.
However, the interpretation of the so-called “absorber theory” requires us
to take the idea of future events influencing the present seriously. Perhaps
we should.

1.11 Exercises

1. Express:
(a) 267 g in kg, (b) 25 km in mm, (c) 5.0 m3 in cm3,
(d) 80 km/h in m/s, (e) 45 cm2 in m2.

2. Light travels at 3.0 × 108 m/s and it takes about 8 min for light to travel
from the Sun to the Earth.
(a) How far away is the Sun in km?
(b) How far is a light year? Give your answer in meters.
(c) The distance from the Earth to the Moon is 380,000 km. How far is
this in light-seconds?

3. Round off the following to three significant figures:

(a) 2.000009 (b) 0.0020900
(c) 0.009502 (d) 

4. Newton’s equation for gravitational forces is F  Gm1m2/r2. Use the

method of dimensions to find correct S.I. units for the universal
gravitational constant G.
5. The lengths of the sides of a rectangular box are measured using a ruler
marked with a millimeter scale. The measurements give side lengths of
85, 62, and 20 mm respectively. The uncertainty in each measurement is
1 mm.
(a) Calculate the fractional uncertainty in the length of each side.
22 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(b) Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the length of each side.

(c) What is the area of the largest face of the box? Include its absolute
uncertainty.
(d) What is the volume of the box? Include its absolute uncertainty.

6. The time period of a mass spring oscillator is given by

m
T  2
k
where m is the mass oscillating and k is the spring constant (Nm1).
In an experiment the time period is measured to be 0.68  0.04 s and the
spring constant is 20  2 Nm1.
(a) Calculate the mass of the oscillator including its absolute uncertainty.
(b) Which value (k or T) contributed most to the uncertainty in m?

7. (a) Explain the difference between a systematic error and a random

error.
(b) How would you reduce the size of random errors when carrying out
an experiment?
(c) A micrometer screw gauge reads 0.02 mm when it should read 0.
The diameter of a wire is measured to be 0.34 mm using the same
micrometer screw gauge. What value should be recorded?

8. Convert these numbers to scientific notation:

(a) 5500 (b) 0.0000000007
(c) 1200000000000000000000000
9. Evaluate the expressions below (do not use a calculator):
(a) 2.0 × 106 × 4.5 × 109; (b) 2.0 × 106 × 4.5 × 109;
(c) 6.0 × 1012/3.0 × 104; (d) 6.0 × 1012/3.0 × 104
10. The Apollo spacecraft traveled to the Moon at an average speed of
1.5 km/s. How long would it take at this speed to get to:
(a) Mars, (b) Pluto,
(c) the nearest star, (d) to cross our galaxy?
Speed of light  300000000 m/s  3.0 × 108 m/s
Distance to Mars (varies)  50000000000 m  5.0 × 1010 m
Distance to Pluto (varies)  6000000000000 m  6.0 × 1012 m
Distance to the nearest star (about)  4.5 light-years
Diameter of our galaxy (about)  100000 light years  1 × 105 light-years
 CHAPTER

2
REPRESENTING AND
ANALYZING DATA

2.0 Introduction
Experiments generate data and it is important to know how to select,
record, and process this data in order to find out what the experiment
has revealed. This is a huge problem for large experiments. According to
the CERN website, the four experimental stations on the Large Hadron
Collider (LHC) each generate between 750 Mbs1 and 4 Gbs1 of data when
the accelerator is operating! The task of selecting and analyzing relevant
data is carried out by the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid, which might
reject the majority of results in order to focus on those that could reveal
interesting new physics. Writing the algorithms for this system is extremely
challenging.
When you carry out experiments in a laboratory, you will not face such a
daunting task. However, presenting your data clearly and to an appropriate
precision—rejecting anomalous results, deciding how to process it, and
then extracting information from the processed data—is an essential part
of physics.

2.1 Experimental Variables

In most physics experiments you will vary one parameter and measure
another. The variable you change is called the independent variable and
the one that responds to this is called the dependent variable. For the
24 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

experiment to be a fair test, you must keep all other parameters that might
affect the dependent variable constant; these are called control variables.
For example, imagine you are investigating how the acceleration of a
trolley along a runway depends on the force applied to it. The dependent
variable is the acceleration, which might be measured using light gates.
The independent variable is the applied force, which might be varied
using falling masses attached to the trolley via a pulley. There are several
control variables, all of which must be kept constant. The obvious one is the
mass of the trolley. If this was not constant, then changes in acceleration
might be because of changes in mass rather than force, so the results of
the experiment would not be clear. Another control variable is the angle of
the runway; it should be horizontal in each trial. It would also be important
to control frictional forces (e.g., by using the same trolley and runway and
measuring the acceleration over the same distance on the same part of the
runway).
Q Independent variable: the one you deliberately vary
Q Dependent variable: the one that changes in response to the change in
the independent variable
Q Control variables: the ones that you have to keep constant so they do not
also affect the dependent variable
When you display results on a graph it is conventional for the dependent
variable to go on the y-axis and the independent variable to go on the x-axis.
Dependent
variable

Indendent
variable

2.2 Recording Data

Here are some guidelines for recording experimental data:
Q Record all of the raw data—if you repeat measurements and calculate
an average, record the repeats, not just the average.
 REPRESENTING AND ANALYZING DATA • 25

Q Record data to the precision of the instrument—if you are measuring

time periods using a clock that reads to 0.01 s, then all times should be
recorded to 0.01s (e.g., 3.54 s, 3.57 s, etc.).
Q Record calculated values to an appropriate number of significant
figures; usually the smallest number of significant figures used in the
calculation. If velocity v is calculated from a displacement of 4.26 m and
a time of 0.45 s, a calculation gives v  9.466666… ms1. This should be
rounded to two significant figures: 9.5 ms1.
Q Include units at the head of the table and not with the numerical
values. The correct way to label a column is quantity/unit. This means
quantity divided by the unit, and that is why just numbers appear in the
column. For example, displacement/m labels a column of displacements
measured in meters.
Here is an example (showing just two rows in a table).
A student carried out an experiment to find out how the time period
of a mass oscillating on a spring depends on the mass. In order to reduce
the effect of timing errors at the start and end of the timing period, he
measured 20 oscillations. In order to reduce the effect of random errors, he
repeated the experiment three times. The table includes all of his raw data,
averages, and calculated values.
Times for 20 oscillations/s Time
Mass/kg
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average period/s
0.100 15.78 15.57 15.69 15.68 0.7840
0.150 X X X X X
Etc. X X X X X
Not that, while the time period has been given to four significant figures
(consistent with the raw data), the uncertainty is likely to make one or more
of the final figures meaningless.
Spreadsheets (such as Excel) are often used to record and analyze data.
They have some strong advantages over simple written tables. The main one
is that the data, once it is recorded, can be processed within the spreadsheet.
For example, if you have calculated displacement and time values, it is
simple to use the spreadsheet to calculate velocities or accelerations. Mean
values and standard deviations can also be calculated. Once the data has
been processed, it can be selected and displayed graphically in a wide
variety of ways (scatter graphs, bar charts, pie charts, etc.). It is also possible
to insert error bars to extrapolate a line backwards or forwards, and to fit a
line or curve to plotted data and display an equation for the fit.
26 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Much of the analysis described above is done “behind the scenes,” but
when you need to present your data in a report, it is important to make
sure that you include the correct table headings (and units) and that you
round data to an appropriate number of significant figures. You should be
in charge of the format; don’t let the spreadsheet present its default style!

2.3 Straight Line Graphs

A linear relationship means that the rate of change of the dependent
variable with respect to the independent variable is constant. Linear graphs
are important in physics, and it is also important to interpret them correctly.

2.3.1 Interpreting Straight Line Graphs

Here are three linear graphs each representing a different relationship
between the variables.
Beware—a common mistake is to think that a linear graph implies direct
proportion. This is only the case if the graph passes through the origin.
y y y

x x x
Straight line through Straight line with Straight line with
the origin: y is directly positive intercept y negative intercept y
proportional to x increases linearly decreases linearly
with x with x

It is also important to realize that a linear graph with negative gradient does
not imply inverse proportion.

2.3.2 Analyzing Straight Line Graphs

A straight line graph can be represented by the equation y  mx  c where:
Q y is the dependent variable
Q x is the independent variable
Q m is the gradient
Q c is the intercept on the y-axis when x  0
 REPRESENTING AND ANALYZING DATA • 27

Intercept Gradient = m
at y = c

0 x
0
If there is a linear relationship between two physical variables x and y, then
a graph of y against x can be used to find m and c and hence determine an
equation for this relationship. If c  0 then y is directly proportional to x.

2.4 Plotting Graphs and Using Error Bars

2.4.1 Plotting Graphs by Hand
Graphs are used to display data, to test mathematical relationships, and
to calculate physical values from intercepts and gradients. They can be
plotted by hand or using a spreadsheet program such as Excel; but however
they are produced, it is important to present them properly and in such a
way that relationships are shown clearly and any significant values can be
extracted accurately.
Here are some guidelines for plotting graphs by hand:
Q Give the graph a heading.
Q Select scales such that the plotted data extends over at least half of the
width and height of the graph paper. This might require the use of a
“false origin,” that is, a graph origin that is not at (0, 0).
The two graphs below display the same data. However, the range of
y-values is from 92 to 98. The use of a false origin makes the relationship
clearer and would make calculation of a gradient from the graph more
accurate.

100 100

0 90
0 0
28 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q If the origin (0, 0) is included on the graph, then mark it by a zero on the
scale on each axis.
Q Mark values onto each axis in equal simple intervals, e.g., 0.0, 10.0, 20.0,
30.0 … or 0.02, 0.04, 0.06… Avoid unusual or awkward intervals such
as 3, 5, 7….
Q Label both axes with the physical quantity and unit in the same way as if
you were putting in a table heading, e.g., velocity/ms1.
Q Mark each data point carefully with a cross or a point surrounded by a
circle using a sharp pencil. If you are plotting on millimeter graph paper,
the points need to be within half a millimeter of the correct value.
Q Look carefully at the pattern of the data and decide whether any of
the points are anomalies. This means that they seem “out of place”
compared to the others. If possible these data points should be checked
by repeating the experiment. If not they should be labeled and ignored
when drawing a best-fit line.
Q Look at the pattern of data and decide whether it is best represented
by a straight line or a smooth curve. Remember, this is experimental
data, so each point has a degree of uncertainty—this means that the
line does not have to pass through the points; it is there to represent the
relationship revealed by the data.
Q If the data is best represented by a straight line, then use a ruler to draw
it, trying to balance approximately equal numbers of points on either
side of the line. It is also possible to find the gradient and y-intercept of
a linear graph directly from the data by using an algebraic method called
linear regression (omitting data from anomalous points).
Q If the data is best represented by a curve, then draw a smooth curve,
again trying to balance the distribution of points on either side of the
curve.

2.4.2 Finding a Gradient from a Straight Line Graph

Many physical relationships can be tested by plotting straight line graphs
and it is often important to find the gradient of the graph.
Here are some guidelines for finding an accurate gradient from a linear
graph.
Q Choose two points on the line that are well spaced from one another—at
least half the length of the line apart.
 REPRESENTING AND ANALYZING DATA • 29

Q If possible choose points at convenient x or y values so that their

coordinates can be read easily from the graph.
Q Use a ruler to draw lines across to the y-axis and down to the x-axis and
read off coordinates for each point (x1, y1) and (x2, y2).
Q Mark these coordinates on the graph beside the chosen points.
Q Calculate the gradient from the equation:
(y  y1 )
gradient  2
( x2  x1 )
Q Don’t forget units! The units for the gradient are the units of y divided
by the units of x. For example, a graph of charge/C against time/s would
have units of Cs1 or amps.
Here is an example of a gradient calculation using data for the extension of
a steel spring.

25
(6.0, 20.2)
20
Extension /cm

15

10
(1.6, 5.0)
5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Load / N

(20.2  5.0)
gradient of line  3.5 cmN1
(6.0 1.6)
2.4.3 Using a Spreadsheet Program
Whether you are plotting a graph by hand or using computer software, your
aims are the same—to represent the relationship between two variables
accurately and clearly and to extract any useful physical information or
values from the graph as accurately and precisely as possible. The great
advantage of a spreadsheet program is that once data has been stored it
can be used to generate a graph at the click of a button. However, this can
30 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

also lead to problems. The default settings of the program will determine
how the graph appears, and this may not be the best way to display this
particular dataset. The ease and rapidity of creating a graph can also mean
you forget to do basic things such as ensuring the axes are labeled (or labeled
correctly), having sensible scales with appropriate numbers of significant
figures, etc.
Here are some questions to ask yourself when using a spreadsheet to
produce a graph and analyze your data:
Q Could I do a better job by plotting the graph by hand?
Q Do I want the program to fit a line or curve to this data, or shall I print
out the graph once the points have been plotted and then draw the line
by hand?
Q Does the graph have an appropriate heading?
Q Do I want to include gridlines and if so with what divisions?
Q Are the axes correctly labeled with quantity and unit?
Q Are the scales marked correctly and are they easy to read?
Q Are values shown with the correct number of significant figures?
Q Do I need to use a false origin?
Q Should the line be extrapolated back or forward?
Q Should the line go through the origin?
Q What kind of fit do I want to use (e.g., linear, exponential, polynomial,
etc.)?
Q Do I want to include error bars?
Q Do I want the program to display a formula and if so how should it be
formatted?
Q How large should the graph appear in my report (avoid tiny graphs!).
Remember, you—not the computer—should be in control!

2.4.4 Using Error Bars

All experimental measurements will have a degree of uncertainty. This can
be included on a graph by the use of error bars. These can then be used to
work out the uncertainty in an intercept or gradient that is calculated from
the graph.
 REPRESENTING AND ANALYZING DATA • 31

If a data point has values x and y with uncertainties

x and y, respectively, then the error bar will be a line δy
extending from x  x to x  x parallel to the x-axis and
from y  y to y  y parallel to the y-axis.
δx
It is often the case that the error bars for one variable
are far more significant than for the other. When this is
the case, only one set of error bars is drawn. This is usually
the dependent variable (y).
Once all of the error bars have been drawn onto the graph, you can add
a trend line. If you are plotting a graph that is linear there will be a range of
possible lines that can be drawn that pass through all of the error bars. The
extreme lines (steepest and shallowest) are called the “worst acceptable”
lines. These can be used to find the range of possible gradients and the
range of possible intercepts.
The graph below uses the same data as in the previous example (for
stretching a steel spring), but error bars (1 cm) have been added to the
data for extension. In addition to the original best fit, a “worst acceptable
line”(WAL) has also been drawn. This is slightly steeper than the best fit
line so it gives a greater value for the gradient.

(7.0, 24.5)
25

20
AL
W
15
Extension /cm

10

5
(0.6, 1.2)
0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

-5
Load / N

(24.5 1.2)
gradient of worst acceptable line =  3.6 cmN1
(7.0  0.6)
Using this value and the gradient of the best fit line gives
gradient  3.5  0.1 cmN1
32 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

2.5 Logarithms
2.5.1 Logarithmic Scales and Logarithms
Many quantities in physics have values that spread over an extremely wide
range, so it is often convenient to represent them using a scale that increases
in multiples rather than equal amounts. Such a scale is called logarithmic,
e.g., 1, 10, 100, 1000…; 1, 2, 4, 8, 16…
Each step raises the power of some base quantity by 1:100, 101, 102,
10 …; 20, 21, 23, 24….
3

The logarithm of any number to a particular base is the power that the
base must be raised to in order to get the number. For example,
Base 10: logarithm to base 10 of 1000  3 or log10 (1000)  3
Base 2: logarithm to base 2 of 8  3 or log2 (8)  3
Another common base is the number e. Logarithms to base e are called
“natural logarithms” and are written using the prefix “ln.”
Base e: logarithm to base e of 10  2.3026 or ln (10)  2.3026
The values of logarithms to base 10 and of natural logarithms can be
found directly with your calculator.
If you are working with logarithms you will also need to be able find
anti-logarithms or inverse-logarithms. For example, if you know that the
logarithm to base 10 of some physical quantity is 5, you can find the value
of the physical quantity by raising the base to the power 5. For example,
if log10 (x)  5 then x  10 log10 ( x)  10 5  100 000
if log10 (x)  2.3 then x  10 log10 ( x)  102.3  199.5
Antilogarithms (or inverse-logarithms) can be found directly with your
calculator.

2.5.2 Using Logarithms

Logarithms behave like powers, reducing multiplication to addition and
division to subtraction:
log10 (6  7)  log10 (6)  log10 (7)
log10 (6  7)  log10 (6)  log10 (7)
Powers are reduced to multiples:
log10 (67)  7 log10 (6)
 REPRESENTING AND ANALYZING DATA • 33

This relationships is useful when analyzing data for variables that are
linked by a power law (if the base is omitted, it is assumed that everything
is to base 10):
If y  Axn then log(y)  log (A)  n log (x)
A graph of log (y) against log (x) (called a “log-log graph”)will be linear with
gradient n and intercept log (A).
Exponential relationships can also be analyzed using natural logarithms:
If y  Aebx then ln (y)  ln (A)  bx
A graph of ln (y) against x (called a “log-lin graph”) will be linear with
gradient b and intercept ln (A).

2.6 Testing Mathematical Relationships Between Variables

Graphs are often used to identify or test mathematical relationships between
two physical variables, and it is important to understand how different
relationships can be identified. In most cases it involves plotting a suitable
straight line graph and then interpreting the gradient and intercept. The
sections that follow give examples of common mathematical relationships
that can be analyzed using straight line graphs.

2.6.1 Direct Proportion

If y is directly proportional to x then when x is multiplied by any number y
will be multiplied by the same number. For example, y will double when x
doubles. To test for this, you can plot a graph of y against x. The variables
are directly proportional if the graph is a straight line AND it passes though
the origin (0, 0).
The relationship can be represented by y  kx where k is the gradient
of the graph of y against x.

2.6.2 Inverse Proportion

If y is inversely proportional to x then when x is multiplied by any number
y will be divided by the same number. For example, y will halve when x
doubles. To test for this you can plot a graph of y against 1/x. The variables
are inversely proportional if the graph is a straight line AND it passes
through the origin (0, 0).
The relationship can be represented by y = k/x where k is the gradient
of the graph of y against 1/x.
34 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

2.6.3 Inverse-Square Law

If y is related to x by an inverse-square law then when x is multiplied by
any number y will be divided by that same number-squared. For example,
y will fall to 1/4 of its initial value when x is doubled. To test for this you can
plot a graph of y against 1/x2. The relationship is an inverse-square law if the
graph is a straight line AND it passes through the origin (0, 0).
The relationship can be represented by y = k/x2 where k is the gradient
of the graph of y against 1/x2.
You can also test an inverse-square law by plotting a log-log graph as for
any power law. The gradient will be 2.

2.6.4 Power Law

If y is related to an unknown power of x by a relationship of the form
y  Axn then this power can be found by plotting a graph of log (y) against
log (x). This can be shown by taking logarithms of both sides of the equation:
y  Axn
log(y)  log(A)  n log(x)
A graph of log (y) against log (x) should be linear with a gradient equal to n
(the power) and an intercept equal to log (A).

2.6.5 Exponential Decay or Growth

If y is related exponentially to x by a relationship of the form y  Aebx then
this can be tested by plotting a graph of ln (y) against x. This can be shown
by taking natural logarithms (base e) of both sides of the equation:
y  Aebx
ln (y)  ln (A)  bx
A graph of ln (y) against x will be linear if the relationship is exponential.
The gradient of this graph is b and the intercept on the ln (y) axis is A. For
exponential growth the gradient b is positive; and for exponential decay (e.g.,
capacitor discharge or radioactive decay) the gradient b will be negative.
Here is a summary of how to test the relationships described above, all
of which are tested using straight line graphs.
Relationship Equation Plot Interpretation/
comments
Direct y  kx y against x Gradient  k
proportion passes through origin
 REPRESENTING AND ANALYZING DATA • 35

Relationship Equation Plot Interpretation/

comments
Inverse y  k/x y against x Gradient  k
proportion passes through origin
Inverse-square y  k/x2 y against 1/x2 Gradient  k
law passes through origin
Power law y  Axn log(y) against log(x) Gradient  n
intercept  log A
Exponential y  Aebx ln(y) against x Gradient  b
intercept  ln(A)

2.7 Exercises

1. Find the logarithms to base 10 of the following numbers:

(a) 1000 000, (b) 0.001, (c) 56,
(d) 0.325, (e) 1
2. Find the numbers whose logarithms to base 10 are:
(a) 4, (b) 2.7, (c) 0.05,
(d) 2.7, (e) 0.05
3. When a thin convex lens is used to form an image of a bright object on a
screen, the relationship between object distance from the lens u, image
distance from the lens v, and the focal length of the lens f is:
1 1 1
 
u v f
A student carries out an experiment to find the focal length f. He varies
the object distance and measures pairs of values for u and v.
(a) Suggest a suitable graph that he can plot in order to find f.
(b) Explain how he would obtain a value for f from his graph.
4. The data below shows how the pressure and volume of a gas changes
when it is compressed isothermally (at constant temperature).
Pressure/kPa 100 128 155 180 215 250 280 305 335 345
Volume/cm3 35.5 28.0 22.7 19.6 16.0 13.5 12.0 11.0 10.0 9.5
Assume that the uncertainty in pressure measurements is 10 kPa and
the uncertainty in volume measurements is 1.0 cm3.
Boyle’s law suggests that the pressure is inversely proportional to volume
under these conditions.
(a) Use a graphical method to show that Boyle’s law applies. Include
error bars.
36 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(b) Find an equation to relate pressure to volume and calculate the value
of any constants in this equation (stating their units and the associated
uncertainty).
5. The table below gives some data for the planets in the solar system.
Planet Av. distance from the Sun Orbit time, days (d)/ years (y)
(million km)
Mercury 58 88 d
Venus 108 ?
Earth 150 365 d
Mars 228 687 d
Jupiter 778 11.9 y
Saturn 1430 29.5 y
Uranus 2870 84 y
Neptune 4500 165 y
Kepler proposed that the orbital period of the planets T is linked to their
mean radius of orbit r by an equation of the form: T  rn
(a) Use a graphical method to verify that such a power law is valid and
determine the value of n.
(b) Use your graph (or the equation) to predict the orbital period of
Venus (check online to see if your value is acceptable).
6. When a capacitor discharges through a resistor, the discharge current I
falls exponentially according to an equation of the form:
t

I  I0 e 

where I0 is the initial value of the current and  is the “time constant” for
the decay (in seconds).
The table below shows how current falls with time when a particular
capacitor is discharged through a resistor.
Current/mA 48 38 30 24 19 15 12 9 8 6 5
Time/s 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Use a graphical method to find the time constant .

 CHAPTER

3
CAPTURING, DISPLAYING, AND
ANALYZING MOTION

3.0 Introduction
Kinematics is the study of motion. Dynamics is the study of how forces
affect motion. In this chapter, we focus on how motion is described in space
and time, and how we can capture data from moving objects in order to
display their motion graphically. In Chapter 5, we will see how Newton’s
laws describe how motion is affected by unbalanced or resultant forces.

3.1 Motion Terminology

The table below lists the key terms used in this chapter.
Term Symbol S.I. Unit Comment
Displacement s m Distance moved in a particular direction: a vector
Distance d m How far something has traveled along the path
taken: a scalar
Initial Velocity u ms1 Initial rate of change of displacement: a vector
Final velocity v ms1 Final rate of change of displacement: a vector
Speed v ms1 Rate of change of distance: a scalar
Acceleration a ms2 Rate of change of velocity: a vector
Time t s Duration of motion

It is often important to distinguish between instantaneous and average

values of velocity.
38 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

s
average velocity =
t
Where s is the change in displacement during a time interval t. If the
time interval is small (but finite), this might be written as:
s
average velocity=
t
To obtain the instantaneous velocity we would need to take the ratio of
s to t in the limit that t0. This is the same as taking the derivative of
displacement with respect to time:
s ds
instantaneous velocity  lim
t0 t dt
ds
or v
dt
The table below lists symbols used to describe changes and rates of
change.
x A change in x
x A small change in x
d(x)/dt The rate of change of x
Average and instantaneous acceleration are defined in a similar way:
v
average acceleration =
t
dv
instantaneous acceleration =
dt

3.2 Graphs of Motion

There are three key variables—displacement, velocity, and
acceleration—so it is important to be able to recognize and interpret graphs
where any one of these is plotted against time. It is also useful, when any
one of these graphs is known, to be able to work out the form of the others.
The most useful graph is usually one of velocity against time because:
Q The area under a velocity time graph is equal to displacement.
Q The gradient of a velocity time graph is equal to acceleration.

The relationships between the three graphs are summarized in the diagram
below, which shows graphs of motion for an object that starts from rest and
accelerates at a constant rate.
 CAPTURING, DISPLAYING, AND ANALYZING MOTION • 39

Displacement

Differentiate:
v = ds/dt
Velocity is gradient
of displacement
time graph

Time

Velocity

Differentiate: Integrate:
a = dv/dt s = ∫ vdt
Acceleration is Displacement is area
gradient of velocity under a velocity time
time graph graph

Acceleration Time

Integrate:
v = ∫ adt
velocity is area under
an acceleration
graph

Time

3.3 Equations of Motion for Constant Acceleration:

The “Suvat” Equations
There are five variables—s, u, v, a, and t—so it is possible to construct five
different equations, each of which omits one of these variables. We will
do this in two ways—firstly using the graphs of motion and secondly using
calculus.
40 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

3.3.1 Derivation 1: From Graphs of Motion

The velocity time graph below is for a particle accelerating from an initial
velocity u to a final velocity v in a time t.
Velocity

B (v − u)

Acceleration is the gradient of a velocity time graph, so

 v  u  v  u
a 
t  0 t
v  u  at (suvat equation 1)
Displacement is the area under a velocity time graph, and this can be
configured in various ways.
( u  v)t
(i) s  area  AB ut  12 (v  u)t 
2
( u  v )t
s (suvat equation 2)
2
(ii) If we use equation 1 we can eliminate v from equation 2:
1 1
s  area  ut   u  at  u t  ut  at 2
2 2
1
s  ut  at 2 (suvat equation 3)
2
(iii) Alternatively we can use equation 1 to eliminate u from equation 2
leading to:
1
s  vt  at 2 (suvat equation 4)
2
(iv) Finally we can use equation 1 to eliminate t from equation 2 leading to:
v 2  u2  2as (suvat equation 5)
 CAPTURING, DISPLAYING, AND ANALYZING MOTION • 41

3.3.2 Derivation 2: Using Calculus

dv
We start with the definition of acceleration: a 
dt
v t
This is equivalent to the integral:  
dv  adt (a is constant)
u 0
which gives v – u  at or v  u  at (suvat equation 1)
dv
Now use the definition of velocity: v 
dt
s t

 
which is equivalent to the integral: ds  (u  at)dt (a is constant)
0 0
1
which gives s  ut  at 2 (suvat equation 3)
2
The other equations can be derived from these by a series of substitutions.
These equations are valid for motion at constant acceleration.

3.4 Projectile Motion

3.4.1 Independence of Horizontal and Vertical Components of Motion
A projectile is an object moving under the influence of gravity. In the
simplest case this is an object moving in a uniform gravitational field when
frictional forces can be neglected. The resultant force acting on the object
is its weight, and this acts vertically downwards. In order to analyze the
motion we consider the horizontal and vertical components of the motion
separately. This is because:
Q Horizontal and vertical components of projectile motion are
independent of one another.
Q The horizontal motion is at constant velocity.
Q The vertical motion is at constant acceleration.

The graph below shows the trajectory of a particle launched horizontally

at 8.0 ms1 from a point 19.6 m above the Earth’s surface. Its vertical
acceleration is constant and equal to 9.81 ms2.
42 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

25

Vertical position/m 20

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20
Horizontal position/m

Each data point represents the position of the projectile at 0.10 s intervals.
Notice that the horizontal displacement in each 0.10 s interval is always the
same (0.80 m).

3.4.2 Parabolic Paths

The path of a projectile in a uniform gravitational field (in the absence of
frictional forces) is parabolic. This can be shown by eliminating t from the
equations for horizontal and vertical displacement. While this can be done
for a projectile launched at any speed or direction, the example below is for
the simple case of a projectile launched horizontally from a point at x  0,
y  0 at t  0.
Horizontal motion: x  ut
where u is the initial horizontal velocity
Vertical motion: y  vt  ½ gt2
where v is the initial vertical velocity
Substituting for t in terms of x in the equation for y gives:
 g   v
y  2 x2  x
 2u   u
which has the form y  ax2  bx  c (a parabolic curve with c  0)
The equation above is only valid if g is constant, and there are no
frictional forces. This is approximately true for projectile motion over small
distances close to the surface of the Earth. However, when considering the
motion of rockets, varying g and frictional forces must be considered.
 CAPTURING, DISPLAYING, AND ANALYZING MOTION • 43

3.4.3 Range of a Projectile

Imagine a projectile launched from a horizontal surface with an initial
speed u at an angle  to the horizontal. What is its horizontal range? In the
absence of friction the horizontal range is equal to the constant horizontal
velocity u cos  multiplied by the time of flight. To find the time of flight we
can analyze the vertical motion.
Projectile motion - no drag.
1.4
1.2
Vertical displacement

u
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
θ
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Horizontal displacement
Initial vertical component of velocity  u sin 
Final vertical component of velocity  u sin  (the motion is symmetric up
and down)
Vertical acceleration  g
The displacement when the projectile returns to the surface is s  0
Using suvat equation 1 from Section 3.2:
u sin   u sin gt
 2 u sin  
So the time of flight is: t  
 g 
2 u2 sin  cos  u2 sin 2 
and the range is: R  
g g
This has a maximum value when sin 2 1 suggesting that maximum range
will be achieved when the projectile is launched at an angle of 45° to the
horizontal (in the absence of friction).

3.5 Equation of Motion

The suvat equations cannot be used when the acceleration varies. However,
it is still possible to analyze the motion if the nature of the variation is known.
The general approach to analyze these situations starts with an equation of
motion, i.e., an equation for the variation of acceleration.
44 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

For example, a simple harmonic oscillator (such as a mass on a spring)

has an acceleration a that is directly proportional to its displacement x from
an equilibrium position and directed back toward that position:
a  kx
where k is a constant (for a mass spring system it is the spring constant).
This is a second-order differential equation:
d2 x
kx
dt 2
This can be solved to find equations for the displacement x(t) and velocity
v(t) for the oscillator (see Section 11.2.1).

3.6 Methods to Capture and Display Graphs of Motion

There are many different ways to capture motion data. The simplest is to
use a stop clock and meter ruler, and this method should not be neglected.
The main problem with this method is the uncertainty in time caused by
human reactions in starting and stopping the clock. Typical human reaction
times for a visual cue, such as watching someone release a ball, is about
0.25 s, so this method is unlikely to be useful unless the measured time is
significantly longer than this.

3.6.1 Motion Sensors and Dataloggers

Motion sensors and dataloggers have the advantage that they can take
rapid repeated measurements and record the data electronically. This can
then be processed by a computer in order to plot graphs of displacement,
velocity, and acceleration. Many motion sensors work by sending out
ultrasound pulses and detecting their reflection from the moving object.
The displacements are calculated automatically using the known speed of
ultrasound in air and the time between the pulse being emitted and its
reflection being detected.

To computer
Reflector
Ultrasound
pulses Moving trolley
Datalogger

Ultrasound
transducer
 CAPTURING, DISPLAYING, AND ANALYZING MOTION • 45

3.6.2 Light Gates

Light gates can also be used. Each light gate contains a light source and a
detector. When an object passes between these, the beam is cut by a card
and a datalogger measures and records the time at which the beam was
cut and how long it is blocked. When an experiment is carried out, the
moving object (e.g., a dynamic trolley) usually has a vertical card attached
and the card travels between the “jaws” of the light gate. The length of the
card must be measured and used as a parameter in the setup to enable the
software to calculate velocities.
The diagram below shows an enlarged view of a light gate and a typical
experimental setup.

To datalogger
Light gate
Light gate Light gate A Light gate B

Card

Light beam
46 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

If two light gates (A and B) are used, the following measurements can be
made and recorded:
Q Time at A and time at B (from starting the experiment)
Q Time to move between A and B
Q Velocity at A and velocity at B
Q Acceleration from A to B

Bear in mind that if the object is accelerating, the velocity measurements at

each light gate will be average values over the time taken for all of the card
to pass through the beam.

3.6.3 Mobile Phones and Tablets

Mobile phones and tablets usually have a built-in camera with both slow-
motion and video capabilities as well as a range of sensors, such as a three-
axis accelerometer. This makes them ideal for capturing, displaying, and
analyzing data, especially since there are a wide range of apps designed for
just this purpose.

Accelerometer sensor
This detects the real-time acceleration of the mobile phone along three
perpendicular axes. The accelerometer samples the acceleration (a sampling
interval of 20 ms is typical), and the captured data can be exported to a
spreadsheet program such as Excel. When used with a suitable app, tables
of data and graphs for acceleration, velocity, and displacement against time
can be displayed.
The acceleration due to gravity can be measured by dropping the phone
(but make sure it has a soft landing!), and the acceleration of a dynamic
trolley can be measured by simply attaching the phone to the trolley. The
portability of the phone makes it ideal for investigating acceleration in real-
world situations such as cars or trains.

Video capture
The high frame rates available on some cameras are ideal for investigating
short-lived, transient phenomena such as the impact of a water droplet
with the surface of water or the formation of a crater when a ball bearing
falls into sand. The cameras in mobile phones typically offer 240 frames
per second for slow-motion playback, but more sophisticated cameras can
record video at several thousand frames per second.
 CAPTURING, DISPLAYING, AND ANALYZING MOTION • 47

Slow-motion cameras can also be used to make accurate measurements.

For example, if you are trying to measure the bounce height of a squash
ball, it is difficult to judge this by eye. A slow-motion video of the bounce
can be analyzed to locate the maximum height much more accurately.
A great deal of software is available for the analysis of videos of motion.
One of the best free packages is called Tracker. This is ideal for the analysis
of projectile motion or rotational motion. Once your video file has been
loaded into Tracker, you can use the pointer to mark the position of the
object you wish to track and then advance the video a few frames at a time
to mark subsequent positions. This positional data is used by the software
to generate displacement, velocity, and acceleration data (and graphs)
in two dimensions. For rotational motion you are able to track angular
displacement and angular velocity.
Here is a screen grab from an experiment to capture and analyze the
motion of a “magnus glider”—a spinning object projected from top left of
the image. You can see the individual tracking points behind the object, and
the data table and graph of the motion are on the right.

While these applications enable us to track and display complex motions,

they do have limitations, and their accuracy will be limited by the quality of
the information put into them. Displacements in a video file are measured by
the number of pixels across the image; they are not absolute measurements.
In order to measure displacements in meters, the user must calibrate the
software by identifying a known distance in the image. However, parallax
effects across the field of view can distort results, so it is important for the
experimenter to think hard about the measurements that are being taken!
48 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

3.7 Exercises

1. A ball is thrown vertically upwards at 4.0 ms1 from an initial position 1.2 m
above the ground on Earth and is allowed to fall down to the ground.
Sketch graphs to show:
(a) displacement versus time
(b) velocity versus time
(c) acceleration versus time.
Take upwards as positive and label your axes with appropriate values.
2. An experiment performed on the Moon finds that a feather falls 20.75 m
from rest in 5 s.
(a) Calculate its speed as it hits the Moon’s surface.
(b) Calculate the acceleration of free fall at the Moon’s surface.
3. A sprinter reaches his maximum velocity of 12 ms1 after running
30 m from rest. How long does this take him and what is his average
acceleration (assume acceleration is constant).
4. A car is moving at 50 kmh1, what is this speed in ms1?
(a) When the brakes are applied the car can stop in 4.0 s;what is its
braking distance?
(b) A cat runs out in front of your car when you are traveling at 50 kmh1
and your reaction time is 0.6 s. What is the total distance the car will
travel before stopping (i.e., its “stopping distance”)?
5. A stone is dropped into a deep well. It strikes the surface of the water at
the bottom of the well 2.2 s after its release. How deep is the well?
6. A boat slows down from 6.0 to 4.0 ms1. During the deceleration it
travels 150 m. Calculate the average deceleration.
7. Two dragsters line up for a 500 m race. Car A accelerates at 4.0 ms2 and
then maintains a constant maximum speed of 50 ms1. Car B accelerates
at 5.0 ms2 and then maintains its maximum speed of 45 ms1. Which car
wins the race and by how much?
8. A cricket ball is bowled horizontally at a speed of 20 ms1 from a height
of 2.5 m above the ground.
(a) How far from the bowler does it first hit the ground?
(b) What is the maximum distance from the cricketer that the ball hits
the ground if he throws the ball upwards at the same initial speed at
an angle of 45° to the horizontal? Ignore air resistance.
 CAPTURING, DISPLAYING, AND ANALYZING MOTION • 49

9. Describe an experiment to measure the acceleration of free fall on

Earth. You should include a labeled diagram of the apparatus; a list
of measurements to be taken including the instruments used to take
these measurements; an explanation of how you will maximize precision
and accuracy; an explanation of how you will process the data to get an
accurate value of the acceleration.
 CHAPTER

4
FORCES AND EQUILIBRIUM

4.1 Force as a Vector

Forces have direction and magnitude; they are vector quantities and add
and subtract as vectors. When several forces act on the same body the
vector sum of these forces is called the resultant force. If this is zero the
forces are said to be in equilibrium. If there is a non-zero resultant force
the object accelerates in the direction of this force.

4.1.1 Free Body Diagrams

Free body diagrams show all the forces acting on a single object and are useful
when starting to solve a problem involving several forces. For example, if a
block rests on a rough slope there will be several forces acting on the block
and on the surface, but what happens to the block is determined only by the
forces that act on it. Here is an example, showing the free body diagram for
the block. If the resultant force is zero the block remains in equilibrium. If
it is non-zero the block will accelerate down the slope.
N: normal
contact force
G: friction with
Block surface

Slope with
rough surface
θ

W: weight of block
52 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

4.1.2 Resolving Forces

It is often helpful to resolve forces along two perpendicular axes. In the
example above it might be helpful to consider the components of forces
acting parallel (call this the x-direction) and perpendicular (call this the
y-direction) to the slope. The reason for doing this is that it is obvious that
forces perpendicular to the slope must be in equilibrium because the block
cannot accelerate in this direction. It is constrained so that it is only free to
move—if it moves at all—parallel to the slope. If we are only considering
forces (and not moments) we can simplify the free body diagram by treating
the object (the block) as a point when we are resolving forces.

y The resultant component Fx

N in the x-direction is given by:
Fx = W sin θ − G

The resultant component Fy

G
in the y-direction is given by:
Fy = N − W cos θ = 0

θ x
W

4.1.3 Finding a Resultant Force

The resultant force on an object is the vector sum of the forces that act on
it. This can be found by:
Q Scale drawing
Q Constructing the resultant from its components

Here is an example. Three forces act in the same plane on a single object.
We need to find the resultant force.

6.0 N

20°
9.0 N

120°

8.0 N
 FORCES AND EQUILIBRIUM • 53

Method 1: Scale Drawing

Draw the vectors to the same scale, e.g., 2.0 mm  1.0 N, and place them
end to end in any order. The resultant vector can then be drawn from the
start of the first vector to the end of the final vector. Now measure its length
and use the scale to find its magnitude. Its direction relative to any of the
other vectors can be measured using a protractor.

Resu
ltant
force
8.0 N

6.0 N

9.0 N

Method 2: Constructing the Resultant from Its Components

Choose two convenient perpendicular axes. At least one of these should be
parallel to one of the existing forces because that force will not then need
to be resolved.
y

8.0 N

20° 9.0 N x

120°

8.0 N

Resolving parallel to the x-axis: Fx  9.0  6.0 cos (20°)  8.0 sin (30°)
 10.64 N
Resolving parallel to the y-axis: Fy  6.0 sin (20°)  8.0 cos (30°)  4.88 N
54 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

10.64 N x
φ
4.88 N Resul
tant for
ce

Resultant magnitude is found using Pythagoras’ theorem:

F  10.642  (4.88)2  11.7 N

The angle between the resultant and the x-axis is:
tan   4.88/10.64  0.459, so   24.6°
An analytic approach like the one used here is preferable to scale drawing
because it will give a more accurate answer.

4.2 Mass, Weight, and Center of Gravity

4.2.1 Mass
Mass and weight are often confused. Mass is a scalar quantity related to the
amount of matter in an object and does not depend on the strength of the
gravitational field. A body of mass 1.0 kg has the same mass on Earth, on
the Moon, and in deep space. Mass determines the inertia of a body, that is
how hard it is to change its motion, and this will be discussed in much more
detail later when we look at forces and motion. This property of a body is
called its inertial mass.
Mass also determines how strongly an object responds to a gravitational
field; this is often called the gravitational mass of a body. The fact that
all objects fall with the same acceleration in the same gravitational field
(see Section 5.1.4) suggests that inertial and gravitational mass are directly
proportional to each other.
F mgravitational g  mgravitational 
a   g  g
minertial minertial  minertial 
Einstein assumed that inertial and gravitational mass are equivalent. This
helped him to construct the general theory of relativity (see Section 23.6).
 FORCES AND EQUILIBRIUM • 55

4.2.2 Weight
Weight is the gravitational force acting on a body and is a vector quantity.
The weight of a body depends on the strength of the gravitational field in
which it is placed, given by the formula:
W  mg
where m is the mass in kilograms and g is the gravitational field strength
measured in Nkg1.
The gravitational field strength near the surface of the Earth is on
average about 9.81 Nkg1 (standard gravity is 9.80665 Nkg1) but varies by
about 0.7% at different locations (from about 9.76 Nkg1 on a mountain in
Peru to about 9.83 Nkg1 in Oslo).
Here are some values for gravitational field strength elsewhere in the
solar system.
Moon Sun Venus Mars Jupiter Saturn
1
Surface gravity/Nkg 1.62 275 8.87 3.69 24.8 10.5
Surface gravity/gEarth 0.165 28.0 0.904 0.376 2.53 1.07

4.2.3 Center of Gravity

The center of gravity is the point through which the resultant gravitational
force on a body (its weight) can be considered to act. This point can lie
inside or outside the body itself depending on its shape and the distribution
of mass within it. For a body of uniform density and shape, the center of
gravity is at its geometric center as shown in the diagrams below:

CG CG CG

Weight Weight Weight

If an object is suspended from a point it will align itself with the center
of gravity vertically below the point of suspension. This means that the
location of the center of gravity can be found by suspending the object
separately from two different points (A and B) and noting where the two
lines of suspension intersect inside the object. This is shown below for a
two-dimensional object.
56 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The reason that the center of gravity lies beneath the point of suspension
is that its line of action then passes through the point of suspension and so
has no moment or turning effect about that point. If the object is rotated
slightly so that the center of gravity lies on either side of this line, then there
would be a resultant moment causing the body to rotate back toward the
equilibrium position. Equilibrium of moments (see Section 4.4.4) can be
used to calculate the position of a center of gravity for an extended body.
The idea is simple.
Center of
A gravity where
B
both lines cross

A
B

The resultant moment of the body about any point must be equal to the
moment produced by its weight acting through the center of gravity. From
this equality we can find the distance of the center of gravity from the point
about which we are taking moments. Here is an example for a uniform rod
of length l and mass m. We take moments about one end of the rod.
l
xCG
A

x δx
mg

Mass of strip of length, x  m  lx 

mgxx
Moment about A of strip of length, x 
l
l
mgxdx mgl
Moment of entire rod about A   l

2
0
 FORCES AND EQUILIBRIUM • 57

This must equal the moment of the weight, mg, acting through the center
of gravity, about A.
mgl
mgxCG 
2
so xCG  l /2; the center of gravity is at the midpoint of the rod, as expected.
The terms “center of gravity” and “center of mass” are often used
interchangeably, but they are only in the same position when the object
concerned is placed in a uniform gravitational field. If the field varies
significantly across the object, then they will be in different positions. For
example, for the rod above, if the value of g increases from left to right
along the bar then the contributions to the resultant moment would be
greater from strips near the right-hand end. This would move the position
of the center of gravity to the right of the center of the bar, i.e., xCG > l/2.
The center of mass on the other hand would not be affected and would
remain at the center of the uniform bar. In practice the difference between
the two positions is rarely significant.

4.3 Equilibrium of Coplanar Forces

4.3.1 Using the Triangle of Forces to Solve Equilibrium Problems
Many problems in physics involve coplanar forces, often in a horizontal
or vertical plane. The forces will be in equilibrium if they add to give zero
resultant force. When this is the case the forces themselves will, when
placed end to end in any order, form a closed shape. In the case of three
forces this is called a “triangle of forces,”and if two of the forces are known
the triangle can be solved to find the third force that puts the system into
equilibrium. Here is an example; it shows a picture suspended from two
strings that pass over a nail in a wall. The three forces acting on the picture
come from the tension in each side of the string and from its weight. The
system is in equilibrium, so the forces form a closed triangle of forces.

T1 T2
T1

T2

W
58 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

If there are more than three forces in equilibrium then they will form a
closed quadrilateral of four or more sides.
Here is an example where the triangle of forces is used to calculate an
unknown force keeping the system in equilibrium. The diagram shows a
pendulum held in equilibrium by a horizontal force F. The problem is to
find the magnitude of F.

Triangle of forces
25°

25°
8.0 N

F F

8.0 N

From the triangle of forces, tan (25°)  F/8.0, so F  8.0 tan (25°)  3.7 N
Using a triangle of forces is sometimes a convenient method to solve a
simple equilibrium problem, especially if two of the forces are perpendicular
to one another. However, for more complex problems we need a more
general method; this involves resolving forces along perpendicular axes.

4.3.2 Resolving Forces to Solve Equilibrium Problems

If a system is in equilibrium there is no resultant force acting on it. This
means that the components of the resultant force along any set of axes will be
zero. We can use this fact to solve equilibrium problems—resolve all forces
along a common set of axes, and set each component separately equal to
zero. This method can be illustrated using the example from Section 4.3.1.
We will resolve along horizontal and vertical axes since two of the forces act
in these directions (taking right and up as the positive directions). Let the
tension in the supporting string be T.
Resolving horizontall: F  T sin (25°)  0 or T sin (25°)  F (1)
Resolving vertically: T cos (25°)  8.0  0 or T cos (25°)  8.0 (2)
 FORCES AND EQUILIBRIUM • 59

Dividing (1) by (2), tan (25°)  F/8.0, soF  8.0 tan (25°)  3.7 N as before.
In this particular case the method of resolving is a little more involved
than using the triangle of forces, but this method is much simpler if there
are a large number of forces and if none of them are perpendicular.

4.4 Turning Effects of a Force: Moments, Torques,

and Couples
4.4.1 Moments and Torques
The moment of a force about a point P (regarded as the pivot) is defined as
the magnitude of the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance of its
line of action from that point, as shown below:
F

ion d
o f act
Line
P

Moment about P  Fd
The S.I. unit of moment is Nm and the direction of the moment is usually
described as clockwise or counterclockwise about the pivot. In this example
it is clockwise.
You might be tempted to think that this unit is equivalent to the joule,
since 1 J  1 Nm. However, when calculating a moment, the force and
displacement are perpendicular, whereas for work done, they must be
parallel.
F
Moment about P = Fl sin θ
l θ
P

d
60 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Notice that d is the perpendicular distance from the pivot, not the
distance between the point where the force acts on the body and the pivot.
This means that we often have to resolve the force to calculate the moment.
The example below shows how to calculate the moment of an inclined force
acting on a uniform rod at a distance l from the pivot P.
This can be regarded as the magnitude of the force multiplied by the
component of l perpendicular to the line of action of the force (F  l sin ),
OR the component of force perpendicular to l multiplied by l (F sin   l).
The term torque is often used in engineering or when studying rotational
dynamics. This is simply another name for a moment and is calculated in
the same way and measured with the same units.
If the line of action of a force acts through P its moment about P is zero.

4.4.2 Resultant Moment

If several coplanar forces act on an object, the resultant moment (or torque)
is the sum of the moments created by each force taking into account their
direction (clockwise or counterclockwise). Here is an example in which
several blocks rest on a uniform beam of weight 3.N:

0.7 m

0.3 m 0.5 m

8.0 N 5.0 N
3.0 N 12.0 N

Resultant moment about P (taking clockwise is positive)  (0.5  12.0) 

(5.0  0.7)  (0.3  8.0)  7.1 Nm clockwise. This would result in the beam
rotating clockwise with an angular acceleration.
Note that the weight of the beam has zero moment about P because the
center of gravity of the beam is directly above P, so the line of action of the
weight acts through P.
4.4.3 Couples
When the line of action of a resultant force on a body acts through its
center of mass (CM), it causes a change in translational motion (e.g., an
acceleration). If it acts through another point in the body, it will change its
translational and rotational motions.
 FORCES AND EQUILIBRIUM • 61

. . F
. .
F
CM CM CM CM

Translational acceleration Translational acceleration and

rotational acceleration

A couple is a pair of parallel forces of equal magnitude acting in opposite

directions on the same body. They produce a resultant moment but no
resultant force.

y
d

x CM
F

The perpendicular distance of each line of action from the center of mass
is x and y respectively.
Moment of couple  Fx  Fy  F (x  y)  Fd
Notice that the moment of the couple is independent of the individual
values of x and y and depends only on their sum—in other words, on the
separation of the two lines of action. This means that the moment of a
couple has the same value about any point in the body (or outside it).
Moment of a couple  magnitude of one force  perpendicular
separation of lines of action
Moment of a couple  Fd

4.4.4 Principle of Moments

For an extended object to be in equilibrium there are two conditions:
Q No resultant force
Q No resultant moment
62 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

We have already seen how to determine if there is a resultant force.

The principle of moments states that there will be no resultant moment if,
for a particular object,
Q The sum of clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of
counterclockwise moments about that same point.
Since this applies to any point we are free to take moments about a
convenient point—for example, one through which one or more of the
applied forces acts. This will simplify calculations. Here is an example.

Force from strut (S) Bonnet lid

5m
0.3

5m
0.4
300 N
28°

Hinge Strut

The hood of a car is held open in equilibrium by a strut as shown above.

The problem is to find the force from the strut. However, there is also an
unknown force from the hinge. The easiest way to solve this problem is to
take moments about the hinge position because this immediately eliminates
the force that acts through the hinge (because it will have no moment about
this position).
Taking moments about the hinge position,
Clockwise moment from weight of bonnet  300 cos (28°)  0.80
 212 Nm
Counterclockwise moment from strut force  S  0.45 Nm
Applying the principle of moments, 0.45 S  212, therefore S  471 N
We could continue to solve for the unknown force H from the hinge by
considering the equilibrium of forces. This gives us two more equations—
one for the horizontal components and one for the vertical components:
 FORCES AND EQUILIBRIUM • 63

471 N

θ
300 N
28°

Resolving horizotally,
H sin   471 sin (28°) or H sin   221 (1)
Resolving vertically, H cos   471 cos (28°)  300 or cos   116 (2)
Dividing (1) by (2) givs tan   221/116  1.91 and  = 62.3°
Substituting back into (1) gives H  250 N
When coplanar forces act on an extended structure (as in the example
above), the principle of moments gives one equation and the equilibrium of
forces gives two more, so with three independent simultaneous equations,
it is possible to solve for up to three unknowns.

4.5 Stability
4.5.1 Types of Mechanical Equilibrium
When a system is in equilibrium the forces and moments acting on it
are balanced. However, if the system is disturbed, it might return to
equilibrium or depart from it. The behavior of the system when disturbed
is determined by its stability. Consider the three objects below, all of which
are in equilibrium and all of which are given a small clockwise displacement
from equilibrium.
Another way to look at this is in terms of potential energy. In A any
disturbance tends to raise the center of mass and increase GPE, so forces
act toward the equilibrium position because this is the local minimum of
potential energy. In B the disturbance lowers the center of mass and the
GPE, so forces continue act in the direction of the disturbance to lower the
potential energy of the system. In C the disturbance has no effect on the
64 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

A B C

A B C
Moment returns Moment takes No resultant
object to object further moment:
equilibrium: from equilibrium: NEUTRAL
STABLE UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM
EQUILIBRIUM EQUILIBRIUM

height of the center of mass, so the potential energy is unchanged. We can

show this graphically:

Potential energy Potential energy Potential energy

A B C

Position Position Position

In terms of potential energy,

Q Equilibrium occurs when the gradient of potential energy with position
dPE
s zero: 0 .
dx
d 2 PE
Q Stable equilibrium occurs at a local minimum of potentialenergy:
is positive. dx2
 FORCES AND EQUILIBRIUM • 65

Q Unstable equilibrium occurs at a local maximum of potential energy:

d 2 PE
is negative.
dx2
dPE d 2 PE
Q Neutral equilibrium occurs when  0 and 0 .
dx dx2
4.5.2 Degrees of Stability
If an object in stable equilibrium is displaced a small amount and released,
it will return to its equilibrium position. However, a large displacement
might cause it to become unstable.

Small Larger
displacement displacement

W W W

The limit of stability is reached when the line of action of the weight passes
beyond the corner of the base, which acts as a pivot. The resultant moment
then changes from counterclockwise to clockwise, and when the object is
released, it continues to rotate and falls over. The potential energy curve
looks something like this:

Potential energy

Angular
displacement

The dotted lines represent the limits of stability. These will move farther
apart if the object has a wide base and low center of gray.
66 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

4.6 Frictional Forces

Frictional forces can arise in a variety of ways, for example, surfaces rubbing
against one another, air resistance, or the drag on an object moving through
a liquid. However, all frictional forces oppose motion or the tendency to
move (e.g., when a car is parked on a hill, frictional forces act up the hill).
We will discuss fluid friction when we consider viscosity (see Section 6.3),
but here we will concentrate on the frictional force between two surfaces in
contact with one another.

4.6.1 Origin of Frictional ForcesBetween Surfaces in Contact

On a microscopic scale all surfaces are uneven. This means that when they
are put together they only actually make contact at points, and these are
under considerable pressure. The frictional force between the surfaces
arises because temporary bonds form at these points and these must be
broken in order for one surface to slide over the other. Work must be done
to break these bonds, and this transfers energy to heat as they slide past one
another.

Applied
force
Frictional
force

Temporary bonds

The work done by the frictional force is W  Fs, where s is the displacement
of one surface relative to the other.
In most cases, when two surfaces are in contact the frictional force
depends on:
Q The nature of the surfaces
Q The normal reaction force between the surfaces; the frictional force F
between two surfaces is directly proportional to the normal reaction
force, N: F N
Q But is independent of:
Q The area of contact
 FORCES AND EQUILIBRIUM • 67

These simple rules work very well in many cases, but there are exceptions.
For example, a pointed object might dig into a surface. Another common
exception is for car tires in snow. Having wider tires does not affect the
normal force, but it does increase the friction because the snow does
not pack so much. Another way of thinking about this is to say that the
coefficient of friction is dependent on the normal force.

4.6.2 Static and Dynamic (Kinetic) Friction

The frictional force between two surfaces is not constant; it depends on
the applied forces. For example, if a block rests on a rough surface and
the horizontal force applied to the block is gradually increased, the block
remains at rest until the applied force reaches a limiting value and then it
suddenly starts to accelerate. This means that the frictional force must have
been equal to the applied force up until the point of slipping and must then
have decreased for the block to have an initial acceleration. This is shown
in the graph below:

Frictional force
Gradually increasing Limit of static
applied force friction
Fractional Dynamic
force friction

Rough surface

Applied force

The limit of static friction is the maximum frictional force acting between
the two surfaces when they are at rest. To move the block, an applied force
greater than this limit must be used. Once the block moves and the surfaces
are sliding over one another, the friction drops to a lower dynamic value.

4.6.3 Coefficients of Friction

The limiting frictional force between two surfaces is directly proportional to
the normal reaction between them.
Flimit  constant  N or Flimit  N
where m is the “coefficient of friction,” a dimensionless constant dependent
upon the nature of the surfaces.
We have already seen that there is a difference between the limit of
static friction and dynamic friction, so there are two coefficients of friction
between a pair of surfaces:
68 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q mS  coefficient of static friction

Q mK  coefficient of dynamic (kinetic) friction
4.6.4 Measuring the Coefficient of Static Friction
There are two simple methods that can be used to measure S.

Method 1: By Measuring Minimum Force Needed to Make the Block Slip

Here is a diagram of the apparatus:
N

M Pulley
Frictional
force F

Mg

Masses are added to the hanger until the block just begins to slip. The limit
of static friction is then mg.
The normal reaction is N  Mg.
Therefore mg  SMg, so S  m/M

Method 2: By Tilting the Surface Until the Block Just Slips

Here is a free body diagram for the block when limiting angle after which
the block just begins to slip is reached.

M
Gradually lifted
until block
starts to slip
Angle at which block
just begins to slip θ
 FORCES AND EQUILIBRIUM • 69

Flimit = µsN

W = Mg

At the limiting angle, the block is in equilibrium, so we can resolve forces

parallel and perpendicular to the surface:
Resolving parallel to the surface, SN  Mg sin  (1)
Resolving perpendicular to the surface, N  Mg cos  (2)
Dividing (1) by (2) gives S  tan 
Q The coefficient of static friction is equal to the tangent of the limiting
angle.

4.6.5 Measuring the Coefficient of Dynamic (Kinetic) Friction

A method similar to method 2 above can be used. However, in this case
the angle must be increased in small increments, and each time the block
should be given a small push. When you reach the angle fat which the
block, once pushed, continues to move down the plane at a small constant
velocity, ten mK tan .

4.7 Exercises

1. In which of the following situations (if any) are the forces acting on a man
in equilibrium?
Q Lying still in his bed
Q Sitting in a car seat when the car is traveling at constant velocity along
a motorway
Q Standing in a lift that is moving upwards at constant velocity
Q Floating apparently weightless inside an orbiting spacecraft
Q Floating in a swimming pool
70 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

2. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on

each block in the free body diagrams below:
5.0 N
3.0 N 6.0 N

60°
30°
6.0 N 4.0 N

1.0 N
3.0 N
(a) (b)
3. A frame of mass 1.2 kg is suspended from a rigid support by two wires as
shown below.
Calculate the tension in each wire.

40 cm
15 cm
30 cm

4. It is possible to balance the weight of a 1-meter ruler by placing the

pivot off-center as shown below. Assume that the center of gravity of the
ruler is at its geometric center.
Calculate the weight the ruler.
0.30 cm

0.15 cm

1.0 N
 FORCES AND EQUILIBRIUM • 71

5. The diagram below shows a paving slab of mass 300 kg resting on two
wooden supports, A and B. Assume that the center of gravity of the slab
is at its geometric center and that the forces between the supports act at
the centers of their areas of contact with the slab.
2.00 cm

0.30 cm 0.50 cm

A B

(a) Calculate the support forces from A and from B.

(b) Calculate the minimum downward force required at the right-hand
end of the slab to cause it to tip.
6. A wooden block of mass 0.65 kg is at rest on a rough plank. One end of
the plank is slowly lifted and the block just begins to slip down the slope
when the angle to the horizontal is 25°. The plank is held at that angle
and the block moves with a constant acceleration of 0.20 ms2 until it
reaches the bottom of the slope.
(a) Calculate the coefficient of static friction between the block and the
plane.
(b) Calculate the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and
the plane.
(c) Sketch a graph to show how the frictional force between the block
and the plank varies from the time the plank is first lifted until the
block reaches the bottom of the plank. Include values on the force
axis.
 CHAPTER

5
NEWTONIAN MECHANICS

5.0 Introduction
Newton’s masterwork, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
(“Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”) is probably the most
famous and important book (actually three books) in the history of physics. It
sets out the laws of motion and the law of gravitation and then applies these
laws to the motion of planets in the solar system. It also marks the beginning
of mathematical physics. This is not because mathematical arguments had
not been used in physics before Newton but because Newton provided a
mathematical framework in which to tackle an enormous range of physical
problems. Newton’s work had, and still has, a remarkably wide impact on
science and philosophy and is even used as a model in other apparently
unrelated disciplines (e.g., economics!). If you want to be good at physics,
you need to be good at mechanics.

5.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion

5.1.1 Newton’s First Law of Motion
This is a deceptively simple law, but, like many simple statements in
physics, it has deep significance. It describes the natural state of motion of
objects when they are not subjected to a resultant force. While we know
it as Newton’s first law, it had already been stated by Galileo. He used a
thought experiment to explain it, and this is described below.
74 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Imagine releasing a small ball from the top of a U-shaped ramp. In the
absence of friction we would expect it to rise up to the same height on the
far side of the U (A below). Now let the ramp on the far side slope up more
gradually. We would expect the ball to travel further along the ramp until,
once again, it reached its starting height (B below). Now let the ramp on the
far side continue on horizontally; what will happen to the ball? Logically it
seems it must continue to move at a constant velocity until such time as the
ramp rises back up again (C below). Galileo argued that there is no need for
an unbalanced force to keep things moving at constant velocity.

A B C

Newton’s first law

An object continues to remain at rest or move at constant velocity (in a
straight line) unless acted upon by a resultant force.

Comments
Q Most moving objects are acted upon by many forces (e.g., thrust,
gravity, contact forces, drag). If they are moving at constant velocity, the
resultant of all these forces must be zero.
Q If we know that the forces acting on a particular object are in
equilibrium, we cannot assume it is at rest; it might be moving at
constant velocity.
Q If an object is accelerating, decelerating, or changing direction, the
forces acting on it must be unbalanced; there is a resultant force. An
example is an object moving at constant speed along a curved path: since
the speed is unchanging, there is no force component parallel to the
motion, but there must be a component of force perpendicular to it in
order to cause a change of direction.

5.1.2 Galilean Relativity

Galileo thought deeply about the nature and causes of motion. He realized
that the law of inertia (effectively Newton’s first law) implied that the laws
of mechanics will be the same in a moving reference frame as they are in
one at rest. He used another thought experiment to show this:
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS • 75

Shut yourself up with some friend in the main cabin below decks on
some large ship, and have with you there some flies, butterflies, and
other small flying animals. Have a large bowl of water with some fish
in it; hang up a bottle that empties drop by drop into a wide vessel
beneath it. With the ship standing still, observe carefully how the
little animals fly with equal speed to all sides of the cabin . . . When
you have observed all these things carefully (though doubtless when
the ship is standing still everything must happen in this way), have
the ship proceed with any speed you like, so long as the motion is
uniform and not fluctuating this way and that. You will discover not
the least change in all the effects named, nor could you tell from any
of them whether the ship was moving or standing still.1
This was a profound observation. Einstein realized that if the laws of
physics are the same in stationary and uniformly moving reference frames,
then there is no fundamental difference between rest and motion; it just
depends on what you choose as your reference frame. It led Einstein to
the special theory of relativity (see Chapter 24), but in Galileo’s time, it
served a different purpose. Galileo was convinced that the Earth orbited
the Sun rather than the other way around as was believed by most people
at the time. They thought that it was obvious that the Earth was not moving
because we cannot feel the motion. Galileo’s thought experiment showed
that you would not expect to feel the motion—everything would happen on
Earth as if it was at rest; so the argument against the Earth’s motion was
flawed.
Galilean relativity is the idea that the laws of mechanics are the same in
all uniformly moving reference frames.

5.1.3 Newton’s Second Law of Motion

The second law of motion deals with the effects of a resultant force. When
a resultant force acts on something, it causes a change in motion: an
acceleration. The definition of acceleration is rate of change of velocity,
and since velocity is a vector, this means that accelerations include speeding
up, slowing down, and changing direction. The second law can be stated in
a number of different ways. Here we state how it applies when a resultant
force acts on a body of constant mass. Later we will consider situations in
which the mass might not be constant.

1.
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, translated by Stillman Drake, University
of California Press, 1953, pp. 186–187 (second day).
76 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Newton’s second law

When a resultant force F acts on a body with constant mass m, it produces
acceleration a in the direction of the resultant force that is directly
proportional to the resultant force and inversely proportional to the mass:
F
a
m
We can replace proportionality with equality if we define the units in which
we measure resultant force in the following way.

Definition of newton
A resultant force of 1 N accelerates a mass of 1 kg at 1 ms−2.
This makes the constant of proportionality 1, and the equation becomes:
F
a
m
Comments
Q This is a vector equation: the resultant force and acceleration vectors are
in the same direction.
Q The term inertia is given to the property of mass that resists
acceleration. The m in the equation above is sometimes called “inertial
mass.” The greater the mass of an object, the greater its inertia.
Q Newton argued that because objects in free fall accelerate toward the
Earth, they must be acted upon by a resultant force directed toward the
Earth—a gravitational force.
Q Newton realized that because the planets follow curved paths, they
must also be acted upon by a resultant force. This is a gravitational force
toward the Sun.
Q Newton thought that the orbital motion of the Moon was caused by
a gravitational force toward the Earth. This force has the same origin
as the force that makes objects close to the surface fall downwards.
By comparing the acceleration of an object near the surface with that
of the Moon, he was able to derive the famous inverse-square law of
gravitation (see Section 23.1.1).

5.1.4 Free Fall

The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle thought that more massive objects
should fall faster than less massive objects. Galileo proposed a thought
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS • 77

experiment that showed that both should fall at the same rate. It is simple
but compelling, and it goes something like this.

1. More massive 2. Joining them

objects fall faster than together and dropping
less massive objects the composite object—
how fast will it fall?

According to Aristotle the combined object should fall faster than either
of the original objects because it is more massive. However, shouldn’t
attaching the smaller mass to the faster mass slow the larger mass down and
shouldn’t attaching the larger mass to the smaller mass speed the smaller
mass up? This argument suggests that the composite body should have a
speed intermediate between the speeds of the small mass and large mass
alone. Aristotle’s idea leads to a contradiction. On the other hand, if all
objects fall at the same rate then there is no problem.
Galileo is said to have tested this idea by dropping two cannon balls
of different sizes from the top of the Tower of Pisa and showing that they
landed at the same time. Most historians doubt whether he actually did this,
but in 1971, during the Apollo 15 mission to the Moon, a hammer and a
feather were dropped to the Moon’s surface; both landed at the same time.
Newton’s second law can explain this. The resultant force on an object
of mass m in a gravitational field of strength g is its weight, mg. Using the
equation above,
F mg
a  g
m m
gravitational field strength is equal to the acceleration of free fall in that
field.

Comment
Q It seems obvious that we can cancel the two m’s in the equation above.
However, if we think about this a little more deeply, it is not so obvious
that they are the same thing. The m on the bottom of the equation is
the inertial mass; the m on the top is related to how strongly the mass
responds to a gravitational field, sometimes called the gravitational
mass. They are two different properties of mass, so the fact that all
objects fall with the same acceleration in the same gravitational field
shows that they are at least proportional to one another and possibly
78 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

identical. This subtle point was one of the clues that helped Einstein
toward his general theory of relativity, a new theory of gravity.

5.1.5 Newton’s Third Law of Motion

The third law is the one that is most often misunderstood. It is usually
stated as: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
However, to really understand this, we must unpack it. What are
“actions” and “reactions”? Here is another statement of the third law.

Newton’s third law

When A exerts a force on B, B exerts a force of equal magnitude on A. The
two forces are of the same type and act in opposite directions.
Comments
Q Forces never arise by themselves; they always come in pairs as opposite
ends of an interaction.
Q The “action” and “reaction” forces act on different bodies (otherwise
they would always cancel out and it would be impossible to change the
motion of anything).
Q The “action” and “reaction” forces are always of the same type—e.g.,
both are contact forces, or both are gravitational forces.
Q The fact that forces arise from interactions means that changing the
motion of one body must cause an opposite change in the motion of
another—this leads to the law of conservation of momentum (see
Section 5.3.4).

EXAMPLES

1. The gravitational forces on the Earth and Moon are an “action–reaction”

pair.
Gravitational force Gravitational force
from Moon on Earth from Earth on Moon
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS • 79

2. When a ball rests on the ground, there are two “action–reaction” pairs.
Contact force from ground
acting on the ball

Gravitational force
from Earth on ball
Gravitational force
from ball on Earth

Contact force from ball

acting on the ground

Notice that while it is true that the weight of the ball and the upward
contact force from the ground have equal magnitudes and act in opposite
directions, they do not form an action–reaction pair. They fail in three
respects: they are not the same type of force; they do not act on different
bodies; and they are not part of the same interaction.
3. When a ball rests on an accelerating surface, the contact force and the
weight are not equal. While each action–reaction pair remains balanced,
there is now a resultant upward force on the ball, as shown by the free
body diagram on the right in the figure below.

Contact force Contact force

from ground from ground
acting on the ball acting on the ball

Ground Ball
accelerating accelerating
upwards upwards

Gravitational
force from
Earth on ball Gravitational
Gravitational force from
force from Earth on ball
Contact force from ball
ball on Earth
acting on the ground
80 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

5.2 Linear Momentum

Linear momentum is one of the most important physical quantities. It is
conserved in all closed systems and by all interactions.
Linear momentum p is defined as the product of mass and velocity:
p  mv
It is a vector quantity, and its S.I. units are kgms−1 (equivalent to Ns).

5.2.1 Newton’s Second Law in Terms of Linear Momentum

The statement of Newton’s second law in Section 5.1.3 leads to the equation
F  ma. We can rewrite this in terms of the linear momentum of moving
mass.
For a constant mass and force,
(v  u) (mv  mu) change in momentum
F  ma  m  
t t time
Or resultant force  rate of change of momentum
We can derive the same result using calculus:
dv d dp
F  m  (mv) 
dt dt dt
dv d(mv)
Here we have used the fact that m is constant so that m dt  dt , but
the final equation is valid more generally, even if m is changing. This allows
us to restate Newton’s second law of motion.

Newton’s second law

The resultant force acting on a body is equal to the rate of change of linear
momentum of that body.
dp
F
dt
The statement and equation (F  ma) in Section 5.1.3 is a special case, for
constant mass, of the general equation given here.

5.2.2 Impulse and Change of Momentum

The longer a force acts on a body, the greater the change of momentum
of that body. This suggests that the product of force and time might be a
useful physical quantity. It is called “impulse.” When the force and mass are
constant, we can derive an equation for impulse:
 mv  mu
F
t
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS • 81

so Ft  (mv – mu)
Or impulse  change of momentum
The S.I. unit for impulse is newton-second (Ns), which is equivalent to
the unit for momentum, kgms−1.
We can derive a more general equation for impulse by integrating
dp
Newton’s second law F  dt :

Fdt  dp  p
The term on the left-hand side is equal to the area under the graph of force
against time, and this is equal to the change of momentum. For example,
the force exerted on a football when it is kicked might vary as shown in the
graph below. The area under the graph will be equal to the momentum
transferred to the ball as it is kicked.
Force (N)

Area under the curve

= Impulse (Ns)

= Change of momentum (kgms−1)

Time (s)

5.2.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum

Consider an interaction between two bodies; this might be an attraction,
a repulsion or collision of some kind. From Newton’s third law, each body
will exert an equal but opposite force on the other, and these forces will act
in opposite directions along the same line and will act for the same time.

FB on A FA on B
A B x

Taking positive values in the x-direction, the impulse on each body during
a short time t is given by:
Impulse on A  FB on A t
Impulse on B  FA on B t  − FB on At
During the interaction, the impulse given to each body, calculated from the
integral Fdt, is also of equal magnitude but opposite in direction. Since
82 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

impulse is equal to change in momentum, the change in momentum of A

is equal and opposite to the change in momentum of B. The momentum
change of the complete system is zero.
t t

 
change of momentum of system  FA on Bdt  FB on A dt  0
0 0
Linear momentum is conserved in an interaction between two bodies:
Newton’s third law tells us that all forces arise as a result of interactions,
so the above argument will apply many times over for a complex system of
interacting bodies, as long as we include all the pairs of forces. This can be
stated as the law of conservation of linear momentum.
The linear momentum of a closed system is constant.

Comments
Q A “closed system” means that we include all pairs of forces within the
system. Another way of saying this is that the linear momentum of a
system is constant if no external resultant force acts on the system.
Q Linear momentum is a vector quantity, so the conservation of linear
momentum implies a separate conservation of each component of linear
momentum.
Q An object moving along a curved path has a continuously changing
momentum (it is changing direction even if its magnitude is constant).
To solve problems involving conservation of momentum, it is useful to
consider the total momentum of the objects before and after they interact
and then to equate them. Here is a simple one-dimensional example from
nuclear physics.
Alpha decay: An unstable nucleus of mass M is initially at rest and decays
by emitting an alpha particle (this consists of 2 neutrons and 2 protons) of
mass m. The new nucleus recoils with velocity u. What is the velocity, v, of
the emitted alpha particle?
Unstable nucleus
New nucleus Alpha particle

M M m m

u v
Before After
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS • 83

Taking velocities to the right to be positive:

Momentum before  0
Momentum after  mv − Mu
M
Therefore, mv − Mu  0 and v  u
m
In alpha decay, the new nucleus is usually much more massive than the
alpha particle, so the alpha particle has a much larger velocity and takes
away most of the energy released in the decay (kinetic energy is proportional
to velocity-squared).
Here is an example of a two-dimensional collision between two balls of
masses m1 and m2.
y
v2
At rest
m2
m1 u m2 m1
x
v1

Before After

The x- and y-components of momentum must be conserved independently

of one another:
x-momentum before  m1u  0  m1u
x-momentum after  m1v1 cos   m2v2 cos 
Therefore, m1u  m1v1 cos   m2v2 cos  (1)
y-momentum before  0
y-momentum after  m2v2 sin  − m1v1 sin 
Therefore, m2v2 sin   m1v1 sin  (2)
Equations (1) and (2) can then be used to determine the values of up to
two unknown quantities.
Conservation of momentum can also be shown by drawing vectors to
represent the momenta of the bodies before and after the collision.

m1v1 m2v2

m1u
84 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The sum of the vector momenta after the collision must equal the total vector
momentum before the collision. Solving the triangle using trigonometry is
equivalent to taking components and deriving the equations (1) and (2)
above.

5.3 Work Energy and Power

When a stone is kicked, it moves for a while and then comes to rest. It
appears that the movement energy has disappeared. James Joule realized
that the energy of motion in the moving stone has not disappeared but has
been transferred into other forms of energy to the objects with which it has
interacted. If you slide a book over the surface of a table, it eventually stops
moving, but the motion energy it had has been transferred to the particles
on the surfaces of the table top and the book, and when the book stops
moving, these particles are vibrating more vigorously than before. Some
thermal energy has been generated, and there has been an increase in
temperature. Count Rumford noticed a similar effect when cannons were
bored in the arsenal in Munich; he even carried out an experiment to show
that if the cannons were bored under water, the water could be brought to
the boil. This suggests that the motion involved in boring the cannons had
produced thermal energy.
Joule realized that there is a mechanical equivalent of heat; in other
words, the book does work as it comes to rest, and this transfers its kinetic
energy into thermal energy to the surroundings. Joule’s work set the stage
for the idea that energy is conserved. However, energy comes in a variety
of different forms, and while it cannot be created or destroyed, it can be
transferred. When the book stops moving, its kinetic energy has been
transferred into thermal energy, which spreads into the surroundings.

5.3.1 Work
Work is the transfer of energy when the point of application of a force
moves in the direction of the force:

Work done (J)  force applied (N) × displacement parallel to force (m)
The S.I. unit of energy is joule (J).
1 joule of energy is transferred when a force of 1 N moves through 1 m
(1 J  1 Nm).
If the force is at an angle to the displacement, then the component of
force parallel to the displacement must be used.
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS • 85

Displacement: s

Work done to move a block through displacement s is: W  Fs cos 

If F and s are expressed as vectors, the work done is the scalar product
of the vectors: WF·s
In most cases the force varies with time or position, so the work done
can be found graphically or—if there is a formula for the variation of
force—by using calculus.

1. Work calculated from a graph of force against displacement (parallel to

the force)
Force (N)

The area under the force-

-
against-displacement
graph is equal to the
work done by the force

Displacement (m)

2. Work done calculated by integration

Consider a varying force F(x) acting along the x-axis. The work done  Was
the force moves from x to (x  x) is given by:
 W  F(x)x
The total work done Wab as the force moves from x  a to x  b is given by:
xb
Wab  F(x)x
xa
And if we let the small increments in x tend to zero (x  0), this sum
becomes a continuous integral:
xb
Wab   F(x)dx
xa
86 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

5.3.2 Gravitational Potential Energy Changes (Uniform Field)

The strength and direction of the gravitational field g is almost constant
close to the Earth’s surface. g is given by:
g  Fgrav / m
and has a value of about 9.81 Nkg−1 close to the Earth’s surface.
The fact that the field is almost uniform makes it very easy to calculate
the work needed to lift a mass near the Earth’s surface.
A B

h F

The diagram above shows a mass m being lifted through a height h by two
different routes: vertically to A and along an inclined path to B. The vertical
force needed to lift the mass is always equal to mg since the applied force
must balance the weight of the mass. In the absence of frictional forces,
there is no horizontal component of force to consider.
Work done lifting mass vertically: W  mgh
Work done along the inclined path: W  mg (h/cos ) cos   mgh
The work done is independent of the path taken and depends only on the
height through which the mass is lifted. If the mass is allowed to fall back
to the ground, it will gain kinetic energy, which could be used to do some
useful work (e.g., generating electricity). Lifting it in a gravitational field
has given it the potential to do work.
Q Gravitational potential energy (GPE) is the potential energy an object
has due to its position in a gravitational field.
In a uniform gravitational field, change in GPE is given by:
 GPE  mgh
If a mass is moved around a closed loop inside a gravitational field (any
gravitational field, not just a uniform field), the work done by an external
agent in lifting it is equal to the work done by the gravitational field as it
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS • 87

comes back down. If it returns to its original position, the work done in
the loop is zero. This is an example of what is called a “conservative field.”
Gravitational fields are conservative fields.

5.3.3 Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is the energy a body has due to its motion. We can use the
definition of work to derive an expression for kinetic energy by considering
the work that must be done to accelerate a mass m from velocity u to
velocity v.
Consider a mass that is moving at velocity v and acted upon by a
resultant force F.
F
m

In a short time t, the work done on the mass is given by: W  Fs  Fvt
v v
Using F  ma  m , W  m vt  mvv
t t
Taking the limit of t0 and integrating between initial and final
velocities, we get:
v
1 1

W  mvdv  mv2  mu2
2 2
u
The work done is equal to the change in kinetic energy, so KE  ½ mv2
It is also possible to derive this relationship by considering a constant
resultant force acting on a constant mass to produce a constant acceleration.
The displacement during acceleration is given by:
(v2  u2 )
s
2a
Multiplying throughout by mass m and acceleration a gives:
m(v2  u2 )
mas 
2
Using F  ma, we obtain:
W  Fs  ½ mv2 − ½ mu2 as before
5.3.4 The Law of Conservation of Energy
The law of conservation of energy can be stated in several different ways.
Here are two of them:
Q Energy is never created or destroyed, but one form can be transferred

to another.
Q The total energy of a closed system is constant.
88 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Energy is a scalar quantity, so working out how much energy is present

in a system is simply a matter of adding the energies of each part of the
system. Alpha decay is a good example. We have already seen that the total
momentum of the system is zero before and after the decay. However,
nuclear energy has been transferred to kinetic energy of the new nucleus
formed in the decay and the emitted alpha particle.

Unstable nucleus
New nucleus Alpha particle

M M m m

u v
Before After

Total momentum  mv − (M − m) u  0
Total energy  ½ mu2  ½ mv2  0 (direction does not the affect sign
of KE)
Notice that, in this example, kinetic energy is not conserved. It is
important to realize that the law of conservation of energy is about total
energy and not any one kind of energy. In some interactions and collisions
(usually on the atomic scale), kinetic energy is conserved. When this is
the case, the interaction is described as an elastic interaction. In avast
majority of interactions, some of the initial kinetic energy is transferred to
other forms (such as thermal energy), and these are described as inelastic
interactions.
Type of interaction Momentum Kinetic energy
Elastic conserved conserved
Inelastic conserved not conserved

5.3.5 Energy and Momentum in a 2D Collision

We can use a 2-dimensional collision to illustrate how the laws of conservation
of momentum and energy are used in problems. In this example, a ball of
mass m1 coming in from the left strikes another stationary ball of mass m2,
and then the two balls move off in different directions.
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS • 89

v2
y

u1

v1

We can apply the conservation of momentum along each axis:

x-axis: m1u1  0  m1v1 cos   m2v2 cos  (1)
y-axis: 0  m2v2 sin   m1v1 sin  (2)
Kinetic energy before the collision: EK (before)  12 m1 u12 (3)
Kinetic energy after the collision: EK (after)  1
2 m1 v12  12 m1 v22 (4)
If the collision is elastic, then EK (before)  EK (after).
If the collision is inelastic, then EK (before) − EK (after)  KE transferred
in to other forms

5.3.6 Energy Transfers

There are different types of energy:
Q Kinetic energy: the energy of a body as a result of its motion
Q Potential energy: the energy stored as a result of the position of a body
in a field, e.g.:
Gravitational potential energy
Electrical potential energy
Nuclear potential energy
There are other forms of potential energy that are related to electrical
potential energy because they relate to the bonds between particles inside
materials:
Chemical potential energy
Elastic potential energy (strain energy)
90 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q Thermal energy: the sum of random kinetic energies of all particles in a

body; it differs from kinetic energy in that these motions average to zero
at the center of mass frame of the body
Q Radiant energy: the energy of electromagnetic waves (or photons)
Q Rest energy: the energy associated with mass through Einstein’s
equation, E  mc2
Heat and work are not forms of energy. These are two important ways in
which energy is transferred:
Q Work is the energy transferred by a force when the point of action of the
force is displaced in the direction of the force.
Q Heat is the energy transferred due to temperature differences between
two systems.
Devices that transfer energy from one form to another are called
transducers. Energy transfers are often displayed using a flow diagram
or Sankey diagram. For example, the diagram below is for a compact
fluorescent lamp that converts 60% of the electrical energy supplied to it
into visible radiant energy (light).

100 J 60 J used
Electrical Radiant
energy energy

40 J wasted
Thermal energy
The efficiency of a transducer is the ratio of useful output energy to total
input energy, usually expressed as a percentage. In the case of our compact
fluorescent light, this would be 0.40 or 40%.
Useful output energy
Efficiency= 100%
Total input energy
5.3.7 Power
Power is the rate of transfer of energy.
Energy transferred
Power=
Time
dE
For continuous energy transfers, P 
dt
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS • 91

The S.I. unit of work is watt (W), and 1 W  1 Js−1.

Be careful not to confuse W (symbol of watt) with W (work, a physical
quantity)!
If the energy is transferred as work this is the rate of doing work. If work W
dW d(Fs)
is done in time t, we derive the power as P  
dt dt
ds
When the force remained constant, this becomes: P  F  Fv
dt
This is the scalar product of force and velocity: P  F.v
Efficiency can also be expressed in terms of power:
Useful output power
Efficiency= 100%
Total input power
5.4 Energy Resources
If energy is a conservable quantity, why we say we may face a global energy
crisis? The problem is that when energy-dense fuels are used to provide
useful work or heating, the energy itself becomes spread out among an
ever-increasing number of particles and usually ends up as thermal energy
at a low temperature (see Chapter 10).As a result, the availability of energy
to do useful work decreases. There is a limit to our ability to extract work
from heat generated per the laws of thermodynamics (see Section 10.2.3);
so we continue to look for new sources of fuel (chemical or nuclear) and to
improve technologies that can extract energy from our environment. The
table below gives information about some primary energy sources.
Primary Energy Primary energy
source type transfer
Fossil: oil, coal, gas Chemical Chemical  thermal
Non-renewable
Uranium, plutonium Nuclear fission Nuclear  thermal
Isotopes of hydrogen Nuclear fusion Nuclear  thermal
Solar Radiant Radiant  electrical
Wind Kinetic Kinetic  electrical
Geothermal Thermal Thermal  kinetic Renewable
Hydroelectric GPE GPE  kinetic
Tidal GPE GPE  kinetic
Biomass Chemical Chemical  thermal
Waves Kinetic Kinetic  electrical
92 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Renewable energy resources are those that are naturally regenerated.

Fossil and nuclear fuels are non-renewable energy sources. They can
get depleted over time. However, some non-renewable fuels, such as
those used for nuclear fusion, would be capable of providing energy for
millennia. Unfortunately, we are yet to build an effective reactor working
based on nuclear fusion. However, a huge research reactor, ITER, is being
constructed in France as a major step toward a commercial fusion reactor,
and it is hoped that fusion power is achievable by the mid-2020s.

5.5 Propulsion Systems

A propulsion system is one that changes the way an object moves or maintains
its motion in the presence of opposing forces. In order to generate a driving
force that acts on the moving object, the system must exert an equal force in
the opposite direction on something else, according to the Newton’s third
law. Newton’s second law tells us that the magnitude of the driving force
will be equal to the magnitude of the rate of change of momentum of the
material that the system pushes against. Wheels, propellers, and jet engines
exert forces on their surroundings. Rockets eject burnt fuel and exert a
force on that.

5.5.1 Jet Propulsion

In a jet engine, a system accelerates a gas backwards and, in so doing,
generates a forward force on the jet engine. The jet pushes back on the
atmosphere, and the atmosphere pushes forward on it. Here is a schematic
of a jet engine:
Jet engine

Exhaust Intake

Force on gas Force on jet

The force exerted on the jet engine will be equal in magnitude to the rate
of change of momentum of the gas passing through the engine. While it
is true that the combustion of fuel inside the engine adds mass to the air
passing through it, this is in practice a very small contribution; so we can
simplify the analysis by assuming that the mass flow in and out of the system
is solely due to the air. This means that the mass flow rate in and out of the
jet is the same.
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS • 93

If u is the air speed of the aircraft and v is the speed of exhaust gases, then
the thrust is given by:
dm
F (v  u)
dt
Clearly v must be greater than u for the jet to produce a forward thrust.
There are two ways to increase the thrust:
Q Increase the mass flow rate (dm/dt)
Q Increase the exit velocity of gases (v − u)
Different types of jets use different methods.

5.5.2 Rockets
A jet cannot work in a vacuum, because there would be no external material
against which to push. Rockets get around this problem by ejecting a large
amount of matter (in the form of burnt fuel) at a very high velocity. The
change in momentum of the ejected matter is equal and opposite to the
change in momentum of the rocket. Once again, we can derive an equation
for the thrust of a rocket using Newton’s second law, but this time we are
dealing with an object of changing mass.
d(mv)
F
dt
If the rocket is in space with no external forces acting upon it, then we
use the conservation of momentum to show that the change in velocity of
the rocket depends on the proportion of its mass expelled as burnt fuel.
Consider a short time t during which the rocket expels a mass m at a
velocity u relative to the rocket. At this time, the rocket has a forward
velocity v and a mass m.
Mass m Mass m

Exhaust velocity
relative to rocket = u Rocket velocity = v

Taking motion to the right to be positive and using conservation of

momentum, we have
Change of momentum of exhaust gases  − um (1)
Change of momentum of the rocket  (m − m) v  mv −mv (2)
94 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The final term in Equation (2) can be neglected because it is a product of

two second-order terms. Now we use conservation of momentum before
and after this mass of fuel is ejected:
− um  mv  0
Now separate variables and integrate from an initial velocity v0 to a final
velocity vf during which time the mass of the rocket falls from m0 to mf.
mf vf
dm
 m
  dvu
m0 v0

leading to:
m 
v f  v0  u ln 0 
mf 
The final velocity of the rocket can be increased by:
Q Increasing the velocity of exhaust gases
Q Increasing the ratio of m0/mf.
The second condition requires that the final mass of the rocket be small
compared to its initial mass, so the majority of the rocket’s mass at launch
is in its fuel.

5.5.3 Radiation Pressure

Einstein’s photon theory assumes that electromagnetic radiation can only
transfer energy to and from matter in discrete quanta or photons of energy
E  hf, where h is the Planck’s constant. Einstein also showed that energy
and mass are equivalent or E  mc2, where c is the speed of light. Combining
these two equations suggests that the absorption or emission of a photon of
frequency f also involves a momentum change of size:
E
p
c
If light is absorbed by a surface of area A, the rate of change of momentum
of the photons is:
dp IA
F 
dt c
where I is the intensity (number of photons per second × photon energy).
This will be equal and opposite to the force exerted on the surface (by
Newton’s third law).
When radiation is reflected from a surface (e.g., light from a mirror),
the force is doubled because the momentum change is doubled for each
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS • 95

photon (from a positive value to an equal negative value). While the radiation
pressure from ordinary light sources on human-sized mirrors might be tiny
(< 10−6 Pa for 100 W of radiation falling onto a mirror of area 1 m2), it
has been suggested that high-intensity laser beams directed from the Earth
could accelerate a reflective micro-spacecraft up to very high speeds so that
they can make trips to the nearest stars within human lifetimes.

5.6 Frames of Reference

In order to analyze the motion of an object, we need to measure it against
a fixed set of axes (a coordinate system) using a reliable clock. Often the
reference frame we choose may beat rest with respect to the Earth, but the
motions would be very different if they were measured with respect to the
Sun or the Moon. Galileo used a thought experiment to show that the laws
of mechanics are the same in all uniformly moving reference frames.
Shut yourself up with some friend in the main cabin below decks on
some large ship, and have with you there some flies, butterflies, and
other small flying animals. Have a large bowl of water with some
fish in it; hang up a bottle that empties drop by drop into a wide
vessel beneath it. With the ship standing still, observe carefully how
the little animals fly with equal speed to all sides of the cabin. The
fish swim indifferently in all directions; the drops fall into the vessel
beneath; and, in throwing something to your friend, you need throw
it no more strongly in one direction than another, the distances being
equal; jumping with your feet together, you pass equal spaces in every
direction. When you have observed all these things carefully (though
doubtless when the ship is standing still everything must happen in
this way), have the ship proceed with any speed you like, so long as
the motion is uniform and not fluctuating this way and that. You will
discover not the least change in all the effects named, nor could you
tell from any of them whether the ship was moving or standing still.
In jumping, you will pass on the floor the same spaces as before, nor
will you make larger jumps toward the stern than toward the prow
even though the ship is moving quite rapidly, despite the fact that
during the time that you are in the air the floor under you will be
going in a direction opposite to your jump. In throwing something to
your companion, you will need no more force to get it to him whether
he is in the direction of the bow or the stern, with yourself situated
opposite. The droplets will fall as before into the vessel beneath
without dropping toward the stern, although while the drops are in
96 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

the air the ship runs many spans. The fish in their water will swim
toward the front of their bowl with no more effort than toward the
back, and will go with equal ease to bait placed anywhere around the
edges of the bowl. Finally the butterflies and flies will continue their
flights indifferently toward every side, nor will it ever happen that
they are concentrated toward the stern, as if tired out from keeping up
with the course of the ship, from which they will have been separated
during long intervals by keeping themselves in the air. And if smoke
is made by burning some incense, it will be seen going up in the form
of a little cloud, remaining still and moving no more toward one side
than the other. The cause of all these correspondences of effects is the
fact that the ship’s motion is common to all the things contained in it,
and to the air also. That is why I said you should be below decks; for
if this took place above in the open air, which would not follow the
course of the ship, more or less noticeable differences would be seen
in some of the effects noted.2
This is an important observation. This means that there is no way to
distinguish rest from uniform motion, so there is no way to be sure that
any particular reference frame will beat rest in space. All uniformly moving
reference frames are called inertial reference frames. It is often helpful
when selecting a particular inertial reference frame to simplify a problem,
and often the best one to choose is the center of mass frame.

5.6.1 The Center of Mass Frame

The center of mass reference frame is thought to be at rest with respect to
the center of mass of the system. This is also the reference frame in which
the sum of the momenta of all particles in the system may be zero. To
transform the laboratory reference frame to the center of mass frame, we
simply subtract the velocity of the center of mass relative to the laboratory
from all of the velocities of the particles in the system.
Here is an example in which switching to the center of mass system
makes it much easier to understand the physics of an interaction. Since
matter and antimatter annihilate to form gamma-rays, it seems reasonable
to think that a single electron might annihilate with a positron to form a
single gamma-ray photon as shown below:

2. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, translated by Still man Drake, University
of California Press, 1953, pp. 186–187 (second day).
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS • 97

c
u

Electron Positron Photon

Before After

If this could occur, the photon would take away the energy and momentum
of the electron–positron pair. However, this is in fact impossible, as can be
seen if we transform to the center of mass frame by subtracting u/2 from
the electron and photon.

u/2 u/2
?
Before After

The momentum before annihilation may be zero since the electron and
positron have equal mass but opposite velocities. This means that a single
photon would have to carry away energy but have no momentum. We have
seen earlier (Section 5.5.3) that photons have momentum p  E/c, so this
is impossible. In reality, such an annihilation results in a pair of photons
emitted in opposite directions in the center of mass frame.

u/2 u/2 2 Photons

c

Before
After

This allows energy to be carried away and the total momentum to remain
at zero. The creation of a pair of identical photons when an electron and a
positron annihilate is utilized in PET scanners (see Section 29.5).

5.6.2 Galilean Transformation

A transformation between two inertial reference frames is called a Galilean
transformation. This is a set of equations that transforms the coordinates of
an object in one inertial reference frame to those in another. For simplicity,
98 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

consider an object at rest at point P with coordinates (x, y, z) in a particular

inertial reference frame. Now consider a second inertial reference frame
that coincides with the first one at time t  0 but which is moving in the
positive x-direction at a constant velocity v. What are the coordinates x, y,
z of P in this reference frame?
y y′

vt x′

x P

x x′
The equations of this transformation are:
x  x − vt
y  y
z  z
t  t
The laws of Newtonian mechanics are invariant (do not change) under
Galilean transformations. These transformations assume that physics takes
place against a background of absolute space and absolute time, which are
the same for all observers. However, early in the 20th century, Einstein
realized that the laws of electromagnetism are not invariant under Galilean
transformations. This realization ultimately led him to the special theory
of relativity, which postulates that the laws of physics should be the same
in all inertial reference frames. The only way that this could be true was if
measurements in space and time were all relative and not absolute. This is
explored further in Chapter 24.

5.7 Theoretical Mechanics

In the century following the publication of Newton’s laws of motion,
physicists and mathematicians developed alternative ways of solving
problems in Newtonian mechanics. These new methods were equivalent
to the use of equations such as F  ma but often simplified the solutions
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS • 99

of complex problems. They also provided new ways to think about physical
processes. One of the most significant approaches was developed by the
Italian-French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange in 1788. A great
advantage of the Lagrangian method is that it helps to show the links
between Newtonian mechanics and quantum mechanics.

5.7.1 Force and Energy

It is often possible to solve a problem by a variety of different methods. For
example, consider how you might calculate the final velocity of an object
dropped vertically from rest through a height h in the Earth’s gravitational
field.

Method 1: Using Forces

The downward acceleration of the object is a  F/m  mg/m  g
The displacement is h
Using a “suvat” equation, v2  u2  2 gh so v  2 gh

Method 2: Using Energy

The change in GPE as the object falls is mgh.
The gain in KE is ½ mv2.
Energy is conserved, so ½ mv2  mgh, so v  2 gh as before
Although both methods are equally simple, there is a fundamental
difference in what we have done. Method 1, using forces, is based on
vector equations. Method 2, using energy, is based on scalar equations. The
Lagrangian method is based on scalars and is related to method 2. It works
best for solving problems involving conservative forces (i.e., where we can
neglect frictional forces so that all of the energies in the system are either
kinetic or potential).

5.7.2 Lagrangian Mechanics

The Lagrangian method does not introduce any new physics, but it does
provide a different way to look at Newtonian mechanics. The Lagrangian
function L is defined as:
LT−V
where T is kinetic energy and V potential energy.
The Lagrangian is a scalar quantity. In general, the kinetic energy
will depend on velocity (vx, vy, vz) and the potential energy will depend on
100 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

position (x, y, z). One of the beauties of the Lagrangian method is that it can
work equally well with polar or spherical coordinates (this is often difficult
when we start from F  ma), so we can set up the theory with an arbitrary
set of “generalized” coordinates:
Positions: q1, q2, q3 (x, y, z) in Cartesian coordinates
Velocities: q 1 , q 2 , q 3 (vx, vy, vz) in Cartesian coordinates
The dot above the symbol represents differentiation with respect to
time (e.g., q  dq/dt ).
Once the Lagrangian for the system is known, we can derive the
equation of motion using the Euler-Lagrange equation:
  L  L
t 
 q  q
The method itself is quite simple:
1. Write down the Lagrangian for the system under consideration.
2. Use the Euler-Lagrange equation to derive the equation of motion.
Consider a simple example where a particle of mass m is released from rest
in a uniform gravitational field of strength g. We set x  0 at the surface and
consider only the x-direction (i.e., solve the problem in one dimension).
x

1 2 1
1. T  mx and V  mgx; so L  mx 2 mgx
2 2
  L  
2. L.H.S. of Euler-Lagrange equation:    mx 
t x  t
L
R.H.S. of Euler-Lagrange equation: mg
x

These are equal:  mx  mg
t
leading to: x g
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS • 101

This is hardly surprising. It shows that the object accelerates in the

−x-direction with an acceleration of magnitude g and that this acceleration
is independent of the mass. This is exactly the same result as if we had
started with the forces and used F  ma. In fact, as you can see, the Euler-
Lagrange equation generates this equation in the second line of point (2).
It seems to be a complicated way to solve a trivial problem, and in this
case it is! However, in many complex problems the Lagrangian method is
far simpler than any attempt to use F  ma directly.

5.8 Exercises

1. It is possible to lift a 1 kg mass slowly using a cotton thread. However, if

the thread jerks, it might snap. Why?
2. Use Newton’s laws of motion to explain why:
(a) passengers on a moving bus feel as if they are being thrown forwards
when the driver suddenly applies a brake,
(b) a gun recoils when it is fired,
(c) you feel “heavier” when you are standing inside a lift that is accelerating
upwards,
(d) the gravitational force pulling the Earth toward the Sun is equal to
the gravitational force pulling the Sun toward the Earth.
3. The below diagrams show forces acting on an object with a mass of
1600 kg. Calculate the resultant acceleration in each case.
1500 N

1200 N 2000 N 20
20

1500 N

4. Work out the linear momentum of each of the following:

(a) a 1000 kg car travelling at 30 m/s
(b) a 200 g stone moving at 80 cm/s
5. A 65 kg rugby player moving due east at 8 m/s collides head-on with a
60 kg rugby player moving due west at 6 m/s. After the collision the two
players are initially locked together.
Calculate the velocity (magnitude and direction) of the two players
immediately after the collision.
102 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

6. The diagram below shows a 2D collision between two identical pucks on

an air table.
y
v2
At rest
40
A B
x
20
v1
u

Before After

The initial velocity, u, is 0.80 ms−1.

(a) Calculate the magnitudes of the final velocities v1 and v2.
(b) Show that this is an inelastic collision and calculate the fraction of the
initial energy that is transferred to other forms.
7. When a car of mass 1400 kg is traveling along an horizontal highway at a
constant speed of 30 ms−1, its output power is 75 kW.
(a) Calculate the total drag force on the car (assume all the output power
does work against drag).
(b) The road begins to climb upwards at a constant angle of 5.0° to the
horizontal. The driver maintains the same constant speed of 30 ms−1
and the drag on the car is unchanged.
(i) Explain why the power output of the car must increase.
(ii) Calculate the new power output.
8. A car of mass m can apply a maximum braking force B. The driver of the
car has a minimum reaction time T.
(a) Derive a formula for the minimum stopping distance for this car
when the car is traveling at speed u.
(b) Sketch a graph of the variation of stopping distance with u.
(c) Explain why even a small decrease in the speed limit could significantly
reduce the number of pedestrians being hit by cars.
 CHAPTER

6
FLUIDS

6.0 Introduction
The particles inside a solid vibrate about fixed positions unless the material
is placed under extreme stress. Particles inside a fluid, however, can move
past each other and change position; this allows them to flow when stresses
are applied to the fluid. Liquids and gases are fluids and their behavior can
be modeled using Newton’s laws.
Here are some key ideas to describe the behavior of fluids:
Density (kgm−3):   m/V where m is the mass of the fluid (kg) and V
is the volume occupied by the fluid (m3).
Pressure (Pa): p  F/A where F is the force (N) exerted by the fluid
perpendicular to an area A (m2). 1 Pa  1 Nm−2.
Pressure in a fluid acts in all directions, and the
pressure at the same level in a static fluid is constant.
A
F
F

Shear stress (Pa): When two parallel layers of area A are pulled in
opposite directions by a force F, the shear stress
acting on the layers is   F/A.
Incompressible fluids: Liquids such as water do not compress easily, so
a useful model assumes that they have constant
volume and so their density is constant.
104 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Viscosity: When one layer of a fluid moves over another

nearby layer, a frictional force between the layers
opposes the flow. The greater the resistance to
flow, the greater the viscosity of the fluid.
Inviscid fluid: For situations in which the viscous forces are
negligible, or for fluids with very low viscosity,
a useful model assumes that the viscosity is zero.
Such a fluid is said to be “inviscid.”
Ideal fluid: The simplest model of a fluid is one which is
incompressible and has zero viscosity; this is called
an ideal fluid. Water can often be treated as an ideal
fluid.
Ideal gas: An ideal gas is one that obeys the equation of state,
pV  nRT, where p is pressure, V is volume, n is the
number of moles, T is temperature in kelvin, and R
is the molar gas constant.

6.1 Hydrostatic Pressure

6.1.1 Excess Pressure Caused by a Column of Fluid

The increase in pressure that you feel when you go underwater is caused by
the weight of the water above you. This is called hydrostatic pressure. A
useful equation for hydrostatic pressure can be derived by thinking about
the forces that support a horizontal layer of fluid of thickness z and density
 at height z in a column of cross-sectional area A.
Fluid column

W
h
 FLUIDS • 105

The layer has weight W  Agz, but it is in equilibrium, so there must

be a force F of equal magnitude supporting it. This means that the pressure
under the layer must be higher than the pressure above it by an amount p,
so that:
F  − Ap  Agz
The negative sign is because the pressure is greater lower down (p decreases
as z increases).
For thin layers, this gives a pressure gradient:
dp
g
dz
If the fluid is considered incompressible, its density might be constant and
the expression above can be integrated to give the excess pressure at the
base of a column of height h caused by the weight of the column.
p0 0
Excess pressure = p0  ph  p    gdz  gh
ph h

This can also be derived by simply calculating the total weight of the
column and dividing by the area of the base: p0  Agh/A  gh. However,
the approach above can be used when the density of the fluid changes with
depth, for example, to derive an expression of the atmospheric pressure at
altitude h.

6.1.2 Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of the atmosphere. However,
air is highly compressible, so the density of air will vary with height—being
high near the surface and lower higher up. In order to model this, we make
two assumptions:
Q Air acts like an ideal gas.
Q The temperature of air does not vary with height.
If air is an ideal gas, then its density can be related to its pressure. Considering
a mass M with n moles of molecules each of mass m,
pV  nRT (ideal gas equation)
  M/V  Mp/nRT (substitution from ideal gas equation)
Using molar mass (M  nNAm, where NA is the Avogadro number, i.e.,
6.02 × 1023), we can express density in terms of pressure:
  NAmp/RT  mp/kT, where k is the Boltzmann constant (k  R/NA).
106 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

We can now substitute this expression for density into the equation of
hydrostatic pressure gradient in a fluid:
dp mgp
g 
dz kT
The expression on the R.H.S. depends on p, so we have to separate variables
before we can integrate between the ground (z  0) and some height (z  h):
px
dp  mg  x
 p
  dz
 kT 

p0 0

 p   mg 
ln x  x
 p0   kT 
 mg 
 x
 kT 
px  p0 e

Atmospheric pressure (and therefore density) falls exponentially with

height x above the surface.
In reality, the temperature of atmosphere is not independent of altitude
and falls significantly (from about 290 K to 220 K) in the first 10 km. These
variations can be built into the model to provide a better fit.

6.1.3 Measuring Pressure Differences

A manometer or U-tube can be used to measure pressure differences by
connecting one side to the pressure source to be measured and leaving the
other side open to the atmosphere. The difference in liquid height can be
used as a direct measure of the pressure difference (e.g., mm of water or
mm of mercury, or in pascals using p  gh).
p0 p0 p0 + p p0

A B
 FLUIDS • 107

In the manometer shown on the left, both tubes are open to the
atmosphere at pressure p0, so the levels are equal. In the manometer shown
on the right, an excess pressure p is connected to one tube. The pressures
at A and B inside this manometer must be equal because these points are
at the same level in the same fluid. However, the pressure at B is also equal
to the pressure p0 plus the pressure caused by the column of fluid BC of
height h.
pA  p0  p  pB  p0  gh
p  gh
The lower the density of the liquid used, the greater the sensitivity of
the manometer (i.e., the greater the change in height per unit change in
pressure).

6.1.4 Barometers
Imagine a manometer with one end open to the atmosphere and the other
end attached to an effective vacuum pump. The pressure difference is
equal to atmospheric pressure pAt, so the height of the column can be used
to measure atmospheric pressure. This is the principle of the barometer.
However, instead of connecting one end of a manometer to a pump, one
end is sealed and the fluid is allowed to fall away from the sealed end so that
a vacuum forms above it.
The pressure at A is equal to the pressure at B because both points
are at the same level in the same liquid. Since A is on the surface of the
liquid exposed to the atmosphere, the pressure at both points must be
atmospheric pressure.
Connected to Vacuum
PAt. vacuum pump:
p=0

PAt.
h

A B Mercury
reservoir
108 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Atmospheric pressure  pA  pB  0  gh  gh

In practice, the vacuum above the mercury in a
barometer (called the Torricelli vacuum) may not be
perfect. This is because some mercury atoms will leave the
surface of the mercury. However, the vapor pressure of
mercury at room temperature is only about 1 Pa (0.001% of
atmospheric pressure), so it makes no significant difference
to the measurement of atmospheric pressure.
Another type of pressure gauge is called a Bourdon
gauge (see the image on the right). This contains a
hollow curved tube that is closed at one end. When the
pressure inside is changed,the tube bends. This small motion is amplified
mechanically and used to move a needle against a calibrated scale.

6.1.5 Dams
The design of a dam must take into account all the forces that act on the
structure. The most important of these is hydrostatic pressure from the
trapped water. In a simple case, this could be the only force acting on the
dam assuming that the containing wall of the dam is vertical.
Water

h
F

Pressure increases linearly with depth, so the total horizontal force on

the containing wall will be equal to the average excess pressure (gh/2)
multiplied by the area in contact with the water (A  hl, where l is the
horizontal length of the dam wall):
F  ½ glh2
The line of action of this force is at a height h/3 from the base of the dam.
In reality, the situation could be more complicated than this.
Q There maybe a depth of water on the downstream side.
Q The containing wall might not be vertical.
 FLUIDS • 109

Q There maybe a hydrostatic pressure gradient under the dam as water

penetrates the soil and rocks.
Vertical upward
hydrostatic force Support force
from pressure from ground
gradient
beneath dam

Horizontal hydrostatic
force from water

Vertical downward
hydrostatic force from
water above the sloping
part of dam wall Weight of dam

In addition to hydrostatic forces, engineers must also consider the forces

from wind, seismic activity, and ice (if the water freezes). The dam must
remain in equilibrium under all harsh conditions.

6.2 Buoyancy and Archimedes Principle

6.2.1 Buoyancy Forces

When an object is wholly or partially submerged in a fluid, there is an
upward force on the object called the “upthrust” or “buoyancy” force B.
This force arises because the pressure beneath the object is greater than
the pressure above, as shown in the diagrams below for a specimen of a
rectangular block.
B B′
X
h h1
Y R
h2
Fluid density = S
Base area of block = A

Partial submersion: pressure at X  atmospheric pressure

pressure at Y  atmospheric pressure  gh
110 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Force B  Ap  ghA

Total submersion: pressure at R  atmospheric pressure  gh1
pressure at S  atmospheric pressure  gh2
Force B  Ap  g (h2 − h1) A

6.2.2 Archimedes’ Principle

Note that the expressions of buoyancy force derived in Section 6.2.1 are
both equal to the weight of the fluid that has been displaced by the object:
Partial submersion: hA  volume of displaced fluid, so hA  mass of
displaced fluid and ghA  weight of displaced fluid.
Total submersion: (h2 − h1)A  volume of displaced fluid, so (h2 − h1)
A  mass of displaced fluid and g(h2 − h1)A  weight of displaced fluid.
This is an example of Archimedes’ principle: The buoyancy force is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
This result was derived using a rectangular object but is valid for an
object of any shape. This can be understood by considering the buoyancy
force on each small vertical column of material inside the object. For each
column we can apply exactly the same reasoning as used for the rectangular
block, so the total buoyancy force is always equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced regardless of the shape of the block.
B

Narrow column
of base area A
h

Using the same reasoning as in Section 6.2.1, the contribution to the

buoyancy force from one narrow column will be B  ghA. This is
equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the volume of the column. The
total buoyancy force on the object will be the sum of forces on all vertical
columns:
B ghA
all columns
 FLUIDS • 111

This is the weight of fluid displaced by the total volume of the block as
stated in Archimedes’ principle.

6.2.3 Flotation
An object will float if the buoyancy force can support its weight. The
maximum buoyancy force is when the object is completely submerged; so
for an object of volume V and average density obj to float in a fluid of
density fluid,
weight of object < buoyancy force
 object Vg < fluid Vg
object < fluid
An object will float if its density is less than the density of the fluid in which
it is placed.
If an object’s density is equal to the density of the fluid in which it is
submerged, it is said to have “neutral buoyancy.” Divers and submarines
use neutral buoyancy to remain at the same depth under water.

6.3 Viscosity

6.3.1 Coefficient of Viscosity

A fluid with high viscosity is very resistant to shear. This means that a
relatively large shear stress is required to move one layer over another. This
can be understood by thinking about the flow of a fluid close to a boundary.
Particles in contact with the boundary are assumed to be at rest because
of interactions with the surface, whereas those far from the boundary
will be flowing with the same speed as the body of the fluid. There is a
velocity gradient close to and perpendicular to the boundary, as shown in
the diagram.
Fluid flow
direction v(z)

Moving layers

Stationary layer

The greater the viscosity, the smaller the velocity gradient dv/dz for the
same shear stress.
112 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The coefficient of viscosity  is defined as the ratio of shear stress to

velocity gradient:
F
 
 A

 dv 
 
 dz 
−2
The S.I. unit is therefore Nm s or pascal-second, Pas. Another common
unit of viscosity is poise (P), and 1 P  0.1 Pas. The coefficient of viscosity of
water at room temperature is approximately 1 m Pas or 1 cP (centi-poise).
The coefficient of viscosity decreases with increasing temperature.

6.4 Fluid Flow

6.4.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
When a fluid flows, the path followed by a particle in the fluid is called
a “streamline.” At low flow velocities these streamlines are uniform and
parallel to one another; this is called laminar flow. However, above a certain
critical flow velocity, laminar flow breaks down, the streamlines begin to
form eddies, and the flow becomes turbulent.

Laminar flow Turbulent flow

Two regimes exist because there are two competing effects in the moving
fluid: inertial forces related to the density and speed of motion of the fluid,
and viscous forces related to the viscosity of the fluid and inversely to the
physical size of the channel in which the fluid is flowing (e.g., the diameter
of the pipe). If viscous forces dominate, eddies cannot form and the flow is
laminar. If inertial forces dominate, the flow will be turbulent.
The Reynolds number Re is a dimensionless constant that represents
the ratio of inertial forces (v) to viscous forces (/L) in a particular flow
situation. It is defined as:
vL
Re 

where v is the flow velocity,  is the fluid density,  is the coefficient of
viscosity, and L is the characteristic length. For flow in a pipe, L would be
the diameter of the pipe; for flow between two parallel plates, it would be
the separation of the plates.
 FLUIDS • 113

As a very approximate rule, the flow will be turbulent if Re > 1000.

6.4.2 Equation of Continuity

When a fluid flows in a confined channel such as a pipe, the mass of fluid
passing each point will be constant. The diagram below shows a fluid passing
along a pipe that narrows from a cross-sectional area A1 to cross-sectional
area A2.

A1 v1 A2 v2

The flow velocity in the wider part of the pipe is v1 and in the narrower part
is v2. In a short time t, the mass flow through area A1 is 1A1v1t and that
through area A2 is 2A2v2t. These must be equal, so in general:
 1 A1v1  2 A2v2
This is called the equation of continuity.
For an incompressible fluid, the density is constant, so:
 A1v1  A2v2
In this case, the flow velocity is inversely proportional to the area of the
pipe:
v1 A2

v2 A1
6.4.3 Drag Forces in a Fluid
When an object moves through a fluid, it exerts a force on the fluid to make
it flow around the moving object. By Newton’s third law, the fluid exerts
an equal but opposite force on the moving object; this is the origin of the
drag force.
The drag force depends on the nature of the flow around the object
(e.g., laminar or turbulent) and is determined by the properties of the fluid,
such as density and viscosity, and on the velocity, size, and shape of the
moving object. It may also be affected by nearby boundaries (e.g., if the
fluid is inside a container).
There are two particular situations that give simple expressions for the
drag force.
Q Viscous forces dominate (Re<< 1000): drag force is directly proportional
to velocity.
114 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The drag force arises as a reaction to shearing the layers of the fluid
as they flow around the object. These forces depend on the velocity
gradient and therefore on the velocity of the moving object.
Q Inertial forces dominate (Re >> 1000): drag force is directly proportional
to velocity-squared.
The inertial force arises as a reaction to the force needed to accelerate
the fluid in front of the moving object up to the velocity of the object.
This is directly proportional to the rate of change of momentum of the
fluid in front of the object, which is proportional to the mass of fluid
encountered per second multiplied by the velocity of the object. Since
the mass encountered per second is also proportional to the velocity, the
drag force will be proportional to the velocity-squared.

6.4.4 Stoke’s Law

Stoke’s law gives the viscous drag on a small spherical particle moving
through a fluid when the flow around the particle is laminar. The diagram
below shows streamlines around an object moving through a viscous fluid.
Streamlines show the paths of particles in the fluid as the object passes.
Fluid
Streamlines

Motion Drag

In these circumstances the drag will be directly proportional to v, and we

would expect it to depend on the radius r of the sphere and the viscosity 
of the fluid. Dimensional analysis can then be used to find an expression
for the drag.
x
F     v   r 
y z

y
MLT2  (ML1T1 ) x  LT1   L 
z

For the dimension of mass: 1x

For the dimension of time: −2  −x – y, so y  1
 FLUIDS • 115

For the dimension of length: 1  −x  y  z, so z  1

The drag is therefore F  constant × rv
Stoke showed that the constant is 6.
Stoke’s law for viscous drag, F  6rv
Conditions under which Stoke’s law can be used:
Q Re << 1000 (flow is laminar): small object, low speed, high viscosity.
Q Fluid is homogeneous and of uniform density.
Q The radius of the particle is much smaller than the dimensions of the
fluid container.
Stoke’s law can be used to measure the viscosity  of viscous liquids such
as glycerol. If a small ball bearing of radius r is released from the top of
a column of viscous fluid, it will soon reach terminal velocity vt. Once
at terminal velocity the sum of viscous drag (given by Stoke’s law) and
buoyancy must equal the weight of the ball bearing. The viscosity is then
given by:
2 gr 2

vt

 bb   f 
where bb is the density of the ball bearing and f is the density of the fluid.

6.4.5 Turbulent Drag

We can also construct an equation for the drag on an object moving
through a fluid at speeds such that the fluid motion becomes turbulent
(Re >> 1000). This is useful when considering large objects moving rapidly
through fluids of low viscosity (e.g., air resistance on cars and planes). Here
inertial forces will dominate, so the drag is proportional to v2 and we would
also expect it to depend on the cross-sectional area A of the object (in the
plane perpendicular to motion) and the density  of the fluid. Dimensional
analysis can again be used to find an expression for the drag.

F  ( ) x (v)y ( A)z
y z
MLT2  (ML3 ) x  LT1   L2 
For the dimension of mass: 1x
For the dimension of time: −2  − y, so y  2
For the dimension of length: 1  −3x  y  2z, so z  1
116 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The drag is therefore F  constant × Av2

This is usually used in the form F  ½ CD Av2
where CD is the “drag coefficient,” a dimensionless number that depends
on the shape of the moving object. Streamlined shapes will have lower
values of CD.

6.4.6 Bernoulli Equation

The static pressure in a fluid was discussed in Section 6.1 and is calculated
from terms of the form gh. However, when a fluid is flowing, there is an
additional dynamic pressure that arises from the forces needed to stop the
flow. The dynamical pressure is related to the potential energy (per unit
volume) of the fluid, and the dynamic pressure is related to the kinetic
energy (per unit volume) of the fluid. Dynamic pressure is calculated from
terms of the form ½ v2. For an inviscid fluid (viscosity is negligible), energy
is conserved along a streamline, so the sum of pressure terms is constant.
This gives the Bernoulli equation, shown below the diagram.

Inlet pressure P1 Outlet pressure P2

Static pressure gh Static pressure gh2
Dynamic pressure ½ v12 Dynamic pressure ½ v22

1 1
P1  v12  gh1  P2  v22  gh2
2 2
where h1 and h2 are heights above some reference level.
The Bernoulli equation only applies when several conditions are met:
Q The flow is steady.
Q The flow is laminar and not turbulent.
Q The fluid is inviscid.

6.4.7 Bernoulli Effect

The “Bernoulli effect” describes a fall in static pressure when the fluid flow
velocity increases. This is easily explained using the Bernoulli equation.
The diagram below shows a fluid flowing through a horizontal pipe with a
central restriction. Since h does not vary, we set h  0 along the streamline.
 FLUIDS • 117

Total pressure = P1 + ½ v12 Total pressure = P2 + ½ v22

1 2 1 2
Using the Bernoulli equation, P1  2 v1  P2  2 v2

The equation of continuity shows that v2 > v1, so P2 < P1, and the static
pressure falls as the flow velocity increases. The kinetic energy of the fluid
has increased, so its potential energy has decreased.
Another way to think about this is by considering Newton’s second law.
The fluid must accelerate as it enters the constriction, so there must be a
resultant force from the wider part of the pipe. This comes from the greater
static pressure.

6.4.8 Viscous Flow Through a Horizontal Pipe: The Poiseuille Equation

For an inviscid fluid in laminar flow through a horizontal pipe, there is no
pressure difference along the pipe. This is because none of the terms in the
total pressure P  ½ v2  gh changes. This can be considered as an example
of Newton’s first law of motion—there are no resultant forces acting on the
particles of fluid, so they continue at constant velocity. However, if the fluid
is viscous, there will be frictional forces opposing the flow, and these must
be balanced by a pressure gradient in the tube.
Poiseuille derived a formula for the volume rate of flow of a fluid
through a pipe when a constant pressure difference is maintained across its
ends. The diagram below shows a horizontal pipe of length l and radius a
with pressure difference p across its ends.
l

The derivation has two parts: (i) we use the equation for viscosity to work
out an expression for the velocity of flow at radius r from the center. Then
118 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(ii) we use this to work out the total rate of volume flow inside the pipe by
integrating over cylindrical shells.
(i) The applied force created by the pressure difference must balance the
viscous forces along its surface:
F  r 2 p
F r 2 p rp
shear stress along surface =  
(area of surface) 2 rl 2 l
rp dv
This must balance viscous forces, so 
2l dr
The negative sign is because the velocity decreases from r  0 to r  a.
0 a
 pr 
 
dv   dr
 2l 
v 0
p 2
which gives v  4 l  a  r 
2

This shows that the velocity profile in the pipe is parabolic.

Fluid Velocity
flow profile

(ii) Since different layers flow at different velocities, the total flow can be
found by integrating the volume flow for all thin cylindrical shells inside
the pipe.
Thin shell of radius
r and thickness r
flowing with velocity v(r)
r
r+
r

The contribution Q to the total flow rate Q (m3s−1) is:

Q  2rvr
a a
rp

Q  2 rvdr   2 l  a 2
 r 2  dr
0 0
pa4
Q
8 l
 FLUIDS • 119

This is Poiseuille equation. The volume flow rate depends on the fourth
power of the pipe radius a and is directly proportional to the pressure
gradient p/l.

6.4.9 Measuring the Coefficient of Viscosity

The coefficient of viscosity can be measured by maintaining a constant
pressure gradient across a horizontal tube, measuring the volume flow rate
and substituting into Poiseuille equation:
a4  p 

8Q l


Here is a suitable experimental arrangement.

Constant head
apparatus

Narrow tube
Fill Drain of length l Collection
beaker

Q Constant head apparatus: this is continually filled to maintain a constant

depth of fluid. Excess fluid flows away through the drain. The open
end of the horizontal tube is at atmospheric pressure, so the pressure
gradient in the tube is gh/l.
Q The horizontal tube must be narrow enough to ensure laminar flow
(otherwise the Poiseuille equation is not valid).
Q The beaker is used to collect fluid over a set time t. The volume of fluid
collected in this time, V, is measured using a measuring cylinder. The
volume flow rate Q  V/t.
Q The average radius of the capillary tube, a, can be determined by filling
the tube with water and measuring the volume contained: volume of
water  a2l. As an alternative, the radius can be measured using an
average of three diameters measured using a traveling microscope.
120 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Since the coefficient of viscosity depends on temperature, the temperature

of the fluid used should also be recorded.

6.5 Measuring Fluid Flow Rates

6.5.1 A Venturi Meter
The change in pressure of a fluid when its flow velocity changes can be
used to measure the flow rate in a pipe. The meter works by measuring the
change in static pressure as the fluid passes through a constriction in the
pipe, as shown below. The derivation assumes that the fluid is ideal and the
flow is steady.

Area A Area a

2. Lower
static pressure
1. Higher static
pressure

At position 1 the manometer is connected to the fluid in the wider section

of pipe (area A), and at position 2 the other side of the manometer is
connected to the fluid in the narrower section of the pipe (area a). The
pressure difference p is equal to mgh where m is the density of fluid in
the manometer.
The pressure difference can be related to fluid flow velocity using
Bernoulli’s equation:
1
p    v22  v12 
2
The equation of continuity allows v2 to be written in terms of v1 and the
ratio of pipe areas:
 A
v2  v1
a
 FLUIDS • 121

Combining these two equations, the flow velocity v1 is given by:

2 p
v1 
 A 2 
  1
 a  
and the volume flow rate in the tube is Q  Av1
2 p
Q A
 A 2 
  1
 a  
Venturi meters are used in many industrial applications, including water
flow.

6.5.2 A Pitot Tube

A Pitot tube is used to measure air speed by comparing the total or
“stagnation” pressure with the static pressure.
Static
pressure

Fluid
flow

Dynamic Static
pressure pressure

Total Static
pressure pressure

Pressure transducer

The tube points into the direction of air flow, and pressure sensors are
used to measure the difference between the total and static pressure. Since
total pressure is equal to the sum of the static and dynamic pressures, the
difference between these is just the dynamic pressure ½v2. This value can
then be used to calculate the speed of the fluid relative to the Pitot tube.
Pitot tubes are used to measure the speeds of aircrafts and boats.
2  ptot  pstat 
v

122 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

6.6 Exercises

1. Scuba divers estimate that the excess pressure they experience when
they dive increases by an amount equal to the atmospheric pressure for
every additional 10 m of depth.
(a) Show that this is approximately correct.
Density of seawater  1030 kgm−3. Atmospheric pressure at
sea level  101 kPa.
(b) Estimate the total pressure at the bottom of the Mariana Trench in
the Pacific Ocean (about 11 km below sea level).
(c) Seawater is slightly compressible—how will this affect your answer
to (b)?
2. A vertical dam wall contains water of density  to a depth h. The
horizontal length of the dam wall is l.
(a) Write down an expression for the excess pressure at depth x below
the surface of the water.
(b) Show that the total horizontal force acting on the wall of the dam
from the water is given by the expression F  ½ glh2.
(c) By considering equilibrium of moments show that the line of action
of this force is 1/3h above the base of the dam.
3. The laminar flow of a viscous fluid through a narrow capillary tube
depends only on the radius a, the pressure gradient along the tube (p/l),
and the viscosity of the fluid, .
(a) Use the method of dimensions to show that the volume flow rate Q
is given by an expression of the form:
a4  p 
Qconstant  
 l 
(b) Explain why the method of dimensions cannot be used to determine
the value of the constant in the expression above.
(c) Explain why this formula is likely to break down for high flow rates
or larger diameter pipes.
4. (a) Show that the flow of air around a car is likely to be turbulent. You
will need to estimate the relevant quantities.
(b) A formula used for turbulent drag forces is:
F  ½ CD Av2
where CD is the “drag coefficient.”
 FLUIDS • 123

(i) Suggest ways in which the drag coefficient might be reduced.

(ii) The drag coefficient for a car is 0.60 and a frontal area of 3.4 m2.
Calculate the aerodynamic drag force on this car when it is traveling
at 25 ms−1 through the air. Air has a density of 1.2 kgm−3.
(iii) Suggest, with reasons, how the power required to drive a sports car
at 50 ms−1 compares to the power required to drive the same car at
25 ms−1.
(iv) The car above has a maximum power output of 400 kW. Use this to
estimate its maximum possible speed.
(v) Suggest a reason why your answer to (iv) is an overestimate.
5. (a) Estimate the volume of your own body (hint: your density is similar
to that of water, about 1000 kgm−3).
(b) Estimate your weight.
(c) Estimate the buoyancy force on your body from the atmosphere.
(d) Discuss whether or not bathroom scales display your actual mass.
6. A steel ball bearing has a diameter of 1.2 mm. It is released from just
below the surface of glycerol inside a wide measuring cylinder. The
density of steel is 7700 kgm−3 and that of glycerol is 1260 kgm−3.
(a) Calculate the weight of the ball bearing.
(b) Calculate the buoyancy force on the ball bearing when it is
submerged in glycerol.
(c) Explain why the ball bearing accelerates when it is released but soon
reaches a terminal velocity. Your answer should include a free body
diagram for the falling ball bearing.
(d) The terminal velocity of the ball bearing is 3.6 mms−1. Use this
to calculate a value for the viscosity of glycerol and state any
assumptions you use.
(e) In a famous experiment to measure the charge on oil droplets,
Millikan used Stoke’s law to estimate the viscous drag on tiny oil
droplets (with radii of the order of 2 m) falling through air. He
discovered that Stoke’s law overestimated the force on the droplets;
they actually fell faster than the equation predicted. Suggest a
reason for this.
7. A raindrop of radius 0.50 mm is falling through the atmosphere.
(a) Explain why the buoyancy force from the air can be neglected when
using Stoke’s law to calculate the terminal velocity of the raindrop.
(b) The viscosity of air is 2.0 × 10−5 Pas. Use Stoke’s law to calculate the
terminal velocity of the raindrop.
124 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(c) Use your answer to (b) to calculate the Reynold’s number for the
falling droplet. Comment on your answer.
8. The diagram below shows two pipes, each of length l, but with
diameters d and d/2 respectively. The volume flow rate into X is Q and
the flow is laminar. The pressure at X is pX and the pressure at Z is pz.
The viscosity of the fluid is . Find an expression for the pressure at Y
assuming the fluid is incompressible.

d X Y Z

l l
9. (a) Explain how it is possible to drink water from a glass through a straw.
(b) Discuss whether there is a limit to the length of straw that can be
used to drink water. The density of water is 1000 kgm−3.
10. Show that the S.I. base units for viscosity are kgms−1.
11. The pressure difference measured by a Pitot tube on an aircraft’s wing is
20 kPa. What is the aircraft’s air speed?
12. When an inflated balloon is connected to one side of a water manom-
eter, the height difference between the manometer arms is 14.0 cm.
The atmospheric pressure is 102 kPa.
(a) What is the excess pressure inside the balloon?
(b) What is the total pressure inside the balloon?
(c) Suggest one advantage and one disadvantage of using mercury
instead of water in a manometer.
13. In a famous experiment, the French physicist Pascal placed one mercu-
ry barometer at the base of a mountain and carried a second one to the
top of the mountain. Both barometers had mercury columns of equal
height when they were together at the base of the mountain. However,
Pascal noticed that the mercury column on the barometer he carried
with him fell gradually as he climbed the mountain. Explain this effect
as carefully as you can.
14. The circulation of blood in the body can be considered as a continuous
circuit. Blood is pumped from the heart into the aorta, splits into the
arteries, splits again into the capillaries, and then returns to the heart
via the veins and finally the vena cava. This can be represented as an
electric circuit consisting of series and parallel resistors:
 FLUIDS • 125

Aorta Vena cava

From To
heart heart
Arteries Veins
Capillaries

The table below gives the total area of each type of blood vessel along
with the average flow speed and volume flow rate.
(a) Complete the table.
Area Speed Volume flow
(cm2) (cms−1) rate (cm3s−1)
Aorta 3.0 30 90
Arteries 100
Capillaries 900 0.10
Veins 0.45
Vena cava 18
(b) Blood has a viscosity between 0.003 and 0.004 Pas. Discuss whether
blood flow in the human circulation is likely to be laminar or
turbulent.
 CHAPTER

7
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

7.1 Density
Density is a property of each material and is independent of the amount of
that material. This is in contrast to mass, which depends on the amount of
material present. Density is defined as:
Mass
Density 
Volume
The S.I. unit of density is kgm3, but gcm3 is also in common use. The
relation between these is:
1000 kgm3  1 gcm3
1 gcm3  0.001 kgm3
The densities of some common materials are listed below.
Density/kgm3 Density/gcm3
Air (sea level, 15°C) 1.225 0.001225
Water 1000 1.000
Wood 160 (balsa)–1300 (ebony) 0.16–1.3
Concrete ~2400 ~ 2.4
Aluminum 2700 2.7
Steel 7750–8050 7.75–8.05
Copper 8960 8.96
Lead 11340 11.34
Mercury 13560 13.56
Uranium 19100 19.10
128 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Density/kgm3 Density/gcm3
Gold 19320 19.32
Osmium (densest naturally 22590 22.59
occurring element)

The density of a solid is of the same order of magnitude as the density of

an atom because atoms are closely packed together inside a solid material.
However, atoms themselves are mainly empty space and the diameter of an
atomic nucleus is approximately 20,000 times smaller than the diameter of
an atom. This means that the density of nuclear material is around 20,0003
(6  1012) times greater than the density of ordinary matter. Typical nuclear
densities are >1017 kgm3.
The cores of collapsed stars also have high densities. White dwarf stars
have densities of about 1010 kgm3, but neutron stars have densities comparable
to that of an atomic nucleus (1017 kgm3) since they are effectively closely
packed nucleons (neutrons). On the other hand, “empty space”is not quite
empty, having around 1 hydrogen atom per cubic centimeter and a density
of the order of 1033 kgm3.

7.2 Inter-Atomic Forces

A solid material holds itself together because the individual particles from
which it is made (atoms or molecules) form bonds. If the particles are pulled
further apart they experience an attraction; and if they are pushed closer
together they experience a repulsion. While they will have some thermal
kinetic energy that causes them to vibrate, they maintain, on average, a
constant equilibrium separation. The interatomic forces are electrostatic in
Force
Repulsion

r0 Separation
Attraction
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES • 129

origin and vary with distance as shown below (a positive force represents
repulsion and a negative force represents attraction).
The distance r0 is equal to the equilibrium separation of the particles. For
small displacements either side of this position, the graph is approximately
linear in many materials, particularly metals. This has two consequences:
Q When a force is applied to the material its extension (or compression)
will be directly proportional to the force. In other words it will obey
Hooke’s law in this linear region.
Q When a particle is displaced from its equilibrium position it will
experience a restoring force directly proportional to its displacement, so
that oscillations about the equilibrium will be simple harmonic
(see Chapter 11).
The work that must be done to separate two particles from their equilibrium
separation is equal to the area between the negative part of the graph and
infinity. This is also equal to the energy released when the bond between
the particles is formed. Since work must be done to push the particles closer
together or to separate them, the potential energy is a minimum when their
separation is r0. They are in a bound state and each particle is in a potential
well.
The graph below shows how the potential energy varies with particle
separation.
Potential energy

r0 Separation
130 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

7.3 Stretching Springs

An ideal spring obeys Hooke’s law. This states that the extension of the
spring is directly proportional to its tension (or to the load it supports). This
is a direct consequence of the way the bonds between atoms inside the
steel behave. If these bonds obey Hooke’s law then so will the material and
so will the spring. The simple example of a mass on a spring can serve as a
model for atomic and molecular bonds and many other systems in physics
and engineering.

Some useful terms

Q Tension: the force exerted by a spring when it is stretched. If it
supports a load in equilibrium this will be equal to the weight of the
load.
Q Extension: the difference between the stretched and unstretched
lengths of the spring.

7.3.1 Spring Constant

When increasing loads are suspended from a steel spring the extension
increases. A graph of force against extension looks like this:
Force/N

Extension/m
O
Permanent
plastic deformation

Section OP is (almost) a straight line through the origin, so in this region the
extension (x) is directly proportional to the force applied to the spring (or
the tension in the spring) (F).
F  x or F  kx
k is the “spring constant” with S.I. unit Nm1.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES • 131

The spring constant is a measure of the “stiffness” of the spring.

Point P is the “limit of proportionality,”and beyond P the graph
becomes non-linear.
In the region OP the spring will return to its original length when the
force is removed. This is called elastic behavior. Beyond E this is no longer
the case, and when the force is removed, the spring does not return to its
original length but retains an extension. This is called plastic behavior. The
dotted line on the graph shows how a spring contracts when a force beyond
E is removed.
Point E is the “elastic limit” for the spring. Beyond E the spring
undergoes permanent plastic deformation.
This graph does not include the fracture point for the spring because
once it unravels the applied forces then stretch a steel wire and this will
require a large increase in force for a relatively small increase in extension.

7.3.2 Springs in Series and in Parallel

Assume the springs in the examples below have negligible weight and
obey Hooke’s law with spring constant k. When any one of these springs is
extended by an amount e, the tension in the spring is F.

Series combinations
When n springs are connected in series and the system is stretched, the
tension in each spring must be the same and equal to F. This means the
extension of each spring will be the same as the extension of an individual
spring under the same load. The total extension of the system of n springs
is therefore ne.
Using Hooke’s law for the system of n springs in series gives:
kSERIES  F/ne  k/n
Using similar reasoning, a system of different springs with spring constants
k1, k2, k3, etc., connected in series has an overall spring constant given by:
1 1 1 1
   
Kseries k1 k2 k3
Connecting springs in series reduces the stiffness of the system.

Parallel combinations
When n springs are connected in parallel and the system is stretched by a
force F, the tension in each spring must be the same and equal to F/n. The
total extension of each spring (and the system) will be e/n.
132 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Using Hooke’s law for the system of n springs in parallel gives:

kparallel  F/(e/n)  nk
The spring constant of a system consisting of several springs in parallel is
the sum of spring constants of the individual springs. Connecting springs in
parallel increases the stiffness of the system.

7.3.3 Elastic Potential Energy (Strain Energy)

Work must be done to stretch a spring. If there are no energy losses in
the stretching process, then this work transfers energy to elastic potential
energy in the spring that can be released when the spring recompresses.
The work done is equal to the area under a graph of force against extension
for the spring.
Force/N

Work done

x Extension

If the spring obeys Hooke’s law then the work done to stretch it to an
extension x is equal to the shaded area in the graph above:
Area  ½ Fx
or, using Hooke’s law,
Work done  ½ kx2
If we assume that no energy is lost as the spring is stretched, the elastic
potential energy in a stretched spring is given by:
EPE  ½ kx2
In general, the work done to stretch something is calculated from the
integral:

W  F( x)dx
1

If the spring obeys Hooke’s law this is simply W  kxdx  kx2 . giving
2
the same result as before.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES • 133

7.4 Stress and Strain

When we are discussing material properties, stress and strain are often
preferable to force and extension because the relationship between stress
and strain is independent of the dimensions of the sample under test. Stress
and strain relate directly to the type of material rather than the particular
piece of material used in the test.

Some definitions
Tensile stress: is the force per unit area when the force is applied along
the axis of the sample as shown below.
e

A
F F

Force (N)
Stress(NM2 ) 
Cross-sectional (m2 )
F

A
2
The S.I. unit of stress is Nm or Pa.
Tensile strain:  is the extension per unit length under a tensile stress.
Extension
Strain 
Original length
e

l0
This is a ratio of two lengths, so it is dimensionless.

7.4.1 Young’s Modulus

For many materials, particularly metals, tensile strain is directly proportional
to tensile stress up to some limiting stress. When this is the case,
Stress(Pa)
Young's modulus (Pa) 
Strain
134 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Stress (Pa)

The Young’s modulus is

σ
therefore equal to the gradient
of a stress versus strain graph
in the initial linear region:
E = σε

ε Strain

The Young’s modulus is a measure of the stiffness of a material. A stiff

material has small strain for large stress.
Some typical values for the Young’s modulus are:
Material Young’s modulus/GPa
Rubber 0.01–0.10
Nylon 2–4
Wood 10
Bone 14
Concrete 30
Copper 120
Steel 280
Diamond 1150

7.4.2 Experimental Measurement of Young’s Modulus for a Metal Wire

The Young’s modulus for a metal wire of diameter d and original length l0
can be determined by loading it with masses and plotting a graph of mass
m against extension e:
F / A Fl0 4 Fl0 4 mgl0
E   
 
e
l0
eA ed 2 ed 2

 d 2 E 
m  e
 4 gl0 
 2 
A graph of m on the y-axis against e on the x-axis has a gradient  d E .
 4 gl0 
The Young’s modulus is given by:
 4 gl 
E  gradient × 20 
 d 
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES • 135

A suitable experimental arrangement to determine the Young’s modulus of

a test wire follows.

Clamp l

Test wire
Bench

The diameter of the wire must be measured using a micrometer screw

gauge. This should be done at least three times in different positions and
then an average should be calculated. The images below show how a reading
to 0.01 mm is obtained.
Shaft: mm scale (3.00 mm)
Gap is closed Diameter is
onto the wire read off
by turning here
this ratchet

Wire diameter is
measured by placing it
into this gap Collar: mm/100 scale (0.35 mm)

The reading is taken from the point where the lines on the shaft and collar
are aligned. The last reading in millimeters from the shaft is added to the
reading from the collar. In the example below the gap is 3.00  0.35 mm 
3.35 mm. Any zero error for the micrometer must be subtracted from this.
(You can check for a zero error by closing the micrometer gap completely
and checking the reading; it should be 0.00 mm.)
The wire must then be clamped securely at one end.
Two light markers are attached to the wire a distance l0 apart. This
distance should be measured with an unkinked, unloaded but taut wire.
Using a larger value of l0 will increase the extensions and give better results.
136 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The wire is then loaded, adding one mass at a time and recording the
mass added and the length of the wire in a suitable results table. This is
repeated for at least seven different values of mass, and preferably many
more. However, care must be taken not to exceed the elastic limit for the
wire. If this does occur the graph will begin to curve, and the Young’s
modulus must only be calculated using the gradient of the straight part of
the graph.
Extensions should be calculated for each measured length and added
to the results table:
extension, e  l  l0
Care must be taken throughout the experiment because there is always a
danger that the wire could snap. Safety glasses should be worn!
Finally a graph of mass against extension is plotted and the Young’s
modulus can be determined from the gradient of this graph as shown above
(Section 7.4.1).

7.4.3 Stress vs. Strain Graph for a Ductile Metal

A graph of stress against strain is a useful way to display material properties.
The stress–strain curve for a metal like copper is shown below.
Stress
σuts
Y Fracture

Strain
O

Q Region OP: The material obeys Hooke’s law in the initial linear region of
the graph where stress is directly proportional to strain.
Q The Young’s modulus of the material is equal to the gradient of line OP.
Q Up to Y the material behaves elastically. If the stress is removed it will
return to its original dimensions.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES • 137

Q Y is the “yield point.” Beyond this level of stress the material will deform
plastically, and when the stress is removed there will be a residual
deformation.
Q The ultimate tensile strength(UTS) is at a stress uts.
Some typical values of ultimate tensile strengths are:
Material UTS/MPa
Carbon fiber 5650
Spider silk 1400
Stainless steel 860
Copper 220
Nylon 75
The dip in the curve is a result of the change in diameter of the sample. As
it begins to yield, its diameter becomes smaller, but in this graph the stress
has been calculated using the original diameter of the sample, so while the
calculated stress decreases the actual stress does not.
The area under a stress–strain graph represents energy per unit volume.
  
area under the curve   d FA  dxl Al1  Fdx
(Here we have assumed that the cross-sectional area of the sample has
remained constant during strain. This is approximately true for small
strains.)
The larger the area up to fracture, the more energy the material absorbs
before fracture and the tougher the material is said to be.

7.4.4 Rubber Hysteresis

Here is a typical stress–strain graph for rubber showing both loading and
unloading. Rubber consists of long-chain hydrocarbon molecules. The
bonds within the chain are stiff covalent bonds, but single carbon–carbon
bonds allow for rotation, so the long chain can be curled up or stretched
out. There are also many cross-links between different chains.
The stress for any particular strain is greater during loading than
unloading. This implies that the work done to stretch the rubber is greater
than the work done by the rubber as it re-contracts. The area in the loop
between the two curves is equal to the work that is transferred to heat
internally as the rubber is stretched. You can easily verify that heat is
generated by taking an elastic band, rapidly stretching it and immediately
touching it to your lip. This curve for loading and unloading is called a
138 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Stress

g
Loadin

g
adin
Unlo

Strain
O
Long chain Most molecules
molecules randomly aligned—stress
arranged, stress Molecules aligning but acts along
begins to straighten connected by cross-links chains and is
them by causing resisted by stiff
bond rotation covalent bonds

Hysteresis curve. It is interesting to note that if you heat a stretched piece

of rubber it will tend to contract as the molecules adopt a more random
arrangement.

7.5 Material Terminology

Here is a summary of terms used by materials scientists to describe material
properties:
Strong—has a large ultimate breaking stress
Stiff—needs a large stress for a small strain (high Young’s modulus)
Elastic—sample returns to its original dimensions when stresses are
removed
Plastic—undergoes a permanent deformation when stress is removed
Yield stress—stress needed to cause the onset of plastic deformation
Tough—undergoes significant plastic deformation before breaking, resists
crack formation and propagation, absorbs a lot of energy before breaking
Ductile—able to be drawn out into wires (linked to plasticity)
Malleable—able to be beaten into thin sheets (linked to plasticity)
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES • 139

Hard—resists scratching and indentation

Brittle—breaks catastrophically as cracks travel through the material;almost
no plastic deformation prior to fracture
Creep—gradual continued strain under a constant stress

7.6 Material Types

Materials fall into a range of different types, which can be identified by
their macroscopic properties and explained by their microscopic structures.
Crystalline materials have a microscopic structure in which the particles
are arranged in regular geometric patterns. These might form single large
crystals (e.g., a diamond) or might consist of a large number of grains
(polycrystalline), each of which has a regular structure but which are
themselves arranged randomly (many metals are like this although it is
possible to grow single metallic crystals). The grain size in a polycrystalline
material affects its mechanical properties, and this can be changed by heat
treatment. For example, in the process of annealing, a metal is heated up
above its recrystallization temperature and then allowed to cool slowly.
This allows individual crystals to grow larger and makes the metal less hard,
more ductile, and easier to work.
Crystalline structures are rarely perfect, and most contain flaws such as
missing atoms (vacancies), atoms of a different material (impurities), and
dislocations (where planes of atoms do not join correctly). These have a
large effect on properties such as strength and stiffness.
Polymers consist of long-chain hydrocarbon molecules that can be
arranged randomly (amorphous polymer) or in a semi-regular or regular
(crystalline) way. Their mechanical properties depend on how the polymer
chains interact and move past one another. The individual chains form cross-
links, and these affect the stiffness and strength of the material. Rubber
and polythene are both examples of polymeric materials. When a stress is
applied to rubber the molecules initially begin to align, explaining rubber’s
ability to undergo very large strains. However, if the stress is removed, the
cross-links pull the molecules back to their original positions and the rubber
behaves elastically. At larger strains most of the molecules have aligned
and the rubber becomes very stiff before it finally breaks. Polythene can
also undergo a large strain as its molecules align, but in this case the cross-
links are unable to pull the molecules back to their original positions, so the
polythene undergoes a plastic deformation.
140 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Ceramics are solid non-metallic materials such as brick, tile, pottery, and
china that are formed by high-temperature firing. They usually consist of
tiny ionic crystals bound together by amorphous glassy regions that formed
during firing. Ceramics are usually stiff, hard, and strong and have high
melting points and good chemical resistance, but they can be brittle.
Glasses are closely related to ceramics but are characterized by being
completely amorphous and result from a rapidly cooled melt. Glasses are
distinguished from ceramics by their microscopic structure. For example,
silica glass and quartz have identical composition consisting of SiO4 units,
but in the glass they are arranged randomly, while in the ceramic they are
arranged regularly.
Composite materials are combinations of two or more different
materials designed to take advantage of the desirable properties of each
individual component. Examples of composites are fiber glass, concrete,
steel, reinforced concrete, etc. Many composites consist of a matrix and a
reinforcement. Concrete is strong in compression, but weak in tension and
brittle, whereas steel is strong in tension and can prevent crack formation in
the concrete, providing a versatile and economical building material.

7.7 Exercises

1. A rectangular wooden block has sides of length 5.0 cm, 8.0 cm, and
12 cm. Its mass is 960 g.
(a) Calculate its density in kgm3.
(b) The absolute uncertainty in each measurement above (i.e., of side
lengths and mass) is ±4%. Calculate the absolute and fractional
uncertainty in the density.
2. A spring is extended 0.18 m by a force of 30 N.
(a) Calculate the spring constant of the spring.
(b) Calculate the work done to stretch the spring.
(c) A load of 20 kg is supported by 10 of these springs connected in
parallel with one another. Calculate the extension of the system
under this load.
3. The data below was collected from an experiment to stretch a steel
spring. The unstretched length of the spring was 10.0 cm.
Extension/cm Force/N
0 0
2.8 1.0
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES • 141

Extension/cm Force/N
6.2 2.0
9.6 3.0
13.2 4.0
16.5 5.0
20.1 6.0
23.2 7.0
26.6 8.0
30.2 9.0
33.0 10
36.3 11
40.2 12
44.4 13
49.4 14
57.1 15
68.5 16
96.5 17
113.2 18
(a) Plot a graph of force (y-axis) against extension (x-axis).
(b) State the limit of proportionality for this spring.
(c) Calculate the spring constant of the spring.
(d) What was the total length of the spring when it was pulled by a force
of 7.0 N?
(e) Calculate the extension of the spring if it supported a load of 850 g.
(f) For forces up to about 10 N the graph is a straight line through the
origin. Describe the relationship between force and extension over
this range. What law is the spring obeying?
(g) If two springs like the one above were connected in series, how much
would they extend when stretched by a force of 14 N?
(h) When the force of 18 N was removed, the spring did not return to its
original length. Explain this.
(i) Does the spring become stiffer or less stiff beyond the limit of
proportionality? Explain your answer.
4. The steel cable used to moor a ship has a length of 12.0 m and a cross-
sectional area of 8.2´104 m2. The force in the cable is 15,000 N.
(a) Calculate the extension of the cable.
(b) Calculate the strain energy (elastic P.E.) stored in the cable.
Density of steel  8050 kgm3, Young’s modulus of steel  200 GPa
142 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

5. When a rubber band is stretched and released rapidly several times

in quick succession, it becomes hot. Use a stress–strain graph for the
loading and unloading of rubber to explain this.
6. Here are four stress–strain graphs drawn to the same scale.
Stress
A

Strain

Use the correct terminology to describe the mechanical properties of

each material and to compare them.
 CHAPTER

8
THERMAL PHYSICS

8.0 Introduction
Thermal energy (often simply referred to as heat energy or heat) is the
energy an object has as a result of the random thermal motions of its
particles. This is not the same thing as temperature. For example, the
Atlantic Ocean has a lower temperature (perhaps 20°C) than a freshly made
mug of coffee (perhaps 75°C) but has much more thermal energy because
it contains many more particles. While the formal definition of temperature
is quite complex and involves an understanding of the concept of entropy,
a simple way to think about temperature is to relate it to the mean energy
per particle. The mean energy of the water particles in a mug of hot coffee
is greater than the mean energy of water molecules in the Atlantic Ocean.

8.1 Thermal Equilibrium

When two systems are placed in thermal contact, heat is able to be
transferred between them. On the microscopic level, this is a dynamic
process in which energy transfers take place continuously in both directions.
However, on the macroscopic level, there might be a net flow in one
direction. The macroscopic direction of net heat transfer is always from the
system at a higher temperature to the system at a lower temperature, and
this continues until the two systems are at the same temperature. This can
be stated very simply:
144 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q The direction of heat flow is from the system at higher temperature to

the system at lower temperature (or even more simply—from hot to
cold).
When there is no net heat transfer between systems in thermal contact,
they are in thermal equilibrium and are at the same temperature.
The Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that, if two systems, A and
B, are both in thermal equilibrium with a third system, C, then A and B are
also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
This law allows us to use thermometers and to set up formal temperature
scales.

8.2 Measuring Temperature

Temperature is measured using a thermometer. Thermometers are based
on a physical property that changes with temperature, e.g., volume of a
gas, length of a mercury column, resistance of a wire. To get a value from
a thermometer it has to be calibrated. This means placing a scale on it
so that temperatures can be read off. Since different physical properties
vary in different ways when temperature changes, it is important to
calibrate different thermometers against the same standard—the absolute
or thermodynamic temperature scale. In practice, a constant volume gas
thermometer is used as the standard to calibrate other types of thermometer.
The table below lists some different kinds of thermometer.
Thermometer Physical property Useful range
Alcohol Thermal expansion of a liquid Depends on type of alcohol used
but can measure down to 100°C
and up to 78°C
Mercury-in-glass Thermal expansion of a liquid 37°C to 356°C
Thermocouple Thermoelectric effect (See beck Depends on type but can be used
effect) from 270°C to 1250°C
Constant-volume gas Thermal expansion of an ideal gas Used to calibrate other types of
thermometer thermometer, 200°C to 1600°C
Pyrometer Spectrum of infra-red radiation 700–3500°C
emitted by hot object

8.3 Temperature Scales

Temperature scales are defined using fixed points that are given fixed
values. The Celsius scale (previously called the Centigrade scale) uses two
fixed points:
 THERMAL PHYSICS • 145

Q Lower fixed point: freezing point of water defined to be 0°C

Q Upper fixed point: boiling point of water defined to be 100°C
To calibrate an unmarked mercury thermometer the thermometer is
put into a water/ice mix and the lower position of the mercury column is
marked. It is then put into equilibrium with steam from boiling water, and
the upper position of the mercury column is marked. The distance between
these two fixed points is then divided into 100 equal divisions or degrees.
Temperatures below 0°C and above 100°C can also be marked onto the
scale by using the same equal divisions.
A similar method can be used to calibrate other types of thermometer,
but in all cases this assumes that the physical property that is changing (e.g.,
length of column or resistance of a wire) varies linearly with temperature
in the range that is being marked. This is usually a reasonably accurate
assumption but is not exactly correct, and so thermometers calibrated in this
way would need to be corrected (using a constant-volume gas thermometer)
if very precise temperature measurements are required.
The thermodynamic scale or Kelvin scale uses two different fixed points:
Lower fixed point: absolute zero of temperature defined to be 0 K
(273.15°C)
Upper fixed point: triple point of water defined to be 273.16 K (0.01°C)
The triple point of water is the unique temperature at which ice, water,
and water vapor are in equilibrium. By choosing these values the intervals
on the thermodynamic scale T are equal to those on the Celsius scale  so
that the conversion between the two scales is simply
T    273.15, or   T  273.15
Celsius scale Thermodynamic scale
Absolute zero 273.15°C 0K
Freezing point of water 0°C 273.15 K
Triple point of water 0.01°C 273.16 K
Typical room temperature About 20°C About 293 K
Human body core temperature About 37°C About 310 K
Boiling point of water 100°C 373.15 K

The best practical way to approximate the thermodynamic scale is to use

a constant-volume gas thermometer. This consists of a bulb containing
146 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

a fixed amount of gas connected to a mercury manometer to measure

the gas pressure. When the temperature of the gas in the bulb changes,
the pressure also changes. The ideal gas equation, pV  nRT, shows that
pressure p is proportional to temperature T if volume V and amount of gas
n are both constant (which they are). Pressure values can be calibrated to
give temperatures.

8.4 Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Heat transfer occurs because of a temperature difference, and the direction
of transfer is always from the hotter (higher temperature) to the cooler
(lower temperature) system. There are three different mechanisms by
which this can occur: conduction, convection, and radiation.

8.4.1 Conduction
Conduction involves the transfer of energy between particles as a result of
collisions. It is the most important process for heat transfer inside a solid
because particles in a solid remain in fixed positions and so cannot form
convection currents. Conduction also occurs in liquids and gases, but here
it is often less important than convection since particles in liquids and gases
are able to move in convection currents transferring heat energy as they do
so. The process of conduction is a dynamic one, but for macroscopic objects
the transfer of energy from more energetic particles to less energetic
particles has a higher probability than transfer in the opposite direction, so
heat flows from higher to lower temperatures. Conduction cannot occur in
a vacuum because there are no particles to conduct the heat.
dQ
The rate of heat flow (in watts) through an insulated block of
dt
material depends on the type of material, its cross-sectional area A, and the
temperature gradient between opposite sides of the block.
The temperature gradient in the block is:

l
Direction of heat flow A
Temperature θ1

d   2 1 

dx l
 THERMAL PHYSICS • 147

where 1 > 2.

The rate of heat transfer is given by:
dQ d
A
dt dx
The negative sign occurs because of the direction of heat transfer, from
higher to lower temperature. A constant of proportionality k can be
introduced. This depends on the material of the block. It is called the
coefficient of thermal conductivity. The equation of thermal conductivity
(Fourier’s equation) is:
dQ d
kA
dt dx
The unit of k is Wm1K1.
The table below lists typical thermal conductivities for common
materials at around room temperature.
Material Coefficient of thermal conductivity/Wm1K1
Air 0.024
Brickwork 0.6–1.0
Window glass 0.96
Ground or soil 0.33 (dry) to 1.4 (very moist)
Insulation materials 0.035–0.16
Expanded polystyrene 0.03
Dry sand 0.15–0.25
Water 0.58
Rock 2–7
Aluminum 205
Diamond 1000
Gold 310
Iron 80
Stainless steel 16
Timber 0.14

The high values for metals is because they contain large numbers of
free electrons that rapidly transfer heat. Diamond has an especially high
coefficient of thermal conductivity because its atoms are bonded very
tightly together and this couples their motions, so that when one atom is
disturbed it has an almost immediate effect on its neighbors and so transfer
energy quickly.
148 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

8.4.2 Convection
Convection can only occur in fluids, i.e., liquids or gases. This is because
convection involves bulk movement of hot matter from one part of
the medium to another. Natural convection currents arise as a result of
changes of density inside the fluid. In most fluids the material expands as its
temperature increases. This increases its volume and decreases its density
so that it is then displaced by cooler, denser material from above it. The
overall effect is to set up a convection current with warmer material rising
and cooler material falling. This is often the dominant mechanism for heat
transfer within a fluid.

A: Fluid heats up and

FLUID expands. Its density is
reduced. It is displaced
B by cooler, denser fluid.
A Convection current
B: Fluid cools down and
contracts. Its density
rises and it sinks.

Heat source

Forced convection is when an external blower or pump is used to force

the fluid to move—for example, when you cool a cup of hot tea by blowing
across its surface, you are using forced convection. Convection cannot occur
in a vacuum because it depends on the movement of particles.

8.4.3 Radiation
All bodies emit and absorb a spectrum of electromagnetic radiation that
depends on the nature of their surface and their temperature. For many of
the hot objects we encounter in everyday life, the peak of this spectrum is
in the infrared region, so thermal radiation is often referred to as infrared
radiation although the actual spectrum of thermal radiation is continuous.
Thermal radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, so it can be
transferred in a vacuum. While the absorption and emission of radiation
is a complex subject, it is usually true that matt black surfaces are good
absorbers and emitters, whereas light shiny surfaces are poor absorbers
and emitters. Thermal radiation, like light, can be reflected from a silvered
surface, e.g., on the inside of a thermos flask.
 THERMAL PHYSICS • 149

A thermal imaging camera can be used to measure infrared radiation

emitted from different objects. The images below show the camera itself
and thermal images of a man’s face and hand. The image is color-coded
(greyscale here) to show different temperatures, and these can be read off
from the scale at the bottom of the screen.

8.5 Black Body Radiation

An ideal radiator and absorber is called a black body. A black body will
absorb all the radiation that falls onto it, but in order to stay in thermal
equilibrium, it must also emit radiation at the same rate.
The spectrum of radiation it emits at a particular temperature has a
characteristic shape that was first measured in the mid-nineteenth century
but which could not be explained until Max Planck’s quantum theory in
1900 (see Section 27.1.1).
Power radiated per unit Higher temperature: greater
wavelength intensity and peak at shorter
wavelength

Lower temperature: lower

intensity and peak at longer
wavelength

Wavelength
Black body radiation
spectrum
150 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

As the temperature of a black body increases the total flux of radiation

from its surface increases and the wavelength corresponding to the peak
of the spectrum becomes shorter. This is apparent when heating a metal.
While warm, it emits in the infrared, which we can detect by holding our
hand nearby. As its temperature rises, it emits more radiation and begins
to glow in the visible part of the spectrum; it becomes “red hot.” At even
higher temperatures it also emits shorter visible wavelengths and becomes
“white hot.”
While nineteenth-century physicists were unable to derive the shape of
the spectrum from first principles, they did identify two important empirical
laws that are very useful when considering thermal radiation. These laws
were later derived from Planck’s theory.

Wien’s displacement law

This law states that the product of the wavelength corresponding to the peak
of the spectrum p and the absolute temperature (in kelvin) is a constant.
T  constant  2.9103 mK
Stefan-Boltzmann law
This law states that the total power P radiated from a black body is
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature (in kelvin) T.
P  eAT 4
where e is the emissivity (e  1 for an ideal blackbody radiator),  is Stefan’s
constant (  5.6703  108 Wm2K4), and A is the surface area of the
radiator.

8.6 Heat Capacities

8.6.1 Specific Heat Capacity
The specific heat capacity c of a material is the energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of that material by 1°C.
E
c
m
where E is the energy supplied, m is the mass of the sample, and  is the
temperature change.
The S.I. unit of specific heat capacity is Jkg1K1.
The table below gives values of the specific heat capacity of a range of
common substances.
 THERMAL PHYSICS • 151

Substance Specific heat capacity/Jkg1K1

Dry air at sea level 1460
Water (pure at 20°C) 4180
Ice (0°C) 2093
Copper 385
Aluminum 897
Iron 449
Mercury 140
Concrete 880
Water has a particularly high specific heat capacity. This makes it an ideal
coolant because it can absorb a large amount of heat for a relatively small
increase in temperature.

Some terminology
Q Heat capacity is the energy needed to increase the temperature of a
particular sample of a substance by 1°C (or 1K).
Q Specific heat capacity is the energy needed to increase the temperature
of 1 kg of a substance by 1°C (or 1K), i.e., this is the heat capacity per
unit mass.
Q Molar heat capacity is the energy needed to increase the temperature
of 1 mole of a substance by 1°C (or 1K), i.e. the heat capacity per unit
amount (the S.I. unit of amount is the mole).

8.6.2 Molar Heat Capacities of Gases

The energy needed to raise the temperature of a mole of gas depends on
the conditions under which the gas is contained. If the gas is allowed to
expand while it is heated, it will do work on its surroundings and so the heat
capacity will be greater than if the gas volume is kept constant. For this
reason there are two significant heat capacities for a gas:
Q Heat capacity at constant volume, cV
Q Heat capacity at constant pressure, cP
For the reasons explained above, cP is greater than cV.

8.6.3 Measuring Specific Heat Capacity

When measuring the specific heat capacity of a substance it is important
to ensure that all of the heat supplied is absorbed by the substance and
not transferred to other objects, e.g., the heater itself, the container, or the
surroundings. The simple method should reduce most of these losses.
152 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The substance is heated electrically at a constant rate P  IV (where I

is the current in the heater circuit and V is the potential difference across
the heating element). This power must be kept constant by adjusting the
variable resistor if necessary. The initial temperature of the substance
under test must be recorded and then regular temperature measurements
(e.g., every 30s) are taken after the heater is switched on.

V
Thermometer
A

Insulation

Electrical
heater

Substance
under test

Temperature/°C

At higher temperatures
heat loss through the
insulation increases, so the
Initially some of the graph curves downwards
energy supplied heats
the heater, so the graph
curves upwards In the linear
section almost all
of the heat
supplied is heating
the substance
under test
Time/s

From the equation for specific heat capacity we he E  mc, so we

can write:
 THERMAL PHYSICS • 153

E 
P  mc
t t
Rearranging this equation gives:
P
c

m
t
 is equal to the gradient of the linear part of the graph above.
t
m can be measured using a top pan balance.
P is calculated from the ammeter and voltmeter readings (P  IV).

8.7 Specific Latent Heat

The specific latent heat L of a substance is equal to the energy that must be
supplied to change the state of 1 kg of the substance at its melting or boiling
point with no increase in temperature. For example, the specific latent heat
of fusion for water is the energy needed to change 1 kg of ice at 0°C to 1 kg
of water at 1°C. There are two significant latent heats:
Q Latent heat of fusion Lf: energy required to change 1 kg of solid to
1 kg of liquid at its melting point (with no change of temperature). This
is also equal to the energy released when 1 kg of liquid freezes at its
freezing point.
Q Latent heat of vaporization Lv: energy required to change 1 kg of liquid
to 1 kg of gas at its boiling point (with no change of temperature). This is
also equal to the energy released when 1 kg of gas condenses to a liquid
at its boiling point.
For a change of state,
E  mL
where E is energy supplied or released, m is the mass of substance that
changes state at its freezing or boiling point, and L is the relevant specific
latent heat.
The S.I. unit of latent heat is Jkg1.
The table below gives the values of the specific latent heats of a range
of common substances.
154 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Substance Latent heat of fusion/Jkg1 Latent heat of vaporization/Jkg1

5
Water 3.3410 (0°C) 2.26106 (100°C)
Ethanol 1.09105 (109°C) 8.38105 (78°C)
Copper 2.07105 (1084°C)
Lead 2.24104 (327.5°C)
Tungsten 1.93105 (3400°C)
Mercury 1.13104 ( 39°C) 2.94105

8.8 Exercises

1. A brick hut with a flat wooden roof is heated so that the inside temperature
is 22°C when the outside temperature is 12°C. The dimensions of the
hut’s base are 4.5 × 3.5 m and the walls are 2.6 m high and 10 cm thick.
There is a glass window of area 1.5 m2 in one of the walls. The thickness
of the glass is 6.0 mm and the thickness of the wooden roof is 3.0 cm.
(a) Calculate the minimum power of the heater needed to maintain the
temperature at 22°C when the outside temperature is 12°C.
(b) Explain why, in practice, more powerful heating will be needed.
Thermal conductivities: brick, 0.80 Wm1K1;wood,0.16 Wm1K1; glass,
0.96 Wm1K1
2. An 800 g block of copper at 76.0°C is immersed in 2000 cm3 of water,
which is initially at 18.0°C. The water is in a thermally insulated
container.
Calculate the final equilibrium temperature of water and copper
assuming there is no heat loss to the surroundings.
Specific heat capacities: copper, 385 Jkg1K1;water, 4180 Jkg1K1
3. The table below gives the specific heat capacities and molar masses of
four metals:
Metal Specific heat capacity/ Molar mass/g
Jkg1K1
Copper 385 63.5
Aluminum 897 27.0
Iron 449 55.8
Mercury 140 200.6
Calculate the molar heat capacity of each metal. Comment on your
results.
4. Calculate the energy needed to change 2.0 liters of water at 20°C into
steam at 120°C.
 THERMAL PHYSICS • 155

Specific heat capacity of water  4200 Jkg1 °C1

Specific heat capacity of steam  2300 Jkg1 °C1
Specific latent heat of water  2.26 MJkg1
Temperature
Pouring
temperature

Ambient
temperature

Time

5. When molten metal is poured into a cast it cools down and solidifies.
The graph below shows a typical cooling curve for the metal. Explain the
shape of the graph and the significance of the three regions.
 CHAPTER

9
GASES

9.1 Gas Laws

9.1.0 Introduction
The state of a fixed amount of gas is defined by three parameters: its
volume, pressure, and temperature. These are all dependent on one
another so that when a gas is compressed its volume and temperature might
change. The gas laws are a set of macroscopic empirical laws that describe
these relationships and which will be explained later when we consider the
microscopic kinetic theory model of a gas (see Section 9.3.2). Given that
there are three parameters, there are also three gas laws, each of which
holds when one of the parameters is constant.
Boyle’s law: dependence of pressure on volume (constant temperature)
Charles’s law: dependence of volume on temperature (constant pressure)
Gay-Lussac’s law: dependence of pressure on temperature (constant
volume)
While many gases under a wide range of physical conditions will
approximately obey these laws, an ideal gas is a theoretical gas that obeys
them perfectly.
The three gas laws are expressed most clearly when temperature is
measured using the thermodynamic or kelvin scale and can be combined
into a single equation—the ideal gas equation.
158 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

9.1.1 Boyle’s Law

The apparatus below can be used to investigate how the volume of a fixed
mass of gas varies with pressure. The gas is an air column trapped above
some colored water. The experiment must be done slowly so that the gas
remains in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings. Changes that take
place at constant temperature, like this one, are called isothermal changes.

Hand pump to
Length of air increase pressure
column: directly
proportional to
the volume of
the gas

Bourdon
gauge to
measure gas
pressure

Colored water
acts as a piston to
compress the gas Fluid
reservoir

The length of the air column is measured for a range of different pressures.
Since the tube containing the air has a constant cross-sectional area, the
volume of air is directly proportional to the length of the column. The
results of such an experiment show that the pressure p and volume V are
inversely proportional to one another. This can be expressed algebraically
by p  1 / V or pV  constant. This is called Boyle’s law:
Q Boyle’s law: pV  constant for a fixed amount of an ideal gas at constant
temperature
Pressure Pressure

Volume 1/Volume
 GASES • 159

9.1.2 Charles’s Law

The apparatus below can be used to investigate how the volume of a
fixed amount of a gas varies with temperature when the pressure is kept
constant. An air column is trapped inside a capillary tube by a small
bead of concentrated sulfuric acid. Concentrated sulfuric acid is used
because it absorbs water vapor, keeping the air dry. The capillary tube is
then immersed in a water bath and the temperature of the water bath is
changed. As temperature increases, the gas expands and the bead moves.
The capillary tube has constant cross-sectional area, so the length of the
column is directly proportional to the volume of air.
Bead of concentrated Capillary tube
sulphuric acid

CONSTANT MASS OF TRAPPED AIR

Length of air column Open end: constant

atmospheric pressure

The length of the air column is measured for a range of different

temperatures. The tube is open at one end, so the pressure remains constant.
The results of such an experiment show that the volume V increases linearly
with temperature  when temperature is measured in Celsius.
Volume

Temperature/°C

Similar experiments using different amounts of gas also produce linear

results but with different gradients. However, if the graphs are extrapolated
back, the intercept on the temperature axis is always the same (273.15°C)
for all (ideal) gases and all amounts of gas. This is clearly a physically
significant temperature and is used as the zero for the thermodynamic or
kelvin scale. Using this temperature scale, volume and temperature are
directly proportional.
160 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

More mass
Volume

Less mass

Temperature/°C
−273.15 0

More mass
Volume

Less mass

Temperature/K

0 + 273.15

This can be expressed as V  T (temperature in kelvin) or V/T  constant.

This is Charles’s law.
Q Charles’s law: V/T  constant for a fixed amount of gas at constant
pressure (temperature in kelvin)

9.1.3 Gay Lussac’s Law (The Pressure Law)

The apparatus below can be used to investigate how pressure of a fixed
amount of gas varies with temperature when volume is kept constant.
The pressure is measured for a range of different temperatures. Once
again the results show that the pressure varies linearly with temperature
in Celsius and that there is a common intercept on the temperature axis
of 273.15°C. Using the Kelvin scale, pressure is directly proportional to
temperature. This can be expressed algebraically as p T or p/T  constant.
This is Gay Lussac’s law (the pressure law):
 GASES • 161

Thermometer To pressure
sensor

Water bath

Air

Heat

Q Gay Lussac’s law: p/T  constant a constant volume of a fixed amount of

an ideal gas (temperature measured in kelvin)
More mass
Pressure

Less mass

Temperature/K

0 + 273.15

9.2 Ideal Gas Equation

The three gas laws can be combined into a single equation:
Boyle’s law: pV  constant 
  pV
Charles’s law: V /T  constant  constant
  T
Gay Lussac’s law : p/T  constant 
162 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

This is called the ideal gas equation or equation of state for an ideal gas.
Holding any one of the three parameters constant reduces it to one of the
three gas laws, but it also applies if all three parameters change together.
The constant is directly proportional to the amount of gas. The value
of the constant for one mole of an ideal gas is R  8.314 JK1. The ideal gas
equation is often written in the form:
pV  nRT
where n is the number of moles.

9.3 Kinetic Theory of Gases

9.3.1 Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory

The gas laws are based on experiments but can be explained using Newton’s
laws if we make a few assumptions about the microscopic nature of a gas.
The key assumptions of kinetic theory are:
Q Gases consist of a large number of tiny, massive particles in rapid
random motion.
Q The particles have no long-range interactions.
Q All collisions are elastic.
Q The volume occupied by the particles themselves is negligible.
Kinetic theory was developed by Boltzmann and others in the nineteenth
century, and its great success provided strong support for the idea that
matter really is composed of tiny massive particles (the atomic theory).
However, even as late as 1900, some physicists and philosophers opposed
this theory and suggested that it was simply a convenient model and did not
correspond to physical reality. The really convincing evidence that atomic
theory was correct came from Einstein’s analysis of Brownian motion in
1905.

9.3.2 Explaining Gas Pressure

Gas molecules inside a container are continually colliding with the walls
of the container and rebounding. In each collision the wall exerts a force
on the molecule that changes its direction, so, by Newton’s third law, the
molecule exerts an equal but opposite force on the wall. The net effect of
billions of collisions creates an almost constant outward force on the wall.
Pressure is force per unit area, and force is equal to the rate of change of
 GASES • 163

momentum, so the pressure exerted by a gas is equal to the average rate of

change of molecular momentum per unit area.
We will build up an expression for gas pressure by considering first a
single molecule bouncing backwards and forwards in a box, and then adding
more molecules and allowing them to have random speeds and directions.
Let’s start with one molecule of mass m moving in the positive x-direction
and colliding with the wall of a cubic container of side a:

m v

x-direction

Change of momentum at wall (momentum is a vector): p   2 mvx

Time between collisions at wall: t  2a/vx
2
Average rate of change of momentum at wall: p  mvx
t a
mv2x
Average force on molecule at wall: F 
a
mv2x
Average force on wall (by Newton’s third law): F 
a
Now consider N molecules with x-components of velocity vx1, vx2, vx3…vxN.
Average force from N molecules,
iN
mv2x1 mv2x 2 mv2 m Nm 2
F
a

a
 xN 
a a v 2
xi  v
a x
(1)
i1

where v2x is the mean-squared x-component of velocity:

v2x1  v2x 2  v2xi
v2x 
N
Now let’s consider a three-dimensional gas in which the molecules move in
all directions. The derivation above will still be valid for the x-components
of velocity, so we need to relate these to the overall velocity. Any particular
164 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

molecule will have velocity components, vx, vy, and vz, and the magnitude of
velocity will be given by:
v2  v2x  v2y  v2z
The molecules are moving randomly, so the mean-squared values of vx, vy,
and vz will all be equal:
v2x  vy2  vz2
Therefore, v2  v2x  vy2  vz2  3 v2x (2)
Using equations (1) and (2) above we can find an expression for the
average force on the wall of the container from a gas consisting of N particles
in rapid random motion:
Nm 2 Nm 2
F v  v
a x 3a
where v2 is the mean-squared speed of the molecules.
We can now derive an expression for the pressure:
F Nm 2 Nmv2
p  v 
A 3 a3 3V
This is the kinetic theory equation for gas pressure, usually written as:
1
pV  Nmv2
3
Since density   nm/V we can also write this equation in the form:
1
p  (v)2
3
Mean-squared and root mean-squared (rms) speeds
v12  v22  v32  vN2
Q Mean-squared speed, v2 
N
2
Q rms speed, vrms = v
Note that the rms speed is not equal to the mean speed and that the mean-
squared speed is not the same as the mean speed-squared!

9.3.3 Molecular Kinetic Energy and Temperature

Compare the kinetic theory equation with the ideal gas equation. Note
that N is the number of molecules and n is the number of moles. It will
be helpful to introduce NA, the Avogadro number (number of particles in
1 mole, NA  6.022 140 857  1023 mol1) so that N can be replaced by nNA:
1
Kinetic theory equation: pV  nNA mv2
3
 GASES • 165

Ideal gas equation: pV  nRT

The right-hand sides of these two equations must be equal, so gas
temperature is directly proportional to molecular kinetic energy:
1
nN mv2  nRT
3 A
1 3
Total KE  NA mv2  RT
2 2
Dividing by NA we get:
1 3 R 3
Mean molecular KE  mv2  T  kT
2 2 NA 2
R
The constant k  is called Boltzmann’s constant. This is effectively
NA
the gas constant per particle, and it is a very important constant in
thermodynamics. k  1.38064852  1023 JK1. The mean thermal energy
per particle in any thermodynamic system is of the order of kT; for an ideal
gas, it is 3/2 kT.
Notice that, for an ideal gas, the mean kinetic energy depends only on
temperature (in kelvin). This implies that molecules of different gases, at
the same temperature, have the same mean kinetic energy but different
mean speeds. For example, air consists of about 80% oxygen and 20%
nitrogen. Oxygen molecules are more massive than nitrogen molecules, so
they have lower mean-squared speeds. Hydrogen molecules have much
lower mass and, therefore move on average at much greater speeds than
oxygen or nitrogen molecules. This results in them escaping from the
atmosphere much more rapidly, so there is very little hydrogen in the
Earth’s atmosphere.
The rms speed of a molecule in an ideal gas at temperature T is given
by:
3kT
vrms  v2 
m
The table below shows the rms speeds of oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen
molecules at 20°C (293 K).
Gas Mass of molecule/kg rms speed at 20°C (293 K)/ms–1
Oxygen 5.32  1026 478
Nitrogen 4.66  1026 510
Hydrogen 3.34  1027 1910
166 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

9.3.4 Molar Heat Capacities of an Ideal Monatomic Gas

The internal energy U of an ideal gas is equal to its total kinetic energy. For
one mole of an ideal gas,
1 3
U = Total KE  NA mv2  RT
2 2
The molar heat capacity at constant volume cV is the energy required to
raise the temperature of 1 mole of the gas by 1 K. Since all of the heat Q
supplied increases,
Q U 3
Internal energy, cV    R
T T 2
Note that this is the molar heat capacity at constant volume. If the gas is
instead heated at constant pressure, it will expand and do external work,
increasing the heat needed to raise its temperature and therefore increasing
its heat capacity.
The first law of thermodynamics (see Section 9.6.2) states that the
change in internal energy of a system is equal to the sum of the heat supplied
to the system and the work done on the system. The heat supplied to the
system at constant pressure is Q  cPT  U  pV where cP is the molar
heat capacity at constant pressure and pV is the work done by the gas as
it expands (see Section 9.6.3). Using the ideal gas equation we can replace
V with RT/p (because p is constant) to give:
3
Q  R T  R T  c P T
2
5
Therefore, cP  R  cV  R
2
The ratio of heat capacities is called the adiabatic gas constant :
cP

cV
For an ideal monatomic gas,   5/3; for air, it is about 1.4.

9.3.5 Equipartition of Energy

Molecules in an ideal gas are treated as particles with no internal degrees
of freedom. This means that the only motion they can have is translation in
three dimensions, so they have three degrees of freedom. The derivation
above shows that motion along the x-, y-, and z-axes contribute equally to
the mean kinetic energy (3/2 kT) of the molecules so that the mean energy
per degree of freedom is ½ kT. The classical theorem of equipartition
of energy states that when molecules are in thermal equilibrium each
 GASES • 167

independent degree of freedom has a mean energy equal to ½ kT. This

applies to translational and rotational degrees of freedom as well as potential
energies (which are not present in an ideal gas because there are no long-
range forces).
A diatomic molecule is free to rotate about each of three axes. These
three rotational degrees of freedom add another 3  (½ kT) to the overall
mean kinetic energy per molecule. A diatomic molecule can also vibrate
along the bond between the two atoms. These vibrational modes have both
kinetic energy and potential energy, so these two degrees of freedom add
2  (½ kT) to the overall mean energy per particle. These additional degrees
of freedom increase the heat capacity of the gas, and in this case, if the
additional 5 degrees of freedom were all excited, the heat capacity should
be 4 kT.
Classically all of these degrees of freedom should be excited by
thermal motion, and physicists expected the molar heat capacities of gases
to be in accord with this model. However, this is not the case, especially
at low temperatures. Some degrees of freedom (e.g., vibrational modes)
do not contribute to the heat capacity and only “switch on” at higher
temperatures, resulting in lower heat capacities than those calculated using
the equipartition theory. This apparent anomaly was only explained by
quantum theory, which resulted in the “quenching” of some degrees of
freedom at lower temperatures (see Section 27.1.2).

9.3.6 Law of Dulong and Petit

The focus of this chapter is on gases, but the equipartition theory can explain
an empirical law derived by Dulong and Petit. This law states that the molar
heat capacity of a crystalline solid has a value of 3R, and this works pretty
well for a large number of solid metallic elements at room temperature.
The explanation is quite straightforward. Imagine an atom in a cubic
crystalline lattice with bonds parallel to the x-, y-, and z-axes.
x

z
168 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

This atom is free to vibrate along three independent directions. Since

each vibrational mode has two degrees of freedom, the total mean internal
energy is 3  (2  ½ kT)  3 kT. For one mole of particles, this is c  3NAkT 
3RT.

9.3.7 Graham’s Law of Diffusion

Graham’s law of diffusion states that the rate of diffusion is inversely
proportional to the square root of gas density:
1
Rate of diffusion 

This follows from the kinetic theory equation in the form:
1
p  v2
3
Diffusion occurs as a result of particles moving randomly and colliding with
one another, so it is reasonable to assume that the rate at which this occurs
will depend on the rms speed:
vrms  v2
3p 1
Rate  vrms  
 
9.3.8 Speed of Sound in a Gas
Sound consists of longitudinal vibrations in a material medium. In a gas the
speed at which these disturbances move through the material is directly
related to the speed at which the molecules themselves move, so it is not
surprising to find that the speed of sound in a gas is directly proportional
to the rms speed of the molecules. In fact the speed of sound c in an ideal
gas is given by:
p
c

where g is the adiabatic constant (1.4 for a monatomic gas and 1.67 for a
diatomic gas). The adiabatic constant is the ratio of the specific heat of a gas
at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume.

9.4 Maxwell Distribution

While vrms gives a good idea of typical molecular speeds in a gas, the constant
random motion and collisions results in a distribution of speeds from zero
up to very high values. Maxwell derived an expression for the fraction of
molecules DN/N lying within a small range of speeds from v to v  v:
 GASES • 169
E
N 
Q Maxwell distribution,  Av2 e kT v
N
where A is a constant for a particular gas and E is the kinetic energy ½
mv2 of a molecule moving with speed v.
The derivation of this result is beyond the scope of this book, but we will
be concerned with the qualitative implications of the distribution, which
are useful to understand a wide range of thermodynamic phenomena.
Consider the following graph illustrating the main features of the
Maxwell speed distribution.
vp vm vrms
Fraction of
molecules
between v
and v + ∆v

Molecular speed

Q vp is the most probable speed. This means that there are more molecules
with speeds between vp and vp  v than in any other similar-sized
range.
Q vm is the mean speed (vm 1.13 vp).
Q vrms is the rms speed (vrms  v2  1.23 vp).
As the temperature of the gas increases the peak moves to the right and
falls. The number of molecules with higher speeds increases.
The area under each graph is the same because the total number of
molecules has not changed.
170 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Fraction of
molecules
between v
and v + ∆v
Higher temperature

Molecular speed

9.5 Boltzmann Factor and Activation Processes

For particles in equilibrium at temperature T with a Maxwell distribution of
speeds, the probability of a particular particle gaining an additional energy
DE is proportional to the Boltzmann factor:
ΔE
−
kT
Boltzmann factor f = e
This is equal to the ratio of number of particles in the higher energy state
(EDE) to the number of particles in the lower energy state (E).
number of particles with energy EE
f
number of particles with energy E
Many physical and chemical processes depend on a fraction of particles
gaining an “activation energy”EA. Evaporation is a good example. A
molecule with the mean energy does not have enough energy to escape
from the surface, but molecules close to the end of the distribution can.
The greater this fraction, the greater the rate of evaporation.
The fraction of molecules with at least the activation energy EA is given
E

by the Boltzmann factor f  e kT . Since the rate of evaporation is directly
proportional to this fraction, we have:
E

Rate of evaporation  e kT

Other activation processes include chemical reactions, conductivity of

a semiconductor, viscous flow, and creep. In all of these cases we would
expect the rate R to be directly proportional to the Boltzmann factor:
E

Rate of activation process, R  e kT
 GASES • 171

Fraction of
molecules
between v
and v + ∆v
Molecules in the
shaded region can
escape from the
liquid surface

Molecular speed
Minimum speed
needed to escape

If this is the case then a graph of ln (R) against 1/T should be a straight line
with a negative gradient and positive y-axis intercept:
ln(R)

1 /T

In chemistry, a graph of ln (reaction rate) against 1/(temperature) can be

used to determine rate constants.

9.6 First Law of Thermodynamics

9.6.1 Internal Energy
Q The internal energy U of a thermodynamic system is the sum of the
random thermal kinetic energies and potential energies of all particles in
the system.
For particles in an ideal gas, there are no long-range interactions, so the
potential energy term is zero and the internal energy is simply equal to the
sum of kinetic energies.
1 3
Internal energy of an ideal gas, U = Total KE  nNA mv2  nRT
2 2
The fact that, for a fixed amount of gas, this depends only on the absolute
temperature of the gas has already been noted. Therefore, the internal
172 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

energy of the gas is constant for all isothermal changes (changes at constant
temperature).

9.6.2 Heating, Working, and the First Law of Thermodynamics

Consider a system with total internal energy U. The internal energy can be
changed if the system is heated or if work is done on the system.
Q Heating: energy transfer as a result of a temperature difference (e.g.,
placing the system in thermal contact with another system at a different
temperature).
Q Working: energy transfer as a result of movement of an applied force
(e.g., compressing the system).
The first law of thermodynamics is a statement of energy conservation for
the system and its surroundings.
Q First law of thermodynamics: The change in internal energy of the
system DU is the difference of the heat supplied to the system Q and
the work done by the system W:
 U  Q  W
Note that we have defined W as positive when the system does external
work. Sometimes W is defined as work done on the system, in which case
the sign of W in the equation above changes.

9.6.3 Work Done by an Ideal Gas

Consider an ideal gas expanding against a piston. The gas is at temperature
T, has pressure p, and expands by an amount x. The cross-sectional area
of the cylinder is A.
Piston moves
outwards
Expanding gas F
Work is done
by gas

δx
Work done by gas as piston moves a distance x:
W  Fx  pAx  pV
where V is the small increase in volume when the piston moves a distance
x.
 GASES • 173

Work done as piston moves from x  x1 to x  x2:

x2


W  pdV
x1
This is also equal to the area under a graph of pressure against volume.
If the pressure is constant, the work done is simply:
W  pV

9.6.4 Thermodynamic Changes

Isothermal changes
An isothermal change is one in which there is no change of temperature.
For an ideal gas the internal energy is also unchanged, so U  0. Therefore
Q  W  0 and Q  W; the heat supplied to the system must be equal to
the work done by the system; or if work is done on the system, an equal
amount of heat must flow out of the system. An example of this is a slow
compression of a gas that is in thermal contact with its surroundings:
Piston pushed
slowly into gas

GAS

Heat flow to Work done on

surroundings gas

Isothermal compression of an ideal gas obeys Boyle’s law:

pV  constant
Adiabatic changes
In an adiabatic change no heat flows into or out of the system, so Q  0. This
is often because the change takes place very rapidly and there is not enough
time for a significant heat transfer. Using the first law of thermodynamics
we can see that, when Q  0, U  W, so the increase of internal energy is
equal to the work done on the system. An example of this would be a rapid
compression of a gas inside an insulated cylinder. Since the internal energy
increases, the temperature of the system also increases.
Boyle’s law does not apply when an ideal gas is compressed adiabatically
(because temperature is not constant). However, adiabatic compressions
obey another rule:
pV   constant
where  is the adiabatic gas constant (  1.4 for a monatomic gas).
174 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Isochoric changes
An isochoric change is one that takes place with no change in the volume
of the system. If the volume is constant, there is no work done on or by the
system, so W  0 and U  Q. The change in internal energy is equal to the
heat supplied to the system. An example of an (approximately) isochoric
change is the explosive combustion of a petrol and air mixture inside the
cylinder of a petrol engine.
Isobaric changes
An isobaric change is one that takes place at constant pressure. For a fixed
amount of an ideal gas, Charles’s law is obeyed: V/T  constant. An example
of an (approximately) isobaric change is the expansion of a diesel–air
mixture as fuel is injected and ignited inside the cylinder of a diesel engine.
Another example is the change of state of a liquid to a vapor at constant
temperature and pressure. The vapor occupies a much larger volume than
the liquid, and as it expands against external pressure, it does work (e.g.,
pushing back the atmosphere).
When an ideal gas expands isobarically, work done is given by:
W  pV

9.7 Heat Engines and Indicator Diagrams

9.7.1 What is a Heat Engine?
A heat engine uses thermal energy to do useful work, dumping waste heat
in the surroundings. Petrol and diesel engines are examples, so are thermal
power stations and steam engines. Heat engines work between a high-
temperature source and a low-temperature sink, and the work they do is
effectively diverted from the flow of heat between these two reservoirs.
Source at higher
temperature T1
Heat
extracted
from
source: Q1

Work done
by heat
engine: W
Heat
dumped
into sink:
Q2

Sink at lower
temperature T2
 GASES • 175

For an heat engine,

useful work output W Q1  Q2  Q
efficiency  100%    1 2
total heat input Q1 Q1 Q1
The second law of thermodynamics states that it is impossible to convert
heat to work with 100% efficiency (see Section 10.2.3). The French
engineer Sadi Carnot analyzed the cycle of thermodynamic changes (the
Carnot cycle) in an ideal heat engine and showed that it cannot exceed a
maximum theoretical efficiency determined by the temperatures of the hot
and cold reservoirs:
T2
efficiency  1 
T1
To maximize theoretical efficiency, we need a high source temperature and
a low sink temperature.

9.7.2 Indicator Diagrams

Heat engines using a working fluid (e.g., steam or burnt gases) take that fluid
around a repeated cycle of changes. These changes might involve heating
or cooling, expansion or compression, and work might be done on or by the
fluid. Each stage in the cycle can be plotted on an indicator diagram, which
is a graph of pressure against volume. This helps us understand the changes
of state and energy transfers that take place inside the heat engine.
Here is an example of a simplified indicator diagram. Real heat engines
have more complex cycles.
Pressure

P2
C D

P1
B A

Volume
V2 V1
176 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

AB: The fluid is compressed at constant pressure. Work must be done by

an external agent. The work done on the fluid is equal to the area under the
line AB. The work done on the fluid is W1.
BC: The fluid pressure increases rapidly at constant volume. This could be
as a result of sudden heating (e.g., ignition of a fuel–air mixture). The fact
that the volume remains constant means that there is no work done on or
by the fluid. The fluid gains heat Q1.
CD: The fluid expands at constant pressure and so does work against
external forces. The work done is equal to the area under the line CD. The
work done by the fluid is W2, so the net work done by the engine in one
cycle of changes is W  W2  W1. This is equal to the area contained inside
the loop on the indicator diagram.
DA: The fluid loses pressure at constant volume. This could be the result of
a sudden transfer of heat to the surroundings (e.g., as a result of exhaust).
The fluid loses heat Q2.
If the working fluid is an ideal gas then the gas laws and the first law of
thermodynamics can be used to analyze each stage in the cycle in order to
calculate the efficiency of the heat engine. While real heat engines do not
have simple indicator diagrams, there are good approximations for the way
in which certain heat engines work. For example, the Otto cycle is used to
model the behavior of spark ignition petrol engines, and the Diesel cycle
is used to model the behavior of a compression ignition engine such as a
diesel engine.

9.7.3 The Otto Cycle

This cycle models the behavior of the working fluid inside one of the
cylinders of a typical four-stroke petrol engine.
Q Intake stroke: inlet valve opens and an explosive mixture of petrol and
air is drawn into the cylinder.
Q Compression stroke: the mixture is compressed.
Q Power stroke: following ignition the hot burnt gases push the piston
back.
Q Exhaust stroke: exhaust valve opens and burnt gases leave the cylinder.
After this the exhaust valve closes and the cycle begins again. In reality the
fluid inside the cylinder is not constant; it is drawn in at the start of the cycle
and ejected as exhaust at the end of the cycle.
 GASES • 177

Inlet valve
Spark plug Exhaust valve

Cylinder Working
head fluid

Piston

Cylinder
block

Connecting
rod

Crankshaft

The diagram shows an idealized indicator diagram for the Otto cycle.
Pressure

pC C

pD
D
pB
B
pA
A
O

Volume
V2 V1

Q AB: adiabatic compression of gas (work done on gas but no heat

transfer)—compression stroke
Q BC: isochoric heating of gas (heat is supplied as fuel–air mixture
explodes but no work is done)
178 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q CD: adiabatic expansion of gas (work is done by the gas but no heat is
transferred)—power stroke
Q DA: isochoric cooling of gas (heat is lost from the gas but no work is
done by it)
AB corresponds to the compression stroke and CD to the power stroke.
The closed loop OAO represents the intake and exhaust strokes. The area
contained by the loop ABCD represents the net work done in one cycle.
Analysis of the Otto cycle
For an heat engine,
T2
efficiency  1 
T1
where T2 is the sink temperature and T1 is the source temperature. In the
idealized diagram above, T1  TC and T2  TD, so the theoretical efficiency
of the Otto cycle is:
T
efficiency  1  D
TC
This can be linked to the compression ratio,V1/V2, by using the equation of
state for an ideal gas and the relation pV   constant for adiabatic changes.
We need to find an expression for TD/TC. Consider the power stroke
CD. This is an adiabatic change, so:
pC V2   pD V1  (1)
The ideal gas equation also applies:
pC V2 pDV1 (2)

TC TD
Combining these equations,
 1
TD  pD  V1   V2  V1   V2 
     
TC  pC  V2   V1  V2   V1 
The theoretical efficiency of the Otto cycle is, therefore,
 V2 1
efficiency  1  
 V1 
Using a typical compression ratio V1/V2  10 and taking   1.4 gives a
maximum theoretical efficiency of (1  0.100.4)  0.60 (or 60%).
 GASES • 179

A real internal combustion petrol engine is only about 25–35% efficient at

transferring thermal energy from the fuel into useful mechanical energy.
Here are some of the ways in which energy is wasted:
Q The thermodynamic cycle of a real engine differs from the ideal Otto
cycle–valves take time to open and close, and changes in pressure and
temperature cannot take place instantaneously.
Q The intake and exhaust strokes do not form a closed loop and work must
be done by the engine during these phases.
Q There is heat transfer from the engine to the surroundings (in addition
to the heat lost during the exhaust stroke).
Q There is friction between moving parts, which transfers energy to heat.

9.7.4 Diesel Cycle

The most important practical difference between a petrol engine and a diesel
engine is that the fuel–air mixture in a petrol engine is ignited by a spark,
whereas in a diesel engine it is ignited by compression. Diesel engines have
a larger compression ratio than petrol engines (typically 15–20 compared
to 7–10), and this contributes to their higher thermodynamic efficiency.
The combustion process is also different. Whereas the petrol–air mixture is
ignited explosively and the pressure and temperature of the working fluid
rise almost instantaneously, in the diesel engine the fuel is sprayed into the
cylinder and ignited so that the first part of the power stroke takes place at
almost constant pressure.
The idealized cycle is illustrated below.
Pressure
B C
pB

pD D
pA A
O

V2 V2 V2 Volume
180 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q AB: adiabatic compression of air (work done on gas but no heat

transfer)—compression stroke. The fuel has not yet been injected, so
there is no danger of pre-ignition (which limits the compression ratio for
a petrol engine) and the compression ratio V1/V2 for a diesel engine can
be significantly higher than for a petrol engine.
Q BC: Fuel is injected and burnt at constant pressure. Work is done by the
engine. This is the first part of the power stroke.
Q CD: adiabatic expansion of gas (work is done by the gas but no heat is
transferred). This completes the power stroke.
Q DA: isochoric cooling of gas (heat is lost from the gas but no work is
done by it).
A real diesel engine only approximates the idealized cycle shown above, and
additional energy losses occur in much the same way as for a petrol engine.

9.8 Exercises

1. 4.0 m3 of an ideal gas at a temperature of 15 °C and a pressure of 1.10 

105 Pa is compressed isothermally (i.e., at constant temperature) to one
quarter of its original volume.
(a) What will be its final pressure and temperature?
(b) What happens to the internal energy of the gas during this
compression? Explain by referring to work done and heat transferred.
(c) Explain how the first law of thermodynamics applies to an isothermal
compression (you should say what happens to each term in the
equation).
The gas is then allowed to expand at constant pressure until it again
occupies a volume of 4.0 m3.
(d) What is the final temperature of the gas?
(e) Explain, in terms of molecular motions, why the final temperature is
not 15 °C.
2. A bicycle tire contains 9.2  104 m3 of air at 20 °C. The pressure in the
tire is 480 kPa.
(a) Calculate the number of moles of air in the tire.
(b) After the bicycle has been ridden the pressure inside the tire is
higher. Explain why.
(c) Estimate the final temperature of the air if the final pressure is
500 kPa.
(d) Explain why your answer to (c) can only be approximate.
 GASES • 181

3. A fixed mass of an ideal gas is trapped in a syringe.

Gas

(a) Sketch a graph to show how the pressure inside the syringe varies
with volume as the gas is slowly compressed (e.g., as if someone put
their finger over the end of the syringe and slowly pushed the plunger
in).

Assume this is slow enough for the temperature to remain constant.
(b) On the same graph draw a second line to indicate how you would
expect pressure to change with volume if the plunger is pushed in
quickly.
(c) Explain the difference between the lines in (a) and (b) by referring to
work and internal energy.
4. Air at atmospheric pressure and temperature has a pressure of about 105
Pa and a density of about 1.2 kgm−3.
(a) Calculate the rms speed of an air molecule.
(b) Air consists mainly of nitrogen and oxygen and the rms speeds of
oxygen and nitrogen molecules in the atmosphere are different.
Explain why.
5. Suggest why the ideal gas equation will cease to apply:
(a) at very high pressures
(b) at very high temperatures
(c) at very low temperatures
6. The speed of sound in air is given by:
p
v

where  is a dimensionless constant, p is the air pressure, and  is the
air density. By treating air as an ideal gas, show that the speed of sound
in air is independent of pressure but directly proportional to the square
root of absolute temperature. (Hint: consider one mole of air and use
the ideal gas equation to relate density to pressure and temperature by
introducing the molar mass M).
7. Eight molecules in a gas are moving parallel to the x-axis and have
x-components of velocity equal to 510.0 m/s, 550.0 m/s, 495.0 m/s,
548.0 m/s, 498.0 m/s, 502.0 m/s, 518.0 m/s, 535.0 m/s
182 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Each molecule has a mass of 5.4 × 10−26 kg. Calculate:

(a) the average molecular velocity
(b) the average molecular speed
(c) the rms molecular velocity
(d) the mean molecular kinetic energy.
8. An isothermal change takes place at constant temperature. Explain why
isothermal compression results in a flow of heat to the surroundings
exactly equal to the work done in compressing the gas.
9. (a) State the first law of thermodynamics and define all the terms in the
equation.
(b) A trapped gas inside a cylinder is heated. It expands isothermally (at
constant temperature). The heat supplied is H.
(i) State the change in internal energy of the gas.
(ii) State the work done by the gas as it expands.
E

10. The Boltzmann factor is given by e kT .
(a) Define the terms that appear in the equation and explain the meaning
of the Boltzmann factor.
(b) Sketch graphs to show how the Boltzmann factor varies with (i) T,
(ii) DE, and (iii) DE/kT
(c) Explain why chemical reactions proceed more rapidly at higher
temperatures.
11. By what factor, roughly, would you expect the rate of a chemical reac-
tion to change if the temperature increases by 10 K (assume the reaction
is taking place at around 350 K and that the activation energy is about
1 eV).
12. In human blood, oxygen molecules bind to hemoglobin molecules. The
bond energy is about 0.30 eV. Calculate the ratio of free oxygen mol-
ecules to bound oxygen molecules in the blood at body temperature
(310 K).
13. (a) Explain why the conductance (G  1/R) of a semiconductor NTC
increases with temperature. Your answer should refer to the
Boltzmann factor.
(b) A semiconductor NTC thermistor is connected to a source of
constant low voltage V and a current I passes through it. I will vary
with temperature. Explain why a graph of ln I versus 1/T will be a
straight line. What is the gradient of this line?
 GASES • 183

14. Here is the Otto cycle for an ideal four-stroke petrol engine:
Pressure

pC C

pD
D
pB
B
pA
A
O

Volume
V2 V1

Here is some data for the same engine:

• mean temperature of gases during combustion stroke  800 °C
• mean temperature of exhaust gases  80 °C
• area enclosed by indicator diagram loop  420 J
• calorific value of fuel  45 MJ kg−1
(a) Describe the thermodynamic changes and energy flows taking place
during the stages AB, BC, CD, DA on the diagram.
(b) Calculate the thermodynamic efficiency of the engine.
(c) Calculate the rate of burning fuel (kgs1) when the engine, which has
four cylinders, is rotating at 1500 rpm.
 CHAPTER

10
STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS
AND THE SECOND LAW

10.0 Introduction
The gas laws and the ideal gas equation are all derived empirically, that
is, from experimental data. They give a good mathematical description of
the behavior of an ideal gas, but they offer no explanation of why the gas
behaves in this way. The reason for this is that they deal with macroscopic
properties such as volume, temperature, and pressure and do not engage
with the microscopic behavior of the molecules that constitute the gas.
Kinetic theory (see Section 9.3) provides a more fundamental explanation
of the behavior of an ideal gas, despite being based on the random motion
of particles. Statistical thermodynamics takes this further and provides one
of the most important and enigmatic of all physical laws—the second law
of thermodynamics.

10.1 Reversible and Irreversible Processes

Consider a dark blue ink droplet dropped into a glass of water. For a while
the dark ink forms recognizable and distinct patterns in the water, but as
time goes on, these become less and less distinct and after an hour or so the
droplet disappears and the water appears uniformly pale blue. The particles
of the ink spread more or less uniformly throughout the water. And so it
remains.
You could wait a thousand years and the water would continue to appear
uniformly pale blue. It is as if, once the ink has spread out, nothing further
186 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

happens. In one sense this is true. Macroscopically the ink droplet has
spread uniformly throughout the water and that is the end of it. However,
on the microscopic scale, particles of water and ink are continually moving,
colliding, and changing positions. These microscopic collisions are all
governed by Newton’s laws and are completely reversible. This means that
if you were to analyze a particular collision and then run it backwards, the
reversed collision would be a perfectly acceptable physical process. In fact,
if you were presented with videos of a single collision running forwards and
backwards, you would be unable to tell which one goes forward in time.
Both would obey Newton’s laws and conserve energy, momentum, etc.
Direction of time

Direction of time
Newton’s laws are reversible. So are the laws of electromagnetism and
gravity. They do not distinguish between the past and the future. However,
macroscopic processes are almost always irreversible. The pale blue water
does not resolve itself back into separate clear water and a dark drop, a
broken glass remains broken, a scrambled egg remains scrambled and, more
personally, we remember the past but not the future and we all eventually
grow old and die. This raises two very important questions.

1. If the underlying laws of physics are fundamentally reversible, then how

do we explain the irreversibility of the macroscopic world?
2. What distinguishes the past from the future?
Another way to pose this question is in terms of an arrow of time that
points from the past to the future. Why is there an arrow of time and what
determines its direction?
These questions about irreversible processes first emerged in the
context of thermodynamics when physicists tried to understand how to
maximize the efficiency of heat engines. This led them to the second law of
thermodynamics, one of the most important ideas in physics.
 STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND THE SECOND LAW • 187

10.2 Second Law of Thermodynamics as a

Macroscopic Principle

10.2.1 Macroscopic Statements of the Second Law

Heat engines are used to extract heat from work. If it was possible to do this
with 100% efficiency then we could build power stations that extract energy
directly from the oceans. This would not violate the law of conservation of
energy, it would simply lower the temperature of some seawater by a few
degrees and the sun would soon re-warm the water. Our energy problems
would be solved.
Seawater at
17 °C (290 K)

Solar Ocean at 100% efficient

heating 17 °C (290 K) heat engine

Water returned
at 16 °C (289 K)

Unfortunately, no such heat engine exists and there is a fundamental limit

to the possible efficiency of any heat engine. This is stated qualitatively in a
macroscopic version of the second law of thermodynamics:
Q It is impossible to construct a heat engine that, operating in a cycle, can
extract heat from a source and transfer it completely into work.
This implies that any heat engine MUST dump some waste heat into the
environment. It cannot be 100% efficient.
The work generated by a heat engine comes as a by-product of the
transfer of heat from the hot source to the cooler sink. If heat could flow
back from the sink to the source we could continue to operate the heat
engine and increase its efficiency. However, heat only flows spontaneously
from systems at higher temperatures to systems at lower temperatures, so
this is not possible. This leads to a second, equivalent, statement of the
second law of thermodynamics.
188 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q It is impossible for heat to flow from a cooler to a hotter body with no

other change taking place.
This is a matter of common experience. If you leave a cup of hot coffee
on the table it will soon transfer heat to its surroundings until it reaches
the same temperature as the room. However long you wait it does not
reheat itself. This seems similar to the example of the ink droplet in water,
it is another example of an irreversible macroscopic process. Once again
the macroscopic one-way process of approaching thermal equilibrium is
actually driven by random microscopic collisions that continue to take place
after a uniform equilibrium temperature has been reached.
In order to explain these one-way irreversible changes physicists
introduced a new quantity, entropy. The second law can then be stated in
terms of entropy:
Q The entropy of an isolated system tends to a maximum.

But what is entropy?

10.2.2 Heat Transfer and Entropy

In macroscopic terms the entropy change of a system is related to the heat
Q reversibly supplied to it divided by the temperature at which that heat is
supplied. This can be written as an integral:
state B
dQ
S   T
state A
For heat supplied at constant temperature this becomes simply S  Q/T.
The best way to get a feel for this new quantity is to see how it applies to the
examples above. We will start with heat flow from hot to cold. Consider two
systems A and B at temperatures T1 and T2 respectively. If these are placed in
thermal contact then they form an isolated system and the total entropy of the
system must either increase or stay the same. However, molecular collisions
at the boundary between the two systems will result in a flow of heat. How
does the transfer of heat Q from A to B affect the entropy?
A B

δQ

T1 T2
 STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND THE SECOND LAW • 189

Q
SA 
T1
Q
SB 
T2
Q Q
Ssystem    0 (second law of thermodynamics)
T1 T2
Q Q
Therefore,  , so T1  T2
T2 T1
If entropy cannot decrease then either T1 > T2 and heat flows from hot
to cold or T1  T2 and the system is in thermal equilibrium with maximum
entropy. This shows that the second law expressed in terms of entropy is in
agreement with the statement about direction of heat transfer. Heat cannot,
in isolation, flow spontaneously from a colder to a hotter body because this
would decrease the entropy of the system.

10.2.3 Entropy and Maximum Efficiency of a Heat Engine

The other macroscopic statement of the second law referred to the
efficiency of a heat engine. Let’s analyze this using the concept of entropy
(and assume that, for the ideal heat engines under consideration, heat is
transferred reversibly between the source and the sink).
Entropy of source
Source at T1 decreases as heat is
extracted.
Q1

Q2 Work done: W

Entropy of sink
Sink at T2 increases as heat
is dumped

Work done has no effect on the entropy of the system, so the entropy
changes of the system are:
Q
Ssource  1
T1
Q2
Ssink 
T2
Q Q
Ssystem  1  2  0 (second law of thermodynamics)
T1 T2
190 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Rearranging this gives:

Q2 T2

Q1 T1
The efficiency of the engine is:
W Q1  Q2 Q
 1 2
Q1 Q1 Q1
T2
Therefore, efficiency  1 
T1
This result was first derived by a French engineer called Sadi Carnot based
on the operation of an ideal reversible heat engine. It sets a limit to the
theoretical efficiency of any heat engine and shows that the theoretical
efficiency increases as the ratio of T1 to T2 increases. This is in agreement
with our previous macroscopic statement of the second law and also explains
why our seawater heat engine was doomed to failure. Whilst a heat engine
working on those principles could be constructed, if it worked between a
source temperature of 290 K and a sink temperature of 289 K its maximum
theoretical efficiency would be (1  289/290)  0.0034 or 0.34%, and this
is before taking into account the unavoidable additional losses caused by
friction, etc. For a petrol engine the source temperature (of the hot gases
following ignition) is about 1000°C (about 1300 K) and the sink temperature
at which the gases are exhausted is about 500°C (about 800 K) giving a
maximum theoretical efficiency of (1  800/1300)  0.38 or 38%.

10.3 Entropy and Number of Ways

10.3.1 Macro-State and Micro-States
To understand what entropy actually represents we will need to consider
the relationship between macroscopic states and the microscopic
configurations that make them up. When we look at a system from the
outside (macroscopically) we do not see its microscopic configuration. The
uniformly pale blue water left after an ink droplet has spread and diffused
throughout the volume might be realized by a very large number of different
microscopic arrangements of water and ink particles, all of which appear,
from the outside, to be uniformly spread. The key point is this: the same
macro-state may correspond to a large number of micro-states. This means
that a stable and unchanging macroscopic state does not necessarily imply
that the microscopic configurations that make up that state are also stable
and unchanging.
 STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND THE SECOND LAW • 191

Here is a simple model to illustrate what is going on. Imagine a box

which contains a large number N of identical gas particles that are initially
held in one half of the box by a barrier. Then the barrier is suddenly removed
and the particles are free to explore the whole box. For a short while an
imbalance will persist but very soon the particles will spread uniformly
throughout the box and they will not go back onto one side of it. This is an
irreversible process similar to the mixing of ink and water or the transfer of
heat from a hotter to a colder body. There is a clear arrow of time from the
asymmetric state (all particles on one side of the barrier) to the symmetric
state (particles spread evenly throughout the container).
Barrier removed

To understand why this is irreversible we need to consider the microstates

of the system. Assume that, after the barrier has been removed, each
particle has a 50% chance of being on either side of the barrier. This seems
reasonable since the particles move randomly. What is the probability that
all N particles are found on the left hand side of the barrier? It is ½ N, which
is vanishingly small for large N. This is because there is just one way in which
this can occur—just one microstate of the system which has all particles on
the left (ignoring rearrangements within the N particles themselves!), in
the same way that if you toss a coin N times there is just one way that all N
coins can land heads. Now consider the probability that (N  1) particles
are on the left of the barrier and just 1 is on the right. There are N possible
ways in which this can happen (each of the particles could be the one that
is on the right) so the probability is N times larger. For a distribution with
(N  2):2 the probability is much larger again (by a factor of ½( N  1) times.
This is because there are  N(N  1) ways in which this can occur. In fact
2!
the number of ways continues to increase up to a distribution with N/2
particles on each side and then falls back again until there is just one way in
which all the particles can be found on the right-hand side. The “number of
ways”we have referred to here is the number of microstates that represents
each macro-state. The final macro-state (a 50:50 distribution) is also the
macro-state that can be realized in the largest number of ways, i.e., the
macro-state that can be realized in the largest number of distinct micro-
192 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

states. The graph below shows how the “number of ways,” W, changes with
the distribution of particles:
Number of
micro-states W

Macro-state
N:0 N/2 : N/2 0 : N distribution L:R

As N increases, the peak becomes incredibly sharp (tall and narrow) so that
virtually all of the micro-states cluster close to the N/2:N/2 equilibrium
distribution. Most of the micro-states correspond to macro-states that are
indistinguishable from this 50:50 distribution. Since the particles move
randomly we can assume that, left alone, the system will explore all of the
microstates available to it. The system we considered started off in a macro-
state which corresponds to only 1 micro-state. As time goes on it explores
other adjacent micro-states, most of which lie closer to the peak because
the number of micro-states increases that way. This means the system tends
to evolve toward the peak. Given the fact that the number of micro-states
close to the peak vastly outweighs all of those even a short distance away
from it then, if we leave the system for any length of time, the overwhelming
probability will be that we will find it in a macro-state close to the peak of
the distribution—i.e., close to equilibrium. And once in equilibrium it is
highly unlikely to fluctuate far from it because the number of micro-states
drops rapidly away from equilibrium. For the systems we usually interact
with, N is enormous (e.g.,>1020), so the probability of a large fluctuation
from equilibrium is so small that it can be assumed to be zero.
We can now give a more fundamental, microscopic, explanation of the
irreversible evolution toward equilibrium. It is based on three assumptions.
Q Macroscopic systems can be composed of a number (usually a very large
number) W of microscopic configurations or micro-states (sometimes
called “number of ways”).
 STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND THE SECOND LAW • 193

Q All micro-states of a macroscopic system are equally probable.

Q An isolated system will explore all accessible micro-states because of the
random thermal motions of its particles.
The consequence is that we expect a system that is prepared in a non-
equilibrium state to evolve toward equilibrium and then stay there.
Equilibrium is the macro-state that corresponds to the largest number of
accessible micro-states, i.e., the macro-state for which W has a maximum
value.

A system starting here is more

likely to move toward equilibrium
because there are more adjacent A system at or close to
micro-states closer to equilibrium equilibrium will stay there
than farther from it. because, after any fluctuation away
there will be many more micro-states
closer to equilibrium than farther
from it.

Number of
micro-states W

Macro-state
N:0 N/2 : N/2 0 : N distribution L:R

10.3.2 Entropy and Number of Ways

The idea that systems evolve toward a macroscopic state that can be realized
in the maximum number of microscopic configurations or ways corresponds
to the evolution of a system toward maximum entropy. If we are to explain
irreversibility we will need to link entropy, S, and number of ways, W. The
first person to do this was Ludwig Boltzmann and the equation linking the
two quantities is:
S  k ln W
where k is the Boltzmann constant and W is the number of micro-states.
194 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

In this context a micro-state is a distinct way of arranging energy and

particles in the system.
The S.I. unit of entropy is JK1.
It might seem surprising to see the natural logarithm in this equation.
However, consider joining two systems each having W configurations,
together. The number of possible configurations of the combined system
is not 2W but W2. However, if the original entropy of each system is S
then the entropy of the two systems together must be 2S, so the use of a
logarithm reduces this multiplicative property to one of addition: ln (W2) 
2 ln (W). The logarithmic function makes entropy an extensive quantity like
mass so that the total entropy of a combination of different systems is equal
to the sum of their individual entropies.
If entropy is defined in this way then the second law, that the entropy
of an isolated system tends to a maximum value, follows simply from
probability. The equilibrium macro-sate is the most probable macro-state,
i.e., the one that can be realized in the largest number of micro-states This
is the maximum value of W and therefore maximum entropy. The arrow of
time is the direction from low entropy to high entropy and from small W
to large W.

10.3.3 Poincaré Recurrence

The assumption that a system will explore all possible microstates implies
that, if left for a long enough time, it will eventually return to its initial state.
In fact, in an infinite time we would expect it to return to all configurations an
infinite number of times. This means that whilst the statistical interpretation
of entropy does explain why it is overwhelmingly likely that a system will
evolve toward maximum entropy it is not impossible for entropy to decrease.
Poincaré pointed out that any particular system will have a characteristic
average time between returning to its initial state. This is called the Poincaré
recurrence time. For the type of macroscopic system that is usually
encountered (e.g., a flask of gas) this is enormous even compared to the age
of the universe, so it is safe to assume that the second law will hold and these
systems will evolve toward states of maximum entropy.

10.4 What is Temperature?

So far we have not given a fundamental explanation of temperature.
However we have identified heat transfer from hot to cold with an increase
in entropy. If we take a closer look at this we will be able to gain a more
fundamental understanding of the concept of temperature.
 STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND THE SECOND LAW • 195

When two systems at temperatures Thot and Tcold are placed in thermal
contact heat flows from the system at higher temperature to the system
at lower temperature. We showed (see Section 10.2.2) that this is a
consequence of increasing entropy. Removing heat Q from the hotter
system reduces its entropy by an amount Q/Thot which is smaller than the
increase in entropy of the cold system, Q/Tcold resulting in a net increase
in entropy of the combined system and therefore satisfying the second law.
What this must mean is that transfer of heat Q to or from a hotter system
has a smaller effect on its entropy than transfer of the same amount of heat
to or from a colder system. When two systems are in thermal equilibrium
the entropy change when heat Q is transferred between them is zero.
Richard Feynman likened it to drying yourself with a small towel. At first
you are wetter than the towel and water is transferred from you to the
towel. However, once you have used the towel for a while it becomes so
wet that it no longer dries you—as you rub yourself with the towel as much
water transfers from you to the towel as transfers from the towel to you—
both the towel and your skin have reached the same degree of “wetness.”
Continuing to use the towel results in no further change in wetness. This is
analogous to the approach to thermal equilibrium.
Temperature is therefore related to the rate at which entropy changes
when heat is transferred to or from a system, and we can define the
thermodynamic temperature using this equation:
1 dS

T dQ
How does this relate to the statistical description of entropy in terms of
microscopic configurations? This can be understood by considering the
effect of adding 1 quantum of energy to a system that already contains N
quanta. Whilst this will always increase the number of configurations of the
system it has a greater effect on the entropy of a system with an initially
smaller number of configurations than on one with an initially larger
number. Mathematically this is a consequence of the natural logarithm in
Boltzmann’s formula.

10.5 Absolute Zero and Absolute Entropy

10.5.1 Entropy at Absolute Zero
As the temperature of a system is reduced it will approach a state of
minimum energy. In principle, for an ideal crystalline material, this state
exists in a single configuration.
196 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Therefore, W  1 and S  k ln (W)  0

This is a statement of the third law of thermodynamics:
Q The entropy of a perfect crystal is zero at absolute zero.
In practice it is impossible to cool anything to absolute zero so the third
law serves as a theoretical starting point for the calculation of absolute
entropies.

10.5.2 Calculating Absolute Entropy

Whilst Boltzmann’s formula provides a clear idea of what entropy represents
it is not always straightforward to calculate entropies based on number
of configurations. However, since entropy determines how a system will
evolve, e.g., whether a chemical reaction will proceed or not, we need to
know the absolute entropy values for different substances. In order to do
this we must return to the macroscopic definition of entropy change:
S = QT (for a reversible heat transfer)
The absolute entropy at temperature T of a substance is then defined as:
T T
dQ
S  T
  c(TT)dT
0 0
where c(T) is the temperature-dependent heat capacity of the substance.

10.5.3 Entropy Changes for an Ideal Gas

When a gas is heated, compressed or allowed to expand, its entropy changes.
This is because the number of ways that energy can be distributed amongst
the gas particles, and the number of ways the particles themselves can be
distributed in the volume available to them, changes. Formulae for entropy
changes of an ideal gas under different types of change are derived below.
Isochoric changes (constant volume)
 U  Q W but (W  0), therefore U  Q  cVT
T2 T2 T2
dQ cV dT  T2 
S   T
  T
  3RdT
2T
3
 R ln 
2 T 
1
T1 T1 T1

Isobaric changes (constant pressure)

U  Q  W  Q  pV
3 3 RT V
Q  RT  pV  RT  (using the ideal gas equation)
2 2 V
 STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND THE SECOND LAW • 197

T2 V2
3RdT  T2   V2 
S   2T
  RVV  23 R ln T  R ln V 
1 1
T1 V1

Isothermal changes (constant temperature)

For a constant temperature change U  0 and Q  W  pV.
RT V
Q  pV  (using the ideal gas equation)
V
V2
 V2 
S   RVV  R ln V  1
V1

10.6 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

10.6.1 Refrigerators
The purpose of a refrigerator is to cool things down. To do this heat must
flow out of a cooler body (the food you place inside the refrigerator) and
into a warmer one (the surrounding air in the room outside the refrigerator).
The second law of thermodynamics states that this cannot occur in isolation
because it would lower the entropy of the universe. However, it can occur
if work is done.
A refrigerator is actually a reversed heat engine:

Hot reservoir at Hot reservoir at

Thot Thot

Qhot Qhot
Work done by Work done on
the heat engine: W the refrigerator: W

Qcold Qcold

Cold reservoir at Cold reservoir at

Tcold Tcold

Heat engine Refrigerator

For a heat engine, the heat reservoirs are burnt fuel (hot) and the
environment (cold). For a refrigerator the heat reservoirs are the foodstuff
198 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

that must be cooled down (cold) and the environment (hot). Typically, a
domestic refrigerator removes heat from food at about 4°C and dumps heat
into a room at about 20 °C although different types of refrigerator can work
in different temperature regimes. The reason you need to plug an electric
refrigerator into a mains supply is so that electricity can supply the work
that will ultimately be dumped as additional heat in the environment.
For a refrigerator to operate it must obey the second law of
thermodynamics so the entropy increase caused by the heat dumped in the
environment must be equal to or greater than the entropy decrease caused
by extracting heat from the stuff inside the refrigerator:
Qhot
Senvironment 
Thot
Q
Sfood  cold
Tcold
Qhot Qcold
Suniverse   0
Thot Tcold
Qhot Qcold

Thot Tcold
Qhot T
which implies that  hot , so Qhot (the heat dumped in the
Qcold Tcold
environment) must be greater than Qcold (the heat extracted from the food).
The refrigerator can only operate if we supply additional energy. This is the
work W  Qhot  Qcold. As far as the universe is concerned a refrigerator is
a heater!
The coefficient of performance (CoP) is a measure of how effective the
refrigerator is and is the ratio Qcold/W. The higher this is, the more joules of
heat are removed from objects inside the refrigerator per joule of electrical
work done, so it is like the “efficiency” of the refrigerator. The second law
sets a limit to the theoretical thermodynamic efficiency of a heat engine
and it also sets a limit to the theoretical coefficient of performance for a
refrigerator.
Q Qcold 1 1
CoPrefrigerator  cold   
W Qhot  Qcold Qhot Thot
1 1
Qcold Tcold
10.6.2 Heat Pumps
Heat pumps are used to extract heat from a cooler environment and dump
it into a warmer environment and so, like a refrigerator, they are really
 STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND THE SECOND LAW • 199

a reversed heat pump. However, the point of the heat pump is not the
amount of heat extracted from the cold reservoir but the amount of heat
delivered to the hot reservoir. The coefficient of performance for a heat
pump is therefore defined as the ratio Qhot/W and the second law once
again sets a limit on this:
Q Qhot 1 1
CoPheat pump  hot   
W Qhot  Qcold Q T
1  cold 1  cold
Qhot Thot
10.7 Implications of the Second Law
10.7.1 The Second Law, the Arrow of Time, and the Universe
When the second law of thermodynamics is applied to the universe it states:
Q The entropy of the universe tends to a maximum value.
This implies that the arrow of time points in the direction of increasing
entropy. The past is a low entropy state and the future is a high entropy
state.

Low High
entropy Arrow of Time entropy
past future

On a microscopic scale the universe is evolving from a macro-state that

exists in a low number of ways (small number of configurations) to a
macro-state that exists in a much larger number of ways and ultimately to
a state of maximum entropy in which the number of possible microscopic
configurations reaches its maximum value. Whilst this final state of the
universe is very far in the future, once reached heat engines would no
longer be able to do useful work because everything would be at the same
temperature. Energy would become unavailable (for work) because heat
engines operate between heat reservoirs at different temperatures and
increase the entropy of the universe. When the universe reaches thermal
equilibrium entropy is at a maximum. This final state is sometimes called
the heat death of the universe.
So, have we explained the arrow of time? Not entirely. The microscopic
description of the second law shows that, if a macroscopic system starts
off in a low entropy state it is overwhelmingly likely to move to the high
entropy states that can be realized in a larger number of ways. However,
200 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

the arrow of time ceases to exist once the system has reached equilibrium,
so one large question remains: why did the universe start in a low entropy
state? According to our analysis the initial configuration of the universe
must have been one that can be realized in only a relatively small number
of ways (low W). This was a state of low probability in the sense that if
we considered the totality of macro-states the universe can have then the
actual state in which it began belongs to a tiny subset of these. This is rather
like the first example we considered, the ink droplet in water—the system
starts in a very special low probability, low entropy state and evolves toward
a higher probability, high entropy equilibrium. Our universe is also evolving
toward a high entropy equilibrium state. The assumption that the universe
began in a low entropy state is sometimes called the “past hypothesis.”

10.7.2 Second Law and Living Things

On the face of it, living things do not seem to obey the second law of
thermodynamics. They gather resources and energy and grow from simple
beginnings into complex functioning beings. They seem to create order
from disorder and lower their own entropy. However, living things are not
isolated systems. They exchange energy and matter with their environments.
While it is true that constructive processes within our cells might lower the
entropy of certain internal structures, it is also true that the metabolism that
drives this generates heat and dumps it into the environment. This increases
the entropy of our surroundings by an amount that is much greater than any
local reduction of entropy inside our bodies so the net effect of a living
thing is to increase the entropy of the universe. When living things are
considered along with their surroundings they do obey the second law of
thermodynamics just like anything else!

10.7.3 Entropy and Energy Availability

There is a continual search for new sources of energy to satisfy our energy-
hungry civilization. However, it is often said that we are fast approaching
an energy crisis. Given that energy is never created or destroyed this seems
almost contradictory. How can our energy run out? The answer is actually
quite simple. Every time we harness a non-renewable source such as oil,
natural gas, or uranium and use it in a heat engine (e.g., a thermal power
station) to do work there is an increase in the entropy of the universe. The
primary energy source we used has transferred its energy to a large number
of highly dispersed particles (e.g., in heating the atmosphere) at a much
lower temperature. This makes the original energy much harder to harness
and use in another heat engine to do more work. The original energy has
 STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND THE SECOND LAW • 201

not disappeared but has become unavailable. Increasing entropy can be

thought of as the increasing unavailability of energy to do work.

10.8 Exercises

1. (a) Explain the following terms:

Q Macroscopic state of a system

Q Microscopic state of a system

Q Number of ways

(b) Explain the link between number of ways and entropy.

(c) Use the terms above to explain why, when a small crystal of potassium
permanganate is placed into a large beaker of water, the system
become mixed over time but is never observed to un-mix.
(d) Discuss whether, if left long enough, the system could un-mix.
2. (a) What is meant by “The Arrow of Time”?
(b) Explain why Newton’s laws do not provide such an arrow.
(c) Explain how thermodynamics does provide such an arrow.
(d) Discuss whether cosmology provides another arrow of time.
3. (a) What does the second law of thermodynamics imply about the
entropy of the early universe? Explain.
(b) What does the second law of thermodynamics imply about the macro-
state of the early universe (in terms of probability)?
4. (a) Explain why living things might seem to violate the second law of
thermodynamics.
(b) Explain how in fact living things do not violate it and are in fact
governed by it.
5. (a) Explain how each of the following statements is consistent with the
fact that the entropy of an isolated system cannot decrease:
(i) It is impossible to transfer thermal energy to mechanical work
with 100% efficiency.
(ii) It is impossible to transfer heat from a colder to a hotter body with
no other changes taking place.
(b) Explain how a refrigerator can transfer heat from a colder to a hotter
body without violating the second law of thermodynamics.
6. Show that the efficiency of an ideal heat engine is limited by the
T
equation, efficiency  1  2 .
T1
 CHAPTER

11
OSCILLATIONS

11.0 Introduction
An oscillator undergoes regular periodic motion about a fixed equilibrium
position (or value). The simple model of a mass oscillating on a spring
can be adapted to explain a wide variety of physical phenomena, from
lattice vibrations in a crystalline solid to the effects of seismic waves. The
mathematical analysis developed to describe mechanical oscillators can also
be used for electrical and electromagnetic oscillations and is the starting
point for understanding all kinds of wave motion.

11.1 Capturing and Displaying Oscillatory Motion

A motion sensor can be used to record the position and time of a simple
oscillator consisting of a mass suspended from a light spring that obeys
Hooke’s law.
The diagram shows a graph of position against time. This is sinusoidal
with an amplitude A and time period T. An oscillation that is purely
sinusoidal is called simple harmonic.
204 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Support

Spring

Amplitude of
oscillation: A
Mass Equilibrium position

Connection to
oscilloscope

Ultrasonic
position Data logger
sensor

Q Amplitude A: maximum displacement from equilibrium

Q Time period T: time for one complete cycle of oscillation
1
Q Frequency f: number of oscillations per second, f 
T
Displacement/cm
5
4
3
2
1
Time/s
0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

-2
-3
-4
-5
 OSCILLATIONS • 205

The graph above shows a simple harmonic oscillation with amplitude

4.0 cm, time period 2.0 s, and frequency 0.50 Hz. At t  0 the oscillator is
at its maximum positive amplitude, so the displacement x of the oscillation
can be represented by cosine function:
x  4.0 cosine (t)
(t is in radians, so when t  2s the oscillator completes one cycle of
oscillation.)
In general the displacement x of a simple harmonic oscillator can be
represented by an equation of the form:
x  A cos  t 
The term in the parentheses is called the phase of oscillation. It is an angle
in radians.
The oscillator must complete one cycle in a time T, so T 2 and
  2/T  2f. This is called the angular frequency of the oscillation.
x  A cos(2 ft )
 is a variable phase angle that affects the displacement at t  0. If   0 the
graph will appear like the one above. If   /2 then the graph will be a
sine curve, starting at x  0. Other values of d simply change the value of
displacement at x  0 without changing the shape of the curve.

11.1.1 Graphs and Equations of Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration

Most motion data loggers connected to a position sensor can also be used
to display velocity and acceleration. Mathematically these are related to
displacement by differentiation:
x  A cos t
dx
v A sin t
dt
dv
a 2 A cos t 2 x
dt
There is a /2 phase difference between v and x and between a and v.
There is a  phase difference between a and x.
The three graphs that follow show how these graphs are related to one
another. Note the maximum values of velocity and acceleration, and when
these occur,
Q vmax  A when displacement is zero
Q amax  2A when displacement is maximum and velocity is zero
206 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Displacement/cm
5
4
3
2
1
0 Time/s
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-2
-3
-4
-5
v = dv/dt
15
Velocity/cms–1 Max. velocity Vmax =
ωA = 2πfA occurs at
10
zero displacement

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Time/s
-5

-10

-15

50
a = dv/dtAcceleration/cms–2 Max. acceleration
40 amax = ω2A = 4π2fA
30 occurs at max.
displacement
20
10
0
-10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Time/s

-20
-30
-40
-50
 OSCILLATIONS • 207

11.1.2 Phase and Phase Difference

Oscillations are cyclic repeated motions, and the position of an oscillator
within its cycle of oscillations is called its phase. Once complete, a cycle
corresponds to a phase change of 360° or 2 radians. In graphical terms, a
phase shift is equivalent to moving the graph along the time axis by a certain
amount. A shift of time period T corresponds to a phase change of 2. The
graph below shows two oscillations with a phase difference of /3.
Displacement/cm
5
4
3
2
1
Time/s
0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

-2
-3
-4
–5

11.2 Simple Harmonic Motion

11.2.1 Equation of Motion for Simple Harmonic Motion
A simple harmonic motion is defined by two characteristics:
Q Acceleration is directed toward a fixed equilibrium position.
Q Acceleration is directly proportional to displacement from that position.
The equation of motion for simple harmonic motion is:
Acceleration   (constant)  (displacement from equilibrium)
a  2 x
This can be written as a second-order differential equation:
d2 x
2 x
dt 2
The constant is written as 2 because this turns out to be physically
significant (it corresponds to the angular frequency of the oscillation).
A general solution to this equation is:
x  A cos  t 
208 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

as can be easily shown by differentiating this twice. It then follows that:

  2f  2/T
Notice that if we did not use a squared term for the constant in the equation
of motion, we might have had a square-root in this solution.

11.2.2 Physical Conditions for Simple Harmonic Motion

To show that a mechanical oscillator will exhibit simple harmonic motion,
we must demonstrate that the forces acting on the oscillator will result in an
equation of motion of the form a  2x. For an oscillator of constant mass
m, this will be true if F  ma  m2x. The conditions are:
Q Resultant force is directed toward a fixed equilibrium position.
Q Resultant force is directly proportional to displacement from that
position.
Once we have established that this is the case, we can find  and hence f
from the constant of proportionality between force and displacement:
If F µx, then F  kx  m2x

k 1 k
So  and f
m 2 m
11.3 Mass-Spring Oscillator
An ideal mass-spring oscillator has a mass m attached to a massless spring
with spring constant k. In equilibrium the spring has an extension x0. At this
point the weight of the mass is supported by the tension in the spring.
kx0  mg
When the spring is displaced from equilibrium by an additional amount x,
the magnitude of the resultant force on the mass becomes:
k(x  x0) mg  kx
kx0 k(x0 + x)

Equilibrium
x

mg
mg
 OSCILLATIONS • 209

Resultant force is in the opposite direction to the displacement from

equilibrium, so:
F  kx
This satisfies our conditions for simple harmonic motion, so an ideal mass-
spring oscillator is a simple harmonic oscillator. Now we can use angular
frequency to find the frequency and time period:
For simple harmonic motion, F  m2x
For the mass-spring oscillator, F  kx
k
Therefore, 
m
1 k m
which gives f  and T  2 
2 m k
11.4 Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum consists of a point mass suspended from a light in
extensible string of length l. When it is displaced by a small angle from its
equilibrium position, it undergoes regular oscillations that are approximately
simple harmonic.

l Direction of
resultant
force
θ

mg
A B
x

The free body diagram on the right shows that the resultant of the two
forces (tension and weight) acting on the bob will be mg sin  along the line
shown. If we consider the horizontal motion (along AB), then the resultant
force acting horizontally is:
F mg sin  cos 
210 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

It is clear from the diagram on the left that sin   x/l, so

mgx
F  cos 
l
This does not satisfy our condition for simple harmonic motion because the
resultant force is proportional to x cos  and not just to x (cos  is itself a
function of x). However, for small angles, cos  is approximately equal to 1;
so the smaller the angular amplitude of the oscillation, the closer it will be
to an ideal simple harmonic oscillator:
 mg 
As   0, cos   1 and F →  l x
 
Under these conditions the constant of proportionality between F and x is
(mg/l).
mg
Therefore, 
l

1 g l
which gives f  and T  2 
2 l g
Notice that this is independent of the mass of the bob. This is because the
resultant force is directly proportional to the mass, so mass will cancel when
calculating accelerations:
a  F/m  (constant  m)/m.
This is for the same reason that objects of different mass fall with the same
acceleration in the same gravitational field.

11.5 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

11.5.1 Variation of Energy with Time
A simple harmonic oscillator continually transfers energy between kinetic
energy and potential energy. For the simple pendulum the potential energy
is purely gravitational; for the mass-spring oscillator it is a combination of
gravitational and potential. If frictional forces (damping) can be neglected,
the total energy of the oscillator, which is the sum of its kinetic and
potential energies, remains constant. Under these conditions the oscillator
is described as a free oscillator.
It is easy to analyze the energy of the oscillator by starting with its
kinetic energy.
1 1 1
KE  mv2  m(A sin (t))2  m2 A2 sin 2 (t)
2 2 2
 OSCILLATIONS • 211

If we take potential energy to be zero at the equilibrium position, then the

maximum kinetic energy is equal to the total energy TE:
1
TE  m2 A2
2
TE  KE  PE,
1 1
So PE  TE  KE  m2 A2 1  sin 2 (t)  m2 A2 cos2 (t)
2 2
The graphs below shows how each type of energy varies during one cycle
of oscillation.
Energy/J
3
One cycle
2.5

2
TE

1.5 PE
KE
1

0.5

Time/s
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Notice that both KE and PE reach their maximum values twice per
oscillation; this is because they are related to the square of the sine and
cosine.

11.5.2 Variation of Energy with Position

The graphs above show how energy varies with time during one oscillation.
It is also interesting to see how the different types of energy vary with
position. To do this we will look at the work done by the resultant force F.
Since F  kx for simple harmonic motion, we can find the total energy
of the oscillator by integrating the work done by the oscillator as it moves
from equilibrium to one amplitude.
xA xA
W  Fdx    kxdx  12 kA 2

x0 x0
212 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The oscillator had maximum KE at equilibrium and has zero KE at the

amplitude, so the maximum KE, and therefore total energy of the oscillator,
is given by:
1
TE  kA2
2
By the same analysis, the work done in moving to a displacement x is ½ kx2
therefore:
1
KE  k( A2  x2 )
2
1
PE  kx2
2
The variation of each type of energy with position is shown below:
3
Energy/J
2.5

2
TE
1.5
PE

1 KE

0.5

0 Position/cm
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

11.5.3 Damping
Real oscillators are subject to frictional forces that oppose their motion.
The oscillator must do mechanical work against these forces, so (unless
it is driven by an external energy source) its total energy decreases with
time and so does its amplitude. The oscillator is damped. The heavier the
damping, the greater the rate at which the oscillator loses energy and the
greater the rate of decay of its amplitude. In many cases the amplitude
decays approximately exponentially. This occurs when the oscillator loses
the same fraction of its total energy on each oscillation.
 OSCILLATIONS • 213

Displacement/cm
5
4
3
2
1
Time/s
0
-1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

-2
-3
-4

If the oscillation does decay exponentially, its displacement varies according

to an equation of the form:
x  Aet cos(t)
where  is a damping coefficient.
Light damping has very little effect on the natural frequency of the
oscillator, but heavy damping reduces this frequency.

11.6 Forced Oscillations and Resonance

If an oscillator is driven by an external periodic force, it is called a forced
(or driven) oscillator. Its response to the driver depends on the relationship
between the frequency of the driver fd and its natural frequency f0 for free
oscillations. It will also depend on the strength of coupling to the driver and
on the amount of damping in the system.
The qualitative effects on a forced oscillator can be demonstrated very
simply. Take a simple pendulum of about 1 m length and hold the end
of the string in your hand. Move your hand back and forth along a line
at a very low frequency with an amplitude of about 2.0 cm. The string
remains more or less vertical, and the bob of the pendulum moves with
the same amplitude phase and frequency as your hand. Gradually increase
the frequency of hand movement while keeping the same amplitude of
motion. The bob continues to move with the driving frequency but with an
increasing amplitude; and at a certain frequency, the amplitude of the bob’s
motion increases dramatically while lagging about /2 behind in phase. If
you continue to increase the frequency beyond this point, the amplitude of
214 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

response gets smaller; and when you shake the string at a high frequency,
the bob stays almost still at the center of its motion. Closer inspection shows
that it does oscillate with the driver frequency but with a tiny amplitude
and a phase lag of almost  The strong response occurs when the driving
frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the oscillator and is called
resonance. This pattern of response is shown in the graph below.
Amplitude Strong
of oscillator resonance
peak

Effect of
increasing
damping

Driver
amplitude Driver
frequency, fd
fd = f 0

Increasing damping has two effects:

Q the amplitude at resonance is lower
Q the frequency of the resonance is slightly below the natural frequency, f0
At resonance the oscillator absorbs energy from the driver and the amplitude
grows until energy losses due to damping occur at the same rate as energy
is supplied from the driver. As damping is reduced, this balance occurs at
ever-increasing amplitudes, and if there was no damping, it would grow
without limit. This can be destructive, and this kind of destructive resonance
is applied in ultrasonic devices used for cleaning jewelry or breaking up
kidney stones. In other situations damping is deliberately increased in
order to reduce the amplitude at resonance and protect the structure, for
example, in the design of earthquake-resistant buildings.
The phase relation between the driver and the driven oscillator varies
from 0 at very low frequencies to  at high frequencies. At resonance the
driven oscillator lags the driver by /2.
 OSCILLATIONS • 215

Phase difference
between driver and
driven
π

π/2

0 Driver frequency,
fd

11.7 Exercises

1. A particle moves with simple harmonic motion between points A and C

in the diagram below. Where is it at the instance when:
A B C

(a) it is stationary?
(b) it has maximum velocity to the right?
(c) it has zero acceleration?
(d) it has maximum acceleration to the left?
(e) it has maximum kinetic energy?
(f) it has maximum potential energy?
2. The diagram below shows a vehicle tethered between two similar
springs. When it is displaced from equilibrium and released, it
undergoes periodic oscillations about an equilibrium position. Neither
spring goes slack during these oscillations and both springs obey
Hooke’s law in compression and extension. The vehicle has a mass of
0.80 kg.
x

M
A B
Equilibrium position
216 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(a) Explain what is meant by the “equilibrium position.”

(b) Explain why the oscillations will be simple harmonic.
The trolley is displaced 6.0 cm to the right and released. It oscillates
with a period of 2.0 s.
(c) Calculate the frequency of the oscillations.
(d) State the initial amplitude of the oscillations.
(e) Write down an equation for the displacement of the trolley as a
function of time. Take t  0 to be the moment of release.
(f) Sketch graphs of (i) displacement versus time, (ii) velocity versus time,
and (iii) acceleration versus time for the motion of the trolley when it
is released from an initial displacement of 6.0 cm and then oscillates
with a period of 2.0 s. Draw the graphs one above the other and label
them as completely as you can.
(g) Calculate the maximum velocity and total energy of the oscillations.
(h) What would happen to the period of oscillation if the trolley is stopped
and then released from a displacement of 3.0 cm?
(i) The period of oscillations will change if the mass is changed or the
stiffness of the springs is changed. Why?
(j) After the trolley is released, its oscillations gradually die away. Explain
why this happens.
(k) As the oscillations decay, successive amplitudes are:6.0, 5.4, 4.9, 4.4,
3.9, 3.5, 3.2 cm
A student suggests that the amplitude is decaying exponentially.
Devise and carry out a test on this data to check this suggestion.
(l) Predict the amplitude of the oscillator after 10 oscillations.

3. (a) Show that x = A cos t is a solution to the simple harmonic equation

d2 x
of motion 2 2 x
dt
(b) A particular oscillation can be represented by the equation: x  2.5
cos 10 t.
(i) State the amplitude of this oscillation.
(ii) Calculate the time period and frequency of the oscillation.
(iii) Calculate the maximum velocity of the oscillator.
(iv) Calculate the maximum acceleration of the oscillator.
(c) (i) Derive an equation for the variation of kinetic energy with time for
this oscillator given that the mass of the oscillator is 0.50 kg.
(ii) Sketch a graph of kinetic energy with time for this oscillator.
 OSCILLATIONS • 217

(iii) Add a second line to your graph to show the variation of potential
energy with time.
4. During an earthquake the floor of a building oscillates vertically with
an amplitude A and frequency f. Derive a formula for the frequency at
which objects in contact with the floor will just lose contact during the
earthquake.
5. An atom of mass 5  1026 kg is in a cubic lattice with all bonds between
adjacent pairs of atoms having a spring constant about 100 Nm1.
(a) Estimate the natural frequency of oscillation of the atom.
(b) If it is able to absorb radiation at this frequency, what part of the
electromagnetic spectrum does it absorb?

6. A simple pendulum has a period of 1.6 seconds on Earth.

(a) Calculate its length.
(b) As the temperature rises, its length increases by 1%. Calculate the
percentage change in its time period and state whether this is an
increase or a decrease.
(c) Explain why the mass of the pendulum bob does not affect its time
period.
(d) A mass-spring oscillator is set up so that it has the same time period as
the pendulum. Both are then transported to the Moon. How do their
time periods compare on the moon? Explain.
 CHAPTER

12
ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

12.0 Introduction
The circle is a simple geometric shape that is used throughout science to
model cyclic processes and is often the starting point for more complex
theories (e.g., of planetary motion or electron orbits). Simple harmonic
motion can be regarded as a projection of circular motion onto a diameter,
making the concept of phase very clear. Rotating vectors, or phasors, are
powerful ways to model oscillations and waves.

12.1 Angles
12.1.1 Measuring Angles in Radians
The degree is an arbitrary division of the circle into 360 equal parts.
This is a useful measure of angle, but in physics it is often simpler to work in
a different unit, the radian. The reason for this is that the radian is defined
directly from the geometry of the circle.
Q Definition: The angle  at the center of a circle subtended by an arc of
length l is equal to the ratio l/r where r is the radius of the circle.
220 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

r l
θ = l/r
For a complete circle, l = 2πr
θ
Therefore, θcircle = 2π radians
To convert between degrees and radians,
2π radians = 360°; π radians = 180°;
π/2 radians = 90°

12.1.2 Small-Angle Approximations

For small angles there are some useful approximations that can simplify
calculations involving trigonometric functions such as sine and cosine.
Consider a right-angled triangle used to define the trigonometric functions
(a  adjacent side, o  opposite side, h  hypotenuse).

l
θ= (h= radius of
h
circle)
h o
sin θ =
h
o
a
cos θ =
θ h
As θ → 0 o → l and
a a → h (radius)
therefore:
sin θ → θ (in radians)
cos θ → 1
tan = sin θ → θ
cos θ

The significance of this is that, for small angles, we can replace the sine
or tangent of the angle with the angle itself (in radians). But how small
is small? Like all approximations this depends on how precise a value is
needed. The table below shows that the approximations work to better than
1% when the angle is 0.1 radian and better than 2% for 0.2 radian.
 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS • 221

Angle in sine of cosine of tangent of Angle in

radians angle angle angle degrees
1.00 0.842 0.540 1.56 57.3
0.50 0.479 0.878 0.546 28.6
0.30 0.296 0.955 0.309 17.2
0.20 0.199 0.980 0.203 11.5
0.10 0.0998 0.995 0.100 5.73

12.2 Describing Uniform Circular Motion

An object moving in uniform circular motion has constant speed and turns
through the same angle every second.

12.2.1 Angular Displacement, Angular Velocity, and Angular Acceleration

Consider an object of mass m moving in uniform circular motion of radius
r at a constant speed v. There is a linear displacement s and angular
displacement  in time t.
m
Angular velocity is defined as the rate of
r δθ
change of angle, ω = (rads–1)
δt
v From the diagram, γθ = δs = vδt
δθ r r
v
Therefore, δθ =
δt r
Taking δt → 0 gives:
v
ω= or v = rω
r
This is a particularly useful relation.

For uniform circular motion,   constant, so the angular displacement

 t. If the period of rotation is T, then:
2
2   T and   2 f
T
which relates the angular frequency (rads1) to the rotation frequency
f (Hz) or the time period of rotation T(s).
The angular acceleration a is defined as the rate of change of angular
velocity:
d d 2 
  2
dt dt
222 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

For circular motion, the radius is constant, so:

d  d  v  1 dv a
    
dt dt r  r dt r
where a is the tangential acceleration (not to be confused with centripetal
force).

12.3 Centripetal Acceleration and Centripetal Force

In uniform circular motion, angular velocity and speed are both constant.
Velocity, however, is continually changing. This is because velocity is a
vector quantity and its direction is changing. Acceleration is defined as the
rate of change of velocity, so even though speed is unchanging, the object
is accelerating. The direction of this acceleration (as we shall see later) is
toward the center of the circle: this is called a centripetal acceleration.
From Newton’s second law there must be a resultant force acting toward
the center of the circle. This is called a centripetal force, and it is this force
that is responsible for circular motion.

12.3.1 Centripetal Acceleration

Consider a mass m moving in uniform circular motion at constant angular
velocity . The vector diagram on the right shows how the velocity changes
during a short time t.

For small angles, v in the vector triangle becomes equivalent to an arc of

a circle (shown by the dotted line), so:
v
As   0, → 
v
vt
We also have  
r
 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS • 223

Equating the two expressions for :

vt v v v2
 and a  
r v t r
In the limit of d  0,
dv v2
a 
dt r
This is an expression for the acceleration. This can also be written in terms
of the angular velocity, a  r2.
It is also clear from the vector diagram that in the limit of   0 the
vector change in velocity v becomes perpendicular to both v1 and v2 and
is directed inwards of the center of the circle. It is a centripetal (center-
seeking) acceleration.
v2
Centripetal acceleration, a   r 2 , is toward the center of the
r
circle.

12.3.2 Centripetal Force

Newton’s first law of motion states that an object will continue to move in
a straight line at constant velocity unless acted upon by a resultant external
force. This implies that, when an object changes direction of motion, even if
its speed does not change, there must be a resultant external force. Newton’s
second law relates the resultant force to acceleration by the equation F 
ma, so the magnitude of the force acting in uniform circular motion is given
by:
mv2
Centripetal force, F  ma   mr 2 , is toward the center of the
r
circle.

12.3.3 Centripetal Not Centrifugal!

It is a matter of common experience that one feels forced to the outside of
the curve when traveling inside a turning vehicle. This is often explained
by saying that a centrifugal (“center fleeing”) force acts outward from the
center of the turning circle. This force does not exist. It is an apparent or
“inertial” force that seems to be needed to make sense of motion in a non-
inertial (accelerating) reference frame. To understand this more clearly,
consider how a loose object would behave inside a moving vehicle that is
initially moving in a straight line and then begins to turn in an arc of a circle.
The object is free to slide inside the vehicle and is initially traveling at the
same speed as the vehicle. The upper diagrams show the view from outside
the vehicle, and the lower diagrams show the view from inside the vehicle.
224 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

v v
v

Vehicle and object moving at the

v
same constant velocity

Vehicle begins to turn, but there is no resultant force

on object, so it continues to move in a straight line

Vehicle collides with an object providing inward force:

object begins to move in circular motion

Object remains at rest Object collides with wall and

inside vehicle exerts an outward force on it

Relative to vehicle the object begins to

accelerate toward side. This is explained by
assuming there is an outward centrifugal force

In the top case we are describing the physics from an external non-
accelerating (inertial) frame of reference. Newton’s laws of motion apply, so
the object continues to move in a straight line in the absence of a resultant
force. There is no acceleration or resultant force until the side of the vehicle
has moved inwards and collided with the sliding object.
In the bottom case the apparent acceleration is because the observer is
inside the vehicle and does not take into account his own acceleration. In
order to explain the apparent acceleration of the object, he introduces an
imaginary outward force, the centrifugal force.
Centrifugal forces are examples of inertial forces, introduced in
order to explain observed physics from a non-inertial (accelerating) frame
of reference. Unlike the centripetal forces in an inertial reference frame,
inertial forces have no physical origin and that is why they are referred to as
imaginary. They are helpful if we need to solve physical problems inside a
rotating reference frame, but we must always bear in mind that they are an
artifact of our reference frame and do not arise from physical causes.
 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS • 225

12.3.4 Moving in Uniform Circular Motion

When an object moves in uniform circular motion, velocity and acceleration
are always perpendicular. This means that force is also perpendicular to
velocity, so there is never a displacement in the direction of the resultant
force and the resultant force does no work on the object. The diagram
shows velocity and acceleration vectors at different positions in the circle.
v
v

a
v a a

a v
a

a
v v

When you swing a stone in a circle on the end of a string, the forces acting on
the stone are directed toward the center of the circle. If the string suddenly
breaks, the stone has no resultant force acting on it and flies off along a
tangent; it does not accelerate outwards because there is no centrifugal
force. It moves in a straight line at constant velocity. (Here we ignore the
effects of other external forces such as gravity.)
A v
Initial path of stone if string
breaks when stone is at point A

Note that centripetal force is not a new kind of force. It is the magnitude of
the resultant force on a body moving with constant uniform circular motion.
It arises as a result of the real physical forces that act on it. In some cases this
is simple. For example, the Moon’s orbit around the Earth is approximately
circular, and the centripetal force is provided by the gravitational attraction
toward the Earth.
4 2 mr
Fgrav  mr 2 
T2
226 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Fgrav
Moon

Earth
Fgr
av Moon
later

T is the Moon’s orbital period, r is its orbital radius, and m is its mass.
A more complex situation involves an object moving in a vertical circle
in a uniform vertical gravitational field. Examples might be a person on a fun
fair ride, a plane looping the loop, or just a stone on a string. If the motion
is uniform (constant angular velocity) the resultant force stays constant in
magnitude, but the forces that contribute to it change. The example below
shows a person standing in a capsule on a fairground ride and indicates the
forces in four different positions. The capsule is rotating at constant angular
velocity.
Only two forces act on the man. His weight mg is the same in all
positions, but the contact force R from the floor of the capsule changes
with position. The resultant force at all points is the vector sum of weight
and reaction force and must be F  mr2 toward the center of the circle.
A

R ω R
D θ θ B

mg mg

C
mg
 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS • 227

Position A
Weight and contact force act in the same direction, so mr2  mg  RA
R A  mr2  mg
For one particular angular velocity 0, the contact force falls to zero,
g
RA  0. This is when mr 20  mg, so 0  .
r
Under these conditions the contact force between the man and the floor
is zero and he feels “weightless.” This is only an apparent weightlessness
because he is in fact free-falling at this moment and the capsule is
accelerating downwards at g. For higher values of angular velocity, there
must be a contact force from the floor. For lower values of angular velocity
he will lose contact with the floor and begin to fall downwards toward the
roof of the capsule. In practice this sets a minimum value for the practical
angular velocity in such a fairground ride.

Position C
Weight and contact force act in opposite directions, so mr2  RA  mg
R A  mr2  mg
The contact force is greater than his weight. He experiences this through
the reaction force from the floor pushing up on his feet. This makes him
feel heavy at the bottom, as if his weight has increased. Once again this is
only an apparent increase in weight since the gravitational forces have not
changed.

RD RB
mg mg
θ θ
Resultant = mrω2 Resultant = mrω2
RD sin θ = mg RD sin θ = mg
RD cos θ = mrω2 RD cos θ = mrω2
tan θ = g/rω2 tan θ = g/rω2

Positions B and D
In both positions the contact force has a vertical component that balances
the weight and a horizontal component that provides centripetal force.
228 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

12.4 Circular Motion, Simple Harmonic Motion, and Phasors

Simple harmonic motion is equivalent to the projection of circular motion
onto a diameter. This can be shown using a phasor, a rotating vector. The
length of the phasor, A, defines the radius of the circle and is equal to the
amplitude of the simple harmonic motion. The constant angular velocity
 of rotation of the phasor is equal to the angular frequency of the simple
harmonic motion. The angle the phasor turns through is the phase of the
simple harmonic motion.
Displacement
t=0
A

t = 3T/4 Time
t = T/4

t = T/2 −A
t=0 t = T/4 t = T/2 t = 3T/4 t=T

Phasors are a useful mathematical tool that is particularly useful when

analyzing wave superposition.

A θ A cos θ Component of phasor on x-axis: x = A cos θ

For rotation at constant angular velocity, θ = ωt
Therefore, x = A cos ωt (the equation for the
displacement of a simple harmonic oscillator)

12.5 Rotational Kinematics

12.5.1 Equations of Uniform Angular Acceleration
The suvat equations are invaluable when dealing with problems of constant
acceleration. There is a corresponding set of equations for rotation under
 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS • 229

constant angular acceleration. Since the underlying definitions of linear and

angular motion are mathematically equivalent, all the equations have the
same form; we simply replace linear variables with rotational variables.
Linear definitions Rotational definitions
Displacement s Angular 
displacement
Velocity ds Angular velocity d
v 
dt dt
Acceleration Angular acceleration
dv d 2 s d d 2 
a    2
dt dt 2 dt dt
This allows us to use the following analogy:
s
u  i
v  f
a
tt
to generate the corresponding rotational equations for uniform angular
acceleration:
v  u  at   f  i  t
 u  v t (i  f )t
s  
2 2
1 1
s  ut  at 2    i t  t
2 2
1 2 1
s  vt  at     f t  t 2
2 2
v2  u2  2 as  2f  2i  2 

These are used in exactly the same way as the original suvat equations.

12.5.2 Rotational Kinetic Energy

When a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis through its center of mass, it has
no translational kinetic energy. However, every point mass inside the body
has a velocity and, therefore, has its own kinetic energy. The sum of all of
these kinetic energies is equal to the rotational kinetic energy of the body.
When a body is rolling, it has both translational kinetic energy (because
its center of mass is moving) and rotational kinetic energy (because it is
230 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

rotating about its center of mass). The total kinetic energy is equal to the
sum of translational and rotational kinetic energies.
The diagram below shows a rigid body rotating about its center of mass
(CM). It consists of N particles and the ith particle has mass mi and is at a
distance ri from the axis.
mi

ri vi

CM

The kinetic energy of the ith particle is:

kei  ½ mivi2  ½ miri2 2
The rotational kinetic energy of the body is:
iN iN

RKE  ke   12 m r
i i i
2
2
i1 i1
The angular velocity is the same for all particles, so:

1 
iN

RKE  
2
m  2 2
i i 
r
 i1 
The term in parentheses is called the moment of inertia I of the body:
 iN 
I  m r 2
i i 
 i1 
2
The S.I. unit of moment of inertia is kgm .
Moment of inertia in rotational dynamics plays an analogous role to
mass (inertia) in linear mechanics. However, unlike mass, the moment of
inertia is not a fixed quantity for a body because it depends on both the
mass and its distribution about the axis of rotation.
Using moment of inertia we can extend the analogy between linear and
rotational motion:
Linear kinetic energy  ½ mv2  Rotational kinetic energy  ½ I2
 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS • 231

Here is an example that involves both translational and rotational

kinetic energy: a cylinder of radius r, mass m, and moment of inertia I
rolling without slipping down an inclined plane so that its center of mass
drops through a vertical height h.

h
ω

Neglecting energy losses due to friction, the gain in total kinetic energy
must equal the loss of gravitational potential energy. If the cylinder starts
from rest, then its final kinetic energy will be (using   v/r):
mgh  translational KE  rotational KE
 ½ mv2  ½ I2  ½ mv2  ½ Iv2/r2
This can be rearranged to give the linear velocity at the bottom:
2mgh
v
 I
m  2 
 r 
The larger the moment of inertia, the lower the final linear velocity. This is
because a larger fraction of the energy goes into rotation. A cylinder has a
larger moment of inertia than a sphere because more of the mass is farther
from the axis. If a cylinder and ball are rolled down the same slope side by
side, then the ball will reach the bottom first.
If the surface is completely smooth and the object slides without rolling,
then there is no rotational kinetic energy and the expression above reduces
to:
v  2 gh
This shows that a block sliding down a smooth slope will always get to the
bottom faster than any round rolling object on the same slope.

12.5.3 Angular Momentum

The angular momentum of a point mass is defined as the moment of its
momentum about a point. That is the linear momentum multiplied by its
perpendicular distance from the point considered.
232 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Magnitude of linear momentum, p = mv

Magnitude of angular momentum, l = mvr
v
r S.I. unit of angular momentum is kgms–1 or Js

Angular momentum is actually the vector cross-product of the displacement

vector r and the linear momentum p. This is written as l  r^p. The direction
of angular momentum is related to the axis of rotation. For 2D problems we
need to only consider whether the direction is clockwise or counterclockwise.
The angular momentum of a rigid body can be found by summing the
individual contributions from each point particle inside the body (in the
same way that we derived a formula for rotational kinetic energy).
mi

ri vi

CM

The angular momentum of the ith particle is:

li  m i vi ri  m i ri2 
The angular momentum of the whole body is, therefore,
iN iN

L  m rli  i i
2

i1 i1
The angular velocity is the same for all particles, so:
 iN 
L 
  m i ri
2
 I
 i1 
iN

Notice that the moment of inertia I of the body, m r i i

2
, once again
i1
plays a role analogous to mass in linear mechanics.
Linear momentum  mv  Angular momentum  I
 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS • 233

12.5.4 Second Law of Motion for Rotation

In linear mechanics, resultant force is equal to the rate of change of linear
momentum. An analogous relation exists in rotational motion and depends
on the torque or moment of a force.

Torque (moment of a force)

i Torque, Γ = force ×
F
perpendicular distance
m from pivot P = Fr
S.I. unit of torque is Nm
P

(Mathematically torque is the vector cross-product of force and displacement

from the pivot to the point of application of the force.)
When a resultant torque is applied to a rigid body, each point
particle inside the body experiences a resultant force that causes a linear
acceleration. The sum of torques from these individual forces must equal
the total resultant force on the body.
mi

ri fi

CM

For the ith particle, f i  m i ai  m i ri  (using a  r)

iN iN iN

=  f i ri   m i ai ri  m r i i
2
 I 
i1 i1 i1
This has the same form as Newton’s second law in linear mechanics:
Linear case, F  ma  Rotational case,   I
234 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

d
We can use  to relate this to angular momentum.
dt
d(mv) d(I)
Linear case, F → 
dt dt
We can now state Newton’s laws of motion in a form that applies to
rotational motion.
Q Newton’s first law for rotational motion
An object continues to rotate with constant angular momentum until acted
upon by a resultant external torque.
Q Newton’s second law for rotational motion
The resultant external torque on a system is equal to the rate of change of
angular momentum of that system.
Q Newton’s third law for rotation
When object A exerts a torque on object B, B exerts an equal but opposite
torque on A.

12.5.5 Conservation of Angular Momentum

Newton’s laws of motion for rotation show that angular momentum can
only change as a result of an external resultant torque.
d(I) so

dt
, 
  I  dt

That is, change of angular momentum  angular impulse

They also show that when systems interact, the torques experienced
by each system are equal and opposite, so while they interact they exert
equal and opposite angular impulses on one another. Consequently any
change of momentum of system A is equal and opposite to the change of
momentum of system B, and the total angular momentum of the combined
system does not change. This can be stated as the law of conservation of
angular momentum:
The angular momentum of an isolated system (no external resultant
torque) is constant.
An interesting example of this is when an ice-skater pirouettes. She
balances on the point of one skate while rotating relatively slowly with arms
and one leg outstretched. Gradually she draws her arms and leg closer
to the axis of rotation, thus reducing her moment of inertia. There is no
 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS • 235

external torque, so her angular momentum (L  I) cannot change. If I

falls,  must increase, so she spins faster. Another similar example is the
collapse of the core of a massive star at the end of its life. Its radius reduces
by many orders of magnitude, so the rotation rate can be very high—some
neutron stars have rotation periods of less than one millisecond.

12.6 Deriving Expressions for Moments of Inertia

Moment of inertia is defined by the equation I   iN

i1

m i ri2 , and we can
use this to derive useful expressions for the moments of inertia of a range of
standard mass distributions.

12.6.1 Moment of Inertia of One or More Point Masses

For a single-point mass distance r from the center of rotation,
m
ri
P

 iN 
I 
  m 2
i i  mr
r 2

 i1 
r1 m1
r2

r3 m2

m3

For several point masses at various distances from the center of rotation,
 iN 
I  
 m i ri 2  m1 r12  m2 r2 2  m3 r32

 i1 
12.6.2 Moment of Inertia of a Rod
For a continuous mass distribution we need to convert the sum into an
integral. For a thin rod lying along the x-axis this can be done by considering
a short section of length x.
l
P
x
δx
236 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Let the total mass of the rod be m. The mass of the short section of length
m x
x at distance x from the center of rotation is m  , and the moment
l
mx2 x
of inertia of this section (treated as a point mass) is I  .
l
The moment of inertia of the rod about one end is, therefore,
 iN  xl xl
mx2 dx 1 2

 2

Irod end  m i ri  äI  
l
 ml
3
 i1  x0 x0
A similar approach can be used to determine the moment of inertia about
any point in the rod. For example, the moment of inertia about the center
of the rod would be found by taking x  0 at the center and then integrating
from l/2 to l/2:
 iN  xl xl /2
mx2 dx 1
Irod CM    
 m i ri 2  äI   l
 ml 2
12
 i1  x0 xl /2

This moment of inertia is smaller than the moment of inertia about one end
because more of the mass is now closer to the axis of rotation.
You can get a qualitative “feel” for moment of inertia by taking a rod
(e.g., ruler) holding it in the center and trying to rotate it back and forth.
You will feel a resistance to rotation. Now do the same thing while holding
it near one end. The resistance to rotation has increased significantly—the
moment of inertia is larger.

12.6.3 Moment of Inertia of a Cylindrical Shell and a Uniform Cylinder

A cylindrical shell or ring with thickness much less than its radius rotating
about its center has all of its mass at a constant distance from the center of
rotation. Its moment of inertia is therefore simply I  mr2 where m is the
mass of the shell. We can find the moment of inertia of a disc or cylinder by
integrating over all of the thin cylindrical shells that make it up.

Solid cylinder is
made up of an
r infinite number
of infinitely thin
shells
 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS • 237

The diagram that follows shows an end view of a solid cylinder of total mass
m and radius r. A thin shell at radius x is shown.
Thin cylindrical shell
of thickness δx and
mass δm

The moment of inertia of a cylindrical shell is I  mx2, and the mass of the
2 xmx 2 xmx
shell is a fraction of the mass of the cylinder given by m   .
r 2 r2
This is because the area of the shaded strip above is effectively 2xx if
treated like a long thin rectangle.
The moment of inertia of the entire cylinder is then:
xr xr
2 mx3 dx 1 2
Icylinder   I   r2
 mr
2
x0 x0
12.6.4 Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Sphere
A uniform sphere of mass m and radius r can be considered to be made up
of an infinite number of thin discs of varying radius. The total moment of
inertia is the sum of moments of inertia of all such discs.
The moment of inertia of the sphere is:

Isphere   12 x dm
2

0
In order to integrate this we must express m in terms of d. It simplifies
things if we introduce the density of the material of the sphere  at this
stage.
m  r 2sin 2 x
238 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Thin disc of thickness δx a distance

x r x above center of sphere has mass
θ δm and radius r cos θ.
Its moment of inertia about the
Axis of rotation

rotation axis is δl = 1/2 x2 δm.

However, x and  are related by:

x  r cos ,
dx
so r sin 
d
So we can replace dx by r sin  d

Isphere    12 r 5
sin 5 d
0
This can be integrated using standard techniques to give:
8 r 5
Isphere 
15
3m
Now replace the density with  to give:
4 r 3
2
Isphere  mr 2
5

12.7 Torque Work and Power

It should come as no surprise that we can extend the analogy between linear
and rotational motion to include work and power. This can be shown using
the same summation techniques as we used in Sections 12.5.2 and 12.5.3.
The important results are:
Work: W  Fs (constant force) W   (constant torque)

W  Fds → W  dt 
Power: P  Fv  P  
 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS • 239

12.8 Rotational Oscillations—The Compound Pendulum

A compound pendulum consists of an extended rigid body pivoted at one
point and undergoing regular periodic oscillations. In order to analyze these
oscillations, we need to consider the resultant torque when the pendulum is
displaced through a small angle from its equilibrium position.
The center of mass (CM) is a distance h below the pivot P.
P
P

h θ θ h

CM CM

mg
Equilibrium

The right-hand diagram shows how the weight produces a restoring

torque   mgh sin  (negative sign indicates that this is directed toward
equilibrium) when the body is displaced through angle .
From Newton’s second law,
d d2
I I 2
dt dt
The equation of motion for this compound pendulum is, therefore,
d2 mgh sin 
2  I
dt
For small angles, sin    (in radians), so for small angles we can write
(approximately):
d2  mgh 
2  I 
dt  
This has the same mathematical form as the equation of motion for simple
harmonic motion:
d2 x
2 x
dt 2
So it will have sinusoidal solutions of the same kind.
240 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The compound pendulum undergoes simple harmonic angular

oscillations (for small angles). Its period and frequency can be found using:
 mgh 
2  
 I 
I 1 mgh
giving T  2  and f
mgh 2 I
12.9 Exercises

1. (a) Use Newton’s laws of motion and a suitable diagram to show that
for an object to move in uniform circular motion there must be a
resultant force acting toward the center of the circle.
(b) Explain why a centripetal force cannot do work on an object moving
in circular motion.
2. A small ball of mass m is released from a height h on a track that leads to
a looping section as shown below.

h
r
B

A
(a) Derive an expression in terms of r for the minimum height h from
which the ball can be released if it is to complete the loop without
losing contact with the track. Ignore the rotational motion of the ball
and assume friction is negligible.
(b) Draw free body diagrams to show the forces acting on the ball at
points A, B, and C.
(c) Discuss whether the resultant force on the ball is toward the center
of the circle at all points as it completes the loop.
(d) Derive an expression for the velocity of the ball at point C.
 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS • 241

3. A car tire of radius r is rolling along a flat horizontal surface at constant

speed v. Copy the diagram below and add labeled arrows to show the
velocity and acceleration of a particle fixed to the tire at each of the
points A to D.
C

D B

4. A vinyl record rotates at 33 revolutions per minute. Its diameter is 30 cm

and its mass 200 g.
(a) Calculate the time period of the rotation.
(b) Calculate the frequency of the rotation.
(c) Calculate the angular velocity of the record.
(d) Calculate the angular momentum of the record.
(e) Calculate the average torque needed to accelerate the record to its
playing speed in 0.50 s.
(f) Calculate the rotational kinetic energy of the record.
5. Derive an expression for the moment of inertia of a uniform rod of
length l rotating about an axis perpendicular to the rod and through a
point one third of the way along the rod.
6. A space station consists of two spherical accommodation pods of radius
20 m separated by a connecting tunnel of length 400 m. The mass of
each pod is 50,000 kg and the mass of the connecting tunnel is
80,000 kg. The space station is rotating about its center of mass.
40 m

400 m

(a) Estimate the moment of inertia of the space station about its
rotation axis by treating the pods as point masses concentrated at
242 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

their centers of mass and by treating the connecting tunnel as a rod.

The moment of inertia of a rod of mass m and length l about its CM
1 2
is given by I  12 ml .
(b) Explain why an astronaut standing on the outer edge of a pod would
experience artificial gravity.
(c) Calculate the angular velocity of rotation that will create an effect of
artificial gravity of strength 9.8 Nkg1 at the outer edge of the pods.
(d) Calculate the rotational kinetic energy of the space station when its
angular velocity is 0.20 rads−1.

7. A small flywheel has a moment of inertia of 2.0  103 kgm2 and it is

rotating at 50 revolutions per second. The frictional torque working
against rotation is 2.4  102 Nm.
(a) Calculate the angular momentum of the flywheel including
appropriate units.
(b) Calculate the time taken for the flywheel to come to rest.
8. A group of children are sitting on the outside of a roundabout that
is rotating at a constant rate. They all move toward the center of the
roundabout and it speeds up. Explain why this occurs and discuss the
angular momentum and energy changes that take place in this system.
Assume that external torques can be ignored.
9. The Earth’s rotation is slowing because of its tidal interaction with the
Moon. This causes the day length to gradually increase. Day length
increases by 1 second roughly every 18 months.
(a) Use this information and the data below to calculate the torque
acting on the Earth to slow down its rotation. Assume the Earth is of
uniform density.
Mass of Earth  6.0  1024 kg
Radius of Earth  6400 km
Number of seconds in a day  86400
Moment of inertia of a solid sphere of mass m and radius a
is I  2/5 ma2
(b) The Earth is not uniform; its density increases toward its center. State
and explain how this would affect your answer to (a).
 CHAPTER

13
WAVES

13.0 Introduction
There are many different types of waves, but the underlying physics
is common to all of them, whether they are mechanical vibrations in a
medium, like sound, or vibrations of an electromagnetic field, like light.
They all transfer energy, reflect, refract, diffract, and interfere. The wave
model is one of the most important models in physics, and in the next four
chapters, we will investigate waves in considerable detail.

13.1 Describing and Representing Waves

13.1.1 Basic Wave Terminology
Imagine starting circular water waves using a dipper oscillating up and
down at the center of a pond. A series of circular, equally spaced crests
moves outwards. The source of these waves is the oscillation of water at
the center, and they are formed because, as those water molecules move
up and down, they exert forces on the ones adjacent to them pulling them
up and down slightly later so that these molecules oscillate with the same
frequency and amplitude but with a small phase delay relative to the source.
The phase delay increases with distance from the source, and when this
delay is 2 radians, the molecules are once again oscillating in phase with
the source. Around any circle centered on the source, all of the molecules
are oscillating in phase with one another because they are all equidistant
from the source. The visible circles are formed by crests, where all of the
244 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

oscillations are simultaneously at a positive amplitude. These positions move

outwards at constant velocity. This is called the phase velocity of the wave.
It is the movement of the wave disturbance but not the outward movement
of matter. The diagram below shows how this appears from above. The
circular lines of constant phase are called wave fronts and the arrows are
called rays. Rays and wave fronts are perpendicular to one another and are
alternative ways to represent the wave pattern. The separation between two
adjacent wave fronts is called the wavelength  of the wave.
W
av Ray
efr
on
t

The time period T for the formation of one wave is equal to the time period
of the source oscillations, so all particles in the wave oscillate with the same
frequency f as the source. During one oscillation of the source the wave
moves forward a distance equal to its wavelength, so the phase velocity v of
the wave is given by:

v  f 
T
We can now define some terms:
Q Traveling or progressive wave
A wave where all the particles oscillate with the same (or a decaying)
amplitude but with a progressive phase delay in direct proportion to their
distance from the source.
Q Wavelength 
Shortest distance between two particles oscillating in phase in the wave.
Q Time period T
Time for one complete wave to leave the source or time for a particle to
complete one cycle of oscillation.
Q Frequency f
1
Number of waves leaving the source in 1 second, f  .
T
 WAVES • 245

Q Phase velocity v
Velocity at which a point of constant phase (e.g., a wave crest) travels away
from the source, v  f 
Q Wavefront
Line of constant phase in the wave pattern; perpendicular to rays.
Q Ray
Arrow in the direction of energy transfer; perpendicular to wave fronts.

13.1.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

The source of a wave is a vibration or oscillation. There are two distinct ways
in which the oscillations can be related to the direction of energy transfer
(direction of travel of the wave):

Transverse waves
Vibration directions are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer.
Phase velocity v
A
Direction of
oscillations

Direction of
energy transfer

−A
As the wave moves to the right, the disturbance at each position varies
vertically with the same amplitude as the source (assuming no energy
dissipation). All electromagnetic waves are transverse, as are seismic
S-waves (secondary or shear waves).
Compression Compression Compression
Rarefaction Rarefaction

Oscillation
direction
Phase
Wavelength λ velocity v
246 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Longitudinal waves
Vibration directions are parallel to the direction of energy transfer. This
results in regions of compression (shown as dark areas below) and rarefaction
(low density, shown as lighter areas below) in the medium through which
the wave passes.
As the wave moves to the right, the disturbance at each position also
varies horizontally, with the same amplitude as the source (assuming no
energy dissipation). Sound and ultrasound are longitudinal waves, so are
seismic P-waves (primary or pressure waves).
Some waves are a combination of longitudinal and transverse waves.
This results in particles undergoing elliptical motions as the wave passes.
Surface water waves are like this.

Diection of motion
of water wave
Longitudinal Transverse
component component

13.1.3 Graphs of Wave Motion

For a one-dimensional wave, e.g., a wave traveling along the x-axis, we can
plot a graph of how the wave disturbance (y) varies with position (x) at any
fixed moment of time or of how the disturbance varies with time at any
particular position.
A

Wave disturbance
(e.g., displacement)
versus position at x
one time

–A
λ
 WAVES • 247

Wave disturbance
(e.g., displacement) t
versus time at one
position

–A T

These graphs are similar to each other but represent different things. The
repeat distance in space is the wavelength, and the repeat distance in time
is the time period of the wave.

13.1.4 Equation for a One-Dimensional Traveling Wave

The displacement of a one-dimensional wave varies with both time and
position, so the equation to represent the whole wave will be a function of
these two variables. For a traveling wave, all points oscillate with the same
amplitude but with a progressive phase delay with respect to the source. If
the source oscillates with simple harmonic motion, then the displacement
at the source (x  0) can be written as:
y  A cos (t)
where   2f.
The oscillation at any other point on the positive x-axis will be given by
an equation of the form:
y  A cos (t  )
where  is a phase delay that depends on x (distance from the source).
When x   the phase delay is 2 (two particles separated by one wavelength
2 x
oscillating in phase). Therefore,  and so:

 2 x 
y  A cos t  
  
The term 2 is called the wave number k, so we can write the equation

for a one-dimensional traveling wave of amplitude A moving in the positive
x-direction thus:
y  A cos(t  kx)
248 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

If the wave is moving in the negative x-direction, the sign in the equation
changes:
y  A cos(t  kx)
Derivation of phase velocity
The phase velocity is the velocity at which a point of constant phase, e.g., a
wave crest, moves along the axis. The phase of the wave is given by:
  (t  kx)
d dx
  k   kv  0 (for position of constant phase)
dt dt
 2 f 
v   f
k 2
v f 
13.1.5 Amplitude and Intensity
The intensity of a wave is the power delivered per unit area (Wm1). This
will be proportional to the energy of each oscillator in the wave. For a
harmonic wave the disturbance at each point is simple harmonic, so the
total energy of each oscillator is given by an expressions of the form:
1
E  m 2 A 2
2
It follows that the intensity of a harmonic wave is directly proportional to
the square of its amplitude. This is a general and very useful relation:
I  A2
Doubling amplitude increases intensity by a factor of four, etc.

13.2 Reflection
When a wave strikes a boundary it can be wholly or partially reflected. The
law of reflection states that:
Q The incident and reflected rays make equal angles to the normal to the
surface at the point of incidence, and both rays and the normal lie in the
same plane.
 WAVES • 249

Normal

i r

If two plane reflectors are placed at 90° to each other, then a ray striking
either one of them will return parallel to its original path. This is used in
car reflectors and was used by the Apollo astronauts who left an array of
corner reflectors on the surface so that lasers sent from Earth would reflect
back and allow the distance between the Earth and Moon to be measured
precisely.

i1 = r1; i2 = r2 = 90 – i1
Original incident ray has turned
i1 through a total angle of: (180 – (i1 + r1)) +
r1 (180 – (i2 + r2)) = 360 – 2i1 – 2i2 = 180
i.e., it travels back parallel to the
i2 r initial ray
2

13.3 Refraction
13.3.1 Refraction at a Boundary Between Two Different Media
Wave velocity depends on the medium through which the wave is traveling.
For example, light slows down when it travels from air into glass, and surface
water waves slow down when they travel from deeper to shallower water. If
the wave strikes the boundary between two different media at an angle to
the normal, then the wave direction changes. This is called refraction.
250 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Medium 1 Medium 2:

λ1
λ1

λ2 λ2

Medium 2 Medium 2

No waves are created or destroyed, so the frequency must be the same in

both media. Therefore,
v1  f 1 and v2  f 2
v2 2

v1 1
13.3.2 Snell’s Law of Refraction
A simple experiment can be used to find the relationship between the
incident and refracted angles at a boundary between two media, in this
case air and glass.

Sheet of A3 paper
Ray
fixed to a drawing
box
board

θ1

θ2
Rectangular
glass block

The position of the edge of the block and the normal to this line are marked
onto the white paper, and the ray box is used to direct a single fine ray at the
 WAVES • 251

point where these two lines intersect. The ray is traced using optical pins
(shown by X on the diagram) pushed into the board. The block can then be
removed and the path of the ray outside and inside the block can be drawn
using a pencil and ruler. The incident angle 1 and the refracted angle 2 are
then measured using a protractor. If this is done for incident angles in the
range 0–90° then a graph of sin 1 against sin 2 is a straight line.
sin θ1
1

sin θ2
This shows that:
sin 1 sin (incident angle)
 constant
sin  2 sin(refracted angle)
This is called Snell’s Law, and the constant is called the relative refractive
index 1n2 for a ray passing from medium 1 into medium 2.

θ1

θ2

Snell’s law:
sin 1
 n
sin  2 1 2
If medium 1 is the vacuum, then this constant is the absolute refractive
index for medium 2.
In practice, since the speed of light in air is almost the same as the
speed of light in a vacuum, the absolute refractive index is usually used
when medium 1 is air.
252 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Refraction occurs because the wave velocity changes at the boundary.

This implies that refractive index must be related to this change of velocity.
The diagram below can be used to derive this relationship.

B
θ1

Medium 1 θ1
Medium 2 A θ2 C

D
θ2

AB and DC are adjacent wave fronts so they are separated by one wavelength:
v1 2
BC  1 
f u2
v
AD  2  2
f
AC is the common hypotenuse to the two right-angled triangles containing
angles 1 and 2, so we can write expressions for the sines of each angle:
v1
BC f
sin 1  
AC AC
v2
AD f
sin  2  
AC AC
Dividing the first equation by the second gives us Snell’s law in terms of the
wave velocities in each medium:
sin 1 v1
  1n2
sin  2 v2
The index of refraction is the ratio of wave speeds in the two media on
either side of the boundary. It is obvious from this equation that if the ray
 WAVES • 253

direction is reversed, it will retrace its path. In other words, the refractive
index when going from medium 2 to medium 1 is the reciprocal of the
refractive index when going from medium 1 into medium 2:
v2 1
2 n1  
v1 1 n2
It is also clear that with a greater ratio of velocities, more refraction will
occur and that rays of light will bend toward the normal as they enter a
medium with a lower speed of light and away from the normal when they
enter a medium with a higher speed of light.

α
Air

P Glass
to ay β
or em
ig er
in g
al es
in pa
cid ra β
en lle
tr l
ay

13.3.3 Absolute and Relative Refractive Indices

The absolute refractive index of a medium is the value of 1n2 when medium
1 is the vacuum. The speed of light in a vacuum is c and in a medium is v
(< c).
c
Absolute refractive index, n 
c v
Therefore, v 
n
The speed of light v in a medium of absolute refractive index n is equal to
the speed of light in a vacuum c divided by the absolute refractive index of
the medium. For example, the absolute refractive index of glass is about 1.5
and the speed of light in a vacuum is 3.0  108 ms1, so the speed of light in
glass is about 2.0  108 ms1. The greater the refractive index, the slower the
speed of light in that medium. The speed of light depends on the electron
density inside the material; so the denser the medium, the slower the speed
of light and the larger the refractive index.
254 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

We can also express the relative refractive index at a boundary in terms

of the two absolute refractive indices of the media on either side of that
boundary. Let n1 and n2 be the absolute refractive indices and let 1n2 be
the relative refractive index for a ray of light passing from medium 1 into
medium 2.
v1 c n1 n2
1 n2  v  c n  n
2 2 1
This gives us the most useful form of Snell’s law:
n2 sin 1

n1 sin  2
n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2

13.3.4 Total Internal Reflection

When a ray of light moves into a medium with lower refractive index and
therefore higher wave speed, it bends away from the normal. However, the
maximum angle of refraction is 90°, and this occurs when the incident angle
inside the first medium is less than 90°. The incident angle at which this
occurs is called the critical angle c, and for larger incident angles there
is no refracted ray. All of the incident light is reflected from the boundary.
This is called total internal reflection (TIR). This can be demonstrated
by directing a ray of light at a semicircular glass prism. If the ray is aimed
along a radius, there is no change of deflection on entering the prism.
Partial reflection
TIR

TIR

θ1 < c θ1 = c θ1 > c

Refracted Critical condition: No refracted ray

θ1 = c; θ2 = 90°

The condition for the critical angle is that the refracted angle must be equal
to 90°.
n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2
n1 sin c  n2 sin 90  n2
n2
sin c 
n1
 WAVES • 255

If medium 2 is the vacuum (or air), then:

1
sin c 
n
where n is the absolute refractive index of the transparent block.
Total internal reflection can only occur when light travels from a
material of higher refractive index to one of lower refractive index.

13.3.5 Optical Fibers

Total internal reflection is a particularly efficient form of reflection and
is used inside optical fibers for data transmission. The basic principle of
an optical fiber is to have a transparent core surrounded by a transparent
cladding material of lower refractive index so that total internal reflection
can occur at the core–cladding boundary.

Each time the ray reaches the boundary, its incident angle is greater than the
critical angle, so it is repeatedly totally internally reflected. Light has a very
high frequency, so it can be modulated to carry a great deal of information.
There are two main types of optical fiber: mono-mode fibers, which
effectively only allow a single path for the light (by having an extremely
narrow core of about 10 mm), and multi-mode fibers, which are much
thicker and allow multiple light paths. The disadvantage of multi-mode
fibers is that, over a long distance, different parts of the signal have traveled
significantly different distances and developed time delays. If these become
comparable to the time between ones and zeroes in the digital signal, then
the information is lost. The longer the fiber, the lower the maximum data
transfer rate, so they tend to be used over shorter distances, e.g., within a
single building. The advantage of multi-mode fibers is that they are cheaper
and can carry light of multiple wavelengths, so they are often used with
LEDs rather than lasers. Mono-mode fibers use laser sources working at a
single wavelength and can transmit high data rates over great distances (up
to thousands of kilometers).

13.3.6 Dispersion
The amount of refraction at a boundary depends on the refractive index
at that boundary. However, absolute refractive indices depend on the
wavelength of light (because the speed of light in a medium depends on
256 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

wavelength). This means that if a polychromatic ray (i.e., one with a range
of wavelengths present, such as white light) refracts at a boundary, different
wavelengths will refract different amounts. This is called dispersion and is
familiar from the way a triangular glass prism can disperse white light into
a spectrum of colors.
For glass, the (higher frequency)shorter wavelength (blue/violet) end
of the spectrum travels more slowly than the (lower frequency)longer
wavelength end (red/orange) of the spectrum, and so has a higher refractive
index. For a certain type of crown glass, nred  1.509,while nviolet  1.521, a
small difference but one that is clearly demonstrable.

light
White Red lig
ht
Viol
et li
ght

13.4 Polarization
13.4.1 What is Polarization?
Longitudinal waves vibrate parallel to the direction in which they transfer
energy, so there is a unique vibration direction. Transverse waves, however,
vibrate at 90° to the direction in which they transfer energy, so they can
vibrate in any direction perpendicular to the direction in which the wave
is traveling. If a transverse wave is confined to oscillate only in one plane,
it is said to be plane-polarized. Transverse waves can be polarized, but
longitudinal waves cannot.

Possible
vibration Direction of energy transfer
directions
 WAVES • 257

For example, if the only vibration direction is vertical, then the wave is
vertically plane-polarized.

13.4.2 Polarizing Filters

An ideal polarizing filter will transmit one direction of polarization and
absorb the perpendicular direction of polarization. If the direction of
polarization of the incident wave is at an angle to the polarizing direction
of the filter, then only a component of the wave’s amplitude is transmitted.

Vertical
vibrations
Vertical
vibrations Direction of
energy transfer

In the diagram below, we are looking in the direction of wave travel with
the wave moving away from us. The diagram shows a polarizing filter that
will transmit vertically plane polarized light. The light incident on the filter
is plane-polarized at an angle  to the vertical.
Transmitted
A cos θ

θ A

Absorbed
A sin θ
258 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q The transmitted amplitude is: Atrans  A cos 

Q The transmitted intensity is: Itrans  I0 cos2(using I µ A2)
Q The transmitted polarization direction is vertical (i.e., the same as the
filter).

Rotation of Polarizing Filter

If vertically plane polarized light in incident on a vertical polarizing filter
that is slowly rotated around the axis of the beam, the intensity variation
maps out the cos2 function.
Fraction of
1
maximum
intensity 0.8

0.6
Mean value:
0.4

0.2 Angle of
polarizing filter
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

Unpolarized Light Incident on a Polarizing Filter

Unpolarized light contains all possible vibration directions perpendicular
to the direction of travel of the wave. When this falls onto an ideal vertical
polarizing filter, the intensity is reduced to 50% of its original value. This
follows from the equation for intensity above. The intensity at any angle is
proportional to cos2, so the intensity of the transmitted light will be the
incident intensity multiplied by the average value of cos2 over one rotation
( from 0 to 2). If we use the intensity cos2  (½ cos 2  ½) we can
see that the average value of the first term is zero (since cosine is equally
positive and negative over one cycle), so the average of cos2 must be ½.
Therefore, the transmitted intensity is Itrans  0.5 I0. This remains the case if
the polarizing filter is rotated.

Crossed polarizing filters

If light falls on two polarizing filters, one placed behind the other and the
second filter is rotated with respect to the first, there will be maxima of
intensity when the angles between their polarizing filters are 0°, 180°, and
360° and minima at 90° and 270° (as in the graph above).
 WAVES • 259

13.4.3 Rotation of the Plane of Polarization

Some transparent media can rotate the plane of polarization around
the direction of travel of the wave. Sugar solutions do this because the
molecules are themselves asymmetric and the amount of rotation can be
used to measure the concentration of the solution (higher concentrations
produce a larger rotation angle per unit distance). A polarimeter consists
of two polarizing filters mounted either side of the sample to be tested. One
of the filters can be rotated and the angle between the two filters can then
be read off from a fixed scale. With no sample, maximum intensity will be
when the filters are aligned. If the sample rotates the plane of polarization,
the second filter can be rotated until the intensity is once again a maximum
and the angle of rotation can be measured.

Direction
of wave

Sample rotates
Light source: polarization
unpolarized direction by θ Filter must be
rotated by θ to
find maximum

13.4.4 Polarization by Reflection and Scattering

When unpolarized light is incident on a non-metallic transparent medium,
some of the light is refracted into the medium and some is reflected from
the boundary. The interaction between light and matter causes dipoles
in the material surface to absorb energy, vibrate, and then re-radiate the
light. However, light is a transverse wave, so these vibrations determine the
possible polarization of the refracted and reflected light rays. At a particular
angle of incidence, called the Brewster angle, the reflected and refracted
angles will be at 90° and the reflected ray is plane-polarized parallel to the
surface of the material. The refracted ray is also partially plane-polarized
along a line parallel to the direction of the reflected ray.
260 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Unpolarized Polarized

θB θB θB

θ2

Partially
polarized

We can derive an expression for the Brewster angle B by using Snell’s law
and the law of reflection. Let the refractive index of the first and second
media be n1 and n2, respectively.
n1 sin B  n2 sin 2
But 2  180  (90  B)  90  B
n1 sin B  n2 sin (90  B)  n2 cos B
n2
tan  B 
n1
This is Brewster’s law.
Photographers use polarizing filters to enhance contrast, e.g., to darken
the sky compared to the clouds, or to reduce glare from reflective surfaces
(e.g., water or windows). Polarizing sunglasses are also used to reduce
reflected glare by absorbing one component of polarization.

13.5 Exercises

1. A traveling wave is described by the equation below (distances measured

in meters):
y  0.25cos 30 t  2 x 
(a) State the amplitude, frequency, and wavelength of this wave.
(b) Calculate the speed of the wave.
(c) State the direction in which the wave is traveling.
2. A swimmer is treading water in the sea. Waves traveling at 1.2 ms1
cause her to bob up and down six times a minute. The distance between
her highest and lowest positions as the wave passes is 2.4 m.
(a) Sketch a graph to show how her displacement varies with time over
a period of 20 s.
(b) Calculate the frequency and wavelength of the waves.
 WAVES • 261

(c) Her friend is also treading water but is 15 m further out to sea. What
is the phase difference between the oscillations of the two swimmers?
Assume that the waves are traveling directly toward the shore.
3. The diagram below shows a pin placed symmetrically between two
plane mirrors that are perpendicular to each other.

Pin

An observer looking into the mirrors can see three images of the pin.
Draw a careful ray diagram to locate the positions of these images.
4. Here are some absolute refractive indices for different media.
Vacuum n  1 (exactly)
Air n  1.000293 (at s.t.p.) .... usually taken to be 1.00
Diamond n  2.42
Glass n  1.50
Water n  1.33
Speed of light in a vacuum c  3.0  108 ms1
The table below refers to a ray of light traveling from medium 1 to
medium 2 as shown in the diagram.

θ1

θ2

Medium 1 Medium 2

(a) Complete the table using values from the list above:
Medium 1 Medium 2 v1 v2 1 2
Glass 3.0  10 ms
8 1
40°
Glass Air 40°
Water Diamond 20°
2.0  108 ms1 55° 70°
262 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(b) Explain what is meant by total internal reflection and state the
conditions under which it occurs.
(c) Calculate the critical angle for an interface between:
(i) water and air
(ii) glass and air
(iii) diamond and air
(d) Suggest why a real diamond sparkles more than a fake glass “diamond.”
5. The refractive index n of glass can be determined by measuring the
minimum angle of deviation D when light passes through a triangular
prism of apex angle A:

A
D

The minimum deviation occurs when the light passes symmetrically

through the prism (the ray inside the prism is parallel to the base). The
formula used to find the refractive index is:
 AD 
sin 
 2 
n
 A
sin 
2
Derive this formula.

6. Two polarizing filters are placed at 90° to each other. A third polarizing
filter is placed between them and slowly rotated. Unpolarized light is
directed into the system of three filters.
(a) Explain why the intensity of light passing through the system of
three filters reaches a maximum when the third filter is at 45° to the
direction of the first polarizing filter.
(b) Calculate the fraction of the incident intensity that passes through
the system when the middle polarizing filter is at 30° to the first
polarizing filter.
 CHAPTER

14
LIGHT

14.1 Light as an Electromagnetic Wave

14.1.1 Waves or Particles?
Properties such as reflection and refraction of light have been known since
antiquity, but the nature of light remained a mystery. Newton thought that
light must consist of streams of tiny corpuscles (particles) emitted from
bright objects, but Huygens (a Dutch physicist) thought that light is a
form of wave motion like ripples on the surface of a pond. It turns out that
neither the wave model nor the particle model is a complete model of the
nature of light (or any other electromagnetic wave). However, aspects of
both the wave model and the particle model can be used to explain how
light behaves, but we have to be careful where we use each model. We will
look at wave–particle duality in more detail later (see Section 27.3), but in
this chapter we concentrate on the wave model.

14.1.2 Electromagnetism
In the 19th century, Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell tried to
make sense of all the different electromagnetic phenomena that had been
discovered up that time. This included:
Q how charges exert forces on one another (see Section 17.3.1)
Q how electric currents create magnetic fields (see Section 20.3.1)
Q how magnetic fields exert forces on moving charges and electric
currents (see Section 20.2.2)
264 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q how changing magnetic fields can induce voltages (see Section 21.1.1)
In order to do this Faraday introduced the idea of an electromagnetic
field. Electromagnetic fields are created by electric charges and exert
forces on electric charges. For example, a positive charge at one point in
space creates an electric field through all of space, and another charge some
distance from the first experiences a force from the field. The beauty of
this model is that the field itself has properties, and charges do not interact
by “instantaneous action-at-a-distance” but by interacting with the local
electromagnetic field.
Maxwell discovered a set of four equations—the Maxwell equations
that describe how fields are created by, and interact with, charges and how
the field in one place affects the field nearby. The equations showed that
if the field is disturbed in one place, e.g., because a charge is vibrating,
that disturbance spreads outwards from the source at a constant speed.
The speed could be calculated from the equations and is equal to the
measured speed of light. This suggested very strongly that light must be an
electromagnetic disturbance. It also showed that visible light is just part of
a much wider spectrum of electromagnetic waves, all of which travel at the
same constant speed in a vacuum.

14.1.3 Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves travel through a vacuum, so they cannot be
mechanical waves—there are no material particles to vibrate. So, what
does vibrate? The electric and magnetic fields at each point in space. An
electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave (we know this because light can
be polarized) and consists of vibrations of the electric and magnetic field
at each point in space. The direction of the electric field vibration is at
90° to the direction of vibration of the magnetic field. The diagram below
shows the relationship between the electric and magnetic fields in a plane-
polarized electromagnetic wave.
Direction of electric
field vibrations tic
a gne
of m ons
c t ion ibrati
e v
Dir field Direction of energy
transfer
 LIGHT • 265

The polarization direction is, by convention, the direction in which the

electric field vibrates. In the example above, the polarization is vertical.
It is important to realize that this diagram represents the variation of
the two fields at a point ON the red line. They do not represent physical
motions of anything off the line. As the wave passes a point, the electric and
magnetic fields at that point increase and decrease in strength periodically.
If a wave like the one above strikes a material medium, the two fields cause
charges in the surface to vibrate at the frequency of the wave. This is how
a radio antenna detects radio waves—the vibrating charges in the antenna
set up a weak A.C. signal that can be amplified.
Maxwell’s equations show that electromagnetic waves are emitted when
charges accelerate (e.g., while oscillating) and cause charges to accelerate
when they are absorbed.
Visible light consists of part of the much larger electromagnetic
spectrum. Our eyes respond to wavelengths from about 390 nm (violet)
to 700 nm (red), which corresponds to a frequency range of 4.3  1014 to
7.7  1014 Hz. The main regions of the electromagnetic spectrum are shown
below.
Frequency/Hz
1024 102 1020 1018 1016 1014 101 1010 108 106 104 102 100

Micro
visible

Gamma X-rayss UV IR
wave Radio waves
rays

10–1 10–14 10–1 10–1 10–8 10–6 10–4 10–2 100 102 104 106 108
Wavelength/m

You might still be wondering what it is that actually vibrates when an

electromagnetic wave passes through a vacuum—calling it the electric
and magnetic field doesn’t really answer the question. Nineteenth-century
physicists also puzzled about this and assumed that there must be some
invisible medium filling all of space so that electric and magnetic fields are
distortions of this medium and electromagnetic waves involve vibrations
in the medium. They called the medium the luminiferous ether,but no
attempt to demonstrate its existence was ever successful and Einstein’s
special theory of relativity abandoned it (see Section 24.1.2).
266 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

14.1.4 Measuring the Speed of Light

The first successful measurement of the speed of light was an astronomical
one. Jupiter has several moons and each of these completes one orbit in a
constant time. However, when viewed from Earth the time of orbit seems
to vary by about ±8 minutes over the course of a year. The astronomer,
Olaf Römer, realized that as the Earth and Jupiter orbit at different rates
the distance between the two varies by a distance equal to the diameter
of the Earth’s orbit. This means that light takes different times to reach
the Earth when the relative positions of Earth and Jupiter change, and it
was concluded that the speed of light must be equal to the diameter of the
Earth’s orbit (1.5  1011 m) divided by 8 minutes (480 seconds). This is
about 3 108 ms1.
J
Maximum
J
separation
E
Minimum
separation

The first terrestrial measurement of the speed of light was made by Armand
Fizeau in 1849. He employed an ingenious method using a rapidly spinning
toothed wheel to chop light into short pulses. The pulses then hit a distant
mirror and reflected back to the wheel. As the speed of the wheel increased,
the returning light hit the next tooth and was blocked. This meant that the
time taken for the light to travel to the mirror and back was equal to the
time taken for the wheel to rotate by the angle between a tooth and the next
gap. He measured the rate of rotation at which this occurred and used this
to find the time of flight t of the light pulse. The speed of light was then
calculated from the distance to the mirror, d, and back divided by the time
of flight:
c  2d/t
This method was modified and improved by Jean Leon Foucault and then by
Albert Michelson. They replaced the toothed wheel with a rotating mirror,
but the principle of the method was similar. Foucault even measured the
speed of light in water by placing a tube of water in the light path between
 LIGHT • 267

To oscilloscope to
record emitted pulse
Mirror
LED base producing short
pulses at high frequency

Detector
d
To oscilloscope to
record detected pulse
the rotating mirror and the fixed distant mirror. His results showed that
light travels more slowly in water than in air, a result that reinforced the
wave model of light because it was consistent with the wave explanation
of refraction at an air–water boundary (the particle model predicted that
the particles of light would speed up as they entered the denser medium).
Michelson spent most of his life-refining methods for measuring the speed
of light. He also carried out the famous Michelson-Morley experiment,
which seemed to show that the speed of light is independent of the motion
of the observer, an effect that was eventually explained by Einstein’s special
theory of relativity (see Chapter 24).
What makes it difficult to measure the speed of light in a laboratory
is the fact that it is so fast. This means that we have to measure extremely
short time intervals. Nowadays high-speed electronic devices can do this
and the measurement can be carried out successfully over a distance of
just a few meters. The principle is very similar to that used by Fresnel,
Foucault, and Michelson, wherein short pulses of light are generated by an
LED laser and a fast oscilloscope is used to detect the emission of the pulse
and the detection of its reflection from a mirror placed a few meters away.

t t

Emitted Detected pulse Emitted Detected pulse

pulse (reflected) pulse (direct)
268 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

One slight complication with this method is that the time it takes for the
electronic processing of the signals is comparable to the time of flight of the
light pulses, so the time t1 measured on the oscilloscope must be corrected
for this. One way to do this is to place the emitter and detector so that they
are facing each other and the light path is virtually zero. There will still be
two separate peaks on the screen, and the time delay t2 is now entirely due
to the equipment. The actual time of flight of the light pulse is therefore
(t1  t2) and the speed of light is 2d/(t1  t2). Typical oscilloscope traces are
shown in the diagram.

14.1.5 Maxwell’s Equations and the Speed of Light

Maxwell’s equations themselves are beyond the scope of this book. However,
the equations lead to an expression for the speed of all electromagnetic
waves:
1
c
0 0
where 0 is the permittivity of free space (effectively a measure of the ability
of a vacuum to support an electric field) and 0 is the permeability of free
space (effectively a measure of the ability of a vacuum to support a magnetic
field).
When electromagnetic waves penetrate matter (e.g., light going through
glass), the equation becomes:
1
v
0 r 0 r
where r is the relative permittivity of the medium and r is the relative
permeability of the medium. Whereas the speed of all electromagnetic
waves is the same in a vacuum, the values for the relative permittivity and
permeability in a medium vary with frequency, so different parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum travel at different speeds inside media, causing
dispersion. This is responsible for the way white light can be spread into
a spectrum by a triangular prism.
c
We have already met the equation v  where n is the absolute
n
refractive index of a medium. It follows that the absolute refractive index is
related to permittivity and permeability by:

n r r
 LIGHT • 269

14.1.6 Defining Speed, Time, and Distance

The speed of light in a vacuum is one of the fundamental physical constants,
and it has been measured ever more precisely. Its value is now fixed to
be 299,752,498 ms1 and this will not change even if the speed of light
is measured even more precisely in future. The second is also a defined
quantity, equal to 9,192,631,770 periods of vibration of the radiation
emitted between two energy levels in the cesium-133 atom. This implies
that the length of the meter cannot be a defined quantity since distance,
speed, and time are all related. The meter is a derived quantity equal to
the distance traveled by light in a vacuum in a time of 1/(299,752,498) of a
second.
The fact that the speed of light can be derived from Maxwell’s equations
raises an interesting question about its meaning. What is the speed of light
measured against, or more specifically, in what reference frame does light
travel at c? In the nineteenth century most physicists assumed that light is
a vibration in some as-yet-undiscovered and all-pervading medium, which
they called the luminiferous ether so that light traveled at speed c relative to
this ether. The implication was that the speed measured by an observer who
was also moving relative to the ether at speed v would be a relative speed.
For example, if both the light and the observer moved in the same direction
through the ether at speeds c and v, then the speed of light relative to the
observer should be c-v. But this is not the case. The speed of light is the
same for all uniformly moving observers and is independent of the speed of
the observer or the source. This is explained by Einstein’s special theory of
relativity, which also led to the abandonment of the idea of the luminiferous
ether.

14.2 Ray Optics

The behavior of optical instruments can be explained by following the paths
of rays. Rays are assumed to travel in straight lines (rectilinear propagation)
from a source, only changing direction when they pass through a lens or
prism, or when they are reflected.

14.2.1 Thin Lenses

Convex or converging lenses are shaped in such a way that light traveling
parallel to their principal axis is refracted to a real focal point beyond the
lens. The distance from the optical center (of the lens) to the focal point F is
called the focal length f of the lens. The reciprocal of this value is called the
power of the lens P and is measured in diopters (1 diopter  1 m1).
270 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

F
Principal axis

1
P=
f

1
P
f
Concave, or diverging, lenses are shaped in such a way that light traveling
parallel to their principal axis diverges from a virtual focal point before the
lens.

F
Principal axis

In a real lens, light will refract as it enters the lens and refract again as it
leaves on the opposite side. A thin lens is one where both refractions can
be assumed to take place at the same point, on a line perpendicular to
the principal axis and passing through the optical center of the lens. Ray
diagrams involving thin lenses are often drawn with the lens itself shown as
a single vertical line passing through the optical center and a small symbol
showing the type of lens.

Thin lens
Thick

14.2.2 Predictable Rays for Thin Lenses

Ray diagrams can be used to find the positions of objects and images in
optical instruments. To draw them we make use of predictable rays.
 LIGHT • 271

Convex lens—predictable ray 1: A ray parallel to the principal axis will

pass through the focal point on the far side of the lens.

Thin lens

In ray optics the direction of the ray is reversible, so a ray passing through
the focal point before it reaches the lens will then travel parallel to the
principal axis on the far side of the lens.
Convex lens—predictable ray 2: A ray passing through the optical center
of the lens does not change direction.

Thin lens

Concave lens—predictable ray 1: A ray parallel to the principal axis

diverges from the principal axis on the other side of the lens along a line
that traces back to the focal point.

Thin lens

The direction of the ray is reversible, so a ray heading toward the focal point
on the far side of the lens will then travel parallel to the principal axis after
it passes through the lens.
272 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Concave lens—predictable ray 2: A ray passing through the optical

center of the lens does not change direction.

Thin lens

14.2.3 Images
An image is a point-by-point representation of an object. A real image is
formed when the rays creating the image pass through the image points, for
example, the image formed on the retina of the eye, or the image projected
onto a cinema screen. A virtual image is formed when the rays creating
the image diverge from points on the image but do not pass through those
points, for example, the image in a plane mirror, or the image of the bottom
of a swimming pool seen through the surface. Since the rays responsible for
the image do not pass through it, a virtual image cannot be formed onto
a screen.
The size and position of an image can be determined by drawing two
predictable rays from a single point on an object and tracing their paths.
The place where they intersect is the position where the image point is
formed. Objects are often shown as vertical arrows and the two rays to be
traced are from the tip of the arrow.
14.2.4 Image Formation with a Convex Lens
The distance from the object to the optical center of the lens is called the
object distance, u. The distance from the optical center of the lens to the
image is called the image distance, v.
u v

ho
F Image
Object F
hi

Thin lens
 LIGHT • 273

A real, inverted, magnified image has been formed. The linear

magnification m is given by the equation:
hi
m
ho
Real images are formed if the object distance is greater than the focal length
of the lens (u > f). However, if the object is placed in the focal plane (so that
u  f), then the rays are parallel after passing through the lens. They are said
to form an image at infinity (v  ).
u=f

F
Object F

To image
Thin lens at infinity

Large magnification can be achieved by placing the object so that u is

just greater than f. Magnification of 1 is when u  2f; and for larger object
distances, the image is diminished (smaller than the object, m< 1).
For object distances less than the focal length, the emerging rays
diverge. However, these can be traced backwards to a virtual image on the
same side of the lens as the object.

Image u< f

F Object

Diverging
Thin lens rays

This is an erect (same way up as the object), magnified, virtual image.

This ray diagram can be used to explain how a magnifying glass works.
Your eye would be positioned on the optical axis to the right of the lens and
would look through the lens to see the magnified image beyond the object.
274 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Summary of the behavior of a convex lens

Object distance Image position Image nature Magnification
>2f Between f and 2f Real <1
2f 2f Real 1
Between f and 2f >2f Real <1
f Infinity Undetermined Infinite
<f >f Virtual >1

14.2.5 Image Formation with a Concave Lens

A similar approach can be used to find the image position when a concave
lens is used.

F
Object Image

Thin lens

The image is erect (same way up as the object), diminished, and virtual.

14.2.6 Object at Infinity

If an object is at great distance from a convex lens (u >> f), rays diverging
from a point on the object will be almost parallel when they reach the lens.
The object is at optical infinity; and when the rays pass through the lens,
they converge to form an image point in the focal plane of the lens. This is
the situation when we look at a distant object, and an inverted image of that
object is formed on the retina of our eye.
Rays from a single Focal plane
point on distant object

F F

Thin lens
 LIGHT • 275

For an extended object at great distance, e.g., the Sun, there will be an
angle between the rays from a point on one side of the Sun and the rays
from a point on the opposite side of the Sun. They will be focused in the
focal plane above and below the focal point of the lens, and an image of the
Sun will be formed between them.
Rays from a Focal plane
single point
on top of Sun

Image
of Sun

Rays from a
single point
on bottom of Sun Thin lens
This creates an image of the Sun that can be projected onto a screen—e.g.,
to look for sunspots.
The power of a lens depends on its shape and on the material from
which it is made. The higher the refractive index, the more the light is
refracted and the shorter the focal length of the lens. However, the refractive
index depends on wavelength, so objects that have a range of colors are not
focused sharply at any one point. This is called chromatic aberration.
Achromatic lenses are composite lenses that use a range of different lenses
to compensate for chromatic aberration.
14.2.7 Lens Equation
The equation relating u, v, and f is called the lens equation. It can be derived
from the ray diagram for a convex lens, but, with a suitable sign convention,
it also applies to concave lenses. Look at the two shaded triangles in the ray
diagram below.
u v

ho
F Image
Object F
hi

Thin lens
276 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

These are similar triangles, so:

hi v
m
ho u
Now look at these two shaded triangles that are also similar:

u f v

ho
F Image
Object F
hi

Thin lens

Therefore,
hi (v  f ) v
 
ho f u
which can be rearranged to give the lens equation:
1 1 1
 
f u v
This can be used for convex and concave lenses using the REAL IS
POSITIVE sign convention:
Q f is positive for a convex lens (real focus) and negative for a concave lens
(virtual focus).
Q u is positive for a real object and negative for a virtual object.
Q v is positive for a real image and negative for a virtual image.

14.2.8 Virtual Image Formed by a Plane Mirror

When an object is placed in front of a plane mirror, the reflected rays
diverge from an image point behind the mirror.
The two shaded triangles are similar, so u  v and m  1. The object and
the image lie on the same normal to the mirror.
Curved mirrors can be used like lenses to focus and project images. A
suitably shaped concave mirror has a real focus, and a convex mirror has a
virtual focus.
 LIGHT • 277

u v
Object Image

Normal

Normal

Concave mirrors are used to focus microwaves and radio waves so that a
detector placed at or near the focal point receives a strong signal (e.g., for
a radio telescope or a satellite TV dish). The way to think about curved
mirrors is to realize that the ray diagrams for a concave mirror are like those
for a convex lens, but with a reflection, and the ray diagrams for a convex
mirror are like those for a concave lens with a reflection.

F F

Concave mirror Convex mirror

If a convex mirror is actually part of a sphere, rays nearer the edge of the
mirror focus to a different position than rays near its center. This results in
an unfocused image and is an effect called spherical aberration. To avoid
this the correct shape for a concave mirror is a paraboloid.

14.2.9 Real and Apparent Depth

When you look down into a swimming pool, the floor of the pool appears
closer to the surface than it actually is. This reduces the apparent depth of
278 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

the water. The reason for this is that when light refracts at the water surface
it creates a virtual image of the floor of the pool that is closer to the surface.
If you look directly down into the pool, the ratio of the real depth to the
apparent depth is equal to the refractive index of water.

Air x

Water

β hreal
happ
α

Image point
β

Object point

sin 
 nwater
sin 
From the diagram,
x x
sin  and sin  
happt hreal
Therefore,
hreal
nwater 
happt
14.3 Optical Instruments
The behavior of an optical instrument (e.g., its magnifying power and the
nature and position of the image it produces) can be determined by ray
tracing.

14.3.1 Astronomical Refracting Telescope

Telescopes are used to observe distant objects, so the rays of light arriving
at the objective of the telescope from a particular point on the object are
 LIGHT • 279

parallel rays. The telescope is used to increase the visual angle, that is, the
angle subtended by the image at the eye. It does this using two convex
lenses. The first, the objective lens, is a low-power convex lens that creates a
real, inverted image of the distant object on the objective focal plane inside
the barrel of the telescope. The second, the eyepiece lens, is a higher-
power lens used as a magnifying glass to magnify the intermediate image.
In normal adjustment, the telescope accepts parallel rays and parallel rays
leave the eyepiece; therefore, the distance from the first image to the
eyepiece lens must equal the eyepiece focal length. This makes the total
distance between the two lenses equal to the sum of focal lengths of the
lenses.
Rays from
point at top of
distant object f0 fe
ay
ction r
stru
Con
α F β

Intermediate
image

Objective lens Eyepiece lens Eye

In the ray diagram above, the rays from the top of the object enter the
objective at an angle  to the principal axis. Rays from the bottom of the
object are assumed to enter along the principal axis but are not shown in
the diagram. The angle  is therefore equal to the angle subtended by the
object at the objective, and  is the angle subtended by the image at the eye.
Q  is the angle subtended by the distant object at the objective lens.
Q  is the visual angle—the angle subtended at the eye by the rays forming
image.
The angular magnification M of the telescope is the ratio /.
Using similar triangles and alternate angles, it is easy to see that
tan  fo
 .
tan  fe
However, the angles involved are small, so we can use the approximation
tan    (in radians) to obtain an expression for angular magnification:
 f
M  o
 fe
280 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The image is, as can be seen in the diagram, inverted. For astronomical
work, this is not an issue. However, a terrestrial refracting telescope has
a third convex lens in between the intermediate image and the eyepiece,
and this lens simply inverts the intermediate image so that the final image
is erect.

14.3.2 Astronomical Reflecting Telescope (Newtonian Telescope)

The amount of light captured by the objective of a telescope is directly
proportional to its area; so the larger the diameter of an objective, the
greater the sensitivity of the instrument. Astronomers need to observe very
faint objects, so astronomical telescopes need large-diameter objectives.
Very large-diameter lenses are heavy, difficult to manufacture, and have the
additional problem of chromatic aberration, so large optical telescopes use
concave mirrors as their objective rather than convex lenses. This design
was first used by Isaac Newton and is often referred to as a Newtonian
telescope.
The angular magnification is equal to fo/fe as for the refractor. The
secondary mirror does reduce the amount of light received by the primary,
but this is a small problem compared to the difficulties of building a large
achromatic lens. The largest ground-based optical telescope is in La Palma
on the Canary Islands. It is the Gran Telescopio Canaris and the diameter
of its objective mirror is 10.4 m. However, the Great Magellan telescope is
currently under construction in Chile, and when completed this will have a
diameter of 24.5 m. The reflecting surface of these large telescopes is made
up of several individual reflectors rather than a single dish.
Objective: concave
mirror of focal length fo

Secondary mirror

Eyepiece: convex
lens of focal length
 LIGHT • 281

Radio telescopes are also reflecting telescopes, using a large concave dish to
reflect radio waves to a detector. Radio waves have much longer wavelengths
than light, so radio telescopes must have much larger diameters than optical
telescopes (the resolution of a telescope depends on its diameter—see
Section 15.3.4). The world’s largest radio telescope is the Tianyan (Heavenly
Eye) telescope in Guizhou Province, China. Its objective reflector has a
diameter of 500 m and is built into a natural depression in the landscape.
The signal from a radio telescope is detected by placing a receiver close to
the focal point of the objective mirror.

14.3.3 Compound Microscope

A compound microscope uses two convex lenses. The objective lens creates
a real magnified inverted intermediate image, and the eyepiece lens is used
like a magnifying glass to make this even larger. It creates a final magnified
virtual image.
Objective Intermediate Eyepiece
lens image lens
rays
f0 fe ruction
Object C onst
F F F

Eye

Inverted
magnified
virtual image

14.4 Doppler Effect

When a source moves relative to an observer or vice versa, the wavelength
and frequency of the waves received by the observer changes. This is
called the Doppler Effect, and it occurs for any type of wave. An everyday
example of this is the change in frequency of a siren as an emergency
vehicle approaches and then moves past us. As it approaches we hear a
higher frequency, and when it moves away we hear a lower frequency than
the frequency we would hear if the vehicle was at rest.
282 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Frequency heard by
stationary observer

Siren
Frequency of siren
approaching
at rest
f0
Siren receding

Time

Here we restrict our discussion to electromagnetic waves. For relative

velocities significantly lower than the speed of light, the Doppler Effect for
electromagnetic waves can be analyzed very simply. This is because while
relative velocity affects wavelength and frequency, it has no effect on the
velocity of the waves, since this is independent of the velocity of the source
or observer. When relative speeds are significant comparable to the speed
of light, there is an additional relativistic effect to take into account—the
frequency of the source, as measured by the observer, changes as a result
of time dilation.

14.4.1 Doppler Effect for Electromagnetic Waves

Consider a source that emits waves of frequency f0 and wavelength 0 as
measured by an observer at rest with respect to the source. If the source
approaches an observer with velocity v, it will move a distance v/f0 toward
the observer in the time taken to emit one complete wave. This means that
the next wave front is emitted from a point 0  v/f0 behind the first, so the
wavelength has been reduced by v/f0. However, f0  (v/c)0, so the new
wavelength is   (1  v/c)0 and the change in wavelength is    (v/c)0.
It is clear from this that when the source recedes at velocity v the change
in wavelength is of the same magnitude but opposite sign, i.e., an increase
in wavelength. This change in wavelength is often referred to as a “Doppler
shift.”

Doppler shifts
v
Q Source and observer approaching with relative velocity v: O  O0
c
v
Q Source and observer receding with relative velocity v: O  O0
c
 LIGHT • 283

These shifts in wavelength are accompanied by changes of frequency with

the frequency increasing for approaching and decreasing for recession. The
new frequency f  can be calculated using the fact that the velocity of light is
a constant so that f   c/.

Doppler shift on reflection

When waves reflect from a moving object, the Doppler shift is doubled.
The arriving waves are Doppler-shifted and then these Doppler-shifted
waves are effectively emitted from a moving source and so are Doppler-
shifted for a second time:
v
reflection 2 0
c
The Doppler Effect is often used to measure the velocity of a remote object.
Doppler radar can be used to work out the velocity and rotation rate of an
asteroid. The Doppler Effect is used by the police in radar speed guns to
detect speeding motorists. Astronomers can use the Doppler shifts of radio
waves in the spiral arms of the Milky Way to work out the rotation rate of
our own galaxy. Doctors use Doppler ultrasound to measure the rate of
flow of blood inside capillaries.

14.4.2 “Red Shifts”and “Blue Shifts”

When visible light is Doppler-shifted, the change in wavelength causes a
change in color. If the source is moving away from us then the received
wavelength increases and the observed color moves toward the red (longer
wavelength) end of the spectrum. This is called a “red shift.” However, we
must be careful—if the shift takes the wavelength beyond the red end of
the spectrum, then it actually moves away from red into the infrared. A “red
shift” is always a move toward longer wavelengths, but is not always a move
toward the red end of the spectrum, nor does it have to involve red light!
The redshift z is defined as:
 0 v
z 
0 c
where  is the longer wavelength received by the observer, 0 is the
wavelength of light that would be observed by an observer at rest with
respect to the source, and v is the speed of recession.
In a similar way, when a source moves away from us, the light we receive
is said to have been “blue-shifted”(moved to shorter wavelengths).
In the 1920s, the astronomers Edwin Hubble and Vesto Slipher
discovered that the spectral lines in light received from distant galaxies are
284 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

all red-shifted. The implication is that distant galaxies are all moving away
from us and from each other. In addition to this, Hubble showed that the
red-shift is directly proportional to the distance of the galaxy, so that very
distant galaxies are moving away from us more rapidly than closer galaxies.
Since redshift is directly proportional to recession velocity, this discovery
showed that recession velocity v is directly proportional to distance d. This
is called Hubble’s law:

v  H0 d
where H0 is the Hubble constant.
This discovery led to the idea of the expanding universe (see Section
28.3). This was eventually explained by Einstein’s general theory of relativity,
which reinterpreted the galactic redshifts. According to Einstein’s model,
the reason for the red shifts is not that galaxies are flying apart in pre-existing
space but that space itself is expanding so that the separation between the
galaxies increases. Either way we can use the redshift to calculate the speed
at which any particular galaxy is receding from us.
In 1964, the American radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert
Wilson discovered that the universe is bathed in low-intensity microwaves
with an almost perfect black body radiation spectrum. These are believed
to be an “echo” of the Big Bang. According to the Big Bang theory the early
universe was filled with high-energy short-wavelength gamma radiation,
but in the past 13.7 billion years of expansion, this has been hugely red-
shifted and is now present as the cosmic microwave background radiation.

14.5 Exercises

1. The distance to the Moon has been measured by reflecting light from
arrays of mirrors left on the Moon’s surface by Apollo astronauts. The
mirrors are arranged as corner reflectors that reflect incoming beams
back on themselves. However, the spreading of the beam means that
only about 1 in 1017 photons leaving Earth are detected in the reflection!
The uncertainty in the measurements of distance are of the order of
1 cm.
The speed of light is 299,792,458 ms1
The distance to the Moon is (on average) 385,000.6 km.
(a) Calculate the time taken for light to make the return trip to the moon.
(b) How precisely must this time be measured in order to achieve a
distance accuracy of ±1 cm?
 LIGHT • 285

(c) Why is it impossible to prevent the beam from spreading?

2. A magnifying glass of focal length 4.0 cm is used to form a magnified
image of a small insect placed 3.0 cm from the lens.
(a) Draw a ray diagram to show how the magnified image is formed.
(b) Calculate the linear magnification of the image.
(c) Describe and explain what happens to the image as the magnifying
glass is slowly moved away from the insect.
3. Complete the table below, which refers to a convex lens of focal length
20 cm.
Object Image Linear Nature of image
distance distance magnification (real/virtual)
10 cm
20 cm
30 cm
40 cm
Infinity
4. Complete the table below, which refers to a concave lens of focal length
20 cm.
Object Image Linear Nature of image
distance distance magnification (real/virtual)
10 cm
20 cm
30 cm
Infinity
5. An astronomical refracting telescope has an objective lens of diameter
5.0 cm and focal length 120 cm. It is in normal adjustment with an
eyepiece lens of focal length 4.0 cm.
(a) What is the magnifying power of the telescope.
(b) The eyepiece is changed for one of focal length 6.0 cm and readjusted
so that it is in normal adjustment with the new lens. How does this
affect the magnifying power and the length of the telescope?
6. (a) A policeman with a radar gun measures a Doppler shift of 83 parts in
a billion for radio waves reflected from an approaching car. How fast
is the car moving?
(b) An astronomer measures a redshift for a distant galaxy of 0.025. How
far away is the galaxy? The Hubble constant H0  2.2 1018 s1.
7. Suggest an experimental method, based on the Doppler Effect, that
could be used to measure the rotation period of the Sun.
 CHAPTER

15
SUPERPOSITION EFFECTS

15.0 Superposition Effects

Superposition is what happens when two or more waves are present at the
same point. This might occur because they originate from different sources
or because of reflection. If the waves are of the same type, the resultant
disturbance at that point is the vector sum of the disturbances from each
individual wave. This is called the principle of superposition. We can
determine the effects of superposition graphically, by adding phasors or
by calculation. Many important phenomena are linked to superposition,
including interference and diffraction and the formation of standing
(stationary) waves.

15.1 Two-Source Interference

If waves of the same type with equal wavelength, frequency, and amplitude
are emitted from two sources placed a short distance apart (comparable
to a few wavelengths), then a regular interference pattern is formed. The
pattern consists of regions where the waves reinforce to produce maximum
intensity (constructive interference) and regions where they cancel to
produce minimum intensity (destructive interference).
The famous double slit experiment carried out by Thomas Young in
1801 provided strong evidence for the wavelength of light and enabled
Young to calculate its wavelength. A similar setup with sound can be used
to demonstrate superposition patterns and, in a modified form, to create
noise-cancelling headphones.
288 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Screen or
detection plane

Maximum

Minimum
Source 1 ∗
SUPERPOSITION Maximum

Source 2 ∗ Minimum

Maximum

In order for stable clear interference effects to be created, the two sources
must be coherent.

Coherent sources maintain a constant phase relationship.

This means that they must be the same type of wave and have the same
wavelength and frequency. The sources do not have to be in phase, but
the phase difference between them must be constant. They must also have
comparable amplitudes; if one wave has a much greater amplitude than the
other, then variations in intensity will be hard to detect.

15.1.1 Demonstrating Superposition Effects with Sound

If two loudspeakers are connected to the same signal generator, they will
emit sound waves with the same amplitude, wavelength, and frequency, so
an interference pattern will be formed where they superpose. The pattern
can be explored by moving a microphone connected to an oscilloscope
through the region of superposition. If this is done on a large enough scale,
it is possible to walk through the superposition region and actually hear the
variation in sound intensity.
A
Microphone
M

Connection
Signal S to oscilloscope
generator

S
B
 SUPERPOSITION EFFECTS • 289

In the experiment above, the microphone is moved along the line AB and it
detects a sequence of maxima and minima. When the microphone is in any
position, the contributions from each speaker can be displayed separately
by switching each one off in turn. The resultant disturbance depends on
the phase difference between the waves as they reach the microphone. This
depends on the path difference x  S2M  S1M. A path difference of one
whole wavelength corresponds to a phase difference of 2 radians, so the
relationship between path difference and phase difference is:
2 x


For a maximum, the waves must reach the microphone in phase; this occurs
when the path difference is a whole number of wavelengths. For a minimum,
they must arrive in antiphase (an odd multiple of  phase difference); this
happens when the path difference is an odd number of half wavelengths.
There will be a maximum at the center of the pattern because S2M
 S1M here, so the path difference and phase difference are both zero.
Minima will occur when x  /2, 3/2, 5/2,etc., and these minima will
be positioned symmetrically about the central maximum. In between the
minima there will be further maxima when x  , 2, 3,etc. The intensity
between maxima will vary continuously from maximum to zero and then
back to a maximum. The path difference, phase difference, and effects at
maxima and minima are tabulated below.
Path difference Phase Resultant
difference/rad intensity
0 0 Central maximum
½  Minimum
 2 Maximum
3
/2 3 Minimum
2 4 Maximum
5
/2 5 Minimum

15.1.2 Demonstrating Superposition Effects with Light

Light from a filament lamp is polychromatic and incoherent, producing
short wave trains from different atoms in the filament, so these sources
are not well suited to producing interference effects. When incoherent
light superposes, the interference effects average out so that we simply add
intensities and do not get a pattern of maxima and minima. An example of
this is the pool of light where a car’s two head lamp beams overlap.
290 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Lasers are ideal because they are intense monochromatic sources.

However, the way in which laser light is produced means that the wave
trains only remain coherent for a short time. If we wish to demonstrate
interference, it is best to derive the two light sources from a single beam.
This can be done by diffracting the beam with a single slit and then letting
the light fall onto a double slit.

LASER SUPERPOSITION

Single
slit
Interference
pattern
Double
slit Screen

The diagram above has exaggerated the angle of spread from each slit.
In practice the angles are small, and this allows us to use the small-angle
approximation when deriving the relationship between the wavelength of
the light and the structure of the pattern. It is also important to realize
that the slit separation is very small compared to the distance between the
double slits and the screen.
Here is an image of an actual double slit pattern formed using a green
laser pen.

The small bright vertical patches are interference maxima (sometimes

called interference fringes). Notice that the pattern itself fades in and out.
This is a secondary effect caused by the diffraction pattern from individual
slits rather than the interference pattern between different slits.
 SUPERPOSITION EFFECTS • 291

15.1.3 Using the Double Slit Experiment to Find the Wavelength of Light
Young’s double slit experiment was used to measure the wavelength of
visible light. We can derive an equation that relates the wavelength of light
to three parameters: the separation of the double slits s, the distance from
the double slits to the screen d, and the separation of adjacent maxima in
the interference pattern y (fringe separation).
P
First max.

y
∗
S1
s O θ max.
∗
S2 T
d
Screen or
detection
plane

P is the position of the first maximum above the central maximum. A line
drawn from O, half-way between the two slits, to P makes an angle  with
the central axis. If a line is now drawn from S1 perpendicular to OP then
distances S1T and TP are equal. The distance S2T is therefore equal to the
path difference, and this must be equal to one wavelength.
y ST 
sin    2 
d s s
Rearranging,
sy

d
The wavelength of light can be determined by measuring the slit separation,
the fringe separation, and the distance to the screen.

15.1.4 Superposition of Harmonic Waves

When two harmonic waves superpose, the resultant effect is the sum of two
sinusoidal oscillations. If the two waves have the same amplitude, this sum
can be represented by adding two sine or cosine functions, y1 and y2, to give
the resulting disturbance Y.
y1  A sin  t 
y2  A sin  t  
Y  y1  y2  A A sin  t  sin  t  
292 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

where  is the phase difference between the two oscillations. This will
depend on the path difference x between waves from the two sources.
This can be simplified using a well-known trigonometric identity:
 R T   R T 
sin R  sin T  2 sin cos 
 2   2 
to give:
   
Y  2 A sin t  cos 
 2 2
This is most easily interpreted by grouping it differently so that there is a
phase-dependent amplitude multiplied by a sinusoidal oscillation:
     
Y  2 A cos sin t  
  2   2
The term in brackets represents the amplitude. When /2  0, 2, 4,
etc., the cosine term will be 1, representing a maximum in the interference
pattern and the amplitude will be 2A. When /2  0, , 3,etc., it will be
0,representing a minimum.
The graphs below show the resultant oscillations when two waves, each
of amplitude 2 units, combine with various phase differences. The two
broken lines represent oscillations from waves 1 and 2,while the solid line
is the sum of these.
6
4
2 Phase difference = 0

0 Lines for waves 1 and 2

Y

are on top of each other.

–2
Resultant amplitude = 2 + 2 = 4
–4
–6
Time

3
2
Phase difference = π
1
Lines for waves 1 and 2
0
Y

are in antiphase.
–1
Resultant amplitude = 0
–2
–3
Time
 SUPERPOSITION EFFECTS • 293

2 Phase difference = π/2

Lines for waves 1 and 2
Y 0
are π/2 out of phase.
–2 Resultant amplitude =
2 × 2 cos (π/4) = 2√2
–4
Time

Another way to determine the resultant of two superposed waves is to add

phasors representing each wave. This approach is illustrated below for
the final case where the amplitude of each wave is 2 units and the phase
difference is /2.
ω
ω ω

2 2√2

2 π/2 π/4

Phasor for Phasor for Resultant

wave 1 wave 2 phasor

Phasors are particularly helpful for visualizing how two or more waves will
superpose.

15.2 Diffraction Gratings

A transmission grating consists of a large number of parallel, equally spaced
narrow slits. When light passes through the grating, it is diffracted by each
slit and light from a large number of sources overlaps to create a pattern of
interference (often referred to as a diffraction pattern). Diffraction gratings
produce intense well-separated and sharply defined maxima and are useful
for analyzing the spectrum of light sources. This is called spectroscopy. The
typical arrangement of apparatus used to measure wavelengths of light is
shown below.
294 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Second-order maximum

First-order maximum

Central (zeroth-
LASER
order) maximum

First-order maximum

Second-order maximum

Here is an image of an actual experimental setup using a green laser pen

as source.

Diffraction
maxima (orders
of diffraction)

Diffraction
Screen grating

Laser pen

15.2.1 Diffraction Grating Formula

In practice the slit separation on a diffraction grating is very small compared
to the distance from the grating to the screen, so that rays leaving adjacent
slits and superposing at a point on the screen effectively travel parallel
to one another. This simplifies the analysis because we can assume the
rays are parallel as they leave the grating. In the analysis below, we will
 SUPERPOSITION EFFECTS • 295

consider parallel rays traveling at an angle  to the normal to the grating and
superposing at a point P on the screen. The first diagram shows the large-
scale situation and the second diagram is a highly magnified picture of some
of the rays leaving slits in the grating.
P

O θ
Laser
Central (zeroth-
L order) maximum
Diffraction grating with
N lines per meter and
slit separation d

Often the grating is described by the number of lines per meter(or per
millimeter) N, rather than the slit separation d. These are related by d  1/N.
The path difference between the ray from S1 and the ray from S2 is
S2Q  d sin .

Rays superpose at
point P on screen
S1

d
θ
Q
S2

S3
296 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

It is clear from the diagram that the path difference between the ray
from S1 and the ray from S3 is just double this, and that the path difference
to a slit m times further away is m times greater. It follows that if the rays
leaving adjacent slits are in phase, then ALL rays across the entire grating
will be in phase at that angle and an intense maximum will be created.
These maxima are called orders of diffraction.
For rays from adjacent slits to be in phase, the path difference between
them must be an integer number of wavelengths. The condition for a
maximum is, therefore,
n
sin   or n  d sin 
d
where n is the order of diffraction (equal to the number of wavelengths
path difference between rays from adjacent slits).
This is the diffraction grating equation. If we know d and can measure
, we can calculate .

Intensity of maxima
Intensity I is proportional to amplitude-squared (I µ A2), so in the double
slit experiment, the maxima will have double amplitude and four times the
intensity of the light from a single slit. When we use a diffraction grating,
N slits contribute to each maximum, so the amplitude is N times greater
and the intensity is N2 times greater. This makes the maxima much more
intense than in the double slit experiment.

Sharpness of maxima
In the double slit experiment the intensity varies gradually between one
maximum and the next minimum so that the maxima are not sharp. This is
because the path difference between adjacent slits varies slowly as we move
away from a maximum position. This is also true for adjacent slits in the
diffraction grating, but the resultant effect on the screen is the sum of waves
from slits all the way across the grating, and even a small displacement from
the maximum position will result in a large change in path difference from a
distant slit. The result is that the sum of rays across the grating falls to zero
very rapidly as we move away from each maximum. This is best illustrated
using phasors. The diagrams below compare the effect of moving the same
short distance from a maximum for both the double slit and for a grating
with just 8 slits (in practice gratings have many more than this).
As the angle moves away from a diffraction grating maximum, the
phasors from slits across the width of the grating curl up more and more so
 SUPERPOSITION EFFECTS • 297

that the maximum itself is sharp and has a series of closely packed secondary
maxima on either side of it. The more slits, the sharper the maximum. This
increases the precision with which wavelengths can be measured.

2 phasors have a
+ = small phase
difference so
resultant is large
Double slit

+ + + + + + + =

Grating

Phasors “curl up” and

resultant is zero

Number of orders
The maximum possible path difference between rays leaving adjacent slits
occurs when the rays leave parallel to the grating surface (  90°) and is
then equal to the slit separation d. The maximum value of n is therefore
d/. However, n can only be an integer, so the maximum number of orders
must be the largest integer less than this; e.g., if d/  5.7, then 5 orders of
diffraction could be formed either side of the central maximum. In practice
these might not all be visible. The intensity of light diffracted at large angles
might be too low for them to be seen, or they might correspond to missing
orders where there is a minimum of the single slit diffraction pattern (see
Section 15.3.1).

15.2.2 Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the analysis of electromagnetic radiation to identify
the wavelengths present in a source. This is one of the most important
298 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

experimental techniques in science and is used in a range of different areas

of research, from cosmology to atomic physics.
Violet Increasing Red
wavelength

Continuous
spectrum

Line emission
spectrum

Line absorption
spectrum

When atoms or molecules are excited to higher energy states, the electrons
can then return to lower energy states by making quantum jumps and
emitting photons. The wavelength of the emitted photon is related to the
energy change by the equation   hc/E (see Section 27.2.1), so the greater
the energy jump, the shorter the wavelength. For isolated atoms the energy
levels are very distinct, so there is a discrete set of emitted wavelengths
forming a line emission spectrum. The spectrum of each atom is unique,
so an analysis of its spectrum can be used to identify the types of atom
present in the source (e.g., a distant star). Atoms in molecules interact,
producing a more complex spectrum that includes bands corresponding
to small allowed ranges of energy. The atoms in solid materials are
packed closely together, and electrons occupy wide energy bands so the
characteristic emission from a hot solid is a continuous spectrum. When
electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by atoms or molecules in lower
energy states, photons whose energies correspond to allow quantum jumps
can be absorbed and electrons are excited to higher energy states. This
removes certain wavelengths from the radiation so that the transmitted
radiation will contain dark lines or bands called an absorption spectrum.
The wavelengths missing in the absorption spectrum are the same ones
that would be present in the emission spectrum from the same element or
compound.
 SUPERPOSITION EFFECTS • 299

A typical experimental setup to analyze light from a source (e.g., a laser

or a discharge lamp) is shown below. The diagram shows the measurements
that would need to be taken to calculate one wavelength present in the
spectrum. If there are several, then each wavelength would produce its own
set of orders and would need to be measured separately.
First
L maximum
Slit
x

θ1 Central
Source∗ θ1 maximum

Diffraction
grating with slit First
separation d maximum

The angle 1 can be found by measuring x and L with a ruler and then using
tan 1  x/L.
In practice it is best to use an average value for 1 by measuring the first
order on both sides of the central maximum. This helps to reduce errors
due to alignment. The wavelength is then calculated from:
 d sin 1
If several orders are visible, each one can be used and wavelength can be
calculated from:
d sin  n

n
Another approach is to plot sin n against n. The gradient of this graph is
/d.

15.2.3 Spectrometers
For more precise spectroscopy a specialized instrument called a spectrometer
must be used. A traditional spectrometer consists of a collimating tube,
which ensures that rays from the source arrive along a normal to the grating,
and a telescope that is used to detect the orders of diffraction. These are all
mounted on a rotating base so that the angle between the normal and each
order can be measured from a Vernier scale engraved on the base.
300 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Diffraction grating

Collimator
Source θ
∗

Adjustable width Base with Vernier

slit scale for angle

The eyepiece of the telescope has a built-in cross-hair so that the position
of the image can be found precisely. The observer sees a fine vertical line
in each wavelength at each order of diffraction. For greatest precision, the
collimator slit must be adjusted so that it is very narrow.
Setting up a spectrometer requires great care to ensure that the rays
leaving the collimator are parallel and the diffraction grating is in the plane
perpendicular to these rays.

Digital spectrometers
Digital spectrometers are used to display spectra and to measure
wavelengths but are rarely able to provide the level of precision achievable
with a traditional setup. Most simple digital spectrometers use an optical
fiber to direct light into the device where it then falls onto a reflection
grating. This consists of a large number of parallel reflecting lines (like
on the surface of a compact disc) and produces orders of diffraction by
reflection. The light is detected by a CCD detector and the position on the
detector corresponds to wavelength, so this can then be recorded digitally
and used to generate a graph of intensity against wavelength.

15.3 Diffraction by Slits and Holes

When waves pass through a small gap or past the edge of an object, they
spread out or diffract. This results in superposition effects that create
interference patterns. For slits and holes the amount of diffraction depends
on the ratio of the wavelength  of the wave to the size d of the aperture
(/d). The larger this ratio, the more significant the effect. This is illustrated
below (simplified), showing plane waves passing through gaps of different
size. As the ratio approaches 1, the waves spread out in all directions.
 SUPERPOSITION EFFECTS • 301

The intensity of the diffracted waves varies with angle and usually has
maxima and minima.

15.3.1 Diffraction by a Narrow Slit

When waves pass through a narrow slit, a characteristic diffraction pattern
is formed with a broad central maximum, and narrower dimmer secondary
maxima spread out symmetrically on either side. A simple experimental
arrangement is shown below:
Narrower
secondary
maxima

Broad central
Laser
maximum

Narrower
Single slit of width w secondary
maxima

Here is a graph showing the intensity variation on the screen.

Intensity

Position on screen
302 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The pattern for a thin wire of diameter d is identical to that for a slit of
width w when w  d.

15.3.2 Analysis of the Single Slit Diffraction Pattern

A complete mathematical analysis of this pattern is beyond the scope of
this book, but we can derive a formula for the positions of the minima in
the pattern by considering the angles at which light emitted from across
the width of the slit interferes destructively. This is based on an idea from
Christian Huyghens who realized that we can consider every point on a
wave front as if it is an independent source of circular (or spherical) waves.
We then need to add up the contributions from all such points. This leads
to an integral that gives the resultant intensity at any point on the screen. To
find the angles at which minima occur, we simply need to find the condition
under which the waves from all points add to zero.
The diagram below shows the region close to the slit and has divided the
slit up into a large number of point sources. The angle shown corresponds
to the first minimum from the center of the diffraction pattern. Rays from
the edges and center of the slit are shown. Rays from intermediate points
have not been shown.

A
D

w B
E

Rays from all points across the slit reach the same point on the screen and
add to zero. Consider rays from A and B. If these two rays are  out of
phase, the pair will add to zero. Now consider the two rays a small distance
further down the slit from A and a small distance further down the slit from
B. These will have the same small phase difference from A and from B but
will also be  out of phase with each other and so will also add to zero. In
 SUPERPOSITION EFFECTS • 303

fact, continuing this argument, all the rays will cancel in pairs across the slit
and the resultant at the screen will be zero. The condition when this first
occurs is when the ray at B is  out of phase with the ray at A and the path
difference BE is /2. Consider triangle BCE when this occurs:
B
E

BE/BC = sin θ

θ BE/2 = λ and BC/2 = w

So the first minimum occurs when sin θ = λ/w

The condition for the nth minimum is when rays can cancel in pairs n times
across the width of the slit. The path difference between the rays at each
edge of the slit must therefore be n so that:
n
sin  n 
w
This has a similar form to the equation for the maxima of a diffraction
grating—don’t forget that this gives the positions of minima!
If the pattern subtends a small angle at the slit, then the minima are
equally spaced and the central maximum, which goes from the minima
on either side, is exactly double the width of the secondary maxima. This
contrasts with the double slit pattern where the maxima have equal widths.

15.3.3 Diffraction Through a Circular Hole

The diffraction pattern through a circular hole or by a circular object is
qualitatively similar to that for a slit, but the pattern consists of concentric
rings rather than lines and the angular positions of the minima are not the
same. The first minimum for a circular diffraction pattern occurs when:
1.22 
sin  
D
where D is the diameter of the hole or object.
It is quite easy to demonstrate this pattern in the laboratory. Lycopodium
powder consists of fine pollen grains that are all roughly spherical and of
about the same diameter. If a microscope slide is dipped into the powder
and then held in front of a green laser pen, the diffraction pattern can be
projected onto a screen. However, for this to be convincing you will need
304 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

a completely blacked-out room. The pattern itself is the superposition of

many patterns formed by the individual particles. However, the particles
are very close together so they create a single pattern on the screen.

Narrower
secondary
maxima

Broad central
Laser maximum

Narrower
Circular hole of
secondary
diameter D
maxima

Diffraction patterns from slits, wires, holes, and circular objects can be used
to measure the size of the diffracting object. There is an inverse relationship
between the size of the object and the size of the pattern, so the smaller the
object, the larger the angle at which the first minimum occurs. In practice
the wavelength of the source needs to be known and the experiment consists
of measuring the angle at which the first minimum occurs.

15.3.4 Resolving Power and the Rayleigh Criterion

When light enters the objective of an optical instrument, it diffracts.
This limits how sharply the instrument can focus images. The amount
of diffraction depends on the ratio /D, where D is the diameter of the
objective, so instruments with large-diameter objectives working at short
wavelengths have the greatest ability to resolve detail in the images they
produce.
The ability of an optical instrument to resolve detail is called its resolving
power, and the smallest angular separation between object points that can
be distinguished as separate image points is called the limit of resolution.
When instruments are compared, we use the Rayleigh criterion to give a
value for the limit of resolution. Rayleigh suggested that the diffraction
limit occurs when the central maximum of the diffraction pattern from one
object falls onto the first minimum of the diffraction pattern from the other
object. This would occur when the angular separation  of the two objects
at the objective is equal to 1.22/D.
 SUPERPOSITION EFFECTS • 305

Object 1

∗
θ

∗
Object 2 Objective
diameter D

Rayleigh criterion:
1.22
 not resolved
D
1.22
 limit of resolution
D
1.22
 resolved
D
In practice diffraction is only one factor that limits resolution, so these
diffraction limits are rarely achieved. Other factors are aberration,
atmospheric effects, sensitivity of the sensors, etc.
It is interesting to compare the limit of resolution of the human eye
with that of a large optical and radio telescope. We will take 500 nm as
a representative visible wavelength and 20 cm as a representative radio
wavelength.
Human eye: pupil diameter 5.0 mm, wavelength 500 nm, limit of resolution
1.2  104 rad
Large optical telescope: objective diameter 10 m, wavelength 500 nm,
limit of resolution 6.1  108 rad
Large radio telescope: objective diameter 500 m, wavelength 20 cm,
limit of resolution 4.9  104 rad
The resolving power of the large optical telescope is, as expected, much
greater than that of the unaided human eye, but it might be surprising to
realize that the world’s largest radio telescope “sees” the universe in less
detail than our eyes, albeit seeing different features.

15.4 Standing (Stationary) Waves

Standing waves are formed when two similar waves traveling in opposite
directions superpose. This can occur because of reflection or as a particular
306 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

example of two-source interference. The resultant disturbance has positions

called antinodes, where the waves always combine in phase to produce a
large amplitude, and regions called nodes, where the waves always combine
in antiphase and cancel out. Standing waves are responsible for the sound
of musical instruments and the existence of energy levels in atoms.

15.4.1 Standing Waves on a String (Melde’s Experiment)

One end of a string is attached to a vibrator and the other end is connected
over a pulley to some hanging masses. At certain vibration frequencies,
standing waves are set up on the string.
L

Signal Vibrator
generator

The ends of the string are effectively fixed. These are the boundary
conditions, so there must be nodes at each end. Standing waves can
then be formed at frequencies that “fit” the length of the string—in other
words, patterns that have nodes at the ends. The lowest frequency, longest
wavelength wave that sets up a standing wave is called the fundamental.
The sequence of different standing waves are harmonics. Since the
speed v of transverse waves on a string is determined only by the tension
and mass per unit length of the string, it is the same for all harmonics, and
the frequencies form a simple sequence. The diagrams that follow show the
first few harmonics for the string above.
It is clear that the harmonic frequencies are all integer multiples of the
fundamental frequency f1. The frequency of the nth harmonic will be nf1.
A similar series is obtained if the boundary conditions have an antinode at
both ends (e.g., standing sound waves in a tube open at both ends).
If the boundary conditions are different at each end, so that there is a
node at one end and an antinode at the other, then the sequence is f1, 3f1,
5f1, etc., all the odd multiples of the fundamental frequency (e.g., standing
waves in a tube open at one end and closed at the other).
 SUPERPOSITION EFFECTS • 307

Antinode

Node Node

L = λ1/2
Fundamental (first harmonic): f1 = v/λ1 = v/2L

Antinode Antinode

Node Node Node

L = λ2

Second harmonic: f2 = v/λ2 = v/L = 2f1

Antinode Antinode Antinode

Node Node Node Node

L = 3λ3 /2
Third harmonic: f3 = v/λ2 = 2v/3L = 3f1

The speed of transverse waves on a string is given by:

T
v

The frequencies of harmonics on the string above are, therefore,
n T
fn 
2L 
Here are some of the key features of standing waves:
Q Nodes are regions where the waves always interfere destructively, giving
zero amplitude.
Q Antinodes are regions where the waves always interfere constructively,
giving maximum amplitude.
Q The distance between two adjacent nodes, or two adjacent antinodes, is
equal to /2.
Q All points between two nodes oscillate in phase.
308 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q Points on either side of a node oscillate with a phase difference of 

radians.
Standing waves on a stretched string produce sounds in stringed musical
instruments. The player excites the string by plucking, strumming, hitting,
or bowing it, and this generates waves with a wide range of frequencies that
travel along the string and reflect from the fixed ends. Only wavelengths
that satisfy the boundary conditions (nodes at each end) create standing
waves, so these dominate the emitted sound, which will usually consist of
a range of harmonics. The nature and quality of the sound we hear will
depend on the amount of each harmonic present and the attack and decay
rate of the sound.

15.4.2 Mathematics of Standing Waves

Since standing waves are formed by the superposition of two similar waves
traveling in opposite directions, we can find an equation for a standing wave
by adding the wave equations for these waves together.
y1  A cos(t  kx)  wave traveling in x direction
y2  A cos(t  kx)  wave traveling in the x direction
Y  y1  y2  A cos(t  kx) + A cos(t  kx)  equation of a standing wave
where   2f and k  2/
This can be rewritten using the trigonometric identity:
 AB  AB
cos A  cos B  2 cos sin 
 2   2 
to give:
Y  2 A cos kx cos t
where we have reversed the order of the cosines.
The first part of this, 2A cos kx, can be regarded as a position—
dependent amplitude. This will be zero when cos kx  0, and this occurs
when kx  0, , 2, etc.,i.e., kx  n. These are the nodes, and the separation
of two nodes is given by kx  :
2
k ,

2 x
so 


giving x  (separation of nodes)
2
 SUPERPOSITION EFFECTS • 309

The maximum value of this term is when cos kx  1. The amplitude is

then 2A. This occurs at the antinodes, half way between nodes.
The second term, cos t, is a simple harmonic oscillation at all points
in the standing wave.

15.5 Exercises

1. The diagram shows a two-source interference experiment using sound.

A 20 cm

D
26 cm

4.0 m

Speakers A and B are 26 cm apart along a line parallel to CD. They both
emit sound waves of a single frequency and the same amplitude a, and
they are in phase with one another. D is equidistant from A and B. When
a microphone is placed at D it records a sound of maximum intensity.
When it is moved along the line DC it gradually fades to become a
minimum at C; immediately beyond C, the intensity increases.
(a) State the phase difference between the waves arriving at D.
(b) State the phase difference between the waves arriving at C.
(c) State the path difference (in wavelengths) between waves reaching C
from sources A and B.
(d) State the amplitude and intensity of the resultant sound at D (assume
I  k2 where k is a constant).
(e) State the amplitude and intensity of the resultant sound at C (assume
I  k2 where k is a constant).
(f) What would happen to the amplitude and intensity of the sound at D
if one of the speakers was switched off?
(g) Use the dimensions on the figure to work out the wavelength and
frequency of the sound. The speed of sound is 340 ms1.
(h)How would CD change if the wavelength of the sound was doubled?
(i) How would the distance CD change if the separation of the speakers
was doubled?
(j) Explain why the intensity of sound increases beyond D.
310 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

2. Monochromatic light of wavelength 589 nm is passed through a single

slit, which diffracts the light onto double slits of separation 0.12 mm.
The double slits act as coherent sources, and an interference pattern is
formed on a screen 2.0 m beyond the double slits.
(a) Explain why it is important to use monochromatic coherent sources.
(b) Calculate the separation of maxima on the screen.
(c) Describe and explain the effect on the interference pattern if each of
the following changes are made (independently):
(i) The entire apparatus is immersed in water (refractive index 1.33).
(ii) One of the two double slits is wider than the other.
(iii) The separation between the double slits and the single slit is
increased.
(iv) The screen is moved further away from the double slits.
(v) Light of longer wavelength is used.
(vi) Polarizing filters are placed in front of each slit and one of them
is slowly rotated through 360°, starting off with both polarizing
directions parallel.
(d) Light from a car’s headlamps overlaps. Explain why this does not
form an interference pattern.
3. Explain in detail how and why the interference pattern from three
slits compares with one from a double slit if they both have the same
slit width and slit separation and if they are both illuminated with
monochromatic light of the same frequency. Illustrate your answer with
a graph showing how the intensity of the light varies with position on a
screen.
4. A diffraction grating has 300 lines per mm and it is illuminated by light
containing two strong emission lines at 480 and 520 nm. The width of
each slit is 1.11 mm.
(a) What are the angular positions of the first-order maxima for each of
these lines?
(b) What is the angular separation of lines in the second-order spectrum?
(c) How many orders of diffraction are there?
(d) Explain why the third order of diffraction will not be observable.
5. Describe an experiment using a diffraction grating to measure the
wavelength of light from a laser pen. Your description should include:
Q a labeled diagram of the apparatus
Q what you will measure and how the measurements will be made
 SUPERPOSITION EFFECTS • 311

Q how you will calculate the wavelength from the data you collect
Q how you will maximize accuracy and precision

6. Red light of wavelength 525 nm passes along a normal to a narrow

vertical slit of width 0.20 mm.
(a) Calculate the angle to the normal at which the first minimum of the
resultant diffraction pattern occurs.
(b) Sketch a graph of intensity against position (in mm) for the diffraction
pattern formed on a screen 1.2 m from the slit.
(c) Explain how the minima in the pattern are formed.
(d) How would the pattern change if the red light source was replaced
with a blue light source of wavelength 450 nm?
7. Describe an experiment that could be carried out to measure the
thickness of a human hair using a laser of known wavelength. Your
description should include:
Q a labeled diagram of the apparatus
Q what you will measure and how the measurements will be made
Q how you will calculate the wavelength from the data you collect
Q how you will maximize accuracy and precision

8. The pupil of the human eye is about 5.00 mm in diameter.

(a) Use the Raleigh criterion to calculate the theoretical minimum
angular limit of resolution.
(b) If the eye could reach this diffraction limit, calculate the maximum
distance at which it could resolve two-point sources separated by a
distance of 1.00 mm.
(c) A pair of stars form a binary system 20 light years from Earth. It is just
possible to resolve them into separate images using the naked eye.
Estimate a lower limit for the separation of the stars.
(d) Explain why your answer to (c) is a lower limit.
(e) Explain why a small telescope, with aperture diameter 15 cm, can
easily resolve these two stars.
9. (a) Estimate the maximum distance at which you could resolve a car’s
head lamps into separate sources.
(b) It has been claimed that a spy satellite orbiting at a height of 600 km
could resolve the letters in a car number plate on the surface of the
Earth. Is this a realistic claim?
312 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

T
10. The speed of transverse waves on a string is given by v , where T

is the tension in the string (N) and  is the mass per unit length of the
string (kgm1).
A steel wire of diameter 0.12 mm is held at a tension of 26 N between
two fixed points 0.75 m apart. The density of steel is 7800 kgm−3.
(a) Calculate the mass per unit length of the steel string.
(b) Calculate the speed of transverse waves in the steel string.
(c) What is the frequency of the fundamental?
(d) List the frequencies of the first three harmonics.
(e) The temperature of the wire increases. State and explain how this will
affect the frequencies of sound emitted by the vibrating wire.
 CHAPTER

16
SOUND

16.1 Nature and Speed of Sound

Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical vibrations. Audible sound lies in
the range 20 Hz to 20 kHz and travels at about 340 ms1 through the air.
Sound waves with frequencies >20 kHz are called ultrasound, while those
with frequencies <20 Hz are called infra sound. The wave itself consists of
compressions and rarefactions of the medium through which it passes, so
the speed of sound depends on mechanical properties of the medium such
as its density and compressibility.
Sound source, e.g.
speaker
Compression Compression
Sound detector,
Rarefaction e.g. microphone

Oscillation
direction

Wavelength λ

Speed of Pressure variations in the air

Speaker cone oscillates and
sound, v exert forces on the microphone,
alternately compresses and
which converts these into
rarefies air in front of it
electrical signals
314 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The sound wave itself can be described either by the varying particle
displacements at each point or by the varying pressure at each point.
The speed of sound in an ideal gas is given by:
RT
v
M
where M is the molar mass of the gas and  is the adiabatic gas constant.
The speed of sound in a solid material is approximately given by:
E
v

where E is the Young modulus and  is the density of the solid.
The speed of sound in a liquid is given by a similar equation, but the
Young modulus is replaced by the bulk modulus of the liquid, a quantity
that measures the compressibility of the liquid.
Typical values for the speed of sound are:
Air, at atmospheric pressure and 20°C: v  343 ms1 (this falls to about
300 ms1 at the altitude of a commercial jet)
Water: v  1482 ms1
Steel: v  6000 ms1 (varies with type of steel)

16.2 Decibel Scale

The human ear has a logarithmic response to sound. This allows us to detect
sounds over a very wide range of intensities (from about 1 pWm2 to about
1 Wm2), but it also means that doubling the intensity of the sound does
not double the apparent loudness of the sound. In fact, for sound to seem
twice as loud, we have to increase its intensity by a factor of 10. The decibel
scale takes this into account. Intensity levels are measured in bels (B), and
1 bel is equal to 10 decibels (dB). The intensity level in bels is related to the
threshold of human hearing at I0  1 pWm2. To calculate the intensity level
in bels corresponding to an actual intensity I in Wm2, we use the equation:
I
intensity level  B log10 
 I0 
I
intensity level dB 10 log10 
 I0 
 SOUND • 315

Here are some typical intensity levels:

Threshold of hearing: 0 dB
Breathing: 10 dB
Radio/TV: 70 dB
Live rock music: 110 dB
Jet take off (300 m away): 130 dB
Jet take off (25 m away): 150 dB (eardrum rupture)
Note that the decibel is certainly NOT an S.I. unit, and values of intensity
level are comparative, not absolute.

16.3 Standing Waves in Air Columns

Many musical instruments (wind instruments) use standing waves in air
columns to generate particular sounds. The length of the air column and
the boundary conditions at its ends determine what harmonics will be
present in the sound. A simple demonstration of these standing waves is
shown on the left.
Signal
generator

Particles at open end

can vibrate with a
large amplitude

Vertical cylinder
L
containing air

Particles at closed end

cannot vibrate

As the frequency of the signal generator is gradually increased, the sound

intensity increases sharply at certain frequencies. These correspond to the
standing waves formed when waves traveling down the column reflect from
the base and the incident and reflected waves superpose.
The air column shown is closed at the bottom and open at the top.
Particles near the bottom cannot undergo longitudinal oscillations, so this
316 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

must be a node of displacement. The top of the column is open to the

atmosphere, so particles are free to oscillate. This allows an antinode to
form, but it actually occurs a small distance e above the top of the column.
e is called the “end correction,” and it is about half the radius of the tube.
The effective length of the resonating column is therefore L  e.
The diagrams below (shown horizontally) show the standing waves that
can be formed in a tube open at one end and closed at the other. Note that,
while the diagrams look like transverse waves, they simply represent the
amplitude of longitudinal vibrations at each position in the tube.
L+e
Fundamental
(first harmonic)
L + e = λ/4

Second harmonic:
L + e = 3λ/4

Third harmonic:
L + e = 5λ/4

This harmonic series consists of odd multiples of the fundamental frequency:

2 n 1n 2 n 1 v
Le 
4 4 fn
fn  2 n  1 f1
If the air column is open at both ends, the boundary conditions will be
displacement antinodes at both ends (i.e., a column of length L  2e). If the
column is closed at both ends, the boundary conditions will be displacement
antinodes at both ends. In both cases the harmonic series will be integer
multiples of the fundamental frequency.
It was mentioned previously that we can describe the sound wave
in terms of particle displacements or variations of pressure. However,
displacement nodes are actually pressure antinodes and vice versa. This
 SOUND • 317

can be understood by considering the particle motions on either side of a

displacement node.
Position of displacement node

Particles vibrate π out of phase

Position of displacement node

The particles move toward the displacement node and increase the
pressure and then move away from the displacement node and decrease
the pressure. The variation of pressure has a large amplitude here, so it is a
pressure antinode.

16.4 Measuring the Speed of Sound

Here are two simple ways to measure the speed of sound. The first one uses
traveling waves and the second method uses standing waves.

Method 1

Mic. Mic.
Sig
1
gen.

To To
oscilloscope oscilloscope

The signal generator is set to a single frequency (5–10 kHz is suitable)

and the two microphones are connected to a dual-beam oscilloscope. The
oscilloscope is triggered from the first microphone. The second microphone
is then positioned close to the first one, and the two traces, which will be
sinusoidal, are compared. Then x is changed until the signals are in phase.
This position x  x0 is recorded. Now the second microphone is moved away
from the first and until the phase has changed by 2n (i.e., has gone in and
out of phase n times). The new position x  xn is recorded and the value of
the wavelength calculated from   (xn  x0)/n. The frequency of the sound
318 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

can also be measured from the oscilloscope (using f  1/T), and the speed of
sound is calculated from v  f.

Method 2
Standing wave pattern

Sig A N A N A
gen.
To
oscilloscope
Solid reflector

A standing wave is formed where the reflected sound superposes with

incident sound. The microphone is moved along a line perpendicular to
the reflector and the signal on the oscilloscope screen has periodic maxima
every time the microphone passes through an antinode. The separation of
adjacent maxima is /2, so an average value for the separation of adjacent
nodes can be found and the wavelength can be calculated. The oscilloscope
can also be used to find the frequency of the sound so that the speed can
again be calculated from v  f.

16.5 Ultrasound
Ultrasound has frequencies >20 kHz, i.e., above the highest sound frequency
audible to humans. Ultrasound scanning is used for medical imaging (e.g.,
in prenatal scans). Ultrasound pulses from a transmitter on the surface of
the patient’s skin partially reflect at each boundary inside the patient. The
times of the returning pulses can be used to determine the depth of the
boundary and to map out structure. This is done automatically so that the
ultrasound scanner connects to a computer that displays a digital image of
the organ or foetus being examined.
The fraction of the incident ultrasound intensity that is reflected is
determined by the nature of the tissues on either side of the boundary. The
key parameters are the density and speed of sound in the medium These
are combined in the acoustic impedance Z of the medium:
Z  (speed of sound) × (density)
The S.I. unit of the acoustic impedance is kgm2s1
 SOUND • 319

The ratio of the reflected intensity If to the incident intensity I0 is given

by the expression:
2
I r ⎛ Z 2 − Z1 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
I 0 ⎜⎝ Z 2 + Z 1 ⎟⎠

The greater the difference in acoustic impedances between the two media,
the greater the ratio. Here are some values of acoustic impedance:
Medium Speed of sound/ms1 Density/kgm3 Z/kgm2s1
Air 340 1.2 410
Water 1480 1000 1.5  106
Muscle 1590 1070 1.7  106
Blood 1550 1060 1.6  106
Bone 4000 1500 6.0  106

The low value of Z for air compared to body tissues means that if there is
an air gap between the ultrasound transmitter and the patient, then most
of the ultrasound reflects from the surface and does not enter the body. To
solve this problem, a gel is spread on the skin under the transmitter. The gel
has an acoustic impedance similar to that of water or body tissues, so most
of the ultrasound is transmitted rather than reflected.

16.6 Analysis and Synthesis of Sound

Most sounds that we hear contain a wide range of different frequencies,
and it is possible to analyze the spectrum of sound in much the same way
that we might use a spectrometer to analyze the spectrum of light. This is
usually done using a microphone connected to a computer that is running
an app that acts as a sound spectrum analyzer. This will then display a graph
of sound intensity (usually in decibels) against frequency. Complex sounds
can be analyzed into a sum or sequence of different sinusoidal components.
This is called Fourier analysis.
In the same way we can add a sequence of harmonic sounds (sinusoidal
functions) to synthesize a complex sound. This is called Fourier synthesis.
The mathematics of Fourier analysis and synthesis are beyond the scope of
this book, but the idea that complex sounds can be broken down into a sum
of simple sinusoidal components is an important one, both theoretically and
practically.
320 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Excess pressure

Time

The graph above shows the result of adding three sinusoidal sound waves
of the same amplitude but with frequencies f, 2f, and 4 f. This can also be
represented by the equation:
y  A sin  t  A sin 2 t  A sin 4 t 

16.7 Exercises

1. Describe an experiment to measure the speed of sound. Your description

should include:
Q a labeled diagram of the apparatus
Q an explanation of what you will measure and how the measurements will
be made
Q an explanation of how you will calculate the wavelength from the data
you collect
Q an explanation of how you will maximize accuracy and precision

2. A particular sound has an intensity of 1Wm2 at a listener’s ear.

(a) Calculate the intensity level of this sound in decibels.
(b) The intensity increases by a factor of 1000 to 1Wm2. How many
times louder does the sound seem to be?
3. A student sets up the apparatus below and records the amplitude of
sound emitted by the air column as the tube is gradually filled with
water. The end correction for the tube is 5.0 cm, and the frequency of
the sound used is 1200 Hz. The speed of sound is 340 ms1.
 SOUND • 321

Signal
generator

Vertical cylinder
40 cm
containing air

h Water
supply

(a) Calculate the wavelength of the sound.

(b) Draw diagrams to show how standing waves of sound can be formed
in the air column.
(c) Calculate the values of h at which the amplitude will be a maximum.
4. When a medical ultrasound scan is carried out, the doctor spreads
a layer of gel onto the patient’s skin before pressing the ultrasound
transmitter/receiver against it.
(a) Explain why this is necessary.
(b) Calculate the fraction of the incident ultrasound intensity that
is reflected when an ultrasound pulse reaches a boundary between
muscle and bone. The acoustic impedance for muscle is 1.7 
106 kgm2s1 and that for bone is 6.0  106 kgm2s1.
 CHAPTER

17
ELECTRIC CHARGE AND
ELECTRIC FIELDS

17.1 Electric Charge

Electric charge Q is a fundamental property carried by some fundamental
particles. There are two types of charge, positive (e.g., the charge of the
proton) and negative (e.g., the charge of the electron). Like charges repel
one another, and unlike charges attract.
Charge is quantized. This means that the total charge on any object is
always a multiple of a fundamental amount equal to the magnitude of the
charge on an electron or a proton. The S.I. unit of charge is the coulomb
(C), and the charge on an electron is:
e   1.60217662  1019 C
The charge on the proton has the same magnitude but opposite sign. Atoms
contain equal numbers of protons and neutrons and are neutral. If an atom
loses an electron, it becomes a positive ion; and if it gains an electron, it
becomes a negative ion. You might have read that quarks, the fundamental
particles inside protons and neutrons, have fractional charges. However,
quarks are never found as individual particles; they are always combined in
pairs (mesons) or triplets (baryons) and they always combine in a way that
makes the total charge of the composite particle an integer multiple of e.
When charge flows it is called an electric current. Electric current I is
defined as the rate of flow of electric charge:
dQ
I
dt
324 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The S.I. unit of electric current is amp (A), and 1 A  1 Cs1.

If the current is constant, the charge transferred in time t is given by:
Q  It
Some materials, e.g., metals, allow charge to flow through them. These are
called conductors. Others such as plastics and rubber do not allow charge to
flow and are called insulators. A third class of materials, with intermediate
properties, is called semiconductors.

17.2 Electrostatics
Electrostatics deals with situations where objects become charged, remain
charged, or lose charge. Most of these situations can be explained in terms
of a transfer of electrons. The reason for this is because the electrons are
on the outside of the atom, so when atoms interact (e.g., if two materials
are rubbed together), the electrons can move from one place to another.
Protons are locked inside the atomic nucleus, so proton transfer does not
occur. When a neutral object loses electrons, it becomes positively charged;
and when it gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged.
An object is said to be “earthed,” when it is connected to the earth
by a good conductor (e.g., an electrical wire). From the point of view of
electrostatics, the Earth itself is a huge conducting sphere that can gain or
lose any number of electrons while remaining neutral. Another
way of looking at this is to say that the earth is always at zero
potential so that any object connected to it is also at zero potential.
The symbol to show an earth connection is shown on the right.

17.2.1 Charging by Friction

When a polythene rod is rubbed against a cloth, it becomes negatively
charged. Electrons have been transferred from the cloth to the rod. Since
polythene is a good electrical insulator, it can remain charged for some time
and can be used to demonstrate electrostatic effects.
This process is called charging by friction. It is the same process that
allows us to build up a charge when walking on a carpet. If the charge
becomes large enough, we can experience a sharp electrical shock when we
touch an earthed object. The shock is caused by the brief electric current
that flows between our body and earth in order to neutralize us.
An acetate rod can be charged positively in the same way. However,
in this case, electrons jump from the rod to the cloth and the rod retains
 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELDS • 325

Surface negative
charge on rod

Polythene rod

Polythene rod

Electron transfer + +
+ + +
+ ++
+
Surfacee
Cloth rubbed back and forth positive
along surface of rod

a positive surface charge. This is because atoms on the surface of the rod
are no longer electrically neutral; some of them have fewer electrons than
protons and so have a net positive charge. However, this positive charge
has, once again, been brought about by the movement of the negatively
charged electrons.

17.2.2 Gold Leaf Electroscope

The gold leaf electroscope is a useful device for detecting the presence of
charge and for demonstrating simple electrostatic effects. Here is a diagram
showing the structure of a gold leaf electroscope:
Steel cap

Insulator

Steel rod

Gold leaf

Earthed box

The cap rod and leaf are all metallic conductors, but they are isolated from
the earth by an insulator. If a positively or negatively charged rod is held
close to the cap but not touching it, the leaf will rise. This is because the
charge on the rod exerts electrostatic forces on the free electrons making
them move. The rod and leaf gain the same charge and repel one another.
326 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The leaf is very thin, so it responds to this by rising. In the diagrams below,
only the cap, leaf, and rod are shown.
++++++
− − − − − − Cap gains electrons
and becomes negative
Electrons attracted
toward positive rod
+
+
+

+++
Rod and leaf lose
electrons and
become positive

−−−−−−
+ + + + + + Cap loses electrons
and becomes positive
Electrons repelled
from negative rod

Rod and leaf gain

electrons and
become negative

The process by which the cap gains a charge opposite to the charge on the
rod is called electrostatic induction. In the examples above, there is no net
charge on the cap leaf and rod; the electrons have just been redistributed.
However, it is possible to use induction to give the electroscope a net positive
or negative charge—this is called charging by induction and is explained
in the sequence of diagrams below (resulting in a net positive charge).
−−−−−− −−−−−− Electrons
++++++ ++++++ + + +
Electrons

Electrons

+ +
+ +

1. Hold a negatively charged rod close the cap. The leaf rises.
2. Keeping the negatively charged rod in place; momentarily earth the cap
and then disconnect the earth. Electrons flow to earth and the leaf falls.
3. Remove the rod. The electroscope has lost electrons, so the cap, rod,
and leaf have a net positive charge. When the rod is removed, electrons
spread out and there is a positive charge on the cap, leaf, and rod. The
leaf rises.
 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELDS • 327

A similar process, starting with a positively charged rod, can be followed

to charge the electroscope negatively. Note that the final charge is always
opposite to the charge on the rod.

17.2.3 Using a Coulomb Meter

A coulomb meter is an electronic meter that can be used to measure charge.
The charge to be measured must be transferred to the coulomb meter and
then the amount can be read off from the display. Here is an image of a
coulomb meter.
Pressing button This terminal should be Charge to be measured is
connects cap to earth connected to earth transferred to the cap
and zeroes the meter

Charge is measured in
nano-coulombs

It is important that the meter is connected to earth before use.

The charge on an isolated conductor can be measured using a coulomb
meter. For example, a conducting sphere could be isolated by suspending it
from an insulating thread. It can then be charged by touching it momentarily
with a lead connected to the high-voltage terminal of an H.T. supply
(high-voltage supply). To measure the charge, it can then be connected
momentarily to the cap of the coulomb meter (after the H.T. lead has been
disconnected!). Charge flows from the sphere to the cap and the amount of
charge transferred can be read from the display.

17.3 Electrostatic Forces

Charges obey a very simple qualitative force law: like charges repel
and unlike charges attract. The magnitude of the force between two point
328 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

charges depends on their size and separation and is given by Coulomb’s

law, an inverse-square law similar in form to the law of gravitation.

17.3.1 Coulomb’s Law

The electrostatic force between two point charges Q1 and Q2 separated by a
distance r in a vacuum is directly proportional to the product of the charges
and inversely proportional to the square of their separation:
QQ
F 1 2 2
4  0 r
where 0 is the permittivity of free space, a constant representing the
ability of the vacuum to support an electric field. The S.I. unit of 0 is Fm1
(F is the farad, a unit of capacitance equivalent to a coulomb per volt,
CV1). If the charges are embedded in a different medium, the permittivity
of free space is replaced by the permittivity of the medium , which is
usually written as  r0 where r is the relative permittivity of the medium,
a dimensionless number. Here are some values of relative permittivity:
vacuum 1 (by definition), air 1.0006 (at S.T.P.) so this is usually taken to
be 1; polythene 2.25; paper 3.85; mica 3–6; water 80.1 (at 20°C); titanium
dioxide 86–173; calcium copper titanate>250,000,
Capacitors (see Chapter 19) consist of two conductors separated
by an insulating (or dielectric) material, and their capacitance is directly
proportional to the permittivity of the insulator.
While Coulomb’s law applies to point charges, it can be shown that if
charge is distributed uniformly over the surface of a sphere or uniformly
throughout the volume of a sphere, it acts like a point charge of the same
total charge located at the center of the sphere.

17.3.2 Investigating Electrostatic Forces

It is possible to investigate Coulomb’s law using simple apparatus, but care
has to be taken to avoid effects due to induction, etc., with surrounding
objects.
Two small isolated conducting spheres are charged from the same H.T.
supply and then suspended by insulating strings.
The charges repel one another, so the system hangs in equilibrium with
the strings making an angle  to the vertical.  and r can be determined
using a digital camera to capture an image of the apparatus with a suitable
scale placed behind. The force F can then be found using the condition for
equilibrium of forces:
 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELDS • 329

θ θ

T T

F Q Q F

r
mg mg

T cos   mg
T sin   F
So F  mg tan 
Q can be found by discharging the sphere to a coulomb meter.
If Q is kept constant (charging from the same high voltage) and the mass
of the spheres is varied, then F and r will change, so the inverse-square law
can be tested.
Q can be varied by charging the spheres from a different voltage, but
this will also change r unless a compensating change in mass is made.

17.4 Electric Field

Michael Faraday introduced the idea of an electric field to explain how
distant charges can affect one another, even if there is a vacuum between
them. Each charge sets up a field in the surrounding space and responds
to fields from other charges. This makes electrostatic forces local effects
(the field acts on the charged particle where the charged particle is) rather
than an “action-at-a-distance” across space. It also implies that the electric
field has physical properties at each point in space: it has a strength and
direction. It is a vector field—there is an electric field vector at each point.

17.4.1 Electric Field Strength

Electric field strength E is defined as the force per unit positive charge at a
point in space. If you were to place a small charge q at that point, it would
experience a force F. The magnitude of the electric field strength at that
point is given by:
330 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

F
E
q
The S.I. unit of electric field strength is NC1, which is equivalent to Vm1.
The electric field is a vector field: the electric field points in the direction
of the force on a positive charge.
This can be represented by drawing field lines. The direction of the
field lines is the direction of the electric field, and the separation of the field
lines represents the strength of the field. The two diagrams below show
the shape of the electric field close to a point positive and a point negative
charge.

+ −

Electric field lines:

Q start on positive charges and end on negative charges
Q cannot cross
Q point in the direction of the force that would act on a positive charge
Electric fields obey a principle of superposition. The resultant field at
any point in space is the vector sum of all the electric fields at that point. In
the example shown below, the resultant field at point C is the vector sum of
the fields at that point due to charges A and B: EC  EA  EB
 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELDS • 331

EB EC

C EA

A +

B +
The diagram below shows the electric field close to a dipole—two charges
of equal magnitude separated by a small distance. Many molecules have
electric dipoles.

− +

17.4.2 Electric Field Strength of a Point Charge

Imagine placing a small charge q a distance r from a point charge Q. The
force exerted on q would be, from Coulomb’s law,
Qq
F
4 0 r 2
The electric field strength at that point is:
F Q
E 
q 4 0 r 2
The electric field of a point charge obeys an inverse-square law.
332 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

This also makes sense from a geometrical point of view. Imagine the
field lines from a point positive charge spreading uniformly out in all
directions in 3D space. They would spread over an area 4r2 at distance
r from the charge, so the density of field lines would fall off as an inverse-
square law.
This formula can be used to find the resultant electric field from a
number or distribution of charges.
The diagram below shows an electric dipole consisting of two charges,
Q and Q, separated by a distance 2a. Consider the electric field at a point
Pat distance x from the center of a dipole along its axis:
x
+Q –Q
E–
E+

2a P

Q Q axQ
EP  2  2  2
4 0  x  a 4 0  x  a 0  x2  a2 
The negative sign indicates a resultant field to the left.
Here is another example at another point in the dipole field:
E+
P

E–
x
θ
+Q –Q
2a

Point P is equidistant from the two charges, so the magnitude of fields E

and E are equal. The vertical components cancel. The resultant is therefore
a horizontal field of strength:
2Q cos  2Qa
EP  
 2
4 0 x  a 2
4 0  x2  a2 
3/2

Sometimes the electric fields of two or more charged particles sum to zero
at a point. This is called a neutral point. For example, half way between
two charges of the same magnitude and sign:
Q Q
EP   0
4 0 a2 4 0 a2
 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELDS • 333

Neutral point
a a
+ +
P

17.4.3 Gauss’s Law

Consider the electric field that passes through a closed spherical surface
of radius r centered on a point positive charge. Since lines of electric field
cannot start or end in empty space, the flux of field lines through the surface
is the same whatever the radius of the sphere.

Spherical surface
of area A = 4πr2

The electric flux E is the product of the normal component of the electric
field E and the area A of the surface, then:
 E  EA  E × 4r2
When this is rearranged and compared with the expression for the field
strength of a point charge, it is clear that the flux through the surface is
directly related to the charge within that surface.
 Q
E  E2 
4 r 4 0 r 2
Q
so that: E 
0
This is an example of a general result known as Gauss’s theorem. This
states that:
Q The total flux through any closed surface is equal to the total charge
contained within that surface divided by the permittivity of free space
(or of the medium if the charge is not in a vacuum).
This is a powerful theorem that can be used to understand how the electric
field behaves in a range of important situations. Gauss’s theorem can be
stated more precisely using an integral:
334 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

iN
 Qi
E   E.dS  i1
0
surface
Where dS is an infinitesimal element of the surface area at some point and
E.dS is the product of the perpendicular component of E at that point and
the area dS. The integral sums these contributions to find the total flux (in
the previous example, the field strength was constant and perpendicular to
iN
the surface, so we simply multiplied the values together).  i1
Qi is the
sum of charges contained inside the closed surface. The next section shows
how Gauss’s theorem can be used to derive some important results.

17.4.4 Using Gauss’s Theorem

(i) Electric field near the surface of a charged conductor
The electric field strength inside a perfect conductor must be zero. If it was
not zero, charges would move until it became zero. This means that that
when a conductor is charged the charge stays on the surface. The diagram
below shows a small section of the surface of a charged conductor that has a
surface charge density . The dotted lines indicate a Gaussian surface in the
shape of a cylinder with the top surface of the cylinder (of area A) just above
the surface of the conductor and the lower surface just below it.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Conductor

Q The electric field through the lower surface must be zero because it is
inside the conductor.
Q The electric field through the sides of the cylinder must also be zero
because there can be no component of electric field in the surface of the
conductor.
Q All of the electric field must pass through the upper surface.

Using Gauss’s theorem

Flux through upper surface  EA  charge contained inside Gaussian
surface divided by 0  A/0.
 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELDS • 335

Conclusion: The electric field strength close to a conducting surface is


E and this is perpendicular to the surface.
0
(ii) Electric field strength inside a hollow conductor (Faraday cage)
Consider a closed hollow box made of conducting material and containing
no free charges as shown below. The dotted line represents a closed
Gaussian surface entirely within the conductor.

Hollow
conducting Gaussian
box surface

The electric field strength is zero inside the conductor, so the flux through
the Gaussian surface is also zero. Using Gauss’s theorem the total charge
contained within the Gaussian surface and therefore inside the hollow box
must also be 0. This remains the case even if other charged objects are
brought close to the box or if electromagnetic waves are incident on the
box. The field strength inside the box remains 0.
This is an example of a Faraday cage—a conducting box used to
shield its contents from external electric fields and electromagnetic waves.
Metal cars and aircraft act as Faraday cages protecting their occupants
from lightning strikes. A room with conducting walls, floor, and ceiling can
also be used to provide security against unwanted communications—e.g.,
mobile phone signals (which cannot enter or leave the room). The effect
can be demonstrated by placing a mobile phone inside a metal cookie tin.
When the tin is closed it is impossible to ring the mobile phone.

17.5 Electric Potential Energy and Electric Potential

Electric fields exert forces on electric charges, so when a charge moves
from one point to another in an electric field, its electric potential energy
changes. If the field does work on the charge, then the electric potential
energy falls; and if work is done on the charge by an external agent, then
the electric potential energy increases. This is shown in the diagram below
where two positive charges are moved in a uniform electric field.
336 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

B
The electric field exerts + The electric field
exerts a force
a force downwards on
downwards on B and B
A but A moves upwards
moves downwards so
so work is done on A by
work is done by the
an external agent and
electric field and the
the electric potential + electric potential
energy increases A energy decreases

17.5.1 Electric Potential and Potential Difference

The electric potential V at a point in space is equal to the electrical potential
energy (EPE) per unit charge (Q) if a small positive charge were placed at
that point. This can be written as:
EPE
V
Q
The S.I. unit of potential is JC1, which is the volt, V. In other words, 1 V 
1 JC1. Electric potential, like energy, is a scalar quantity, so the potential
at any point in space is the sum of potentials due to all fields at that point.
The electrical potential difference DV between two points is equal to
the work that must be done per unit charge in moving the charge between
the two points concerned.
V  W/Q
For example, if there is a potential difference of 3.0 V across an electrical
component, then 3J of energy is transferred from electrical potential energy
to other forms when 1 C of charge passes through the component.
(While we have distinguished the absolute potential V from the potential
difference V, here it is often the case that V is used for both.)

17.5.2 Electric Potential Gradient and Electric Field Strength

To derive the relationship between electric field strength and electric
potential, we must investigate the work done on free charges placed in an
electric field.
E
F = EQ
+
δx
 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELDS • 337

If a free point charge of value Q is moved a distance x by an electric field

of strength E, then the force on the charge is given by:
F  QE
and the work done on it is:
W  F x  QEx
This work has been done by the electric field, so the electric potential
energy of the system has fallen (in the same way that gravitational potential
energy falls when an object is dropped):
EPE QEx
And the change in electric potential is:
EPE
V  Ex
Q
V
E
x
In the limit that x  0, the relationship becomes:
dV
E 
dx
Q Electric field strength  negative potential gradient
This can also be written as an integral to find the potential difference
between two points A and B in an electric field:
VB xB


V  dV  Edx 
VA xA
Three immediate consequences of these equations are:
Q There is no change in potential when a charge is moved in a direction
perpendicular to the electric field lines. In this direction E  0,
so dV/dx  0 too and the potential is constant.
Q The potential changes more slowly with distance when the field is weak
(dV/dx is lower because E is lower).
Q The direction of the electric field is toward lower potential (this is the
significance of the minus sign).
Equipotential surfaces can be drawn perpendicular to the field lines.
The diagram below shows the equipotential surfaces (spherical surfaces)
surrounding a point charge. The steps in potential between adjacent
equipotentials is constant, so their separation increases farther from the
338 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

central charge; this is because the field is weaker further out so the potential
is changing more slowly.

Equipotential
surface

When a potential difference V is set up between two parallel conducting

plates separated by a distance d, the electric field between them is
approximately uniform so that the potential gradient dV/dx  V/d. The
dV
equation E  can then be used to find the strength of the electric
dx
field.
dV V
E  
dx d
17.5.3 Accelerating Charged Particles in an Electric Field
Charged particles are often accelerated by an electric field. When a potential
difference V is set up between two electrodes, a free particle of charge Q
loses electric potential energy and gains kinetic energy as it moves between
them. If there are no other energy transfers, then:
1 2
mv  QV
2
The velocity is then:
2QV
v
m
Where m is the particle mass.
However, we must be careful when using this equation. If the velocity
is a significant fraction of the speed of light (e.g., v > 0.05 c), then we should
use relativistic equations. The Newtonian equations above are useful for
lower velocities but only give an approximate value for the final velocity.
Many electron tubes use an electron gun to accelerate electrons and
form a beam. Here is a simplified diagram showing how the electron gun
works.
 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELDS • 339

Sccelerating
voltage V

Vacuum
Electron beam
Heater supply Electrons
(low voltage)

Hot cathode Anode

The cathode (negative terminal) is heated by passing a small current through
it. This increases the kinetic of free electrons inside the cathode and allows
them to leave the surface of the metal. The accelerating voltage V creates an
electric field between the cathode and anode that accelerates the electrons.
The electrodes are placed inside a vacuum tube so that the electrons are not
scattered. The loss of electric potential energy eV is transferred to kinetic
energy of the electrons as they reach the anode. A narrow beam passes
through a small gap in the anode to create a beam. The electron velocity is:
2eV
v
m
17.5.4 Deflecting Charged Particles in an Electric Field
When a charged particle is projected into an electric field, the electrical
force on the particle acts parallel to the field. If a uniform electric field is
perpendicular to the initial velocity of the charged particle, then the force
is constant and deflects the charged particle into a parabolic path. This is
analogous to the parabolic path followed by a massive particle projected
horizontally in the Earth’s gravitational field.
An electron deflection tube uses an electron gun to fire a horizontal
beam of electrons into a region of uniform vertical electric field. The field
is created by two parallel plates connected to a separate voltage supply.
y-axis +V n
tro
l ec m
E ea
b
Electron beam
initial velocity
v x-axis
d
340 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The resultant force on the electron is vertically upwards:

eV
F  eE 
d
There will be a vertical acceleration:
eV
a
md
and the vertical deflection in the field is (using suvat):
eVt 2
y
2 md
There is no horizontal force, so the horizontal component of velocity is
constant and equal to v. The horizontal distance traveled in the field is
therefore:
x  vt
Eliminating t from the equations for x and y gives:
 eV  2
y  x
 2 mv2 
This is the equation of a parabola.

17.5.5 Absolute Electric Potential of a Point Charge

The equation for potential difference in terms of field strength:
xB

V  Edx 
xA
can be used to find the absolute potential at point B if we know the potential
at point A. In order to find the potential at any point in the universe, we
must define the position where potential is zero. This is an arbitrary decision
because forces and fields only depend on differences in potential and not
on its absolute value. However, it makes sense to choose the position for the
zero of potential in such a way that it is easy to use in calculations. The zero
of potential in the electric field is taken to be at infinity. In other words, if
all charges were separated so that they were at infinite distance from one
another, then the total electrical potential energy would be zero.
Here are two qualitative examples of how this work:
Q Consider two point positive charges a distance r from each other. These
will repel each other, and if no other forces act on them, they will move
toward infinity. While they are moving, electrical forces are doing work
on them, transferring electrical potential energy to kinetic energy, so
 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELDS • 341

the electrical potential energy is decreasing all the time. However, we

know that their electrical potential energy will be zero at infinity, so the
initial electrical potential energy of two positive charges must have been
positive. The same argument shows that the initial electrical potential
energy of two negative charges a distance r apart must also be zero.
Q Now consider separating a positive and a negative charge that are
initially a distance r apart. These two particles attract each other, so we
would have to apply an external force to each of them to move them out
to infinity. Work must be done by this external agent to separate them
so the electric potential energy increases all the time and eventually
becomes zero. The initial electric potential energy must have been
negative. This is the case for the electron inside a hydrogen atom. It is
attracted to the proton in the nucleus of the atom, and the system has
a negative electric potential energy. The energy that must be put in
to separate the two particles is the ionization energy for the hydrogen
atom.
We can now derive an expression for the electric potential energy at a point
in the electric field of a point charge. This is done by deriving an expression
for the potential difference between that point and infinity and using the
fact that the potential is zero at infinity.
r
δx
+Q To infinity
P

The electric field strength at a point distance r from a point positive charge
Q is:
Q
E
4 0 r 2
So the potential difference between P (at distance r from Q) and infinity is:
x x
Qdx
V  V  VP   Edx   4  x
0
2
xr xr
x
 Q  Q
  
 4 0 r xr 4 0 r
Q Q
VP  V  
4 0 r 4 0 r
The potential varies as 1/r.
342 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Summary of equations for the electric field of a point charge

Q Electric field (magnitude of vector) at distance r from a charge Q:
Q
E
4 0 r 2
Q Electric potential (scalar) at distance r from a charge Q:
Q
E
4 0 r
17.6 Exercises

1. (a) A small electric cell can supply a continuous current of 2.0 A for
2 hours. How much charge passes through the cell in this time?
(b) A large capacitor (component for storing charge) is charged using a
steady current of 4.0 mA. It takes 0.75 s to reach full charge. How
much charge does it store?
(c) An electrostatic generator stores 8.0 C on a large metal dome. This
charge leaks away through the air in 40 s. What is the average electric
current during this time?
2. Write an instruction sheet explaining how to charge an electroscope
positively using just a polythene rod and a cloth.
3. The diagram below is a model of an electric dipole.
y

D −2.0 µC +2.0 µC B

4.0 µm

E
 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELDS • 343

The dipole is located on the x-axis with its center at the origin.
(a) Calculate the electric field strength (and direction) and the electric
potential at points A to E:
A (0, 0)
B (4.0 m, 0)
C (0, 4.0 m)
D (4.0 m, 0)
E (0, 4.0 m)
4. A hydrogen atom consists of a proton and an electron orbiting at a
distance of 0.053 nm.
(a) Calculate the force between the electron and the proton.
(b) Assuming this force provides the centripetal force for circular motion
of the electron, work out the electron’s orbital speed and kinetic
energy.
(c) Calculate the electrostatic potential energy of the electron.
(d) Calculate the total energy of the electron and explain the significance
of its sign.
(e) State the ionization energy of the hydrogen atom.
5. (a) Sketch the field lines and equipotentials round an isolated charged
conducting sphere of radius 2.0 cm at a potential of 5000 V (include
equipotentials at 1000, 2000, 3000, and 4000 V).
(b) Calculate the electric field strength and potential at distances of 4.0
and 11 cm from the center of the positively charged sphere.
6. Copy the diagram below and sketch the electric field lines and
equipotentials between the charged sphere and the earthed conducting
plane shown below.

7. Use Gauss’s theorem to show:

(a) that the electric field strength inside a charged conducting sphere is 0
(b) that the electric field strength immediately above a charged conductor
is perpendicular to the surface and has a magnitude E  /0 where 
is the charge density on the surface
344 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(c) that the flux of electric field entering a volume of empty space is
equal to the flux of electric field leaving that volume of space
8. (a) Prove that the uniform electric field between two parallel conducting
plates separated by distance d and connected to a potential
difference V is given by E  V/d.
(b) Sketch the electric field lines and equipotentials between two parallel
metal plates 2.0 cm apart with a potential difference of 5000 V
(include equipotentials at 1000, 2000, 3000, and 4000 V).
(c) Calculate the electric field strength between the plates.
(d) Calculate the force on an alpha particle (charge 2e) half way between
the plates.
(e) How does this force vary if the alpha particle moves close to the
positive or negative plate (ignore induction effects)?
(f) An air molecule between the plates loses two electrons and becomes
ionized. What is the ratio of the acceleration of the electron to the
acceleration of this positive ion in the electric field? Assume that the
mass of the ion is 60,000 times greater than that of the electron.
9. An electron in a vacuum tube is accelerated horizontally in an electron
gun through a potential difference of 1500 V. It then enters a region of
uniform vertical electric field of strength 2.0  104 Vm1 that extends
5.0 cm horizontally. It is deflected by the field and emerges into a field-
free region.
(a) Calculate the velocity of the electron as it enters the region of vertical
electric field.
(b) Describe the shape of the electron’s path in the field. Assume the
direction of the field is vertically upwards.
(c) Calculate the time spent by the electron in the vertical field.
(d) Calculate the vertical component of velocity gained by the electron in
moving through the vertical field.
(e) Calculate the angular deflection of the beam.
(f) Calculate the work done by the vertical electric field on the electron.
 CHAPTER

18
D.C. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

18.0 D.C. Circuits and Conventional Current

Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge, and D.C. refers to
circuits in which the current flows in one direction around the circuit.
Since current can be carried by positive or negative charges, the direction
of electric current needs a convention: the direction in which a free positive
charge would flow.
There are three different microscopic ways in which current can flow.
Negative charge carriers (e.g., electrons in a metal or an n-type
semiconductor): The electrons move in the opposite direction to the
conventional current.
Conventional current I
− − −
−
− − − −

Positive charge carriers (e.g., positive ions in an ion beam or holes in

a p-type semiconductor): The positive charge carriers move in the same
direction as the conventional current.
Conventional current I

+ + +
+
+ + + +
346 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Positive and negative charge carriers (e.g., when current flows through
an electrolyte): The positive charges move in the direction of conventional
current and the negative charges move in the opposite direction.
Conventional current I

− + −
−
+ + − +

In all the examples above the velocities of the charge carriers represent
their average drift velocities; the particles will also have random thermal
motion, which might involve speeds that are several orders of magnitude
greater than the drift velocities.

18.1 Charge and Current

Electric charge Q is measured in coulombs (C). Electric current I is the
rate of flow of electric charge:
dQ
I
dt
The S.I. unit of electric current is A, and 1 A  1 Cs1.
If the current is constant, the equation above becomes I  Q/t or Q  It,
where Q is the charge passing a point in t seconds.

18.1.1 Charge Carriers and Charge Carrier Density

When current flows through a material, charge carriers move inside the
material and we can derive an expression to link the microscopic movement
of these charge carriers to the macroscopic current. In the diagram below,
we assume that the charge carriers are positive, but the form of the
relationship is not affected by this and it can be used for positive or negative
charge carriers.
Cross-sectional
Conventional current I area A

+ v + v + v
+ v P
+ v + v + v

vδt

There are n charge carriers per unit volume in the conductor, and each
charge carrier has a charge q.
 D.C. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS • 347

Consider the charge leaving the right-hand end of the wire at P during
a short time t.
All charge carriers within a distance vt will leave in this time. The
volume within this distance of point P is Avt, so the number of charge
carriers is N  nAvt and the total charge Q passing P in time t is:
Q  qnAvt
so the current is:
Q
I  nAvq
t
Very often the charge carriers have a charge equal to the electronic charge,
e; so this equation becomes:
I  nAve
Typical values of the charge carrier density n for two different metals
and two types of semiconductors are shown below. The values are for a
temperature of 300 K.
Copper, 8.5 × 1028 m3
Silver, 1.1 × 1028 m3
Silicon, 1.5 × 1013 m3
Germanium, 2.4 × 1016 m3
Note that the carrier density in the pure semiconductors is very much
smaller than for the metals, so the drift velocity in a semiconductor carrying
the same current as a metal of the same dimensions will be much greater
than in the metal. The carrier density is highly temperature-dependent in
semiconductors and increases rapidly with temperature. Pure, or intrinsic,
semiconductors contain both negative charge carriers (electrons) and
positive charge carriers (holes) in equal numbers, but doped, or extrinsic,
semiconductors have small quantities of other elements added to increase
their carrier density of a factor of 106 or more.

18.1.2 Measuring Current

Electric current is measured using an ammeter.
A

The ammeter must be connected in series at the point where current is to

be measured.
348 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

An ideal ammeter has zero resistance, so it has no effect on the current

it is measuring. In practice ammeters do have a small internal resistance,
so the current measured by the ammeter is slightly less than the current
would be if the ammeter was not in the circuit. This difference is usually
small enough to be neglected, but can be important, especially if the circuit
resistance is particularly low.
Small currents are often measured in milli-amps (mA) or micro-amps
(mA).
1 mA  0.001 A  103 A
1 mA  0.001 mA  0.000001 A  106 A

18.1.3 Currents in Circuits—Kirchhoff’s First Law

An electric circuit provides a complete conducting path for charge. Charge
is conserved, so the amount of charge in the circuit cannot change. This
leads to Kirchhoff’s first law—at a junction in an electric circuit, the sum
of currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving the
junction.
I1

I1 A A I1 I1 = I2 + I3 + I4

I1

If there are no junctions in the circuit, then the current is the same
everywhere—i.e., at all points around a series circuit.
The current that flows in each branch of a parallel circuit is inversely
proportional to the resistance of the branch.

18.2 Measuring Potential Difference

Potential difference is literally the difference in electric potential between
two points in a circuit. This is measured using a voltmeter. The voltmeter
must be connected in parallel between the two points. The diagram below
shows how a voltmeter can be connected to measure the potential difference
across a resistor.
 D.C. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS • 349

An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance so that it does not draw any
current from the circuit. In practice a real voltmeter will have a large but
not infinite resistance, and this can affect readings if there are also very
large resistors in the circuit.

18.2.1 EMF Potential Difference and Voltage

The potential difference across a source of electrical energy such as a
battery or generator is called an emf (electromotive force), whereas the
potential difference across a component that transfers electrical energy to
other forms is called a potential difference or simply a “voltage.”
Small voltages are often measured in milli-volts (mV) or micro-volts
(mV).
Batteries are made up of cells, so the symbols for a battery and a single
cell are different:

Battery consisting Single cell

of several cells

The longer line represents the positive end of the cell or battery. The emf
of a battery consisting of cells in series is equal to the sum of the emfs of the
individual cells. An ideal cell provides a constant emf and has no internal
resistance. A real cell does have an internal resistance, so must be treated
as an ideal cell of emf E in series with a resistor of resistance r and is usually
represented as:
E
r

The behavior of real cells is analyzed in Section 18.5.

350 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

18.2.2 Kirchhoff’s Second Law

When a charge carrier completes a closed loop around an electric circuit
and returns to its initial position, it has exactly the same amount of energy
at the end of the loop as it had at the beginning. If this was not the case,
then energy would either have been created or destroyed, and this is
impossible. This means that each charge must gain as much energy as it
loses in completing a closed loop in the circuit. This leads to Kirchhoff’s
second law—the sum of emfs is equal to the sum of potential differences
around any closed loop in an electric circuit.

 emfs   p.d.s
closed closed
loop loop
If the potential differences are all across resistive components, this can be
written as:
iN

 emfs  I R i i
closed loop i1

where there are N resistors in the loop and the ith resistor has a resistance
Ri and current Ii.
The example below shows how Kirchhoff’s second law can be applied
to two different loops in an electric circuit:
Loop
V2

V1
E1 V V3
Loop

E2
E3 V4
 D.C. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS • 351

Each loop starts and ends at P, works in a clockwise direction, and

provides a different equation:
Loop 1: E1  E3  E2  V1  V5
Loop 2: E1  E2  V1  V2  V3  V4
Care must be taken over the signs of the emfs and p.d.s.
While two loops are shown in the diagram, there is also a third loop
in the right-hand section of the circuit. This is not included because it is
not independent of the other two. The fact that all parts of this third loop
are included in parts of the first two loops means that it would not provide
additional information.
Kirchhoff’s first and second laws generate a series of simultaneous
equations that can be used to solve complex circuit problems (see Section
18.6.1).

18.3 Resistance
Resistance R is defined as the ratio of potential difference V across a
component to current I through the component.
V
R
I
The S.I. unit of resistance is , and 1   1 VA1. Large resistances are
measured in k and M.
1 k  1000   103 
1 M  1000 000   106 

18.3.1 Measuring Resistance

Resistance can be measured using an ammeter and voltmeter in the circuit
shown below.

resistance =
voltmeter reading
divided by ammeter

A
352 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

While dedicated ammeters and voltmeters can be used, multimeters can

be used instead. A multimeter can be used as a voltmeter or an ammeter
depending on its settings. When using a multimeter, it is important to select
appropriate settings before connecting the circuit to the power supply;
otherwise there is a danger of damaging the meter or the circuit. For
example, if the multimeter was set as an ammeter but connected in parallel
like a voltmeter, it would short out the component and draw a large current.
Multimeters can also be used as an ohm-meter to measure resistance
directly. When it is used like this, the component must first be isolated
from the circuit, and then the meter must be connected directly across the
component.
The image below shows a typical multimeter. The values shown on each
range indicate the maximum value that can be measured on that range and
shows the units in which it will be displayed. For example, a setting of 2 V
D.C. would measure voltages from 0.00 to 2.00 V, whereas a setting of 200
mV would measure from 000 to 200 mV. When choosing a suitable scale, it
is best to choose the most sensitive scale that has a maximum value greater
than the value to be measured.

Resistance
ranges Rotating switch
to select range
D.C. D.C. voltage
current ranges ranges: this
meter is set
A.C. A.C. voltage
current ranges ranges

10A
terminal: VΩ terminal:
the second the second
lead must be lead must be
connected connected
to this to this terminal
terminal COM terminal: “common” for the meter
for the meter connection for all uses of the to work as a
to work as an meter; one lead must be voltmeter or
ammeter connected to this terminal ohm-meter
 D.C. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS • 353

The resistance of a component can also be found from its current–voltage

characteristic. For example, if a particular component produced the
characteristic shown below, its resistance at point P would be R  VP / IP.
Current/A

P
IP

VP
RP =
IP

Potential
0 difference/V
0 VP

18.3.2 Current–Voltage Characteristics

The current–voltage characteristic of an electrical component can be
determined using the circuit below. The part of the circuit in the grey box
is called a potentiometer. As the moving contact goes from left to the right,
the potential difference applied to the circuit containing the component R
under test varies from 0 V to the maximum voltage of the battery.

R
A

To reverse the current through the component, the battery or the component
itself can be turned around. This allows both positive and negative values
for I and V. The current–voltage characteristics for three components are
shown below.
354 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q A carbon resistor or a metal at constant temperature

Current/A

Voltage/V

Current I is directly proportional to the potential difference V across the

component:
IV
V
 constant  R
I
The resistance is constant.
Components that behave like this are described as “ohmic conductors”
and are said to obey Ohm’s law. Gustav Ohm investigated the electrical
behavior of metals kept at constant temperature and discovered that the
current passing through them and the potential difference across them are
directly proportional, so Ohm’s law really only applies to metals at constant
temperature. Nowadays Ohm’s law is invoked whenever current and voltage
are directly proportional. The equation V  IR is also sometimes referred to
as Ohm’s law, but this is not really correct—the equation defines resistance
and only corresponds to Ohm’s law when the resistance is constant.
Q A metal filament (e.g., in a lamp)
Metal wires heat up when electric currents pass through them and their
resistance changes. They are non-ohmic conductors.
 D.C. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS • 355

Current/A

Voltage/V

The fact that the graph is not a straight line through the origin shows that
this is a non-ohmic conductor.
The ratio of V to I is increasing, so the resistance has increased as the
current has increased.
The reason this happens is because the charge carriers passing through
the metal transfer energy to the metal ions, making them vibrate more
rapidly, and this in turn increases the scattering of charge carriers. More
work has to be done to maintain the current (re-accelerate the charge
carriers after scattering), so a higher voltage is needed for the same current.
This increases the ratio V/I and increases the resistance.
Components whose resistance changes with temperature are called
thermistors. The resistance of a metal increases with temperature, so
it is a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) semiconductor. Platinum
is commonly used as a PTC thermistor and can be used as a resistance
thermometer. Semiconductors have a resistance that falls as temperature
increases, so they are used as negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
thermistors. The circuit symbol for a thermistor is:

Some semiconductors are light-dependent. Their resistance falls when they

are illuminated. These are called light-dependent resistors (LDRs) and are
useful both to measure light intensity and in sensing circuits that respond to
changes in light intensity. The circuit symbol for an LDR is:
356 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q A semiconductor diode
The circuit symbol of a semiconductor diode is:

This is a conductor that conducts with very low resistance in one direction
(forward bias) and acts as an insulator (infinite resistance) in the other (up
to its breakdown voltage, at which point the diode resistance suddenly
drops and it is likely to be destroyed by the current surge).
A small voltage is required in the forward direction before the diode
begins to conduct. This “switch-on” voltage depends on the material
from which the diode is made. For silicon diodes it is about 0.6 V; and for
germanium diodes it is about 0.2 V. Once the forward voltage exceeds this
value, the diode begins to conduct with a very low resistance, and care must
be taken not to allow the current to grow so large that it melts the diode
(e.g., by having a fixed resistor in series with it).
Diodes are important components in rectifier circuits, used to convert
alternating current to direct current.
Current/A

Forward bias

Breakdown + −
voltage

Voltage/V

+ − Switch-on
voltage

Some diodes emit light when they conduct. These are

called light emitting diodes (LEDs). The circuit symbol
for an LED is shown on the right.
 D.C. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS • 357

18.3.3 Resistors in Series and in Parallel

Q Resistors in series
To replace several resistors in series by a single resistor RS, we would need
a resistor that has the same ratio of V to I as the set of series resistors. For
the resistances to be equal, the total voltage across all the series resistors
must equal the voltage across the single resistor. The same current I flows
through all of the resistors, so:
V1 V2 V3
I I
R1 R2 R3

VS

I I
RS

VS V1 V2 V3

VS  IRS  IR1  IR2  IR3
RS  R1  R2  R3
The total resistance of several resistors connected in series is the sum of the
individual resistances. The general relationship for N resistors in series is:
iN
Rseries  R i
i1
Q Resistors in parallel
To replace several resistors in parallel by a single resistor RP, we would need
a resistor that has the same ratio of V to I as the set of parallel resistors. We
start by using the fact that the same potential difference is across each arm
of a parallel circuit.
V
i1
R1
i2
I I
R2
i3
R3

V
I I
RP
358 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Using Kirchhoff’s first law:

I  i1  i2  i3
V V V V
  
RP R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
  
RP R1 R2 R3
In general, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of
the reciprocals of all the resistances of the resistors connected in parallel.
For N resistors in parallel this can be written more formally as:
iN
1
RP
  R1 i
i1
For the simple but very common situation where there are just two resistors
in parallel, the equation can be rearranged to:
R1 R2
RP 
R1  R2 
This is easily remembered as “product over sum”; however, it only works
for two resistors in parallel.
The formula for parallel resistors shows that the total resistance
of several resistors connected in parallel is always less than the smallest
resistance in the network.

18.3.4 Resistivity
The resistance of a component depends not only on the type of material from
which it is made but also on the dimensions of the component. Resistivity
is a property of the material alone and does not depend on its dimensions.
For example, the resistances of copper wires of different lengths and cross-
sectional areas differ, but the resistivity of the copper from which they are
made is the same (at the same temperature).
For a cylindrical wire of length l, cross-sectional area A, and resistance
R, the resistivity is given by:
RA

l
The S.I. unit of resistivity is m.
 D.C. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS • 359

Typical resistivities (at 20°C) for different conductors are shown below:
Metal Resistivity
Silver 1.6 × 108 m
Copper 1.7 × 108 m
Aluminum 2.8 × 108 m
Tungsten 5.8 × 108 m
Platinum 1.1 × 107 m
Constantan 4.9 × 107 m
Steel 7.2 × 107 m (varies depending on type of steel)
Nichrome 1.3 × 106 m

The resistivity of a length of a resistance wire can be measured using the

circuit below:

Resistance wire

l Sliding contact

Q There is a constant current I in the resistance wire. This is measured

using the ammeter.
Q The moving contact is used to measure the potential difference V for a
range of lengths l.
Q The diameter d of the wire is measured using a micrometer screw
gauge. It is best to measure several different diameters at different
points on the wire to obtain an average value. The cross-sectional area of
the wire is ¼ d2.
Q The length of wire l can be measured using a meter ruler.
360 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The resistivity is then found from a graph of V against l:

 4I  
V  IR  2 l
 d 
The gradient of the graph of V against l is equal to  4I  
 2 .
 d 
 d 2 
  gradient
 4I 
18.4 Electrical Energy and Power
When a charge Q moves between points at different potential, energy is
transferred to the charge from the electric field or vice versa. The energy
transfer per unit charge is equal to the potential difference V, so the total
energy transfer E is:
E  QV
The rate of transfer of energy is the electrical power P:
dE
P
dt
The S.I. unit for power is W.
For charge moving between points with a constant potential difference:
dQ
PV or P  VI
dt
Resistors transfer electrical energy to thermal energy. The power transfer
in a resistor is given in various forms by using the equations P  VI and
V  IR:
V2
P  VI   I2R
R
If the current in the resistor is constant, then the energy transfer E in time
t is given by:
E  VIt

18.4.1 EMF and Internal Resistance of a Real Cell

While an ideal cell is simply a source of constant emf, a real cell has an
internal resistance. This arises because work must be done to move charge
carriers through the material of the cell itself. A real cell is modeled as a
constant source of emf E in series with a fixed internal resistance r.
 D.C. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS • 361

E
r
Representation
of a real cell

When the cell is connected to an external circuit, current flows through it,
and there is a voltage drop across the internal resistance. This results in the
potential difference at the cell terminals, the terminal p.d. V, falling below
the emf of the cell.
E lr

Current I to
external circuit

Terminal p.d. V
The potential difference across the internal resistance is equal to the work
that must be done per coulomb of charge to move charge carriers through
the cell. The terminal p.d. is therefore equal to the difference between the
cell emf and these “lost volts”:
V HIr
As the current drawn from the supply increases, the terminal p.d. falls.
The internal resistance also limits the maximum current that can
be drawn from the cell. This occurs when the cell is short-circuited by
connecting its terminals together with a conductor of negligible resistance.
The only resistance in the circuit is the internal resistance, so the short-
circuit (maximum) current from the cell is:
H
ISC 
r
The internal resistance of a typical 1.5 V alkaline AA cell is about
0.15 , so the maximum current that could be drawn from it is 1.5/0.15 
10 A. However, shorting the cell would drain it very quickly, so the working
current for a device operated by AA cells must be much less than this. If
a cell or battery is required to provide a very large current, it must have a
very low internal resistance. Car batteries have an emf of 12 V but need to
provide over 100 A when the ignition is switched on and the battery turns
the starter motor. Typical car batteries have an internal resistance < 0.01 .
362 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

18.4.2 Measuring the Internal Resistance and EMF of a Cell

The emf and internal resistance of a cell or battery can be determined using
the circuit below.
E
r

As the value of the load resistor is changed, the current I in the circuit and
the terminal p.d. V change too. I and V are related by the equation:
V HIr
comparing this to: y  mx  c
A graph of V against I is a straight line with a negative gradient and a
positive intercept:
Terminal p.d. / V

Gradient = − r

0 Current/A
0
Q intercept on y-axis  emf
Q gradient  r
 D.C. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS • 363

The terminal p.d. is equal to the cell emf when no current is drawn, so
a simple way to measure the emf is to connect a voltmeter with very high
resistance across the cell terminals. The open-circuit terminal voltage is
equal to the emf of the cell.

18.4.3 Power Transfer From a Real Cell to a Load Resistor

The power transferred to the load resistor in the circuit below is
P  I2R, but I depends on the load resistance R. How does P depend on R?
E
r

H
I
R  r 
H2R
P  I2R 
R  r 2
It is clear that P is 0 when R  0.
P also becomes asymptotic to 0 as R   since the denominator then
dominates the expression.
The expression is positive for all values of R, so there must be a maximum
value for P at some point. This occurs when R  r, i.e., the load resistor has
a resistance equal to the internal resistance.
(The fact that maximum power transfer occurs when R  r can be
demonstrated using calculus. You need to find the condition for dP/dR 
0; this must be a stationary value of the function and, in this case, it is a
maximum.)
364 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Power transfer P

Pmax

Load resistance R
0
0 R=r

It might be tempting to think that maximum power transfer also corresponds

to maximum efficiency for the system, but this is not the case.
power transferred to R
efficiency  100%
power transferred from the emf
E2 R
Power transferred to R is: Pout  I 2 R 
R  r 2
Power transferred from the emf is:
E2
Pin  EI 
R  r 
P R
Efficiency is given by out 100%  100%
Pin R  r 
Surprisingly the maximum efficiency would be when R  , but this would
also correspond to zero power transfer. At maximum power transfer, the
efficiency is 50%.

18.5 Resistance Networks

Potential dividers
A potential divider is used to provide an output voltage Vout that is a fraction
of the supply voltage Vin.
 D.C. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS • 365

R2

Vin

R1 Vout

The current I in the circuit is the same through both resistors.

Using Kirchhoff’s second law:
Vin  IR1  IR2
Vout  IR1
Vout R1

Vin  R1  R2 
If Vout is connected across a load resistor RL then the fraction changes
because the lower part of the potential divider now has two resistors in
parallel (R1 and RL) so that:
Vout RP R1 RL
 where RP 
Vin  RP  R2   R1  RL 
Potential divider circuits can also be used as sensing circuits, producing an
output voltage that depends on external conditions such as temperature or
light intensity.
I I

R2 R2

Vin Vin

RTHERM Vout RLDR Vout

Temperature sensor: As temperature Light intensity sensor: As light

increases RTHERM falls so Vout falls. intensity increases RLDR falls so Vout falls.
Swapping positions of R2 and Swapping positions of R2 and
RTHERM makes Rout rise with temperature RLDR makes Rout rise with light intensity
366 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Using Kirchhoff’s laws to solve resistance networks

Kirchhoff’s two-circuit laws can be used to produce a set of simultaneous
equations for currents and p.d.’s that can be used to find all the currents
and p.d.’s in a network. Here is an example:
E1

R1
R2 R3

i1 i2

i3 R4

E2

Applying Kirchhoff’s first law,

i1  i2  i3
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the loop passing through resistors R1,
R2, and R3:
E1  i1 R1  i2 R2  i2 R3
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the loop passing through resistors R1,
R4, and E2:
E1  i1 R1  i3 R4  E2
There are three independent equations, so it is possible to solve for three
unknowns. For example, if we know the two emfs and the values of all three
resistors, we can find the current at any point in the circuit.

18.6 Semiconductors and Superconductors

18.6.1 Semiconductors
Semiconductors have a resistivity that lies between that of a conductor,
such as copper, and an insulator, such as polythene. At room temperature
the charge carrier density for a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor is typically
1013–1016 m3 compared to 1027–1028 for a metal. However, the charge
carrier density in a semiconductor is highly temperature-dependent and
can be changed by the addition of impurity atoms (this is called “doping”).
 D.C. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS • 367

h+ h+ e−
e−
h+ e−
Current I h+ Current I
e−
h+ h+
e− e−
h +
e−
e −
h+
h+

Intrinsic semiconductor

At absolute zero, semiconductors are pure insulators with no free charge

carriers. However, as temperature increases, thermal agitation frees a small
proportion of the valence electrons and allows them to become “free” or
conduction electrons. Whenever an electron is freed, it leaves behind a
“hole,” which behaves very much like a particle carrying a positive charge
e. This means that a pure semiconductor contains equal numbers of
electrons and holes and that both contribute to current flow. While the
density of holes and electrons is equal, they do not contribute equally to
the current because their mobility (ability to move through the material)
differs.
The electrical properties of intrinsic semiconductors can be changed by
introducing impurity atoms. Semiconductors such as silicon and germanium
have four electrons in the outer shell, so adding atoms of an element such
as boron, aluminum, or gallium, with three outer electrons, has the result of
donating one additional hole per doping atom. Semiconductors doped in this
way have an excess of holes (positive charge carriers) and are called p-type
semiconductors. If phosphorus, antimony, or arsenic, with five electrons
in the outer shell, is added, this will donate one electron per doping atom.
Semiconductors doped in this way have an excess of electrons (negative
charge carriers) and are called n-type semiconductors. Semiconductor
devices such as diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits depend on doped
semiconductors and are often constructed from junctions between n-type
and p-type materials.

18.6.2 Variation of Resistance of a Metal with Temperature

When an electric current passes through a metal, electrons drift in the
opposite direction and collide with ions in the metal structure. This scatters
the electrons and dissipates energy, creating electrical resistance. The
higher the temperature, the more random thermal energy in the metal and
368 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

the greater the amplitude of ionic vibrations. This increases the electron
scattering and the resistivity of the metal. The rate of increase is roughly
linear, so the variation can be modeled by the equation:
 0 (1   TT0 )
  resistivity at temperature T
0  resistivity at reference temperature T0
Values for the temperature coefficient of resistance for different metals
based on T0  293 K are shown below:
Metal Temperature coefficient of resistance
Aluminum 4.3 × 103 K1
Copper 4.0 × 103 K1
Silver 4.0 × 103 K1
Tungsten 4.5 × 103 K1

It might be expected that this linear dependence of resistivity on temperature

would continue down to absolute zero and would approach zero at that
value. In 1908 the Dutch physicist Kamerlingh Onnes investigated how the
resistivity of mercury varied as he lowered the temperature toward absolute
zero. At first the resistivity dropped approximately linearly, but at 4.2 K it
suddenly dropped to zero. The mercury conducted electric currents with
zero resistance—it had become a superconductor. Other metals exhibit
similar properties, having a characteristic transition temperature below
which they superconduct. Here are the transition temperatures for several
different metals:
Metal Transition temperature
Aluminum 1.2 K
Lead 7.2 K
Mercury 4.2 K
Tin 3.7 K
Zinc 0.9 K

These are called low-temperature superconductors. In the 1980s, several

high-temperature superconductors were discovered. These tend to be
ceramic materials with complex crystalline structures, such as yttrium
barium copper chloride, but they become superconducting above the
temperature of liquid nitrogen (77 K).
Superconductors are essential for the construction of extremely strong
electromagnets (e.g., in particle accelerators such as the LHC at CERN)
 D.C. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS • 369

because huge currents can circulate in superconducting coils without

generating any heat.
Physicists hope one day to discover or manufacture a room-temperature
superconductor. Among other applications this would allow the transmission
of electrical energy with no energy losses from ohmic heating.

18.7 Exercises

1. Explain in terms of the free electron model of a metal:

(a) how metals conduct electricity
(b) why the resistance of a metal increases with temperature

2. A copper wire has radius 0.20 mm and carries a D.C. current of

120 mA. Calculate the drift velocity of the electrons in the wire. The
charge carrier density in copper is n  8.5 × 1028 m3.
3. The resistivity of a sample of germanium is 6.0  102 m. A cylinder
of germanium 5.0 mm long and 0.50 mm in radius has a p.d. of 10 V
applied across its ends.
(a) What current passes through the specimen?
(b) What is the current density (I/A) in the sample?
(c) What is the conductivity (1/) of germanium?
(d) What is the conductance (1/R) of this sample?
(e) The density of charge carriers in germanium is about 1016 m3;
calculate their average drift velocity (assume the charge on each
charge carrier is 1.6  1019 C).
(f) Name the majority charge carriers in each of the following:
(i) a metal
(ii) a p-type semiconductor
(iii) an n-type semiconductor
4. A is a 240 V 100 W filament lamp. B is a 12 V 6 W filament lamp.
(a) What happens when they are connected in parallel across a 12 V
D.C. supply?
(b) What happens when they are connected in series across a 240 V
A.C. supply?
5. A cell of emf E and internal resistance r is connected across a load
resistor R, and the p.d. across R is measured using a high-resistance
voltmeter.
(a) Draw a circuit diagram of this arrangement.
370 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(b) Derive an expression for V in terms of E, R, and r.

(c) A set of values for V are obtained for a wide range of values of R.
Rearrange the equation derived in (a) to show how a straight line
graph can be drawn from this data and used to determine E and r.
(d) Sketch the graph, indicating its important features.
6. The table below gives the resistivities of three metals at two different
temperatures.
Metal Resistivity at 273K Resistivity at 373K
8
Aluminum 2.45 × 10 m 3.55 × 108 m
Copper 1.55 × 108 m 2.38 × 108 m
8
Iron 8.70 × 10 m 16.61 × 108 m
(a) Which is the best conductor?
(b) An insulated cable contains a single metal core of diameter 0.50 mm.
What is the resistance of 5.0 m of this cable at 273K if it is made of:
(i) aluminum, (ii) copper, (iii) iron.
(c) By what percentage does the resistance of each cable increase when
its temperature rises from 273 to 373K?
(d) Estimate the resistance of the copper cable at room temperature
(about 293 K) and state any assumptions you had to make.
(e) A 5.0 m composite wire is made by joining 1.0 m of copper wire of
diameter 0.50 mm to 4.0 m of iron wire of diameter 0.60 mm. What
current would flow through this wire at 273 K if a cell of emf 6.0 V
was connected across its ends?
7. (a) Calculate the readings on the ammeter and voltmeter in the circuit
below assuming that the internal resistance of the battery is negligible.
12.0 V

200 Ω 200 Ω

200 Ω
A

V
 D.C. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS • 371

(b) In fact the internal resistance is 10 . How does this affect your
answers to part (a)?
8. You are provided with three identical resistors each of resistance R.
Calculate and list the values of all the resistances you can make using
one or more of these resistors stating which arrangement corresponds to
which value.
9. A resistance network is constructed using 12 identical 1  resistors, with
each resistor placed so that it forms one edge of a cube. Calculate the
resistance between two opposite corners of the cubic array.
10. The circuit below is used to detect changes in light intensity. The resis-
tance of the LDR is 50 k in the dark and 100  in bright light.

1.0 kΩ

6V

RLDR Vout

(a) Calculate the output voltage in the dark and in bright light.
(b) How does the value of the top-fixed resistor affect the range of the
output voltages?
11. Use Kirchhoff’s laws to determine the readings on the three ammeters
and the voltmeter in the circuit below. Assume that the cell’s internal
resistance can be neglected.
6.0 V

A1

50 Ω
30 Ω 10 Ω
A3

A2

3.0 V
 CHAPTER

19
CAPACITANCE

19.1 What is a Capacitor?

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by an insulator. This might
be two parallel metal plates with air between them or it could be a person
standing on an insulator that separates them from the earth. When there
is a potential difference between the plates, opposite charges gather on
each plate and the capacitor is said to be charged. Capacitors are common
components present in most electrical circuits.

The image shows a range of capacitors. The cylindrical capacitors are

electrolytic capacitors that must be connected in a particular direction in
the circuit (otherwise they might explode!), while the others are ceramic
or paper capacitors. The insulator or dielectric material between the plates
affects the amount of charge that can be stored on the plates.
374 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

19.1.1 Capacitors and Charge

The circuit below can be used to investigate what happens when a capacitor
is charged.
VS

A A

S R C

Connection
to
oscilloscope

When switch S is closed, both ammeters jump to a positive reading that

gradually falls back to zero. This shows that charge has moved around the
circuit; however, it cannot cross the gap between the two plates, so what has
happened is electrons have left one plate (giving it a net positive charge) and
moved onto the other plate (giving it a net negative charge). The current in
the circuit is monitored by connecting an oscilloscope across the resistor in
series with the capacitor.
The oscilloscope trace actually displays the voltage across the resistor,
but this is directly proportional to the current because the resistor is
constant. The current decays exponentially to zero as the capacitor charges
up. Once fully charged there is a charge of Q on one plate and Q on the
other plate. While it is true that the net charge on the capacitor is actually
zero, we refer to the charge on the positive plate and say that the capacitor
is “charged” or “stores a charge Q.”
Current

Time

19.1.2 Capacitance
The charge stored on a capacitor is directly proportional to the potential
difference between the two conductors. This can be verified using the
arrangement shown below:
 CAPACITANCE • 375

Flying lead

Coulomb
meter

Aluminum plates Variable H.T.

separated by a few supply 0–5 kV
millimeters
Q Connect the flying lead momentarily to the positive terminal of the H.T.
supply.
Q Zero the coulomb meter.
Q Move the flying lead to the terminal of the coulomb meter and measure
the charge transfer.
Q Increase the voltage and repeat.
Typical results would look like this:
Charge stored/C

Potential difference/V

Charge stored on the capacitor is directly proportional to the p.d. between

its plates:
QV
Q  CV
Where C is the capacitance.
The S.I. unit of capacitance is F; 1F  1CV1. A 1F capacitor would
store 1 C of charge per volt of potential difference between its plates. This
would be a very large capacitance; typical values used in electronic circuits
are usually measured in nF or F.
376 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

19.1.3 Energy Stored on a Charged Capacitor

When a capacitor is charged, the power supply forces charges onto the
plates against the electrostatic repulsion of the charges that are already
there. This increases the electric potential energy in an analogous way to
how the compression of a spring stores strain energy. The charged capacitor
is therefore a store of electrical energy that can be released if it is allowed to
discharge through a suitable circuit.
When a capacitor with initial charge Q is discharged through a fixed
resistor of resistance R, the work done by the capacitor in moving a charge
q around the circuit is equal to Vq, where V is the potential difference
across the capacitor as the charge moves around the circuit. The total work
done will be the area under a graph of V against Q or the integral of Vq.
V p. d. /
C
δ
V

Charge
R
Q stored/C

Energy stored  area up to charge Q

E  ½ QV
(It might seem strange that the graph shows charge increasing to the right
when the capacitor is discharging—remember that the x-axis does not
represent time!)
Using calculus,
qQ qQ
qdq Q2
E  Vdq   C

2C
q0 q0

The two expressions for E are equivalent since C  Q/V. There is also a
third form of this expression in terms of just V and C (found by using Q 
CV to eliminate Q):
E  ½ CV 2
Here are the three equations for energy stored on a capacitor:
Q2 CV 2 QV
E  
2C 2 2
 CAPACITANCE • 377

One of the key uses for a capacitor is as a temporary store of electrical

energy that can be used when the capacitor is discharged—e.g., in a camera
flashlight. One of the advantages of using capacitors as energy storage
devices is that the energy can be accumulated slowly and released quickly
so that the power delivered can be much greater than the power used to
charge the capacitor.

19.1.4 Efficiency of Charging a Capacitor

When a capacitor is charged from a supply, the work done by the supply
is always greater than the energy stored on the capacitor. This is because
some of the work done by the supply is transferred to heat by resistance in
the circuit.
Charge Q passes
through supply

R C

+Q −Q
Charge Q arrives
Charge Q leaves
negative at plate
positive plate

Work done by supply, W  QV

Energy stored on capacitor, E  ½ QV
Energy dissipated in resistor, E  ½ QV
The charging process has an efficiency of 50% regardless of the
resistance.

19.2 Parallel Plate Capacitor

A simple capacitor can be constructed from two metal plates of area A
separated by a distance d in air. A uniform electric field (ignoring edge
effects) of strength E is set up between the plates when a p.d. V is placed
across them.
378 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

+Q −Q

The electric field strength is related to the charge density by the equation
(see Section 17.4.4):
 Q
E 
0 A0
Where  is the charge density on one plate.
The electric field strength is also equal to the (negative) potential
gradient:
V
E  ()
d
Equating the two expressions for E (ignoring signs):
Q V

A0 d
The capacitance of a parallel plate air capacitor is, therefore,
Q  A
C  0
V d
And if the air gap is replaced by a dielectric material of relative dielectric
constant r, the capacitance is given by:
A
C 0 r
d
To create large capacitance, we need a high dielectric constant, large area,
and small separation.
 CAPACITANCE • 379

19.3 Capacitor Charging and Discharging

In order to find a mathematical description for the variation of charge,
current, and voltage during charging and discharging, we must start with a
differential equation for the rate of flow on or off of the capacitor when it
already stores a charge q and has a potential difference V across its plates.
It is simpler to set this up for discharge than for charging, so we will begin
with the equations for the discharge of a capacitor through a fixed resistor.

19.3.1 Equations for Capacitor Discharge

A capacitor of capacitance C is connected in parallel with a fixed resistor of
resistance R. The capacitor has an initial charge Q0 and an initial potential
difference V0. When the switch S is closed, the voltage across the capacitor
and the resistor are equal, so current flows through the resistor and the
capacitor gradually discharges. t seconds after S has closed, the charge
has fallen to Q and the voltage across the plates is V. At this instance the
discharge current is:
dQ V
I  
dt R
The negative sign indicates that the charge on the capacitor is falling.
However, V  Q/C, so we can form a firstorder differential equation
that can be solved by separation of variables:
dQ Q

dt RC
Q( t ) t
dQ dt
 Q
  RC
QQ0 t0

 Q(t) 
ln  RC
Q 
t

Q  t   Q0 e RC

The charge on the capacitor decays exponentially. Since V  Q/C and I 

V/R  Q/RC, the current and voltage are both directly proportional to the
t

charge and decay at the same rate. The term e RC is equal to the fraction
of charge remaining after time t.
380 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The graph below shows how the charge, current, or p.d. across the
capacitor changes as it discharges:
Percentage of Q0, I0 or V0
100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
t = RC t = 2RC Time/s

The quantity RC is called the time constant of the circuit. The

dimensions of RC are the dimensions of time, so in S.I. units it is time
in seconds. After one time constant (t  RC), the fraction remaining is
RC

e RC  e1  0.37, so there will be 37% of the initial charge remaining after
one time constant. After n time constants the fraction remaining is en. This
falls rapidly with n. After three time constants, there is 0.050 of the original
charge, so the discharge is 95% complete. After five time constants, 0.0067
of the original charge remains, so the discharge is >99% completed. As a
rule of thumb, discharging and charging processes are considered complete
when a time t  5 RC (five time constants) has elapsed.
 CAPACITANCE • 381

The time constant controls the rate of charging and discharging.

Percentage of Q0, I0 or V0
100

90

80

70

60
Increasing time
50 constant (RC)

40

30

20

10

0 Time/s

19.3.2 Equations for Capacitor Charging

The diagram below shows a circuit used to charge a capacitor.
VS

I R C

+Q −Q

VR VC
We can use Kirchhoff’s second law to set up a differential equation for the
charge on the capacitor:
VS  VR  VC
Q
VS  IR 
C
382 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

dQ Q
VS  R 
dt C
dQ 1
 (CVS  Q)
dt RC
dQ 1
 (Q  Q)
dt RC F
Where QF  CVS is the final charge when the voltage across the capacitor is
equal to the supply voltage.
This is a first-order linear differential equation whose solution is:

Q  QF 1  e

t
RC 
The difference between Q and QF decays exponentially toward zero.
The voltage across the capacitor is directly proportional to the charge
stored (V  Q/C), so the voltage rises in a similar way to the charge:

V  VS 1  e

t
RC 
Current is the rate of change of charge, so the charging current decays
exponentially from an initial value I0  VSR
t

I  I0 e RC

Percentage of final charge or

voltage on capacitor
100

80

60

40
RC = 2.0 s

20

0 Time/s
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

19.4 Capacitors in Series and Parallel

When capacitors are combined in series or in parallel, we can calculate
the effective capacitance of the arrangement, i.e., the value of the single
capacitor that could replace them.
 CAPACITANCE • 383

19.4.1 Capacitance of Capacitors in Series

When several capacitors are connected in series, the wires connecting the
inside plates together are isolated from the external supply. If the plate at
one end of such a wire gains a positive charge, then the plate connected to
the other end must gain an equal negative charge. As a consequence, all
of the series capacitors must have a charge equal to that on the outermost
plates that are connected to the external supply.
C1 C2 C3

+Q −Q +Q −Q +Q −Q
V1 V2 V3

The total charge on the set of series capacitors is therefore Q, and the
voltage across the set is equal to the sum of voltages across the individual
capacitors.
V  V1  V2  V3
Q Q Q Q
  
Cseries C1 C2 C3
1 1 1 1
  
Cseries C1 C2 C3
For n capacitors in series,
in
1
Cseries
  C1 i
i1
This has the same form as the equation for resistors in parallel, but here it
applies when the capacitors are in series.
19.4.2 Capacitors in Parallel
When capacitors are connected in parallel, they all have the same voltage
across them, and the total charge stored is the sum of the charges stored on
each capacitor.
V
C1

C2 Q  Q1  Q2  Q3
Cpara V  C1 V  C2 V  C3 V
C3
Cpara  C1  C2  C3
384 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The total capacitance of several capacitors connected in parallel is the sum

of their individual capacitances. For n capacitors in parallel,
in
Cpara  C i
i1

This has the same form as the equation for resistors in series, but here it
applies when the capacitors are in parallel.

19.5 Capacitance of a Charged Sphere

When a charge Q is placed on a spherical conductor of radius a, it spreads
evenly over the surface. The potential of the surface is given by:
Q
V
4 0 a
So the capacitance of the sphere with respect to earth is
Q
Csphere   4 0 a
V

19.6 Exercises

1. A 220 F capacitor is charged from a 6 V D.C. supply.

(a) Calculate the charge stored on the capacitor.
(b) Calculate the energy stored on the capacitor.
(c) By what factors would the charge and energy stored on the capacitor
change if the supply voltage was doubled 12 V?
2. A 470 F capacitor is connected in series with a 220  resistor and
charged from a 10 V D.C. supply.
(a) Calculate the time constant for this circuit.
(b) Roughly how long will it take to charge the capacitor?
(c) How would your answer to (b) change if the capacitor was charged
to 20 V? Explain your answer.
(d) Once the capacitor is charged up (to 10 V), it is disconnected and
discharged through a different resistor. If the discharge current falls
to 50% of its original value in 10 s, what is the value of this resistor
and what was the original value of the discharge rent?
 CAPACITANCE • 385

3. When S in the circuit below is closed the capacitor charges.

V1

A1 A2

R C
S

V2 V3

(a) Sketch a graph to show how the readings on ammeters A1 and A2

vary from the moment S is closed to the time that the capacitor is
almost fully charged.
(b) Sketch a graph with three lines on it to show how the readings on
voltmeters V1, V2, and V3 vary from the moment S is closed to the
time that the capacitor is almost fully charged.
4. The circuit below shows two capacitors that can be connected to a
supply and/or to each other by closing one or both of two switches.
8.0 V

S1
C1 = 50 µF

S2
C2 = 100 µF

Initially both switches are open and both capacitors are discharged.
S1 is now closed and C1 charges.
(a) Calculate the charge and energy stored on C1.
S1 is now opened and then S2 is closed connecting the two
capacitors together.
(b) Calculate the charge on each capacitor once they reach equilibrium.
386 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(c) Calculate the total energy stored on both capacitors and compare
this to the value you obtained in (a). Account for the difference.
Now consider a different scenario. Both capacitors are discharged
and then:
S1 is now closed and C1 charges. S1 is kept closed and S2 is also
closed connecting the two capacitors together while still connected
to the power supply.
(d) Calculate the charge on each capacitor once they reach equilibrium.
(e) Calculate the total energy stored on both capacitors and compare
this to the value you obtained in (a). Account for the difference.
5. You are provided with three identical capacitors each of capacitance C.
Calculate and list the values of all the capacitances you can make using
one or more of these capacitors. State which arrangement corresponds
to which value.
6. The diagram below shows a parallel plate air capacitor of area A and
plate separation d connected to a power supply and a resistor.

The plates are pulled apart by an external agent and their separation is
doubled. Describe and explain what happens:
Q to the charge stored on the capacitor
Q to current flow in the circuit
Q to the energy stored on the capacitor
Q to the voltage across the capacitor
7. A 470 F capacitor is charged to 10 V and then discharged through
a 2200  resistor. Calculate the charge and voltage remaining on the
capacitor after 1.5 s.
 CHAPTER

20
MAGNETIC FIELDS

20.0 Magnetic Field

If a flat card is placed on top of a bar magnet and then iron filings are
scattered on the card, they form a distinct pattern as shown in the image.
Each filing is like a small rod of iron that lines up with an invisible force
field. If a magnetic compass is moved nearby, it too lines up with this force
field and can be used to trace its pattern.

Michael Faraday explained these effects by saying that a bar magnet has
two poles, north and south, and that these create a magnetic field in the
space surrounding the magnet. The lines of magnetic field begin on north
388 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

poles and end on south poles; they cannot start or end in space (although
they can form closed loops). The direction of the field lines is the direction
of force that would be exerted on a free north pole (even though free north
poles do not exist in nature). This is all very similar to the description of the
electric field and the link between electric field lines and electric charges.

N S

The behavior of a compass needle can be explained by considering the forces

acting on its poles from the magnetic field. If the needle is not aligned with
the field, then two forces of equal magnitude act along different parallel
lines creating a couple. The couple is zero when the needle lines up the
field.
Magnetic field

F
N

F
S

The Earth has its own magnetic field. The north pole of a compass points
toward the Earth’s North Pole. This implies that the geographic North Pole
of the Earth is actually a south magnetic pole. Sometimes the poles on
permanent magnets are called “north-seeking” or “south-seeking” poles, so
that the north-seeking pole of a compass always points toward magnetic
north.
 MAGNETIC FIELDS • 389

From a distance, the magnetic field in space created by the Earth has
a similar shape to that of a large bar magnet. However, the center of the
Earth is very hot, and this high temperature would destroy any permanent
magnetism (it is above the Curie point for iron and nickel). The Earth’s
field is generated by electric currents.

20.1 Permanent Magnets

Some materials can be permanently magnetized—e.g. iron, steel, cobalt,
or nickel. These are described as ferromagnetic materials, and permanent
magnets are constructed from these materials. If the material is easily
magnetized and easily loses its magnetization, it is described as magnetically
soft. If it is difficult to magnetize and demagnetize, it is described as
magnetically hard. Pure iron is a soft magnetic material, and steel is a hard
magnetic material. Alloys made of neodymium, iron, and boron are used
to make the most powerful of all permanent magnets. These are called
neodymium magnets.
The atoms of ferromagnetic materials are themselves magnetic, with
each atom having its own dipole (like a tiny bar magnet). In an unmagnetized
sample of the material, the atomic dipoles are in random orientations, so
there is no net magnetic field. When the sample is magnetized, the atomic
dipoles align and their fields add together in small regions called domains.
The greater the magnetization, the larger the domains grow and the more
they align with one another to create a stronger field.
Magnetization can be achieved by placing a ferromagnetic sample
in an external field—e.g. from another permanent magnet or from an
electromagnet. Molten rocks from volcanic eruptions often contain
ferromagnetic minerals. As they solidify they become weakly magnetized
in the direction of the Earth’s own magnetic field. The alternating
magnetization directions of volcanic rocks on the ocean floor has provided
strong evidence that the Earth’s magnetic field has changed polarity many
times in the past and is likely to do so again in the future.
If a magnetized sample is heated, thermal vibrations can cause the
atomic dipoles to change their orientation and destroy the alignment. There
is a critical temperature for each ferromagnetic material above which it loses
its permanent magnetic properties. This is called the Curie temperature or
curie point. The Curie temperature for several materials is shown below:
Iron: 1043 K
Cobalt: 1400 K
390 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Nickel: 637 K
Neodymium magnets: ~590–640 K

20.2 Magnetic Forces on Electric Currents and

Moving Charges
In 1820, a Danish physicist, Hans Christian Oersted, demonstrated that
magnetic fields are created by moving electric charges (electric currents).
He did this by holding a magnetic compass close to a wire and switching
on an electric current. The compass needle deflected from the Earth’s
field—a magnetic field had been created by the electric current. Further
investigation shows that the magnetic field forms concentric rings around
the current, getting weaker with distance. The magnetic field of a long
straight current-carrying wire is shown below:

The direction of the magnetic field can be predicted using a right-hand

grip rule. If you make a “thumbs up” with your right hand and align your
thumb with the conventional current direction, then your fingers are curling
in the direction of magnetic field lines.
Electric current is a flow of charge, so the source of the magnetic field
is the moving charges inside the wire. A beam of charged particles moving
through a vacuum would create a similar pattern of magnetic field.
It turns out that ALL magnetic fields originate from moving charges.
Even the magnetic fields of permanent magnets originate from the
movements of electrons inside the atoms of the material.

20.2.1 Magnetic Force on an Electric Current

Electric currents create magnetic fields and they also experience forces
from them. This can be demonstrated using the apparatus below:
 MAGNETIC FIELDS • 391

Circuit to
control current
A
Current-carrying wire of length l

l
N X S

l
Top pan Constant uniform
balance magnetic field directed
out of page

In the diagram above, the X on the end of the wire represents a current into
the page.
A permanent magnet with flat pole pieces is placed on a top pan
balance. The magnet creates a uniform horizontal magnetic field (directed
from N to S). A separate circuit is used to control the current through a wire
that passes horizontally between the poles perpendicular to the magnetic
field lines. As the current is increased from zero, the reading on the top pan
balance decreases, showing that the magnet is being pulled up and the wire
(by Newton’s third law) is being pulled down. The magnitude of the force
increases as the current is increased. Experiments like this can show that
the magnetic force F
Q is directly proportional to current I

Q is directly proportional to the length of wire in the field l

Q is perpendicular to the current and the magnetic field
F  Il
The constant of proportionality depends on the strength B of the magnetic
field, so we can use this effect to define the magnetic field strength:
F
B
Il
The S.I. unit of magnetic field strength is NA1m1. This is called the tesla
(T); 1T  1 NA1m1.
The magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor is often called the
“motor effect” because this is used as the driving force in an electric motor.
The direction of the force can be predicted using Fleming’s left hand rule.
392 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Thumb:
“thrust”
or force

First finger: field

Second finger:
current

In the experiment above the current is perpendicular to the magnetic

field. If the angle between the magnetic field and the current is varied,
it is found that the magnetic force only acts on the component of current
perpendicular to the field, so the more general equation for the magnetic
force on a current-carrying conductor is:
F  BIl sin 
where  is the angle between the magnetic field and the current.

20.2.2 Force on a Moving Charge

The force on a current-carrying wire is really the sum of forces on the
individual moving charges inside the wire. We can derive an expression for
the force on a moving charge by using the microscopic equation for electric
current.
Magnetic force f on individual
moving charges

Conventional
Conventional q v q v q q v current I
current I v q
q v q v v

l Cross-sectional
area A
Magnetic field of strength B
directed into the page
 MAGNETIC FIELDS • 393

The total magnetic force on a length l of a conductor carrying current I at

right angles to a uniform magnetic field of strength B is:
F  BIl
I  nqAv
F  BnqAvl
This force arises from the individual forces on N charge carriers where:
N  nAl
So the magnetic force on each charge carrier is:
f  Bqv
If the charge is moving in a direction at an angle  to the magnetic field
direction, the magnetic force on a moving charge is:
f  Bqvsin 
This can be written using a vector cross-product: f  qvB.
The direction of the magnetic force is given by Fleming’s left-hand
rule, but bear in mind that current direction refers to conventional current,
so if the moving particle is negatively charged, the current is in the opposite
direction to the motion.
Note that magnetic fields only affect moving charges. If v  0 there is
no magnetic force on the charge.

20.2.3 Path of a Moving Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field

The magnetic force is always perpendicular to the velocity; therefore it:
Q cannot do any work on the charged particle, so it does not change the
speed of the particle
Q acts as a centripetal force, changing the direction of motion of the
charged particle
Consider a particle with mass m and positive charge q moving into a region
of uniform magnetic field of strength B with its velocity perpendicular to
the magnetic field:
394 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Magnetic field of
f q strength B directed
into page

v
q

The magnetic field provides a constant centripetal force, so the charged

particle moves in an arc of a circle of radius r:
mv2
f  Bqv 
r
mv
r
Bq
When particles are created in particle accelerators like the LHC at CERN,
particle physicists use strong magnetic fields to deflect them so that they
can determine their momentum and mass.

Lorentz force law

The total force on a charged particle in the electromagnetic field has two
parts—the force from the electric field and the force from the magnetic
field. This is expressed by the Lorentz force law:
f  felectric  fmagnetic
f  qE qvB
Note that the electric force is parallel to the electric field, whereas the
magnetic force is perpendicular to the magnetic field (in a direction given
by Fleming’s left-hand rule).

20.2.4 Velocity Selector: Crossed Electric and Magnetic Fields

Moving charged particles can be deflected by both electric and magnetic
fields. If the fields are perpendicular to one another and to the velocity of
the incoming beam of charged particles, then the electric and magnetic
 MAGNETIC FIELDS • 395

force act along the same line and can be made to oppose one another. By
adjusting the values of the fields, the two forces can be made to cancel out
so that the beam is undeflected.
For the beam to be undeflected,
fmagnetic  felectric
Bqv  Eq
E
v
B
Uniform electric field of strength E

fmagnetic

q q q

Magnetic field of
strength B directed
into page
felectric

For any ratio of electric field strength to magnetic field strength, there
is just one velocity that will be undeflected. This arrangement is called a
velocity selector. If a stream of charged particles with a range of incident
velocities enters the region of crossed fields, then only those satisfying the
equation above go straight through.

Mass spectrometer
A velocity selector is used to send ion beams with a particular velocity into
a mass spectrometer. The beams are then deflected in a constant magnetic
field so that they move in a semicircular path. The radius of curvature of
this path can be used to determine the masses of the ions. It is also possible
to measure the amount of each type of ion that is present in the beam, so
mass spectrometers are ideal for analyzing ionic ratios in samples.
396 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

A simplified diagram to illustrate the principle of the mass spectrometer

is shown below. The entire apparatus is evacuated.

Radius of curvature in the

uniform magnetic field
is proportional to the
mass of the ion

Region of uniform
magnetic field B2
E

B1
Source of ions
with a range of
velocities
B2

Only ions with velocity v = E/B1

enter the region of uniform
Region of crossed fields: faster magnetic field
and slower ions are deflected

The mass of the ion can be calculated using:

B qr B B qr
m 2  1 2
v E
The greater the radius of curvature, the greater the mass of the ion.

20.3 Magnetic Fields Created by Electric Currents

20.3.1 Biot-Savart Law
The magnetic field created by a small element of an electric current is given
by the Biot-Savart law. However, small current elements do not exist in
isolation, so we must use integration to find the magnetic field at a point in
space created by an electric current in a wire. This is analogous to the way
we use Coulomb’s law to find the resultant electric field at a point in space
by adding up contributions from all the charges present.
The diagram below shows the contribution to the magnetic field
strength B at a point P from a small current element of length l.
 MAGNETIC FIELDS • 397

Current
element I
δl

I x

P δB

The direction of B is found using the right-hand rule and using the
continuation of the current element as the current direction. The magnitude
of B is given by:
 I sin 
B  0 2 l
4 x
where 0 is the permeability of free space, a constant that determines the
ability of a vacuum to support a magnetic field.

20.3.2 Magnetic Field at the Center of a Narrow Coil

This is the simplest example of the use of the Biot-Savart law because
the angle  is the same (and equal to /2) for all current elements around
the coil. The diagram has the axis of the coil into the page. The resultant
magnetic field is also into the page, shown by the cross at the center.
δl I

x
δB

0 I sin   / 2 
B  l
4 r 2
l2 r
 0 I sin   / 2 
B  
 4 r 2
 l

l0
398 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

All the terms in the curly brackets are constant, so this is a very simple
integral resulting in:
I
B 0
2r
If the coil has N turns the magnetic fields add together:
 NI
B 0
2r
An expression for the field strength at other points along the axis of
the narrow coil can also be determined using the Biot-Savart law. The
integration is a little more complicated, but the result is:
0 Ir 2
B 3/2
2  z2  r 2 
where z is the distance along the axis from the center of the coil. When
z  0 the expression reduces to the previous equation (as it should!).

20.3.3 Magnetic Field of a Long Straight Current-Carrying Wire

For an infinitely long straight wire all of the current elements lie along the
same line.
δB P

r x

θ δl
l I

The resultant magnetic field forms concentric rings around the line of the
electric current.
 I sin 
B  0 2 l
4 x
The contributions from current elements to the left and right of P are the
same, so the resultant magnetic field strength at P is:
l
0 I sin 
B 2  4 x2
dl
l0
 MAGNETIC FIELDS • 399

The three variables , x, and l are all related, so in order to carry out the
integration we need to express two of them in terms of just one of them and
the constant distance r.
r
x
sin 
r
l
tan 
dl r
so  2
d sin 
The integral now becomes:
0
0 I sin  d
B 2  r


2

0 I
B
2 r
20.3.4 Magnetic Field Along the Axis of a Solenoid
A solenoid is a long coil, so the magnetic field along its axis can be found
by integrating the contributions from narrow coils along the length of the
solenoid. The result is that the field strength at the center of a long solenoid
is:
 NI
B 0
l
where N is the number of turns, I is the current in the solenoid, and l is the
length of the solenoid.
The field strength drops to half of this value at each end and is small or
negligible outside the solenoid (except near the ends).
I I

0 NI 0 NI 0 NI
Bend  Bcenter  Bend 
2l l 2l

The external field pattern is similar to that of a dipole bar magnet, one end
of the solenoid acts like a north pole and the other acts like a south pole.
400 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

An electromagnet consists of a long coil wound around a soft iron core.

The magnetization of the core increases the magnetic field strength, and
the field at the center is then given by:
  NI
B 0 r
l
where r is the relative permeability of the ferromagnetic core. Some typical
values are shown below, but magnetic permeability depends strongly on the
magnetic field strength, so these are representative values only.
Iron: 5000
Ferrite: 600
Nickel: 300
Carbon steel: 100

20.3.5 Ampère’s Theorem

Ampère’s theorem or “circuit law” states that, for any closed loop, the
integral of the length elements multiplied by the component of magnetic
field parallel to each element is proportional to the current enclosed by the
path. This is really a consequence of the Biot-Savart law, but can be useful
in situations with simple geometry.
B.dl is the component of B in the direction of dl multiplied by dl (i.e.,
the scalar product of B and dl)
The constant of proportionality is the permeability 0.
 B.dl   0 I
closed enclosed
loop by loop

Ampère’s theorem can be used to provide a simple derivation of the

magnetic field strength a distance r from a long straight wire carrying a
current I. By symmetry the magnetic field strength B is constant and forms
concentric rings with the current at its center.

δl
I
X
r
 MAGNETIC FIELDS • 401

 B.dl  2rB   0 I  0 I
closed enclosed
loop by loop

0 I
B
2 r

20.4 Electric Motors

The “motor effect,” where a force is exerted on a current-carrying conductor,
is used in electric motors. This provides a way to transfer electrical energy
to mechanical energy.

20.4.1 Turning Effect on a Coil in a Uniform Magnetic Field

A simple electric motor consists of a current-carrying coil in a magnetic
field. Consider a rectangular coil of sides a and b, carrying a current I and
lying in the plane of a uniform magnetic field of strength B.

B C
South
pole

I I
b
North
pole

A D
a
Sides AB and CD are perpendicular to the magnetic field, so magnetic
forces act on these wires. On AB the force is into the page and on CD it is
out of the page.
The magnitude of each force is F  BIb. These two forces create a
turning effect about the central vertical axis (dotted line). The resultant
couple or torque is:
a
  2  BIb  BIab  BIA
2
402 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

where A  ab is the area of the coil. If the coil has N turns, the torque is:
  NBIA
20.4.2 A Simple D.C. Electric Motor
To make a working motor using a coil in a uniform magnetic field, the
turning effect on the coil must always be in the same direction. For this
to be the case, the direction of current in the coil must be reversed every
half rotation. The reason for this is clear from the diagrams below, which
show the end view of a motor coil as it rotates in the field. The end of the
coil is shown in three different positions with side AB on the left and CD
on the right. For the coil to continue to rotate in the same direction when
AB moves past the vertical dotted line, the current direction must reverse.
The thick black arrows represent the magnetic forces on the wires as the
coil turns. Current
reverses

X CD
AB

South pole
North pole

AB X CD

X
AB CD

The device used to reverse the current is called a split-ring commutator. For
a simple motor with a single coil, the commutator consists of a conducting
cylinder split in half so that the halves are separated by an insulator. The
commutator is attached to the axis of the motor and rotates with it. Current
enters and leaves the coil via brushes that make a sliding contact with the
surface of the commutator.
 MAGNETIC FIELDS • 403

Brushe
Conductors
Coil rotates with
commutator
Rotation axis

Insulator separating two

halves of commutator

The commutator acts as a rotating switch ensuring that the direction of

current in the coil stays the same as it rotates.

20.5 Exercises

1. The Earth’s magnetic field is very similar to the field of a dipole bar
magnet. However, geophysicists are sure that the field is not caused by a
permanent magnet inside the Earth. Explain why not.
2. Two long straight parallel wires separated by 0.045 m each carry a
current of 2.0 A in the same direction.
(a) Draw a diagram showing the magnetic field around one of the wires
interacts with the other wire, and use this diagram to explain why
the wires exert a force on one another. State the direction of this
force.
(b) Calculate the magnitude of the force per unit length on each wire.
(c) Explain why coils of wire carrying a very large current must be able
to withstand large stresses.
3. A mass spectrometer is used to measure the masses and abundancies
of different isotopes. It does so by accelerating ions of each isotope to
the same speed and then deflecting them into a semicircular path in a
strong uniform magnetic field.
(a) Explain how a velocity selector, consisting of perpendicular electric
and magnetic fields, can be used to select ions of the same speed
from a group containing a wide range of different speeds.
(b) Ions of mass m1 and m2 and equal charge q enter the same uniform
magnetic field of strength B at the same velocity v at right angles
to the field lines and both are detected after moving through a
complete semicircle in the field. Derive an equation for their
separation.
404 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

4. The diagram below shows an end view of a rectangular coil in a uniform

magnetic field of strength 0.05 T. The dot represents current out of the
page and the cross represents current into the page.

(a) Use a diagram to explain why there is a resultant moment on the coil
and state the direction of this moment.
(b) Describe qualitatively how the moment on the coil changes as 
varies from 0° to 90°.
The coil has 80 turns and an area of 0.012 m2. It carries a constant
current of 0.65 A.
(c) Calculate the moment on the coil when   0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, and
90°.
(d) Explain how the coil would move if it was released from a horizontal
position and allowed to move freely about a central axis directed
into the page.
(e) Explain what has to be done to the current in the coil if it is to
operate as a D.C. motor.
 CHAPTER

21
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

21.1 Induced EMFs

21.1.1 What is Electromagnetic Induction?
An electric motor transfers electrical energy into mechanical work. This
is a reversible process. If mechanical work is used to turn a motor, an emf
is generated across its terminals; and if these are connected to an external
load, electrical energy is generated. Motors and generators/dynamos are
like mirror images of one another.

Electrical Motor Mechanical

energy energy

Generator
Mechanical Electrical
energy energy

The underlying physics is electromagnetic induction—when a conducting

wire cuts through a magnetic field or when the magnetic field passing
through a coil changes, there is an induced emf in the conductor or coil.
Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831.
406 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

21.1.2 Electromagnetic Induction Experiments

The “motor effect” is the force exerted on a current-carrying wire when it
is perpendicular to a magnetic field. The force acts to push the wire in a
direction perpendicular to the field and current. The inverse process is to
use an external force to push the wire so that it cuts perpendicularly across
the lines of the magnetic field. This results in an induced emf in the wire.
Here is a simple experiment that can be used to investigate
electromagnetic induction effects when a wire cuts across the lines of a
magnetic field.

Galvanometer deflects
N S when wire moves, and
G
reads zero when wire is
stationary in or out of field

Wire pushed into page to

cross magnetic field lines

Several simple observations can be made:

Q The deflection is greater if the wire is moved faster.
Q There is no induction if the wire is stationary in or out of the field.
Q The sign of the deflection changes if the direction of motion changes.
Q If the wire is moved parallel to the field lines, there is no deflection.
We can explain all of these effects in the following way:
Q When the wire cuts the lines of magnetic field, there is an induced emf
across the ends of the wire.
Q The magnitude of the emf is directly proportional to the rate of cutting
field lines.
Q The sign of the emf depends on the direction in which the field lines are
cut.
Here is an experiment that can be used to investigate electromagnetic
induction effects when the magnetic field through a coil is changed.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION • 407

Bar magnet S
moved along
dotted line
N

Coil G

Several simple observations can be made:

Q The deflection is greater if the magnet is moved faster.
Q There is no induction if the magnet is stationary in or out of the coil.
Q The sign of the deflection changes if the direction of motion changes.
Q The effects are exactly the same if the coil is moved and the magnet is
stationary.
We can explain all of these effects in the following way:
Q Moving the magnet toward or away from the coil changes the amount of
magnetic field passing through the coil.
Q When the magnetic field in the coil changes, there is an induced emf
across the ends of the coil.
Q The magnitude of the emf is directly proportional to the rate of change
of the magnetic field through the coil.
Q The sign of the emf depends on whether the magnetic field through the
coil is increasing or decreasing.
A third experiment shows that electromagnetic induction does not need
relative motion; a changing magnetic field from an electromagnetic can be
used instead. This experiment is similar to Faraday’s original experiments
in the nineteenth century.
408 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Primary coil Secondary coil

Soft iron
core

Several simple observations can be made:

Q When S is closed there is a momentary deflection of the galvanometer
and then it returns to zero.
Q When S is open there is a momentary deflection of the galvanometer
and then it returns to zero.
Q If the supply voltage is increased, the deflections are larger.
Q If the experiment is repeated without the iron core, the effects are
similar but MUCH weaker.
We can explain all of these effects in the following way:
Q When current flows in the primary coil, it becomes an electromagnet.
Q The iron core increases the strength of the field and links the two coils
magnetically.
Q When the magnetic field in the secondary coil changes, there is an
induced emf across the ends of the coil.
Q The magnitude of the emf is directly proportional to the rate of change
of the magnetic field through the secondary coil.
Q The sign of the emf depends on whether the magnetic field through the
secondary coil is increasing or decreasing.
Q If the magnetic field passing through the secondary coil is constant or
zero, there is no induction.
It is clear that electromagnetic induction only induces an emf in the
secondary coil when the switch is opened or closed and the magnetic field
through the secondary is changing. Opening or closing the switch causes
a rapid change and results in a large induced emf. We can extend this
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION • 409

experiment to show the effect of a continuously changing magnetic field

by replacing the D.C. supply to the primary coil with an A.C. supply. The
output from the secondary coil is now an A.C. emf that can be displayed on
an oscilloscope. If a dual beam oscilloscope is used, the emf in the secondary
can be compared with the current in the primary (which is in phase with the
magnetic field).
Primary coil Secondary coil

Soft iron
core

A.C.
To oscilloscope
input 2

To oscilloscope
input 1

Note that the peaks of the induced emf occur at times when the rate
of change (gradient) of the magnetic field through the secondary coil is
greatest and that the induced emf is zero at times when the rate of change
of the magnetic field through the secondary coil is zero (gradient is zero).

21.2 Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

The observations in the previous experiments can be explained using one
simple equation—this is usually referred to as “Faraday’s law,”but the
mathematical formulation was actually first found by Neumann and the
sign of the emf was explained by Lenz! This equation involves two new
concepts—magnetic flux and magnetic flux linkage.

21.2.1 Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Flux Linkage

So far, we have given a qualitative explanation of electromagnetic induction
in terms of changing the amount of magnetic field through a coil or changing
the rate at which the magnetic field lines are cut. To give a quantitative
formula for the induced emf, we need to define what we mean by “amount
of magnetic field.” This will depend on three factors—the strength of the
field, its orientation, and the area through which it passes.
410 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Magnetic flux
If a constant uniform magnetic field of strength B passes normally through
a surface of area A, the flux  is defined as the product BA.
Magnetic field of strength B
Area A perpendicular
to magnetic field

Φ = BA

In general, the flux through an element of area A that makes an angle  to

the normal to the surface element will contribute a flux element   BA
cos  to the total flux through the surface.
Magnetic field of strength B

δA

The total flux is found by integrating these contributions across the surface:

  Bcos  dA
surface
where B might vary from point to point.
The S.I. unit of magnetic flux is Tm2, which is called Wb.
1 Wb  1 Tm2 or 1 T  1 Wbm2
Writing the tesla in this way emphasizes the fact that it is the magnetic flux
density.

Magnetic flux linkage

When magnetic flux passes through a coil of N turns, it links each turn
in the coil, so it is convenient to define the magnetic flux linkage as the
product of the magnetic flux and the number of turns linked by that flux:
Flux linkage  N
If the flux is caused by a constant uniform field of strength B along the axis
of the coil, the flux linkage is simply NBA, where A is the area of the coil, N
is a dimensionless number, so the S.I. unit of flux linkage is Wb.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION • 411

21.2.2 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday realized that the induced emf is directly proportional to the rate at
which a conductor cuts the magnetic flux or the rate at which the magnetic
flux linkage of a coil changes. This can be written mathematically as:
d(N)
H 
dt
We will discuss the significance of the minus sign later.
dN
The term can be interpreted as the rate of cutting flux or the
dt
rate of change of flux linkage in a coil, depending on the context. The
equivalence of these two descriptions can be seen by considering the emf
induced in a straight conductor moving at constant velocity perpendicular
to a magnetic field of strength B.
Conducting

Region of
magnetic field of
strength B into

G v v d

Conducting
vδ

The conductor runs along two parallel conducting rails connected back to
a stationary galvanometer. As the conductor moves, it cuts through lines of
magnetic field. In time t it cuts all the magnetic field lines in the darker
shaded area, and the flux through the circuit increases by an amount equal
to the flux through that additional area.
Flux cut in time t,   Bdvt
Rate of flux-cutting:
d
 Bvd
dt
Using Faraday’s law, the induced emf in the moving conductor is:
H = ()Bvd
412 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Lenz’s law
The negative sign in the equation of Faraday’s law can be interpreted in the
following way:
Q The direction of the induced emf is such as to oppose the change that
caused it.
This sounds a little obscure, but becomes clear when we apply it to the
example above. In order to induce an emf, we needed to push the wire
to the right. The existence of an emf in the circuit causes a current to
flow. However, when a current flows in a conductor lying perpendicular
to the magnetic field, there is a motor effect force on the conductor that
is perpendicular to both the current and the field. In this case the force
must lie either in the direction of v or in the opposite direction. If it was in
the direction of v then once we had started the wire moving, the induced
emf would create a current that experienced a force in the direction of
motion and the wire would accelerate with no need for us to do any further
work on it. Energy would be generated from nothing! This violates the law
of conservation of energy, so it cannot occur. The force on the induced
current must oppose the force moving the wire so that we do work to move
it and “pay” for the electrical energy it generates. Lenz’s law ensures that
energy is conserved when an emf is induced. It is the reason we need to
burn fuel to turn the generators in a power station.

21.2.3 Changing the Flux Linkage in a Coil

Consider a coil of N turns and area A initially perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field of strength B that is rotated through 90° so that it finally
lies parallel to the field. The magnetic flux falls from a maximum value at
the start to zero in a time t. What is the average induced emf during this
rotation?
Coil of N turns and area A

δt
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION • 413

Change in flux-linkage:   NBA

Rate of change in flux-linkage:   NBA

t t
Average induced emf:  () NBA
t
The reason that this is an average value rather than a constant value is that
the rate of change of flux linkage varies as the coil turns, being low at the
beginning and a maximum near the end.
A more interesting situation is one where the flux linkage through the
coil varies sinusoidally. This is the case in most electrical generators, where
a coil rotates in a magnetic field.
Coil of N turns and area A

B = B0 cos ωt

Flux-linkage:   NB0 A cos t

d  N 
Induced emf: H   NB0 A sin t
dt
This is an A.C. output with peak value NB0A.

21.3 Inductance
When there is current in a coil, the coil becomes an electromagnet and
creates a magnetic field. If the magnetic field changes, there is changing
flux linkage inside the coil, so an induced emf is created that opposes the
external supply that is changing the current. This is often called a “back
emf.” This opposition to changing current is called inductance. Coils act as
inductors in electric circuits.
414 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

21.3.1 Self-Inductance
The tendency for a coil to oppose changes of current is called inductance.
The greater the inductance, the stronger the opposition to changing
currents. Inductance is defined by:
dI
H L
dt
H
L
 dI 
 
 dt 
Inductance is equal to the back emf per unit rate of change of current.
The S.I. unit of inductance is VsA1 or the henry (H). 1H  1 VsA1.
An expression for the self-inductance of a long solenoid can be
determined by comparing the definition of inductance with Faraday’s law:
dI dN
H L 
dt dt
0 N 2 IA
  NBA 
l
So
2
dI 0 N A dI
L 
dt l dt
0 N 2 A
L
l
The symbol of an inductor is:

21.3.2 Rise of Current in an Inductor

When an inductor is connected to a D.C. power supply, the current through
the inductor begins to increase, but as it does so, there is a back emf that
opposes the supply and that limits the rate at which the current can rise.
dI H

dt L
This effect means that it takes time for the current to reach its steady final
value and that the supply does work against the back emf as this current is
established. During this time, energy is being transferred from the supply
to the magnetic field.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION • 415

VS Current

VS /R

VR VL Time
0
0

When S is closed, Kirchhoff’s second law gives us:

VS  VR  VL
dI
VS  IR  L
dt
This is a first-order differential equation that can be solved to give an
expression forI.
 R
 t
I  I0 1  e  L  
This has a similar form to the equation for the charging of a capacitor, and
(R/L) is the effective time constant.
If S is open the current falls to zero in a very short time so that dI/dt
is very large. This results in a large back emf that can cause sparks across
the switch terminals. Interrupting the current in a coil is a way to generate
spikes of high voltage—e.g., for a car’s spark plugs.

21.3.3 Energy Stored in an Inductor

When the current in an inductor is interrupted, there is a large back emf and
the energy stored in the magnetic field is rapidly dissipated—e.g., by sparks
and heating effects. We can derive an expression for the energy stored in
an inductor of inductance L when a current I0 flows in it by considering the
work done to establish that current.
dI
P  IV  IL
dt
Separating variables and integrating:
t II0

E  Pdt   ILdI  12 LI 2

t0 I0
416 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

21.3.4 Mutual Inductance

When two coils are placed close together, their magnetic fields can affect
one another. If the current is changed in one coil, there will be a changing
flux linkage in the other coil and an induced emf. The strength of this
coupling is measured by the mutual inductance of the system.

Coil 2: I2, N2, A2

Coil 1: I1, N1, A1

The mutual inductance of two coils is defined by:

dI
H2  M 1
dt
dI
H1  M 2
dt
The S.I. unit of mutual inductance is H. Mutual inductance depends on the
self-inductance of each coil:
M12  kL1 L2
where k is a coupling constant that depends on how the coils are arranged
and how they are magnetically linked.

21.4 Transformers
Electromagnetic induction is the key principle on which the generation
and distribution of electrical energy depends. Thermal power stations use
fossil or nuclear fuels to transfer chemical or nuclear energy to thermal
energy and then use this to power generators that output A.C. electricity.
Transformers step up the voltage so that electricity can be transmitted with
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION • 417

low losses over large distances. More transformers are used to step down
the voltage for consumers.
21.4.1 An Ideal Transformer
A transformer is a device that uses mutual induction to step up or step down
an A.C. voltage.
Soft iron laminated core

I
I
Output
A.C. supply V1 R
voltage

Primary coil, N1 turns Secondary coil, N1 turns

The arrangement is very similar to that of Faraday’s original experiment.

A.C. current in the primary creates an alternating magnetic flux in the core.
The soft iron core enhances the strength of the magnetic field and acts as
a magnetic circuit, linking the primary with the secondary. The changing
magnetic flux in the secondary induces an A.C. emf in the secondary. The
secondary emf is given by:
dN
H 
dt
where N is the flux linkage in the secondary coil and  µ I1 (primary
current)

Flux in core
Induced emf in
secondary

Time
418 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The peaks of emf correspond to times when the flux in the core has its
greatest rate of change.
For an ideal transformer, all of the flux created by the primary passes
through the secondary. If there are equal numbers of turns on both
primary and secondary, the back emf in both coils will be equal and will
equal the supply voltage. However, the voltage on the secondary is also
directly proportional to the number of turns on the secondary (V2 µ N2), so
changing the turns ratio (N2/N1) must change the voltage ratio (V2/V1) in a
similar way. This leads to the transformer equation:
V2 N2

V1 N1
The voltage ratio is equal to the turns ratio.
Q If N2 > N1 then V2 > V1 and it is a step-up transformer.
Q If N2 < N1 then V2 < V1 and it is a step-down transformer.
While a transformer can increase voltage, it cannot create energy; the power
supplied to the transformer must be equal to or greater than the power it
delivers to a load. An ideal transformer has 100% efficiency, so:
Pin  Pout

I1 V1  I2 V2
I 2 V1 N 1
 
I1 V2 N 2
The current ratio is the inverse of the voltage and turns ratios.

21.4.2 Transmission of Electrical Energy

The electrical power generated at power stations is transmitted over long
distances via transmission lines. These are conducting cables that have
resistance, so there is ohmic heating and some of the power is dissipated. In
order to reduce the power loss and to increase the efficiency of transmission,
transformers are used to step up the voltage in the transmission lines. This
reduces the current in the cables and therefore reduces the amount of ohmic
heating, increasing the efficiency of transmission. Step-down transformers
are then used to reduce the voltage for consumers (very high voltages are
difficult to insulate).
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION • 419

Resistance R of V3 to consumer
V1 from generator
transmission lines
I1 I2

V1 V2 V3

Step-up Step-down
transformer transformer

The input power from the generator is:

P1  I1 V1
The power transmitted is:
P2  I2 V2  P1
P
I2  1
V2
The power loss in transmission is:
2 RP12 1
PR  I2 R  2  2
V2 V2
So increasing the transmission voltage reduces the power loss.
Note that V2 is the potential difference between the transmission lines
and NOT the potential difference across resistor R. The potential difference
across R depends on I2 and falls as V2 increases.

21.4.3 Real Transformers

The ideal transformer discussed above is 100% efficient. Real transformers
can have high efficiency but do have some energy losses. There are four
main causes of energy loss in a real transformer:
Q Copper losses: ohmic heating of the conducting wires forming the coil
(usually copper wires).
Q Flux losses: the magnetic circuit provided by the transformer core might
not confine all of the magnetic flux so that some of the flux created by
the primary coil does not pass through the secondary coil.
Q Eddy current losses: transformers work with A.C., so there is an
alternating magnetic field in the core itself. If this is made from a
conducting material (e.g., soft iron), there will be induced current
loops in the core. These will dissipate heat. In order to reduce these
losses, the core is usually laminated—cut into slices that are separated
420 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

by thin layers of insulator. High-frequency transformers, e.g., in radio

frequency circuits, use non-conducting cores (e.g., ferrite cores) to
prevent these losses.
Q Hysteresis losses: the continual magnetization and demagnetization of
the core creates alternating stresses inside the core that dissipate energy
as heat. Soft iron has low hysteresis losses, so, in addition to its high
permeability, it is good material for low-frequency transformer cores.
Our discussion of transformers has assumed that the loads attached to them
are purely resistive and ignores the phase relationships between currents
and voltages in the two coils. In practice this is quite complex and the
inductance and capacitance of the circuits needs to be taken into account.

21.5 A Simple A.C. Generator

A simple A.C. generator consists of a coil rotating with constant angular
velocity in a constant uniform magnetic field. The diagram shows an
end view of such a coil when it has rotated through an angle  from the
horizontal. The coil has area A and N turns.

ω
South
North

Flux linkage:
  NBA sin 
The coil is rotating with constant angular velocity :
  t
dN
Induced emf, H  ()  ()NBA cos t
dt
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION • 421

Induced
voltage
ωNBA

Time
T = 2π/ω

The negative sign in the equation has been ignored in the graph. The output
is an A.C. voltage with peak value E0  NBA.

21.6 Electromagnetic Damping

Lenz’s law states that the induced emf is always in such a direction as to
oppose the change that caused it. If the induced emf creates an induced
current, the forces that act on this current oppose the motion causing the
change in flux linkage. This acts like a braking force and can be demonstrated
using the apparatus shown below.

S
Oscillations
N

Switch
422 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

A bar magnet is supported from a spring. It is displaced and allowed

to oscillate vertically, while the switch is left open. An alternating induced
emf is created in the coil, but there are no induced currents because there
is not a complete circuit. The oscillations are undamped (apart from air
resistance,etc.) and the magnet oscillates for a long time.
When the switch is closed, the induced emf causes alternating currents
in the coil. By Lenz’s law these currents flow in a direction that opposes
the change that caused them. As the North Pole approaches the top of the
coil, the current moves in such a direction that the top of the coil is also a
north pole, repelling the magnet. When the magnet moves away from the
coil, the induced currents form a south pole at the top of the coil, attracting
the magnet. It is clear that the electromagnetic forces act in the opposite
direction to the motion, like friction, and provide additional damping. The
oscillations decay more rapidly with the switch closed.
Another simple demonstration involves placing a cylindrical neodymium
magnet on a thick sheet of aluminum or copper and then tipping the sheet
until the magnet slides down. Aluminum and copper are not ferromagnetic
metals, so when the magnet is stationary, there are no magnetic forces acting
on it. However, when it begins to move, the magnetic flux cuts through the

Copper
pipe FEM

Neodymium
v
magnet

mg N

As magnet falls, its flux cuts the conductor surrounding it. This induces
current loops above and below the falling magnet. These create magnetic
fields that oppose the magnet’s motion.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION • 423

conductor inducing emfs. The induced emfs create current loops and the
magnetic fields of these loops oppose the motion of the magnet. There is a
magnetic drag force that slows the magnet down. This can be a surprisingly
large effect if the metal sheet is titled at a large angle.
Another intriguing demonstration involves dropping a cylindrical
neodymium magnet down a copper water pipe with an internal diameter
slightly greater than the diameter of the magnet. The magnet falls at a slow
terminal velocity. Electromagnetic damping forces balance its weight.

21.7 Induction Motors

Electromagnetic damping exerts a damping force on a magnet when
it moves past a conductor. By Newton’s third law there is an equal and
opposite force on the conductor. This can be used to create a motor. If you
move a neodymium magnet rapidly past a thin sheet of non-ferromagnetic
metal (e.g., copper or aluminum), the sheet will begin to accelerate in the
direction of the moving magnet.

Motion of magnet
F

The moving magnetic field induces emfs in the metal that create current
loops. By Lenz’s law these create magnetic fields that oppose the relative
motion, resulting in the forces on the magnet and conductor as shown
above. The effect is that the conductor tends to follow the moving magnetic
field.
In an induction motor, coils are used to create a rotating magnetic field.
A non-ferromagnetic rotor is placed in the rotating field and it too rotates.
This has the big advantage that there are no brushes. The idea was first
suggested by Nikola Tesla, and induction motors are now widely used from
DVD players to electric cars.
A rotating magnetic field can be created by superposing two alternating
magnetic fields at right angles to one another and giving them a phase
difference of /2. If we represent each magnetic field by a phasor, then the
resultant of the two phasors represents the rotating field.
424 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

B
By

θ
Bx

Bx  B0 cos t

By  B0 sin t

Resultant magnetic field strength is:

B  Bx2  By2  B0 cos2 t sin 2 t  B0

The direction of the magnetic field is:
 By 
  tan1  tan1  tan t   t
 Bx 
In other words, this creates a magnetic field of constant strength B that
rotates with constant angular velocity . A simple way to create such a field
is to use two pairs of coils arranged as shown below:

Rotor

Vy = V0 sin ωt

Vx = V0 cos ωt
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION • 425

21.8 Exercises

1. The diagram below shows a bar magnet and a coil.

Bar magnet S
moved along
dotted line
N

Coil G

While the magnet is moving toward the coil, the galvanometer deflects
to the right.
(a) Explain why this occurs.
(b) State and explain, using Faraday’s law, what happens when:
(i) the magnet is moved toward the coil at a higher speed
(ii) the magnet is moved away from the coil
(iii) the magnet is stationary inside the coil
(c) The experiment is repeated but with the galvanometer removed
so that the ends of the coil are not connected to anything. Discuss
whether the motion of the magnet near the coil has any effect now.
2. The Earth’s field has a strength of about 50 mT. A square coil of side
20 cm having 200 turns is placed so that its plane is perpendicular to the
Earth’s field. The coil has a total resistance of 50 ohms.
(a) Calculate the flux through the coil.
(b) Calculate the flux linkage through the coil.
(c) The coil is quickly turned (about an axis in the plane of the coil
perpendicular to the field) through 90° so that its plane is now
parallel to the Earth’s field. It takes 0.50 s to complete the rotation.
Explain why there is a current in the coil as it rotates.
(d) Calculate the average current as the coil is rotated.
(e) Calculate the charge that has moved around the coil during the
process.
426 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(f) How (if at all) would your answers to parts (d) and (e) be affected if
the coil was turned through 90° in 0.10 s instead of 0.50 s? Explain.
3. When a strong magnet is dropped through a copper tube, it falls at a
constant velocity. Use your knowledge of electromagnetism to explain
this as fully as you can. Use diagrams if this helps.
4. An aircraft is flying through due north at 200 ms1 in a place where the
vertical component of the Earth’s magnetic field is 40 mT. Its wingspan
is 50 m and its wings are made of a conducting material.
(a) Explain why there is a potential difference between its wing tips.
(b) Calculate the potential difference between its wing tips.
(c) Discuss whether the voltage generated could be used to power an
electrical device using wires connected to each wing tip.
5. (a) Draw a labeled diagram of a transformer that could step down a
main supply of 240 V 50 Hz A.C. to 20 V 50 Hz A.C. The primary coil
has 1200 turns.
(b) Explain how the transformer works.
(c) Explain the function of the core and explain why soft iron is a
suitable material for it.
(d) Explain how laminating the core reduces energy loss from the
transformer.
(e) Transformers are very efficient, but there are still losses. State three
ways in which energy can be dissipated by a transformer.
(f) A 20 V, 40 W lamp is connected to the secondary of the transformer.
Calculate the current drawn from the primary (assume that the
efficiency is 100% and neglect inductive effects).
(g) Sketch a graph to show how the voltage in the secondary coil is
related to the flux in the core. Explain how the graph illustrates both
Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws.
6. A coil with inductance and resistance is connected via a switch to a
power supply of 1.0 V. The graph below shows how the current in the
coil increases with time from the moment the switch is closed.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION • 427

2.5

1.5
Current/A

0.5

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time/s

(a) Use the graph to calculate the inductance and resistance of the coil.
(b) Calculate the energy stored when there is a current of 2.0 A in the
coil.
(c) When the switch is opened, a spark is observed to jump across its
contacts. Explain why this occurs.
7. The diagram below shows an end view of a simple generator consisting
of a coil rotating at a constant rate in a uniform magnetic field. The A.C.
output is connected via slip rings to a purely resistive load. South
North
428 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Here is some data about the generator:

Magnetic field strength : 0.12 T
Area of coil : 80 cm2
Number of turns on coil : 250
Rotation frequency : 60 Hz
Load resistance : 50 W
(a) Calculate the peak output emf.
(b) Sketch a graph to show how the output emf varies with time as the
coil completes one rotation.
(c) Calculate the peak current in the load.
(d) Calculate the peak power transferred to the load (assume that the
resistance of the coil is negligible).
(e) Discuss how your answers to (b), (c), and (d) would be affected if
the resistance of the coil was not negligible.
 CHAPTER

22
ALTERNATING CURRENT

22.1 A.C. and D.C.

D.C. stands for “direct current”and A.C. stands for “alternating current.”
D.C. flows in one direction around a circuit, so the supply polarity is
constant. A.C. changes direction periodically, so the polarity of the supply
alternates. Most A.C. supplies are sinusoidal and can be represented by:
V  V0 sin t
I  I0 sin t
Voltage or
current
T = 2π/ω
V0 or I0

0 Time
0
430 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

22.1.1 A.C. Power and RMS Values

The instantaneous power of an A.C. supply is given by P  IV and varies
throughout each cycle:
P  IV  I0 V0 sin 2 t
Power
T = 2π/ω
I0V0

½ I0V0

Time
0
0

The power is always positive and peaks twice as frequently as the current
or voltage. The peak power is I0V0, and the average value of the power is
½ I0V0.
This can be shown using the trigonometric relation:
1 1
sin 2 A   cos2 A
2 2
2 1 1
sin t   cos2 t
2 2
The average value of a cosine term over a whole number of cycles is zero,so
the average of a sine-squared term is ½.
The average A.C. power is, therefore,
1
PAC  I0 V0
2
The rms values of current and voltage (for sinusoidal variation) are:
I
Irms  0
2
V0
Vrms 
2
So the average A.C. power is:
PAC  Irms Vrms
By using the rms values instead of peak values, we can express the formula
for average A.C. power in the same way as we express the formula for D.C.
power. This means that an A.C. supply voltage of 240 V rms would light
a lamp to the same brightness as a D.C. supply of constant value 240 V.
 ALTERNATING CURRENT • 431

In this sense the rms value is the “D.C. equivalent” value. However, an
A.C. voltage of 240 V rms actually peaks at 339 V. We can show where the
factor of 1/ 2 comes from:
V  V0 sin t
V 2  V02 sin 2 t
1
V 2  V02 sin 2 t  V02
2
V0
Vrms  V 2  V02 sin 2 t 
2
A.C. meters are usually calibrated to give rms values.

22.2 Resistance and Reactance

While current and voltage in a resistor are always in phase, this is not the
case for capacitors or inductors. These components introduce a phase
difference between the current and voltage, so it is not possible to define
resistance in the same way as for a resistor.

22.2.1 Resistors in A.C. Circuits

The relationship between current and voltage for a pure resistance is
defined by:
V
R
I
So if V  V0 sin t,
V sin t V0
R 0 
I0 sin t I0
The resistance is constant and independent of the frequency of A.C. The
current and voltage are in phase with each other, and the average power
dissipated by the resistor is:
Vrms 2
P  Irms Vrms  Irms 2 R
R
22.2.2 Capacitors in A.C. Circuits
The situation is different for a capacitor. The equation that defines the
relationship between current and voltage for a capacitor derives from the
defining equation for capacitance:
Q  CV
dQ dV
I C
dt dt
432 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

So the current depends on the derivative of the voltage:

V  V0 sin t
I  CV0 cos t  I0 cos t
I0  CV0  2 fCV0
This introduces a /2 phase difference between the voltage and the current
with the current leading the voltage.

Current in
I0 capacitor

Voltage
across
V0
capacitor

0 Time
0

The ratio of V/I is of little use because it varies continuously (being zero at
some points and infinite at others). However, the ratio of the peak values
of voltage and current is constant;this is the reactance C(“kie-cee”) of the
capacitor.
V 1 1
C  0  
I0 C 2 fC
The S.I. unit of reactance is , but reactance is not the same as resistance
because the peak values occur at different times.
Reactance can be used to find the peak or rms current in a capacitor if
we know the peak or rms A.C. voltage across it. However, the interesting
thing about reactance is its frequency dependence.
1
C 
f
At low frequencies the reactance is high, becoming infinite at f  0 (i.e.,
for D.C.). This makes sense because the capacitor is actually a break in the
circuit so no D.C. can pass through it. At high frequencies the reactance
 ALTERNATING CURRENT • 433

becomes very small, so high-frequency signals can pass through a capacitor

almost unimpeded. Capacitors (and inductors) are used in circuits designed
to filter out or separate high or low frequencies.
It is also interesting to consider the energy flow when a capacitor is
connected to A.C.
1
P  IV  I0 V0 cos t sin t  sin 2 t
2
The average value of a sine over an integer number of cycles is zero, so the
average power delivered to the capacitor during one cycle of A.C. is also
zero. For half the time, energy flows from the supply to the capacitor (as
it charges); and for the other half, energy flows from the capacitor back to
the supply (as it discharges). There is no net energy flow onto the capacitor.
22.2.3 Inductors in A.C. Circuits
The equation that defines the relationship between current and voltage for
an inductor derives from the defining equation for inductance:
dI
V  L
dt
E is the back emf in the inductor, which opposes the supply voltage V,
hence the change of sign.
If the current is I  I0 cos t:
V LI0 sin t  V0 sin t
V0 LI0
Once again there is a /2 phase difference, but this time the voltage leads
the current by /2.

I0
Current in
inductor

V0

Time
Voltage
across
inductor
434 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The reactance L(“kie-ell”) of the inductor is defined as the ratio of peak

voltage to peak current:
V
 L  0  L  2 fL
I0
This is also measured in  and is frequency-dependent. At low frequencies
the inductor has very low reactance; low-frequency signals pass through an
inductor easily. At high frequencies the reactance becomes very great so that
high-frequency signals are severely impeded. This frequency dependence
is the opposite of that for the capacitor.
In common with the capacitor, however, there is no net energy flow
into the inductor. During one cycle, energy is used to build up the magnetic
flux in the inductor, but then energy flows out of the inductor as the field
collapses.
In practice inductors consist of coils of conducting wire that has some
resistance, so we do not usually encounter pure inductance. A real inductor
is modeled as a pure inductor in series with a fixed resistor:

L R

22.3 Resistance, Reactance, and Impedance

Resistors, capacitors, and inductors all respond differently to A.C. signals.
The reason for this is that while current and voltage are in phase in a
resistor, current leads voltage by /2 in a capacitor and lags behind the
voltage by /2 in an inductor. To determine the relationship between the
supply voltage and the voltages across individual circuit components, we
must consider their relative phases.

22.3.1 Phasor Diagrams for A.C. Series Circuits

The simplest way to include relative phases is to use a phasor diagram. The
phasors representing voltages across a resistor VR, capacitor VC, and inductor
VL connected in series are shown below (phasors rotate counterclockwise
and current is used as the reference because it is the same in all components
in a series circuit). The lengths of phasors representing VC and VL will vary
with frequency.
 ALTERNATING CURRENT • 435

VL = IXL

VR = IR
I

VC = IXC

The supply voltage is equal to the sum of the phasors across the three
components.
22.3.2 Impedance
The impedance Z of a load that contains resistive, capacitive, and inductive
components is defined as the ratio of the peak voltage across the load to the
peak current in the load:
V
Z 0
I0
and is measured in .
For a series circuit V0 is found by adding the voltage phasors for the
components, and except in special cases, the voltage and current in the
circuit are not in phase, so the peak voltage and peak current occur at
different times. The general expression for the impedance of a series A.C.
circuit containing all three types of components is derived below:
VL = IXL
VC = IXC
VR = IR

VS
φ
I

Pythagoras’ theorem can be used to find the magnitude of VS:

VS  VR2  VL2  VC2  I R 2  2L  C2
and the impedance is:
2
VS 2  1 
Z  R 2  2L  C2  R 2  L   
I  C 
The phase angle  is given by:
V  VC  L  C
tan  L 
VR R
436 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

For particular values of L and C, VL and VC are equal in magnitude and

add to zero (because they are  out of phase with each other). Under these
circumstances, the phase angle is 0 and the impedance is a minimum and
purely resistive: the current has a maximum value and is in phase with the
supply voltage. This is called resonance; and if resistance is small, it can
result in a large increase in current.
The only component that dissipates energy is the resistor, so the power
dissipated in this circuit is:
P  IVR  IVS cos 

cos  is called the “power factor” for the circuit.

22.4 A.C. Series Circuits

A.C. electric circuits containing resistors, capacitors, and inductors have
interesting frequency-dependent behavior. Some circuits can be made to
oscillate and resonate at particular frequencies. These tuned circuits are
extremely important in communications systems.
In series circuits, the amplitude and phase of the current through each
component is the same, but the voltage can vary both in amplitude and
phase.
22.4.1 RC Series Circuit
The behavior of an RC series circuit is quite straightforward. As frequency is
increased, the reactance of the capacitor falls, so VC also falls. This reduces
the impedance of the circuit and reduces the phase difference between
the supply voltage and the current. The amplitude of A.C. rises toward
a maximum value determined only by the resistance, Imax  VS/R. At high
frequencies, the circuit behaves as if it is purely resistive and the supply
voltage is in phase with the circuit current.
VS

A.C.

R C

VR VC
 ALTERNATING CURRENT • 437

VR = I R
I
φ

VC = IXC VS

VS  VR2  VC2  I R 2  C2

VS  1 2
Z  R 2  XC2  R 2  
I  2 fC 
C 1
tan  
R 2 fRC
22.4.2 RL Series Circuit
The behavior of an RL series circuit is also straightforward. As frequency
is increased, the reactance of the inductor increases, so VL, the circuit
impedance, and the phase difference between the supply voltage and the
current also increase, and the amplitude of the A.C. falls toward zero. The
maximum current is approached at low frequencies. In D.C., limit Imax 
VS/R and the supply voltage and current are in phase.
VS

A.C.

R L

VR VL

VL = IXL VS

φ VR = IR
I

VS  VR2  VL2  I R 2  X L2
VS 2
Z  R 2  X L2  R 2 2 fL 
I
 L
tan   C 
R 2 fR
438 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

22.4.3 RCL Series Circuit

In an RCL series circuit, the frequency dependence of the capacitor
reactance and inductor reactance oppose one another—as frequency
increases, the reactance of the capacitor falls and the reactance of the
inductor rises. This leads to resonance behavior at the frequency when they
are equal.
VS

A.C.

C
R

VR VC VL

VL = IXL

VS

φ
I
VR = I R

VC = IXC

Previously we derived expressions for the impedance and phase of an RCL

circuit:
2
VS 2  1 
Z  R 2  X L2  XC2  R 2  L   
I  C 
The phase angle  is given by:
V  VC X L  XC
tan  L 
VR R
Resonance occurs at a frequency f0 when the reactance of the capacitor is
equal to the reactance of the inductor.
X L  XC
1
L 
C
 ALTERNATING CURRENT • 439

1
2 f0 L 
2 f0C
1 1
f0 
2ð LC

At this frequency the current in the circuit has its maximum value:
VS
Imax 
R
The circuit acts as a purely resistive load, and the current and supply voltage
are in phase.
The graph below indicates how the resistance, impedance, and circuit
current vary with frequency for an RCL series circuit.
Resistance
Impedance Impedance
Current

Resistance

0
0 f = f0 Frequency

For f < f0 the reactance of the capacitor is greater than that of the inductor,
and the circuit is said to be capacitive. For f > f0 the reactance of the inductor
is greater than that of the capacitor and the circuit is said to be inductive.

22.4.4 Parallel Circuits Containing Resistors, Capacitors, and Inductors

The analysis of parallel circuits follows a similar procedure to the analysis
of series circuits. However, the voltage across each component is now in
phase and can be used as a reference phasor. The current in the resistor is
in phase with the voltage; the current in the capacitor leads by /2; and the
current in the inductor lags by /2.
440 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

VS

A.C.

IR

IC

IL

IC = VS/XC

IR = VS/R
VS

IL = VS/XL

A voltage resonance occurs when L  C when the circuit behaves as a

purely resistive load and the impedance is R. The resonant frequency is
again f0:
1 1
f0 
2 LC

At resonance the currents in the capacitor and inductor are equal in

magnitude but opposite in direction at every moment.

22.5 Electric Oscillators

A simple oscillator circuit can be constructed from a capacitor and an
inductor as shown below. If the capacitor is charged from the D.C. supply
and then connected across the inductor, currents in the circuit undergo a
series of oscillations.
 ALTERNATING CURRENT • 441

C L

When the capacitor is connected to the inductor, the voltages across them
must be equal, so that:
Q dI
L
C dt
Since I  dQ/dt we can form a second-order differential equation for Q and t:
Q d 2Q
L 2
C dt
d 2Q  1 
 Q
dt 2  LC 
This equation has exactly the same form as the equation of motion for
simple harmonic motion, so the solutions will have the same form too:
Q  Q0 sin t

where
1

LC
The charge on the capacitor oscillates with a frequency,
1 1
f
2  LC
which is the same as the resonant frequency for an RCL circuit.
The voltage across the capacitor oscillates at the same frequency:
Q0
VC  sin t
C
and the current is
dQ
I  Q0 cos t
dt
442 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

In practice it is not possible to connect a capacitor to a perfect inductor.

There is always some resistance in the circuit, so energy is dissipated as
the oscillations occur. This leads to damping. The rate of decay of the
amplitude of the oscillations depends on the resistance in the circuit; the
more resistance, the greater the rate of decay.

22.5.1 Mechanical Analogy

The equations for electrical oscillations have the same form as those for the
oscillation of a mass on a spring.
Compare the equations for electrical and mechanical oscillations:
d 2Q  1 
2  LC Q
dt  
d2 x k
 x
dt 2 m
This identity of mathematic form allows us to make an analogy between
mechanical oscillators and electrical oscillators using the following
correspondences:
Mass spring oscillator LCR electrical oscillator
Charge, Q Displacement, x
Current, dQ/dt Velocity, dx/dt
Mass (inertia), m Inductor, L
Spring constant, k Inverse capacitance, 1/C

Analogies like this occur all over physics. They help us understand new
phenomena in terms of ones we are already familiar with, but they are also
useful in their own right. For example, this correspondence between the
mechanical and the electrical means that we can model mechanical systems
using electrical circuits—e.g., to test new designs for structures.

22.6 Exercises

1. (a) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using D.C. batteries

compared to A.C. mains as sources of electrical energy.
(b) Explain the advantages of using A.C. for long-distance transmission
of electricity.
 ALTERNATING CURRENT • 443

2. The diagram below enables the same lamp to be connected to either a

D.C. or an A.C. supply.
S

20 V D.C. Variable A.C.

The A.C. supply is adjusted until the lamp lights equally brightly from
both supplies.
(a) Calculate the peak value of the rms voltage.
(b) State the rms value of the A.C. voltage.
(c) Discuss whether the lifetime of the bulb (a filament lamp) will
depend on the type of supply used to light it.
3. Copy and complete the table below by adding resistance or reactance
values at each frequency:
Component/frequency 0 Hz (D.C.) 100 Hz 1000 Hz 10,000 Hz
100  resistor
100 F capacitor
100 H inductor
4. The circuit below contains a resistor and an inductor.
16 V rms

A.C.

22 Ω 6.5 mH

IR IL

The frequency of the A.C. supply is 1000 Hz.

(a) Calculate the impedance of the circuit.
(b) Calculate the rms current in the circuit.
444 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(c) Calculate the peak voltage across the inductor.

(d) Calculate the power dissipated by the resistor.
(e) Explain why no power is dissipated by the inductor.
(f) Calculate the phase difference between the supply voltage and the
current.
5. The circuit below has a resistor, a capacitor, and an inductor connected
in series.
12 V rms

A.C.

10 Ω 22 µF 50 µH

VR VC VL

(a) Calculate the impedance of the circuit at 0 Hz, 1.0 kHz, 5.0 Hz,
10 kHz, and 100 kHz.
(b) Explain what is meant by resonance and calculate the resonant
frequency for this circuit.
(c) Sketch a graph to show how the rms current varies with frequency
from 0 to 100,000 Hz.
(d) Sketch a graph to show how the phase difference between the
supply voltage and the current varies as the frequency changes from
0 to 100,000 Hz.
(e) Describe the energy transfers that take place in the circuit at
resonance.
 CHAPTER

23
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

23.1 Gravitational Forces and Gravitational Field Strength

Gravity is one of the four fundamental forces. It has infinite range and obeys
a similar inverse-square law to electrostatics. All masses create gravitational
fields, but, unlike the electrostatic forces between charges, which can
be attractive or repulsive, gravitational forces are always attractive. The
gravitational force acting on a mass close to the surface of the Earth is called
weight.

23.1.1 Newton’s Law of Gravitation

Newton stated that two point masses would exert an attractive force on
each other that is directly proportional to the product of the masses and
inversely proportional to their separation.
m1 F F m2
r

Gm1 m2
F 
r2
The minus sign indicates attraction.
G is the universal constant of gravitation, G  6.674 1011 Nm2kg2.
Newton was also able to show that the force of attraction between
spheres of uniform density is the same as the attraction between two point
masses placed at their centers. This means that we can treat object like
446 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

planets and stars as point masses when considering orbital motion. It is also
important to note that, by Newton’s third law, the forces on each mass have
the same magnitude, even if the masses are different. For example, the
weight of an apple in the Earth’s gravitational field is the same as the weight
of the Earth in the apple’s gravitational field. It is also the case that the
gravitational force exerted on the Earth by the Moon is equal in magnitude
to the gravitational force exerted on the Moon by the Earth.
The resultant gravitational force on a body affected by the gravitational
fields of several other objects (e.g., the Earth affected by the Sun, Moon,
and other planets) is the vector sum of the gravitational forces from each of
the other objects.

23.1.2 Gravitational Field Strength

The idea that gravitational forces arise from a gravitational field removes
the difficulty of an action-at-a-distance explanation. The Moon is attracted
to the earth because it experiences a force from the gravitational field where
it is, i.e., a local force.
The gravitational field strength g at a point in space is defined as the
gravitational force per unit mass at that point.
gravitational force F
g 
mass m
The S.I. unit of gravitational field strength is Nkg1.
For a point or uniform spherical mass, the field strength at a distance r
from the center of mass M can be determined by considering the force per
unit mass acting on a small mass m placed at that distance:
F GM
g   2
m r
This is an inverse-square law.

M
 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD • 447

The gravitational field can be represented using field lines in a similar

way to the electric field.
The fact that this is an inverse-square law and gravitational field lines
can only begin on masses allows us to create a form of Gauss’s theorem for
the gravitational field.
Gravitational flux through a surface is defined as:
G   g.dA 4 G m
closed enclosed
surface
Outer Outer Gaussian surface
encloses mass M, so by symmetry:
4 r12 g 4 GM
GM
g 
r12

r1
Uniform spherical shell of
mass M
r2
Inner Gaussian surface encloses
no mass, so by symmetry:
4 r12 g  0
g0

The negative sign again arises because of the attractive nature of the
gravitational field; the flux entering through a closed surface is equal to
4G times the total mass enclosed by the surface. In the same way as in
electrostatics, this form of Gauss’s law is particularly useful for situations
with spherical symmetry. For example, we can use it to show that the
gravitational field strength inside a hollow uniform spherical shell is zero
everywhere.

23.1.3 Gravitational Field Strength of the Earth

We will model the Earth as a spherical mass of uniform density. This is
not strictly correct—the Earth is actually an oblate spheroid, with a larger
equatorial diameter than polar diameter and its density increases toward
its core. However, this simple model is useful to give an idea of how the
Earth’s field varies outside and inside its surface. Assume that the Earth has
mass ME and radius RE and uniform density .
448 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The field outside the surface is that of a point mass ME located at the
center of the Earth:
GM
g(r  RE )  2 E
r
We can determine an expression for the field strength inside the earth
by recalling that the field strength inside a hollow sphere is zero. This
implies that the field strength at distance r < RE from the Earth’s center is
that of the mass inside radius r.

The gravitational field strength

RE r P at P is created by the mass
contained inside the spherical
surface of radius r

Mass inside radius r is:

4
m  r 3 
3
ME

4
R 3
3 E
4 ME r3
m  r 3   3 ME
3 4
R 3 RE
3 E
GM r
g  r  RE   3E
RE
The magnitude of g is zero at the center of the Earth and increases linearly
to the surface. The gravitational field strength at the Earth’s surface is:
GM
gsurface  2E
RE
This is about 9.8 Nkg1 although it varies by a small percentage at different
locations.
In many situations on Earth we assume that g is constant. This is a
realistic assumption when vertical heights h are much smaller than the
radius of the Earth. When this is not the case, we must use the inverse-
square law. However, even at the height of the Hubble space telescope
 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD • 449

g
r = RE
r
0

GME
gsurface = −
RE2

(559 km) the gravitational field strength is about 8.2 Nkg1, i.e., over 80%
of its surface value. The apparent weightlessness of astronauts inside an
orbiting spacecraft is not due to g being zero—it isn’t. They are in free fall
with the same acceleration as their spacecraft, so they do not experience a
reaction force to their own weight. The very fact that they are orbiting is
because of their weight!
23.2 Gravitational Potential Energy and Gravitational Potential
Gravitational potential energy is the energy a body has because of its position
in the gravitational field. When it is moved from one position to another,
energy is either transferred to or from gravitational potential energy. For
example, lifting a case from the floor and placing it on a table requires an
external agent to apply an upward force and to move this force; so work is
done on the case and its gravitational potential energy increases.
If an apple falls from a tree to the ground, a gravitational force (its
weight) acts on the apple and does work on it, so its gravitational potential
energy decreases.
23.2.1 Change in Gravitational Potential Energy
Consider a particle of mass m moving from point A to B in a gravitational
field as shown below.

A mg
m
θ
δx

The work done by the gravitational field to move it a short distance x along
the line AB is:
W  mg cos x
450 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

So the total work done is:

B
WAB  mg.dx
A
where mg.dx is the scalar product of the two vectors mg and x, i.e., the
sum of the component of the gravitational force in the direction of motion
along each line element. The gravitational forces do work on the particle, so
its gravitational potential energy falls:
B
GPEAB  mg.dx 
A
The differential form of this equation is:
dGPEAB
mg
dx
The rate of change of gravitational potential energy with distance is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to the gravitational force

Uniform gravitational field

Changes of gravitational potential energy in a uniform field of strength g
provide a simple (and familiar) formula.
m

θ h
x
B


GPE AB  m g.dx  mgx cos  mgh
A
While this is only exact when g is constant, it is a good approximation for
vertical displacements close to the surface of the Earth that are small
compared to the radius of the Earth.

23.2.2 Gravitational Potential

The gravitational potential VG at a point in the field is equal to the
gravitational potential energy per unit mass at that point.
GPE
VG 
m
The S.I. unit of gravitational potential is Jkg1.
 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD • 451

Q The zero of gravitational potential is taken to be at infinity.

This is the same convention used to define the zero of electrical potential,
and it makes sense because when particles are separated by very large
distances, their interactions, under an inverse-square law, become
negligible. Once we have defined the zero of potential, we can determine
the absolute potential (and potential energy) at any point. This is equal
to the work that must be done per unit mass to move a small mass from
infinity and to place it at point P.
Gravitational potential at P a distance r from a point or uniform
spherical mass M
A small mass m is moved from infinity and placed a distance r from a
mass M.

M P mg m x
To infinity

r
δx

The change in gravitational potential energy of the small mass is:

xr
GPE  GPE()GPE(r)   mg.dx
x
where
GM
g 
x2
x
 
GPE  GPE()GPE(r)   m GM
x
dx 

GMm
2
r
xr
GMm
GPE(r ) =
r
GPE(r ) GM
VG  r   
m r
All gravitational potential energies are negative because work would have to
be done to move any mass to infinity. This is a consequence of the attractive
nature of gravitational forces.

23.2.3 Gravitational Field Lines and Equipotentials

When a mass moves in a direction perpendicular to the lines of the
gravitational field, the component of gravitational field in the direction of
motion is zero, so no work is done on or by the gravitational field. The
452 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

gravitational potential energy of the mass is constant and it is moving along

a gravitational equipotential. For a point or uniform spherical mass, the
equipotentials are concentric spherical surfaces.
The field lines are perpendicular to the equipotentials.
Equipotential surfaces for a
point or uniform spherical mass.
For equal increases in potential,
the separation of the surfaces
increases with radius. This is
M because the field strength is
decreasing with radius.

Close to the surface of the Earth the gravitational field is approximately

uniform. The equipotentials are planar surfaces parallel to the surface of
the Earth and are equally spaced.
Equipotential

Increasing
Surface of Earth: potential
VG∼− 6.3 × 10−7 Jkg−1

23.2.4 Gravitational Potential Energy in the Earth’s Field

The gravitational potential at the Earth’s surface is:
GM
VG  RE   6.25107 Jkg1
RE
The change in potential energy when a mass is moved from one place (A) to
another (B) in the field is given by:
GPE(AB)  mVG  m  VG  B VG  A
Consider a mass m moved through a vertical height h from the surface of
the Earth:
 GM GM   GM GM 
GPE(AB)  mVG  m 
 R  h   m 
 R  h R 
 
 E
RE   E

E 
 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD • 453

This can be simplified to:

GMmh
GPE(AB) 
RE  RE  h 
When h << RE this becomes:
GMmh
GPE(AB)   mgh
RE 2
This is a familiar result for situations where g is constant.
As h  :
GMm
GPE( AB) →
RE
This is equal to the work that must be done against gravitational forces to
move a mass m from the surface of the Earth to infinity, i.e., to completely
escape from the Earth’s field.

23.2.5 Escape Velocity

The escape velocity is the minimum initial velocity required for a body
projected from the surface of a planet or star to escape from the gravitational
field. In order to escape, the total energy of the projectile must be positive.

M
v
r

Total energy at surface, TE  KE  GPE

1 GMm
TE = mv2  0
2 r
The escape velocity is therefore given by:
1 GMm
mv 2  0
2 esc r
2GM
vesc 
r
Note that this is independent of the mass m of the projectile.
The escape velocity from the surface of the Earth is:
2GME
vesc   1.12 10 4 ms1
RE
454 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Black holes
The speed of light is a limiting speed in the universe, so if the escape
velocity reaches this value, then nothing—not even light—can escape.
Black holes are objects that are sufficiently massive and compact that the
escape velocity at a certain distance from the object is equal to the speed of
light. This distance is called the Schwarzschild radius, and while a thorough
analysis of black holes requires general relativity, it is possible to derive
some useful results from Newton’s law of gravitation.
Consider a black hole of mass M. At a certain distance from the center,
called the Schwarzschild radius RS, the escape velocity is equal to the
speed of light, c.
2GM
vesc  c 
RS
2GM
RS 
c2
Another way to look at this is to realize that a body of mass M will become
a black hole if all of its mass is compressed inside its Schwarzschild radius,
RS. For the Earth to become a black hole this radius is just under 1 cm! The
Earth would have to be compressed to the size of a table tennis ball!
A sphere of radius RS surrounding the black hole is called the event
horizon. This is because no events inside this radius can communicate with
the outside Universe. In a sense everything inside the event horizon has
been cut off from the rest of the Universe.

23.3 Orbital Motion

Newtonrealized that circular motion requires a centripetal force and
suggested that if an object was projected horizontally at a high enough
speed (and drag was negligible) then the object would go into orbital motion
around the Earth.
Newton derived his inverse-square law of gravitation by analyzing the
motion of the Moon. He argued that the gravitational force of attraction
to the Earth provides a centripetal force so that the Moon is in free fall.
2
However, the centripetal acceleration of the Moon is about 1/RE times
smaller than the free fall acceleration (9.8 ms2) of a mass dropped near the
surface of the Earth, so if both objects fall because of the Earth’s gravity,
its strength must get weaker with distance and obey an inverse-square law.
 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD • 455

Objects projected horizontally from a

point above the Earth’s surface

Earth

Newton’s law of gravitation was published in Principia Mathematica in

1687 and provided astronomers and physicists with the mathematical tools
to explain the motions of objects in the solar system and beyond. It is hard
to overemphasize the importance of this work; it provided a single elegant
explanation for motions across the universe. In our own solar system it
explained the motions of all the planets and other bodies (such as comets
and asteroids) using a single principle.

23.3.1 Early Ideas about Planetary Motion

The planets have been observed and identified since ancient times because
they move against the background of “fixed stars.” In many cultures the
ability to predict their motions and interpret their meaning held great
political and religious significance so that kings and emperors were prepared
to support astronomers and astrologers.
The ancient Greeks proposed several models to explain their
observations of planetary motion, but the most influential was Aristotle’s
geocentric (Earth-centric) model. This was developed by Ptolemy and
became the basis for astronomical and astrological predictions for nearly
2000 years. The Ptolemaic system placed the Earth at the center of the
universe with the Sun, Moon, and planets moving around it. The fixed
stars were embedded in a crystal sphere surrounding the solar system. The
details of the Ptolemaic system were refined over the years, and while it was
physically incorrect it was still useful. The real problem with the Ptolemaic
456 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

system was the fact that it did not explain the motions of the planets; each
planet’s motion had to be set up independently of the others, so there was
no simple unifying principle for the system.
In 1542, Nicolaus Copernicus published his De Revolutionibus Orbium
Coelestiium(“On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres”) in which he
argued that planetary motions could be explained more simply by assuming
that the Sun was at the center of the system (a heliocentric model). This
idea was controversial because it moved the Earth from the center of the
universe and conflicted with contemporary religious views about the nature
of the universe.
Johannes Kepler was a German mathematician and astronomer and
strong proponent of Copernicus’s heliocentric model. Kepler used the
detailed astronomical observations of the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe
to develop three laws of planetary motion. He replaced the complex cycles
and epicycles of Ptolemy and Copernicus with elliptical orbits. The fact that
all of the planets could then be described by the same mathematical laws
suggested that there was an as-yet-undiscovered law that governed all of
their motions.

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

Q All of the planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus of
the ellipse.
Q A line drawn from the planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal
times.
Q The ratio r3/T2 is the same for all planets.
r is the mean orbital radius and T is the period of the orbit.
Galileo Galilei used the newly invented telescope to make astronomical
observations. In particular he discovered four moons of Jupiter. This was
powerful evidence to suggest that the Earth is not the center of all orbital
motion in the solar system. He was a strong supporter of the Copernican
model, and Galileo’s ideas in astronomy and physics were powerful
influences on Newton.
When Newton published his theory of gravitation, he was able to show
that an inverse-square law led to elliptical orbits and could be used to
explain and derive all of Kepler’s laws. For the first time there was a single
simple theory that could explain planetary motions (and much more).
 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD • 457

Perihelion: Aphelion:
closest point to farthest point
Sun, greatest from Sun,
orbital speed lowest or bital
speed

Equal areas in equal times—

speed is greater when planet is
closer to Sun
23.3.2 Circular Orbits
A full mathematical analysis of elliptical orbits is beyond the scope of
this book. However, most planetary orbits and many satellite orbits are
approximately circular, so we will use Newton’s law to analyze circular
orbits. Gravity provides a centripetal force for circular motion.
Assume that the central body has a much greater mass than the orbiting
body so that the motion of that central body can be neglected. The center
of the orbit is then the center of the central mass (in fact both objects orbit
about their mutual center of mass).
v
m

GMm
F=
r2
M

mv2 GMm
 2
r r
2 r
v
T
3
r GM
2 
T 4 2
458 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

This is Kepler’s third law. Note that it is independent of m, so any body

in a circular orbit of radius r about the same central mass will orbit with
the same period. This law applies for any central body; all that changes is
the constant GM/42, which depends on the mass of the central body. For
example, all of Jupiter’s moons have the same ratio of r3 to T2 as each other,
but this is different to the ratio for the planets around the Sun. All Earth
satellites will also have the same ratio of r3 to T2 as the Earth’s Moon.
The total energy of an orbiting body is constant. This is because gravity
is a conservative field. When an object moves from one place to another (in
the absence of any frictional forces), energy is transferred between potential
and kinetic. For a circular orbit, both values are constant.
1 GMm
Total energy  KE+GPE  mv2  2
2 r
2
mv GMm
 2
r r
So
1 GMm 1
KE  mv2   GPE
2 2r 2
GMm GMm GMm
TE   
2r 2 rr 2r
The total energy is negative. This makes sense because an orbiting mass is
in a bound state. It would require an external agent to do work to remove
the mass to infinity.

23.3.3 Artificial Satellites

The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1 launched by the Soviet Union in
1957. It moved in a slightly elliptical orbit at an altitude that varied between
200 and 900 km. Its orbital period was 96 minutes. In 2016 there are over
1000 operational satellites in orbit around the Earth; more than half of
which were launched by the USA.
Orbital period of an artificial satellite is determined by its orbital radius:
r 3 GM

T 2 4 2
4 2 r 3
T
GM
T  r 3/2
Satellites in low Earth orbits, like Sputnik, have periods of about 90 minutes.
Low Earth polar orbits are useful for weather satellites and other satellites
 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD • 459

that need to scan the entire surface of the Earth because they pass over
a different strip of the surface on each orbit and can observe the entire
surface in a 24-hour period.
GPS satellites are further out, at an altitude of about 20,000 km
and have an orbital period of about 12 hours. The GPS system creates a
constellation of satellites around the globe and relies on several satellites
being visible to a GPS receiver at any point on the Earth’s surface at any
time. The minimum number of operational satellites required to achieve
this is 24, but the target number is 33. Over 70 GPS satellites have been
launched, but not all of them are still operational.
Geostationary satellites are placed in an equatorial orbit at an altitude
of about 35,800 km (r  42,200 km) so that they have an orbital period of
24 hours. This ensures that they remain stationary above the same point
on the Earth’s equator because they complete one orbit as the Earth
itself rotates once. This is called a geosynchronous orbit and is used for
communications satellites. The fact that they remain stationary in the sky
means that ground-based antennae do not have to track them.

23.4 Tidal Forces

Tidal forces occur because the strength of the gravitational field varies
across an extended body. This has the effect of stretching or compressing
the body parallel or perpendicular to the field. The ocean tides on Earth
are an example of this, and their regularity can be explained by changing
tidal forces as the Earth’s orbital position changes with respect to the Moon
(and, to a lesser extent, the Sun). However, tidal forces are a very common
occurrence and can have very important consequences. Jupiter’s Moon Io,
for example, is compressed and stretched by tidal forces as it orbits close to
the giant planet. These forces provide the energy to drive seismic activity
on Io, and active volcanoes were observed on the surface of Io when the
Voyager 1 spacecraft passed it in 1979.

23.4.1 Origin of Tidal Forces

The diagram below shows a spherical body (body 1) in the gravitational
field of another body (body 2) of mass M.
The four squares A, C, D, and E represent small masses of size m on
the surface of body 1 along diameters parallel and perpendicular to the
line connecting it to the center of body 2. Body 1 is only affected by the
gravitational field, so it can be considered to be in free fall toward body 2.
In the free-falling reference frame, there will be a tension along line AC (C
460 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

is in a stronger field than B, and A is in a weaker field, so both are pulled

away from mass B). There will also be a smaller compression along line DE
because of the inward components of the gravitational field at the edges of
body 1. The effect is to stretch the body 1 along AC and to compress it along
DE. This is shown in the diagram below.

Small squares
represent small
masses m at each
D
position
Body 1 of
radius r Gravitational field
A B C

Distance from
E
center of body 1 to
tory

center of body 2 = R
l trajec

Mass of body 2 = M
Orbita

The tidal forces shown are those that act in the freely falling reference
frame.
ctory
al trajeOrbit
 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD • 461

Tidal forces are differential forces and are defined as the difference between
the actual gravitational force FA on a small mass m and the force that would
be exerted on it if it was at the center of the body, FB. For example, the tidal
force on the mass at A is given by:
GMm GMm GMm(2 Rr  r 2 )
tidal force  A  FA  FB   
R  r 2  R 2 R  r 2 R 2
For r << R, this simplifies to:
2GMmr
tidal force  A 
R3
The negative sign here indicates that the direction of the tidal force is away
from the center of the body. This obeys an inverse-cube law with respect to
distance, so tidal forces will only be significant for bodies that are relatively
close together.

23.4.2 Earth’s Ocean Tides

The ocean tides on planet Earth are driven by tidal forces. While both the
Moon and the Sun affect the tides, the Moon’s effect is significantly greater.
This can be shown by comparing the maximum tidal force on a 1 kg mass
due to each body.

Tidal force from the Moon

M  7.3  1022 kg
m  1 kg
R  3.9  108 m (mean distance to the Moon)
r  6.4  106 m (mean radius of Earth)
2GMmr
tidal force  A   1.1 106 N
R3
Tidal force from the Sun
M  2.0 1030 kg
m  1 kg
R  1.5  1011 m (mean distance to the Sun)
r  6.4  106 m (mean radius of Earth)
2GMmr
tidal force(A)   5.1 107 N
R3
462 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The Moon’s tidal effect is roughly double that of the Sun, but both are
significant. As the Earth, Moon, and Sun change their relative positions,
the tidal effects of the Moon and Sun on the Earth’s oceans can reinforce
or weaken one another. The largest or “spring tides”occur when the three
bodies are aligned and the smallest or “”neap tides”occur when the lines
from the Sun and Moon to the Earth are perpendicular. These effects are
exaggerated in the diagrams below, which are not to scale!

Earth Sun
Moon
Moon

Relative positions
for spring tides

The period of the Earth’s rotation is significantly less than the period of the
Moon’s orbit, so the Earth effectively rotates under the tidal bulges and
there are approximately two high tides in each 24-hour period. However,
the Earth’s rotation pushes the bulge slightly ahead of the Moon’s position.
Moon

Earth
Sun

Relative positions
for neap tides

Moon
 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD • 463

This has the effect of creating a retarding torque on the Earth that reduces
its rotation period, making day length gradually increase and reducing its
angular momentum. However, angular momentum for the system must be
conserved, so the radius of the Moon’s orbit also increases. The present rate
of increase of day length is about 1.7 ms per century, and the Moon’s orbital
radius increases by about 3.8 cm per year. When the Moon first formed,
the length of a day on Earth was only about 5 hours. The long-term effect
of this interaction is that the Moon’s orbital period and the Earth’s rotation
period will eventually become the same—they will be tidally locked.

23.5 Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation

Newton’s theory of gravitation is actually an approximation to a more
fundamental theory discovered by Einstein in 1915. This is the general
theory of relativity, and while the mathematics of that theory are well
beyond the scope of this book, some of the key ideas are accessible without
the mathematics.

23.5.1 Space–Time Curvature

The key idea in Einstein’s theory is that gravity is not really a force field
but a distortion of the geometry of space and time. What we experience as
a gravitational field is actually the curvature of the space–time continuum
where we are. This sounds rather obscure, but can be understood by
analogy. Imagine stretching a rubber sheet out so that it is completely flat
and then rolling a ball across its surface. In the absence of friction the ball
would continue in a straight line at constant velocity. However, if a heavy
mass is placed onto the surface and the experiment is repeated, the ball
Stretched rubber Mass placed in
sheet center of sheet

Ball projected on
surface
464 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

follows a curved path around the mass. The geometry of the rubber sheet
has changed and the path followed by the ball has changed too.
Seen from above the presence of the central mass has caused the
deflection of the ball. As far as the ball is concerned, it has simply followed
the curvature of the surface. John Wheeler summarized Einstein’s theory
of general relativity by saying that:
Q Matter tells space how to curve.
Q Space tells matter how to move.
In Newtonian mechanics, an object continues to move in a straight line
unless acted upon by a resultant external force. In Einstein’s universe,
objects move along the shortest paths in curved space–time. These paths
are called geodesics. A good analogy is found in the paths followed by
aircraft on long-haul flights around the Earth. The shortest path between
two points on the Earth’s surface is an arc of a great circle around the center
of the Earth. According to Einstein’s theory, the Earth’s orbit around the
Sun is actually a geodesic in space–time. The Earth is not being deflected
by a gravitational force; it is simply following the local curvature of space–
time and that curvature has been caused by the presence of the Sun.

23.5.2 Equivalence Principle

One powerful idea that led Einstein to the general theory of relativity is
the equivalence principle. He realized that the effects of gravity and the
effects of acceleration are actually equivalent. To understand what this
means, imagine you are on a fairground ride that allows you to free fall
vertically before bringing you safely to rest. While you are in free fall, you
cease to feel the reaction from your seat and you feel “weightless.” From an
outsider’s reference frame, you are falling because of your weight, but from
your own reference frame, the gravitational field strength seems to be zero.
To Einstein this implied that freely falling reference frames at each point in
space–time could be treated as if the gravitational field was zero.
Alternatively it means that the physical effects in a uniformly accelerated
reference frame must be identical to the physical effects in a uniform
gravitational field. An observer in a uniformly accelerated reference frame
with acceleration a cannot distinguish this from a reference frame in a
uniform gravitational field of strength g where g  a. This led to a powerful
thought experiment that showed that light must be deflected by gravity.
Imagine a laboratory inside a rocket that is accelerating vertically
upwards. The acceleration of the rocket is a and observers inside the
 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD • 465

rocket feel exactly the same as if they were in a uniform gravitational field
of strength g  a. Now imagine that a horizontal beam of light enters the
rocket through a port hole on one side and leaves through a port hole on
the other side. Since the rocket has constant acceleration the beam will
follow a parabolic path inside the rocket. Now imagine that the same rocket
is at rest on the surface of a planet with surface gravity g. If a beam of
light enters horizontally through the same window, it must, according to the
equivalence principle, follow the same parabolic path as before and deflect
downwards toward the surface of the planet. If this was not the case, then
an observer inside the rocket could tell whether the rocket was at rest in a
gravitational field or accelerating simply by observing the motion of light
beams.

a
g

The British astronomer and mathematician, Arthur Eddington, tested this

prediction in 1919. He looked for the apparent shift in the positions of
stars close to the disc of the Sun during a total eclipse. He needed to do
this during a total eclipse because stars close to the Sun’s disc can only be
observed when the bright disc of the Sun is eclipsed and effects on stars
farther from the disc would be too small to measure. The measured shifts
466 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

were in agreement with Einstein’s theory. The theory has been tested
many times and in many different ways since then, and results have all
been in agreement with theory. General relativity is regarded as one of the
fundamental theories of physics.

23.5.3 Gravitational Time Dilation

Einsteinrealized that the distortion of space–time by gravity would lead
to time dilation effects. Time in a stronger gravitational field runs more
slowly than time in a weaker gravitational field. This is important for GPS
satellites because they are in a weaker gravitational field than the receivers
on the surface, and a correction must be built in to retain location accuracy.
(They must also be corrected for another time dilation effect caused by the
relative motion between the satellite and the receiver.)
A simple formula for time dilation can be derived using Newton’s
theory of gravity. Consider a photon emitted vertically from a source on
the surface of a star of mass M. As the photon travels away from the star,
its gravitational potential energy increases, so photon energy and frequency
fall. The change in time period of the photon in different positions in
the gravitational field can be used to compare the rates of clocks at these
positions. The time period of the photon at A is T and at B is T.

M
A B

EB  EA  mVB  mVA  mV

m is the mass equivalent of the photon energy andDV is the change in GPE
between A and B.
If the change in potential energy of the photon is small compared to
its energy, mV << hf, then T ~ T, so we can simplify the expression as
follows:
hf V
hf  hf  2
c
h h hV
  2
T T Tc
T V

TT Tc2
 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD • 467

T V
T ~
c2
 V 
T T1  2 
 c 
The greater the change in potential, the greater the difference in clock
rates.
Gravitational time dilation becomes extreme in very strong gravitational
fields (where the equation above is not valid). If we were to observe clocks
close to the event horizon of a black hole, they would tick very slowly
indeed, and time would stop at the event horizon. In this sense anything
that actually enters the black hole has passed beyond the infinity of time in
the external universe!

23.5.4 Gravitational Waves

Matter determines the curvature of the space–time continuum, so when
the distribution of matter changes (e.g., an orbiting binary system), so does
the local geometry. Einstein’s field equations link these local changes to
the rest of space–time, so that a disturbance travels outwards at the speed
of light. This is a gravitational wave. The existence of gravitational waves
was predicted by Einstein in 1916 as a consequence of his general theory
of relativity.
When a gravitational wave passes, it causes periodic changes in the
geometry of the objects in its path. The diagram below shows how a spherical
object distorts along two perpendicular axes as a gravitational wave passes.

Direction of
gravitational wave

However, the predicted amplitude of these vibrations is tiny, even from

powerful astronomical events such as the collision of black holes. Typical
amplitudes change the dimensions of an object by about 1 part in 1020. For
an object 1 m long, this is 10 billion times smaller than the diameter of an
atom! This makes them extremely difficult to detect, and the first evidence
for the existence of gravitational waves was indirect.
468 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Gravitational waves transfer energy, so an orbiting binary system loses

energy as it radiates and its period gradually changes. Alan Hulse and
Joseph Taylor analyzed the period of a binary system that consisted of a
pulsar and a normal star over a period of 30 years. They showed that the
reduction in period was within 0.2% of the change predicted on the basis
of gravitational radiation. The energy radiated is about 7.35  1024 W, about
2% of the Sun’s luminosity. Their work won them the 1993 Nobel Prize in
Physics and provided the first convincing experimental evidence for the
existence of gravitational waves.
The most sensitive terrestrial detectors use an interferometer to detect
small changes in light path over two perpendicular arms.
Mirror

r
te
lit
sp
am
Be

Laser
Mirror
beam

Superposed beams
to detector

Monochromatic light is split so that half of the beam travels along the
“vertical” arm and half along the “horizontal” arm (in reality, these will both
be horizontal—e.g., NS and EW, and perhaps several kilometers long). The
returning beams superpose and interfere. When a gravitational wave passes,
the lengths of the arms fluctuate, introducing a periodic phase difference
that makes the interference pattern change at the frequency of the wave.
These fluctuations were finally discovered at the Laser Interferometer
Gravitational Waves Detector (LIGO) in 2015 and announced in February
2016 (100 years after they were predicted). The signal detected by LIGO
was consistent with the source being the inward spiral and coalescence of a
pair of black holes of around 36 and 29 solar masses. This discovery opens
 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD • 469

the door to a new age of astronomy in which the most violent cosmic events
are observed using gravitational wave “telescopes.”

23.6 Exercises

1. Newton arrived at the law of gravitation by assuming that the centripetal

force required to keep the Moon in a circular orbit was provided by
gravity. In this question we will show how this leads to an inverse-square
law. The first step is to compare the force on a 1.0 kg mass near the
Earth’s surface with the centripetal force on 1.0 kg of the Moon’s mass.
(a) Calculate the weight of a 1.0 kg mass close to the Earth’s surface.
g  9.8 Nkg1.
(b) Calculate the centripetal force required to keep 1.0 kg of the
Moon’s mass in its orbit around Earth. Moon’s orbital period  27.3
days. Mean radius of Moon’s orbit  3.84  108 m.
Your answer in (b) is much smaller than in (c), but the Moon
is further from the Earth, so if both forces arise because of
gravitational attraction to the Earth, then the strength of this
attraction must fall with distance.
(c) Show that the forces in (a) and (b) are consistent with the idea that
gravitational forces obey an inverse-square law with distance. Radius
of the Earth  6.4  106 m.
(d) Give an argument to support the idea that gravitational attraction is
proportional to the mass of the object attracted (think of the Moon
in its orbit).
(e) Give an argument to support the idea that gravitational attraction is
proportional to the mass of the attracting object (think of Newton’s
third law).
(f) Use your answers to (c), (d), and (e) to justify the form of Newton’s
law of gravitation.
2. Consider a mass m suspended at a point P just above the surface of a
planet of mass M and radius R. Write down expressions for each of the
following quantities:
(a) the gravitational field strength and potential at P
(b) the gravitational field strength and potential at a point Q a height 3R
above the planet’s surface
(c) the work that must be done to raise mass m from P to Q
(d) the final velocity of mass m, just before it strikes the planet’s
surface, if it falls freely from Q (ignore atmospheric drag).
470 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(e) the escape velocity if the mass is projected away from the planet
from rest at point P
(f) the escape velocity if the mass is projected away from the planet
from rest at point Q
(g) the kinetic energy that must be supplied to m if it is to be projected
tangentially from Q and then enter a circular orbit
3. (a) Derive an equation for g as a function of radius r from the center
of the Earth assuming the Earth’s density  is constant and that the
Earth is a perfect sphere.
(b) The Earth is actually an oblate spheroid, flattened at the poles.
Discuss how this affects the value of g at different points on the
surface.
(c) The fact that the Earth rotates on its axis means that part of the
gravitational force holding us to its surface must provide the
centripetal force needed for us to rotate with the Earth. This affects
our measured weight. Calculate the percentage change in weight of
a man at the equator. G  6.7  10–11 Nm2kg–2, ME  6.4  1024 kg,
RE  6.4  106 m, T  89,800 s (rotation period).
4. Consider the Earth and Moon as an isolated system. At what distance
from the Earth (along a line connecting it to the Moon) will a space craft
experience no resultant gravitational force? G  6.7  10–11 Nm2 kg–2,
ME  6.4  1024 kg, MM  7.2  1022kg, RE  6.4  106 m, r  3.8  108 m
(separation of centers of Earth and Moon).
5. The Moon orbits the Earth in about 27.3 days at a distance of
380,000 km.
(a) State Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion.
(b) Derive Kepler’s third law for a planet in a circular orbit.
(c) Kepler’s laws were originally stated about the planets in our solar
system, but they can be applied to any similar system where
satellites orbit a central body. Explain how the constant in Kepler’s
third law is affected when the law is applied to different systems.
(d) Use Kepler’s third law to calculate the distance from the Earth at
which an artificial satellite would be geostationary (i.e., have an
orbital period of 24 hours or 1 day).
(e) Why must geostationary satellites be placed in equatorial orbits?
(f) Use Kepler’s third law to derive a lower limit for the period of an
artificial Earth satellite.
 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD • 471

6. Ganymede is Jupiter’s largest moon. Its orbit is circular with a radius of

1.07  109 m. The orbital period is 7 days, 3 hours,, and 43 minutes. Use
Kepler’s third law to find Jupiter’s mass.
7. If the Olympics were to be held on the Moon, suggest how the shot putt
record on the Moon would compare with the record on Earth. Explain
your answer.
8. Both the Sun and Moon exert tidal forces on Earth’s oceans.
(a) Explain, qualitatively, how tidal forces arise.
(b) Show that the tidal effects caused by the Sun are significantly less
than those caused by the Moon.
9. Astronomers think that black holes may exist at the center of most
galaxies. The evidence is from the high orbital speeds of stars near the
center of the galaxies (including our own Milky Way). The star orbits
because of attraction to the central object and that object must have a
radius smaller than that of the star’s orbit. Use this information to show
that the object is likely to be a black hole if:
c
v
2
where v is the orbital speed (assume the orbit is circular) and c is the
speed of light.
2GM
The equation for the Schwarzschild radius is RS  2
c
where M is the mass of the central object.
 CHAPTER

24
SPECIAL RELATIVITY

24.1 The Postulates of Special Relativity

Classical physics consists of Newtonian mechanics (and gravity) and
Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory. However, by the end of the nineteenth
century it became clear that mechanics and electromagnetism were in
conflict, especially when physicists tried to understand what was meant by
the speed of light. Up to that point the speed of a wave was measured relative
to the medium through which it moved, but light is an electromagnetic
wave that travels through a vacuum, so what exactly do we measure the
speed of light against?

24.1.1 Absolute Space

Galileorealized that the laws of mechanics are exactly the same whether you
are at rest or in a uniformly moving laboratory. In other words, if you find
yourself inside a closed spacecraft with no windows, there is no mechanical
experiment that you can carry out inside that spacecraft to determine
whether it is at rest or moving with constant velocity. This is why we can
comfortably drink coffee, read a book, and walk about inside a jet aircraft
on a long-haul flight. This idea is called Galilean relativity:
Q The laws of mechanics are the same in all uniformly moving reference
frames.
These reference frames are called inertial frames.
474 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

If the laws of mechanics cannot distinguish rest from uniform motion,

can anything? Is there a non-mechanical experiment that can distinguish
motion from rest? This is an important question because if the answer is
“yes” then there is one special reference frame that is at rest and all other
reference frames are in motion. If the answer is “no” then the idea of being
at rest is not special at all. The idea of a privileged reference frame at rest in
the universe leads to the concept of absolute space, a fixed background or
reference frame against which all other motions can be measured.
This is where the speed of light comes in. This speed emerges naturally
from Maxwell’s equations and represents the speed of a disturbance in
the electromagnetic field. Other kinds of waves are all vibrations in some
material medium; so physicists naturally thought that light must also have
its own medium that fills the vacuum of space and is at rest in absolute
space. They called this all-pervasive medium the luminiferousether. The
speed of light would then be the speed relative to ether and to absolute
space. They immediately began to think about how they might detect ether,
or at least detect our motion relative to ether.
In principle, it should be relatively easy to detect the effect of the
Earth’s motion relative to ether. The Earth orbits the Sun, so its motion
through ether ought to vary periodically during the year. If the speed of
light is constant relative to ether, then the speed of light measured on Earth
would be a relative velocity and should also vary—sometimes above and
sometimes below the value given by Maxwell’s equations. Several ingenious
experiments were carried out to test this idea; the most famous of which
was the Michelson–Morley experiment in 1887.
In the Michelson–Morley experiment a light beam is divided into two,
and each half is sent on a round trip perpendicular to the other half of the
beam. The two beams are then combined and form an interference pattern.
Any difference between the time of flight on the two paths shows up as a shift
in the interference pattern when the returning beams superpose. Since the
Earth orbits the Sun, the experimenters expected the interference pattern
to shift during the year as the Earth’s motion relative to ether changes, and
this changes the relative velocity of light, producing different time delays
for each path. For example, if the Earth moves through ether in the same
direction as light, then the relative velocity is lower; and if the Earth moves
in the opposite direction, the relative velocity is higher.
The (simplified) arrangement of apparatus for the Michelson–Morley
experiment is shown below. This is an example of an interferometer con-
sisting of two arms of equal length. Motion of the laboratory through ether
 SPECIAL RELATIVITY • 475

Luminiferous ether at rest in absolute space

Earth’s velocity v Light beam velocity c

relative to ether relative to ether

Light beam velocity (c − v)

Earth moving relative to the Earth
relative to ether

Luminiferous ether at rest in absolute space

Apparatus at rest in laboratory

Mirror

Laboratory moves at
velocity v through ether

Half-silvered
mirror (beam Mirror
splitter)
Monochromatic
light

Interference pattern

delays the light along both arms, but the delay is greater along the path
parallel to motion through ether. If the apparatus is rotated through 90,
the greater delay should shift to the other arm of the interferometer and
the interference pattern should shift. The apparatus used by Michelson and
Morley was sensitive enough to detect shifts caused by relative velocities
comparable to the Earth’s orbital speed, so they expected to detect the
Earth’s motion through ether.
Despite carrying out the experiment carefully and repeating it at
different times of the year, they could not detect any shift in the position
of the interference fringes. Similar experiments have been carried out
using more modern equipment but with the same results—i.e., no shift in
interference fringes. This is called a “null result” and is probably the most
famous null result in the history of physics. All attempts to detect ether
have failed, and the fact that there is no delay in experiments such as the
476 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Michelson–Morley experiment is very hard to explain using the concept of

ether.
This failure to detect ether is also a failure to detect the Earth’s motion
in absolute space. It seems that the Earth’s motion does not affect the speed
of light.

24.1.2 Einstein’s Ideas About the Laws of Physics

Einstein may well have been unaware of the Michelson–Morley experiment
and its results, but he was concerned about the meaning of the speed of
light. As a young man he had wondered what light would look like if he
could travel alongside it at the same speed. In principle, the light wave
would be like a fixed disturbance of the electromagnetic field in its reference
frame. However, Maxwell’s equations did not allow for any such solution,
so an observer moving at the speed of light would not be able to use the
same laws of physics as one at rest. This seemed odd to Einstein, especially
since Galilean relativity suggested that the laws of mechanics would still
be the same. Einstein began to wonder whether he should extend Galilean
relativity to all of the laws of physics.
This led to the first postulate of the special theory of relativity:
Q The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames.
This also helped explain why, in electromagnetic induction experiments,
it does not matter whether a magnet is moved toward a coil or a coil is
moved toward a magnet—the same induced emf is produced in both cases.
Absolute motion is not important, but relative motion is.
Einstein thought that Maxwell’s equations must be one of the
fundamental laws of physics and so should apply in the same way in all
inertial reference frames. Since Maxwell’s equations led to a fixed value for
the speed of light, Einstein proposed a second postulate:
• The speed of light is the same for all inertial observers.
If the laws of physics are the same for all inertial observers, then being
at rest has no special significance to physics and the idea of an absolute
space must be abandoned. If the speed of light is the same for all inertial
observers, then it will be the same along each arm of a Michelson–Morley
interferometer no matter how the apparatus is moving (as long as it is not
accelerating), so no delay should occur and the null result is explained.
While these simple postulates explain the null result of the Michelson–
Morley experiment and make the speed of light into a universal constant,
 SPECIAL RELATIVITY • 477

they undermine the idea of absolute space and, as we shall see, the idea that
there is an absolute time.

24.2 Time in Special Relativity

Newton thought that time was the same for all observers throughout the
universe—an absolute time, as if one clock could be used to measure
all time intervals. Einstein’s thesis that the speed of light is the same for
all inertial observers undermines this idea. For the speed of light to be
the same for two observers in relative motion, they cannot agree on the
distance traveled by the light and the time taken to travel from one point
to another. Distances and time intervals must depend on the motion of the
observer. This is the price that must be paid if observers in relative motion
are to experience the same laws of physics.

24.2.1 Time Dilation

v
Mirror

L c
c

Observer B
Mirror Mirror

c Observer A

Mirror
478 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

A simple thought experiment can be used to show how relative motion

affects time intervals. It uses a hypothetical clock based on the constant
speed of light. The light clock ticks as a light beam bounces up and down
between two parallel mirrors. If the distance between the mirrors is L
then the clock ticks once in a time 2L/c relative to an observer in the same
reference frame. However, if the clock is in motion relative to that observer,
the light path is longer. But the speed of light is the same (according to
special relativity); so, for this observer, the clock takes longer to tick. Time
in the moving relative frame has slowed down. The diagrams below show
everything from the point of view of observer A who is at rest with respect
to a light clock. He sees another observer, B, in a laboratory who moves past
at velocity v relative to A’s reference frame.
We can use Pythagoras theorem to calculate the length of the light path
in B’s moving laboratory as seen by observer A. It is very important to state
which observer we are using because, for B—who is at rest with respect to
his own light clock—the clock will appear to tick at its normal rate with the
light pulses moving up and down at the speed of light.
Mirror
cT
/2

′/2
cT′

Mirror Mirror
vT′/2 vT′/2
2L
For A, the time between ticks of his own light clock is T where T  c
Also for A, let the time between ticks on the moving (B’s) clock be T.
Now use Pythagoras theorem to find the relationship between T and T.
Considering either one of the two right-angled triangles above:
c2 T2 v2 T2
  L2
4 4
 SPECIAL RELATIVITY • 479

For A’s own light clock:

cT
L
2
Therefore:
c2 T2 v2 T2 c2 T 2
 
4 4 4
which can be rearranged to give:
T
T  T
v2
1 2
c
where
1

v2
1 2
c
This is Einstein’s time dilation formula, showing how time slows down in a
moving reference frame. That is, the time between “ticks” on the “moving”
clock increases relative to the “rest” clock.
The “gamma factor”determines the significance of relativistic effects.
For v << c it approaches 1 and T  T, which is consistent with an idea of
absolute time. However, as v increases, the factor grows so that time in the
moving reference frame (B’s frame) slows down when observed from the
rest frame (A’s frame). As v approaches the speed of light, the gamma factor
increases without limit so that time would slow to a halt at v  c. Note that
we are not just talking about clocks here. As far as B is concerned, time in
his reference frame is measured correctly by his own light clock, so when
observed by A it is not just that the clock in B’s frame slows down, so does
B’s aging process—time slows down.
Gamma factor

γ=1
γ=0 Velocity of moving
v=0 v=c reference frame
480 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

For relative velocities small compared to the speed of light, the gamma
factor is negligible, so relativistic effects can be neglected. This allows us
to assume that we all share the same time and space and can agree over
measurements of time intervals and distances. For example, even at the
speed of a jet airliner (about 300 ms1) the value of the gamma factor is just
1.0000000000005!
If A sees B’s time slow down, then what does B see when he looks back
at A? Both of the observers are in inertial reference frames, so the laws of
physics are the same for both of them and the speed of light is constant
in their reference frame. B will see A moving in the opposite direction at
speed v and will see the light path in A’s clock stretched out. B will see A’s
time run slow by the same time dilation factor that A saw B’s clock run slow!
The effect is the same for both observers. At first sight this seems to lead to
a contradiction, but while the clocks are in motion, they cannot be placed at
rest next to one another to compare them to find out which one has gained
or lost time. To do this we would have to take at least one of them on a
round trip.

24.2.2 The “Twin Paradox”

What happens when two clocks move relative to each other and then come
back together so that the clocks can be compared? An observer moving
with either clock ought to see the other clock running slow so that less time
passes in the moving reference frame than in their own. This would lead
to a paradox—how can clock A record less time than clock B AND clock B
record less time than clock A? If the theory really predicts this, then there
is a problem with relativity.
This is illustrated by the twin paradox. Imagine two twins A and B
who are together on their 21st birthday. Twin A remains on Earth, while
twin B undertakes a high-speed round-trip journey to a distant star. A sees
B travel away and return and B’s time runs slow on both the outward and
return journeys. A concludes that B should be younger than A when they
are reunited.

v
B
A
B
v
Earth Star

However, all inertial reference frames are equivalent, so B might argue

that, from her point of view, A and the Earth move away and return and
the star approaches and recedes. During the motion she sees A’s time
 SPECIAL RELATIVITY • 481

run slowly and so concludes that A should be the younger one when they
reunite. Is this a valid way to describe the journey? In fact, it is not. If we
ignore the relatively low velocity of the Earth, then A stays in the same
inertial reference frame throughout and so A’s point of view is valid. B,
however, undergoes three separate periods of acceleration: as she leaves
Earth; as she turns around and accelerates back toward the Earth at the
distant star; and then again as she comes to rest back on Earth. To describe
the journey from B’s point of view, we must take into account the effects
of these periods of acceleration. From B’s point of view she will experience
inertial forces during these periods that are just like increases and decreases
in the local gravitational field. These changes introduce gravitational time
dilation effects (see Section 23.5.3) that are not present for A; so B’s view is
not equivalent to A’s.
The traveling twin (B) will be younger when they reunite and the
apparent paradox is resolved.

24.2.3 Relativity of Simultaneity

If time is absolute, then two distant events that occur at the same moment
for one observer will also occur at the same time for any other observers
wherever they are and however they are moving in the universe (once they
have corrected for the time of flight of light to reach them from each event).
Once we abandon the notion of an absolute space, as we have had to do,
we cannot assume that simultaneous events in one reference frame will
be simultaneous in all reference frames. It turns out that simultaneity is
relative.
Consider an experimental method to synchronize two different clocks.
They are both zeroed and then a flash of light is sent from a point midway
between them. When the light hits a sensor on the side of each clock, the
clock starts. In this way the clocks start simultaneously and then keep the
same time in that reference frame.
Light source
emits flash
c c
∗

Clock A Clock B

This method could be extended throughout a 3D space so that the times

of all events in that space could be measured. If two events occur at the
482 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

same time according to local clocks in this space, then those events are
simultaneous in this reference frame.
The question is: will clocks synchronized in one inertial reference frame
be synchronized in all inertial reference frames, regardless of their motion?
Consider the process above carried out in a moving laboratory and observed
from another inertial reference frame. For simplicity we will assume that
the motion is parallel to the separation of the clocks and that the flash occurs
at the moment the light source passes the stationary observer. The dotted
clocks show their initial positions for the observer.

Moving reference frame

Light source
emits flash v
c c
∗

Clock A Clock B

Stationary
observer

For the stationary observer the flash of light leaves the source and travels
away in both directions at the speed of light. However, clock A is moving
toward the source position and clock B is moving away from it. Light reaches
clock A first so that clock starts first. Clock B starts later. The two clocks are
not synchronized in the stationary observer’s reference frame even though
they are synchronized in the moving reference frame. For the stationary
observer the synchronization “error” increases with the separation of the
clocks.
This is a profound result. Two events that occur near A and B when the
clocks show the same time are simultaneous in the moving reference frame
but occur at different times for the stationary observer. This means that
one moment in a particular inertial reference frame is spread over different
times in different inertial reference frames. This destroys the concept of
absolute time, which assumes a unique progression of moments for all
observers.
It should again be noted that there is nothing special about the so-called
“stationary observer.” He is just in a different inertial reference frame and if
 SPECIAL RELATIVITY • 483

he were to synchronize two distant clocks in his own reference frame, then
an observer in the “moving” reference frame would think that there was a
synchronization error.

24.3 Length Contraction

Our galaxy is over 100,000 light years in diameter. A space craft traveling
at close to the speed of light would take more than 100,000 years to cross it
as measured by an observer who remains on the Earth. However, for space
travelers, the time that passes in their reference frame would be much less
than this because of time dilation. Let’s assume they travel at a constant
velocity v that is so fast that the gamma factor is 20,000. The time that
passes in the space craft is then only 100,000/20,000  5 years!
If the observers on board the space craft work out the distance they
have traveled, it will be 5(v/c) light years rather than 100,000 (v/c) light
years as observed from the Earth. The distance traveled has contracted by
the same gamma factor as the time. This is an example of relativistic length
contraction.

v v

L L

From the Earth’s reference frame From the space craft’s reference
(at rest in the galaxy), the diameter frame (moving at velocity v relative
is L but the spacecraft is contracted to the galaxy), the diameter is
because of its motion contracted to L′ but the space craft
has its proper length

The length contraction formula is:

L
L

1

v2
1
c2
L is the length of an object measured in its rest frame: its proper length L
is the length of the same object when it moves past the observer at velocity v.
484 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

24.4 Lorentz Transformation

Length contraction, the relativity of simultaneity, and time dilation, all
show that measurements of time and space in one inertial reference frame
will not agree with measurements in another inertial reference frame in
relative motion. Lorentz transformation equations relate the coordinates
of an event in one inertial reference frame to the coordinates of the same
event in another inertial reference frame moving at constant velocity with
respect to the first.
24.4.1 Lorentz Transformation Equations
For simplicity we will define our axes so that the relative motion is along the
x axis, so that y and z coordinates are not affected by the motion.
z z′ Event coordinates:

(x, y, z, t)
(x′, y′, z′, t′) Inertial reference frame
moving in positive x-direction
at velocity v
y y′

x
x′
The diagram above shows the coordinate systems used in two inertial
reference frames. The primed frame is moving at velocity v in the positive
x- and x-direction. At time t  0 the origins of both coordinate systems
coincides. An event with coordinates (x, y, z, t) in the unprimed frame has
coordinates (x, y, z, t) in the primed frame. Lorentz transformation allows
us to transform from one frame to the other.
Q Lorentz transformation—to transform from the primed to the unprimed
reference frame:
x   x  vt 
y y
z z
 vx 
t   t  2 
 c 
Q Inverse Lorentz transformation—to transform from the unprimed to
the primed reference frame:
x    x  vt
y  y
z  z
 vx 
t   t  2 
 c 
 SPECIAL RELATIVITY • 485

These equations can be used to derive the formulae for time dilation, length
contraction, and synchronization differences.
We will use them to derive an equation for relativistic velocity addition.

24.4.2 Velocity Addition Equation

A simple example involving light shows that we cannot simply add velocities.
Imagine a car passing you with its headlights switched on. The car is moving
at velocity v and the light leaves the headlamps at velocity c relative to an
observer inside the car. If space and time were absolute, then the light
would have a relative velocity v  c  v relative to you. This cannot be the
case because the speed of light is the same for all inertial observers, so it
must still be c. This is the same problem that we ran into when discussing
the Michelson–Morley experiment.
Consider an object moving at velocity u relative to an observer in a
laboratory that is itself moving at velocity v relative to a second inertial
observer. What is the velocity of the object w relative to this second
observer?
z z′
Object moving with velocity v
relative to the moving reference
frame
Inertial reference frame
moving in positive x-direction
at velocity v
y y′

x x′

We are trying to find the relationship between w  dx/dt, u  dx/dt, and v.

dx
u
dt
dx  dx dt  dt dx  dt
w     v     v   u  v 
dt  dt dt  dt  dt '  dt
dt  v dx   uv 
 1  2  1  2 
dt  c dt   c 

w  u  v
 uv 
1  2 
 c 
 u  v
w
 uv 
1  2 
 c 
486 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

If u and v are small compared to the speed of light, then this reduces to the
familiar equation for velocity addition: w  (u v). The relativistic velocity
addition equation has the interesting property that no two sub-light speeds
can be added together to produce a speed greater than the speed of light.
However long something accelerates, it will approach—but never quite
reach—the speed of light. Consider the limiting case where u  v  c:
 u  v  c  c 2 c
w   c
 uv   2 2
1  2  1  c 
 c   c2 
24.5 Mass, Velocity, and Energy
24.5.1 Mass and Velocity
When an object is accelerated at a constant rate, as measured in reference
frames momentarily at rest with respect to the object, its acceleration
measured by a stationary observer will gradually fall. This is because the
time taken for the same increase in velocity is longer for the stationary
observer as a result of time dilation.
Consider a particle of charge q and mass m0 (as measured in a reference
frame at rest with respect to the particle) accelerated by a constant electric
field of strength E. The particle increases its velocity from v to v  v in a
time t’ in a reference frame moving with the particle at speed v relative
to a stationary observer. The same increase in speed will take a longer time
t  t for the stationary observer.
In the moving reference frame:
Eqt
v 
m0
In the reference frame of the stationary observer:
Eqt Eqt
v  
m m
Combining these two equations:
m  m0
This shows that the mass will increase with velocity. The mass measured in
the rest frame of the particle is m0, and this is the fundamental mass of the
particle. The additional mass is related to the kinetic energy of the particle
as we shall see.
 SPECIAL RELATIVITY • 487

24.5.2 Mass and Energy

The equation for relativistic mass can be expanded as a series in terms of
(v2/c2) using the binomial theorem:
1/ 2
m0  v2 
m  m0   m01  2 
 v2   c 
1  2 
 c 
  1 1  
    2 
1 v   2  2  v 
2 2
 m0
1  2 2     
 c  2!  c2  
If this is multiplied throughout by c2, then every term has the dimensions
of energy:
1
E  mc2  m0 c2  m0 c2  mv2   terms converging to zero
2
The second term on the right is the classical kinetic energy and the
converging series of terms beyond it (which are all negligible for v << c) are
the relativistic corrections to the equation for kinetic energy.
The term E  mc2 on the left-hand side of the equation must represent
the particle’s total energy when it is moving at velocity v. This becomes
E  m0c2 when the particle is at rest, so this is called the rest energy of the
particle and it suggests that mass and energy are equivalent in some sense.
The kinetic energy of the particle is the difference between its total
energy and its rest energy:
KE  mc2  m0 c2
This approximates to the classical formula KE  ½ mv2 when the velocity is
small compared to the speed of light, as we have seen.
The equivalence of mass and energy implies that all energy transfers
are also mass transfers. However, the constant that relates energy to mass is
the speed of light squared.
E  c 2 m
c2 is so large (9  1016 m2s2) that most energy transfers in everyday life make
negligible difference to the mass. The only place where we see measurable
mass changes because of energy transfers is in nuclear physics (see
Section 26.1).
In contrast, the conversion of even a tiny amount of matter would
release a huge amount of energy. The only process that converts mass
completely to energy is the annihilation of matter and antimatter, e.g., the
annihilation that occurs when an electron meets a positron (anti-electron).
488 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

24.6 Special Relativity and Geometry

Einstein published the special theory of relativity in 1905. In 1908 Hermann
Minkowski, Einstein’s mathematics teacher, published a paper in which he
showed that the Lorentz transformations of special relativity are equivalent
to rotations in a 4D continuum he called space-time. This effectively made
special relativity into a geometric theory and ultimately led to Einstein’s
general theory of relativity in which gravitation is explained as a disturbance
of the geometry of space-time. Here is a simple example to show how a
geometric approach works.

24.6.1 Invariants
The fact that measurements of lengths and times made in different inertial
reference frames differ from one another can be disconcerting. Physicists
like to discover quantities that are the same for all observers. Such quantities
are called invariants.
Consider two points on a 2D surface. The location of each point can
be described by stating the coordinates of each point relative to a fixed
coordinate system consisting of two perpendicular axes. However, there is
an arbitrary choice about which set of perpendicular axes to use, and the
coordinates will be different for different choices, as shown in the diagram
below.
y
y′ A: (xA, yA) (x′,
A
y′A)

B: (xB, yB) (x′,

B
y′B)
y′B

B
yB
y′A A
yA

xA x
xB
x′A
x′B

x′

While the coordinates change when the axes are rotated, the distance AB
does not. It is an invariant under rotation of the axes:
 SPECIAL RELATIVITY • 489

2 2
AB   xB  xA 2   yB  yA    xB  xA 2   yB  yA 
It is also possible to write down a set of transformation equations
to convert measurements made relative to the unprimed axes into
measurements relative to the primed axes. It was the similarity between
these transformation equations and the Lorentz transformation equations
that alerted Minkowski to the idea that changing from one inertial reference
frame to another is like a geometric rotation.

24.6.2 Space-Time
Space-time is a 4D continuum where the fourth dimension is related to time.
Whereas a point in space is defined by three coordinates (x, y, and z) a point
in space-time, called an event, has four (x, y, z, and t). In the S.I. system,
distances and times are measured in different units—meters and seconds—
so instead of simply using the time in seconds in a space-time diagram, we
multiply the time by the speed of light so that the units on the time axis are
also meters. Minkowskirealized that while measurements of time intervals
and distances will differ for observers in different inertial reference frames,
the Lorentz transformation ensures that the 4D “distance” between two
events is the same for all inertial observers, regardless of their velocity.
This 4D distance is calculated by Pythagoras theorem, but by treating the
time differences as if they are mathematically imaginary quantities;in other
words, the fourth dimension is actually the ict dimension where i is the
square root of –1.
ict Worldline of rocket
B moving at velocity v
ictB

A
ictA

x
xA xB

The above illustration is a space-time diagram. Only one spatial dimension

is shown (x). Each point on the diagram represents an event—something
490 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

that happens at a particular moment at a particular point in space. Lines

on space-time diagrams are called worldlines; they represent a connected
series of events. In this diagram the world line has constant gradient, so it
represents an object moving at constant velocity in the positive x-direction
relative to the origin of the reference frame, e.g., a rocket. Two events, A
and B, lie on the world line, so these represent two separate moments when
the rocket is in two different locations.
The interval AB is calculated in this reference frame by:

AB   xB  xA 2   ictB  ict A 2
Since the interval is an invariant, it must be the same using the coordinates
of events A and B in any inertial reference frame, including that of the
rocket. However, in the rocket’s reference frame both A and B occur where
the rocket is—in other words, at x’  0 but at different times tA’ and tB’. We
cannot assume that the times are the same as those in the other reference
frame. The space-time diagram in the rocket’s reference frame looks like
this:
ict′

ict′B B
Worldline of rocket at
rest in its own inertial
reference frame

ict′A A

0 x′

The interval AB in the rocket frame is:

AB   ictB  ictA 2
We can equate the two expressions for the interval (because it is an
invariant):
 ictB  ictA 2   xB  xA 2   ictB  ict A 2
We can also express the distance traveled in the unprimed frame in terms
of velocity:
 xB  x A   v  t B  t A 
 SPECIAL RELATIVITY • 491

After some algebraic rearrangement, we can express the time elapsed in the
rocket frame (primed frame) in terms of the time elapsed in the rest frame
(unprimed frame)
2 2 2
c2  tB  tA   v2  t B  t A   c2  t B  t A 
 v2  t  t 
 tB  tA   1    B A
2  tB  t A 
 c 
This is time dilation. The time elapsed in the moving reference frame is less
than the time elapsed in the rest frame by the gamma factor.
This illustrates how a geometrical approach in flat space-time reproduces
the standard results of special relativity.

24.6.3 Mass, Energy, and Momentum

The interval is just one of the important invariants in relativity. We have
already seen that when an object moves past us, its mass increases with
velocity according to the gamma factor. We can also form an invariant
quantity from momentum and energy:
Energy momentum invariant XE “invariant” = E2  p2 c2
E is the total energy of the object and p is the momentum of the object.
Since this is an invariant, it will have the same value in the rest frame
of the moving object, but in this frame, the object’s mass is its rest mass m0
and its momentum is zero:
2
E2  p2 c2  m0 c2 
This is a particularly useful relationship in particle physics.

24.7 Exercises

1. (a) Explain what is meant by:

Q Absolute space
Q Absolute time
Q Inertial reference frame
Q Galilean relativity
Q Luminiferous ether
492 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(b) Describe the Michelson–Morley experiment and explain why the

null result could not be explained in terms of absolute space and
absolute time.
(c) State the postulates of special relativity and show how the null
result of the Michelson–Morley experiment is consistent with these
postulates.
2. A spacecraft is manufactured on Earth and has a total length of 200 m
when measured at rest on the surface of the Earth. During space trials it
passes the Earth at a velocity of 0.90 c. The Earth can be assumed to be
a sphere of diameter 13,000 km.
(a) Calculate the length of the space ship as seen by an observer on
Earth.
(b) Calculate the diameter of the Earth as seen by an observer on the
space ship.
(c) Calculate the time it would take for the spacecraft to reach a planet
orbiting a star 20 light years from Earth:
(i) as measured by an observer on the Earth
(ii) asmeasured by an observer on the space craft.
(d) Calculate the distance traveled by the space ship as measured by an
on-board observer during the journey.
(e) The astronauts spend 10 Earth years on the planet and then return
to Earth at the same speed as on their outward journey. One of the
astronauts has a twin brother who remained on Earth. Both were
21 at the start of the mission. How old will each twin be when the
space ship returns to earth and they are reunited?
3. (a) Write down an equation for the relativistic “gamma factor.”
(b) At what speeds does the gamma factor become 1.01, 1.10, 1.50, 5.0?
(c) Sketch a graph to show how the “gamma factor” varies with velocity.
(d) What is the significance of the case v << c?
The inertial mass of a moving object increases with velocity according
to the equation:
m  m0
(e) Show that as the velocity of a particle approaches the speed of light,
E
the following approximation for its momentum can be used: ~ c ,
where p is the momentum of the particle.
(f) High-energy electrons have very short wavelengths and can be used
to probe the internal structure of nucleons. Use the equation in (d)
and the de Broglie relation to calculate the approximate accelerating
 SPECIAL RELATIVITY • 493

voltage needed for an electron to be able to resolve details on the

femtometer scale (1015m).
4. Two atomic clocks are synchronized and one of them is taken on a round
trip lasting 10 hours at a steady velocity of 300 m/s in a jet aircraft. At
the end of the journey it is placed beside the other clock and compared.
(Ignore the effects of gravity and assume the “stay-at-home” clock is at
rest throughout the experiment.)
(a) Explain why there is a time difference between the two clocks at
the end of the experiment and say clearly which clock will be fast or
slow with respect to the other.
(b) Calculate the expected time difference.
5. A space craft carrying an observer A has clocks, X and Y, at each end and
is passing an observer B at speed v.

X A Y v

Z B

(a) Explain what is meant by “relativity of simultaneity.”

(b) Observer Asynchronizes clocks X and Y. Suggest a method by which
he could do this.
(c) Explain why the clocks will not be synchronized for observer B.
(d) Both observers measure the distance between the two clocks.
Observer A obtains a result l0. What is the distance between the
clocks according to observer B?
A’s method to measure the distance was to fire a pulse of light from
Y (at time tY) and to record when it arrives at X(tX). The distance
according to A is then d  c (tX  tY).
B’s method for measuring the length was as follows. He used clock Z
and recorded the time at which each clock passed immediately above P.
The distance according to B is then d  v(tX  tY ).
Explain carefully why these two methods must give different results
and explain why both measurements are equally valid for the observers
who made them.
 CHAPTER

25
ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND
RADIOACTIVITY

25.1 Nuclear Atom

The concept of an “atom” comes from the ancient Greeks and derives from
the idea of an uncuttable smallest part of each element. While we still
consider each atom to be the smallest part of an element, it is certainly not
“uncuttable.” At the end of the nineteenth century J.J.Thompson showed
that electrons were small parts of all atoms; and at the start of the twentieth
century, Ernest Rutherford probed the atom with high-energy alpha-
particles and showed that all atoms have a tiny, massive core or nucleus.
Later, in 1919, he managed to split a nitrogen atom. Rutherford’s work
resulted in the nuclear model of the atom.

25.1.1 Rutherford Scattering Experiment

The famous scattering experiment was carried out by his assistants, Geiger
and Marsden, under Rutherford’s direction. They used a radioactive source
to fire a narrow collimated beam of alpha-particles at very thin gold foil.
Rutherford expected the alpha-particles to penetrate the foil and to hardly
be deflected because any charge present in the atom would be spread
out and the forces on alpha-particles, which are positively charged, would
be too small to cause large deflections. The experimental arrangement is
shown below:
496 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Lead shielding to Vacuum Detector

create collimated
beam

Alpha
source Gold foil

A moveable detector was used to record how many alpha-particles scattered

through each angle.
The results were surprising:
Q Most alpha-particles passed through the gold foil with little or no
deflection (as expected).
Q Some alpha-particles were scattered through large angles.
Q A small number (about 1 in 104) scattered through angles >90 (back-
scattered).
Rutherford assumed that any deflections must be electrostatic in nature
and explained the results in the following way:
Q The atom is mainly empty space, so most alpha-particles do not pass
close to any concentrated charge centers.
Q There is a tiny electrostatically charged central nucleus. The small
proportion of alpha-particles that pass close to a gold nucleus will be
deflected through large angles and those that make an almost direct hit
will back scatter.
Q The nucleus must contain most of the mass of the atom; otherwise the
nucleus would recoil strongly and the alpha deflection would be less
significant.
Rutherford used the scattering data and Coulomb’s law to calculate an
upper limit for the radius of the nucleus and found that the nuclear radius
was of the order of 1014 m or smaller, about 104 times smaller than the
atomic radius.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY • 497

Later work showed that the charge on a nucleus is equal to Ze where Z
is the atomic number, equal to the position of the atom in the periodic table
of elements. The forces acting on the scattering nucleus and the scattered
alpha-particles are shown below.
The diagram below shows typical alpha-particle trajectories close to a
nucleus. On this scale the outside of the atom would be about 10 m away!
Therefore, the vast majority of alpha-particles, which pass much further
away from the nucleus than those shown in this diagram, experience weak
electrostatic forces and suffer small deflections.
2Ze2
F=
4πε0r

f alpha
Path o +2e
r
a
particle

+Ze
2Ze2
F=
Nucleus 4πε0r

The greater the impact parameter (the perpendicular distance between

initial path of the alpha-particle and the nucleus), the greater the minimum
distance between the alpha-particle and the target nucleus and the smaller
the angle of deflection. An alpha-particle traveling directly toward the
center of the target nucleus makes the closest approach to it and is deflected
back along its original path (deflection angle 180).

25.1.2 Closest Approach and Nuclear Size

At closest approach the incident alpha-particle momentarily comes to rest
as it deflects back along its original path. At this point all of the incident
kinetic energy E of the alpha-particle has been stored as electric potential
energy.
If the distance of closest approach is d, then:
2 Ze2 2 Ze2
E  and d 
4 0 d 4 0 E
So the radius of the nucleus, rn, must be less than this value:
2 Ze2
rn 
4 0 E
498 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Incident alpha
particles

Increasing
impact
Gold nucleus parameters

Closest
approach d

The alpha-particle energy in Rutherford’s experiment was 4.7 MeV, and

the atomic number of gold is 79. This gives an upper limit for the radius of
gold nucleus:
rn  4.8 1014 m

25.1.3 Using Electron Diffraction to Measure Nuclear Diameter

Increasing the energy of incident alpha-particles reduces the distance
of closest approach. However, alpha-particles are actually helium nuclei
consisting of two protons and two neutrons. Neutrons and protons interact
by the short-range, strong nuclear force, so when the alpha-particles get
very close to a target nucleus, the forces are no longer simply electrostatic
and Rutherford’s analysis begins to break down. This limits the usefulness
of alpha-particles for precise measurements of nuclear size. However, it
is possible to use electrons instead. A high-energy electron beam behaves
like waves of very short wavelength, and these are diffracted by the target
nuclei just like light waves are diffracted by small spherical particles (e.g.,
lycopodium powder).

First minimum
of diffraction
High-energy
electron beam θ

Target
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY • 499

The first minimum of the diffraction pattern for a spherical object is at:
1.22 
sin  
D
Where D is the diameter of the target nucleus and  is de Broglie wavelength
of the electrons.
1.22 
D
sin 
The wavelength of electrons is calculated from de Broglie equation:
h

p
However, in order to obtain a wavelength comparable to nuclear dimensions,
the electron must be accelerated to very high energy, so relativistic equations
must be used to determine electron momentum. In particular,
2
p2 c2  E2   m0 c2 
the energy required E is much greater than rest energy m0c2, so the equation
simplifies to:
E
p
c
giving:
1.22 hc
D
E sin 
25.1.4 Nuclear Atom
The Rutherford nuclear atom consists of a small positively charged nucleus
containing protons and neutrons (collectively called nucleons) and most
of the mass of the atom surrounded by orbiting electrons. The number of
protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number and corresponds to the
position of the element in the periodic table. The atomic number is also
equal to the number of orbiting electrons in the neutral atom. If an atom
gains or loses an electron, it becomes an ion. The ratio of the atomic radius
to the nuclear radius is about 20,000 in most atoms.
Nuclear nomenclature
Q Z—the atomic number, equal to the number of protons in the nucleus
and the position of the element in the periodic table
Q A—the atomic mass number or nucleon number, equal to the number
of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus
Q N  A Z—the neutron number, equal to the number of neutrons in the
nucleus
500 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

A nucleus of element X can be represented in the following way:

A
ZX
12
For example, 6 C represents the nucleus of carbon-12 with 6 protons and
6 neutrons.
Elements are determined by their chemical behavior, and this
depends on the arrangement of their outer electrons. Since the electronic
configuration is determined by the charge on the nucleus, atoms with
the same atomic number are chemically identical even if the number of
neutrons in the nucleus varies. Atoms with the same atomic number and
different neutron numbers (and mass numbers) are isotopes of the same
element. For example,
12 13 14
6 C, 6 C, and 6C

are all isotopes of carbon. They are chemically identical but have slightly
different physical properties because of their differing masses. Carbon-14
is also unstable and, in common with many neutron-rich nuclei, it decays
by beta-minus emission.

25.2 Ionizing Radiation

In 1896, the French physicist Henri Becquerel discovered that certain
compounds of uranium emitted penetrating radiation that could cause
ionization. He realized that this radiation was different from X-rays
(discovered by Roentgen a year earlier) because the new ionizing
radiation could be deflected by electric fields. Marie Curie coined the
term “radioactivity”to describe the emission of this new type of radiation.
She also discovered two more elements that were more radioactive than
uranium—radium and polonium.
25.2.1 Types of Ionizing Radiation Emitted by Radioactive Sources
Three distinct types of ionizing radiation are emitted by radioactive
sources—alpha, beta, and gamma. The nature and properties of each type
are summarized below:
Charge Rest mass Range in air Stopped by Nature of emission
Alpha 2e 4u Few cm Card/skin Helium nucleus
Beta* e 1/1840 u 1m Few mm of Al Electron
Gamma Neutral 0 Indefinite Several cm of lead Photon

There are two types of beta emission—beta-minus (electrons) and beta-plus (positrons). Here
we are describing beta-minus.

These depend on energy and so vary with different sources and are given here as a typical
indication only.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY • 501

The diagrams below show how each type of radiation is affected by

electric and magnetic fields. Alpha-particles deflect less and in the opposite
direction to beta-particles because they have more momentum and opposite
charge.

α α
γ γ
β β
E-field B-field
upwards into page

25.3 Attenuation of Ionizing Radiation

When ionizing radiation passes through matter, it transfers energy to the
material and the ionizing beam is attenuated. When ionizing radiation is
emitted in a vacuum, it spreads out and the intensity of the radiation falls.

25.3.1 Inverse-Square Law of Absorption

Radioactive emission is a random process, so ionizing radiation is emitted
equally (on average) in all directions from a source. If the radiation is not
absorbed by the medium into which it is emitted, then its intensity will fall
as an inverse-square law. This will apply to all radioactive emissions in a
vacuum but also to gamma-rays in air (since they are only weakly ionizing).
Consider a radioactive source that emits ionizing radiation at a rate R.

Sphere at radius r
from source

Source
502 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The intensity I of radiation at radius r will be:

R
I
4 r 2
This is an inverse-square law.

25.3.2 Exponential Absorption and Attenuation Coefficient

When gamma-ray photons travel through matter, the probability per unit
length of their path is a constant. This means that the proportional change
in beam intensity is always the same for the same thickness of material. For
example, if 1.2 cm of material reduces the beam intensity from I to 0.5 I,
then the next 1.2 cm of the same material will reduce it to 0.25 I; there is a
constant half-thickness.

δx

I I + δI
x

The diagram above shows part of the path of a gamma-ray beam through
matter. Then intensity of the beam changes by an amount I as it passes
through a short thickness x of material. Since the beam is being absorbed,I
is negative. The proportion absorbed per unit length is constant; so:
I

I x
where  is the absorption coefficient (a constant) for the medium with units
m1.
In the limit that x  0 this becomes the first-order differential
equation:
dI
I
dx
whose solution is:
I  I0 ex
Intensity falls exponentially from its initial value I0. As with all exponential
changes, it has a constant proportion property in that the intensity will
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY • 503

always fall by the same fraction in the same distance. We can therefore
derive an expression for the half-thickness x1/2 of the material, that is, the
thickness of material that will reduce any initial intensity of the radiation
by 50%.
1
ex1/2 
2
ln 2
x1/2 

The absorption coefficient and half-thickness depend on the energy of
the gamma-rays and the nature of the medium. Half-thickness (or “half
value layer,” HVL) is a useful quantity to use in radiological protection
when comparing the effectiveness of different shielding materials or the
penetrating power of radiation.
X-ray penetration also decays exponentially with distance, and the table
below gives half-thicknesses of human tissue, aluminum, and lead for X-rays
of three different energies.
Medium Half-thickness/mm
30 keV photons 60 keV photons 120 keV photons
Human tissue 20 35 45
Aluminum 2.3 9.3 17
Lead 0.02 0.13 0.15

25.3.3 Absorption of Beta-Radiation

Beta-radiation has a continuous range of energies even from the same
source, so while the transmission of monoenergeticbeta-particles does obey
an exponential decay law, the behavior of continuous beta-ray spectrum
is more complex. There are also two distinct ways in which the electrons
lose energy—by collision and scattering and by radiating photons as they
decelerate (bremsstrahlung). In practice we usually refer to the range of
beta-particles as a function of their energy. However, instead of giving the
range as a distance, it is usually given in terms of a surface density. This is
the density of the material multiplied by the range in that material. The
reason for this is that the range depends on the material of the absorber,
being shorter in denser media, but the surface density is equal to the
product of range and density, so it is approximately the same for a variety
of different media.
Here are some values of surface density for beta-particles of various
energies:
504 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Beta-particle (electron) energy/MeV Surface density/kgm-2

Aluminum Copper
0.1 0.188 0.221
1.0 5.55 6.29
10 585 615

The relationship between range R, surface density , and density  is:


R

While the surface densities for aluminum and copper are similar, the range
of a 1.0 MeV beta-particle is very different because the two elements have
quite different densities.
Range in aluminum:
 5.55
R   2.1103 m
 2700
Range in copper:
 6.29
R   0.70103 m
 8960
Copper is roughly three times as dense as aluminum, so the range in copper
is roughly a third of the range in aluminum.

25.3.4 Absorption of Alpha-Particles

Alpha-particles lose their energy incrementally as they ionize atoms in the
material, so alpha-particles of a particular energy will have a particular
range. The nature of alpha-particle emission (as we shall see) results in
each source emitting alpha-particles of one or a small number of distinct
energies. This means that all alpha-particles from a particular source will
have one or more distinct ranges in each medium.

Cloud
Source chamber

E1
E2
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY • 505

Alpha-particle tracks can be shown up using a device called a cloud

chamber. A cloud chamber contains a super-cooled vapor that is on the
point of condensing. When an alpha-particle passes through the vapor,
tiny droplets condense around the ions it creates. This leaves a visible
track rather like the vapor trail behind a jet aircraft. The diagram below
shows tracks from an alpha source that emits alpha-particles of two distinct
energies.
The high positive charge and large mass of an alpha-particle make it
interact strongly with matter so that alpha-particles transfer energy quickly
and have very short ranges in anything other than a gas. Even in air they are
stopped within a few centimeters.

25.4 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation

When ionizing radiation is absorbed by matter, it transfers energy to the
atoms and molecules with which it interacts. This can cause ionization
and the breaking of atomic and molecular bonds. If ionizing radiation is
absorbed by living tissue, it can cause cell damage. However, living things
have evolved in a low-level radioactive environment, and damaged cells
are continually repaired and replaced. This suggests that the effects of low
doses of radiation may be small or even negligible, and some scientists have
suggested there might be a threshold level of background radiation below
which there are no harmful effects, but this has not been proven. In the
absence of certainty we have to assume that low levels of radiation exposure
pose a low level of risk to the health of living cells, and we judge what is
a low level by comparison with levels of natural background radiation. If
an experiment or a medical procedure increases your annual dose by an
amount that is small compared to the dose you would receive naturally, then
it is acceptable. If it increases your annual dose by much more than natural
background radiation, then it may be dangerous and cause a significant
increase in the likelihood that you suffer from a radiation-induced illness,
such as cancer.

25.4.1 Natural Background Radiation

Radioactive isotopes are present in minerals in the Earth’s rocks, soil,
and atmosphere, in building materials, in the food we eat, and in our own
bodies. Ionizing radiation is also produced by cosmic rays coming in from
space and from artificial sources such as medical and dental X-rays, nuclear
weapons testing, and the nuclear industry. We have evolved and live in
a naturally radioactive environment, and our annual radiation dose varies
506 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

depending on where we live and what we do. Taking a transatlantic flight,

for example, increases our dose because there is less atmosphere above us
to absorb incoming cosmic rays.
The pie chart below shows the origins of the typical annual radiation
dose for a UK citizen. By far the largest contribution comes from radon gas,
a natural product of the uranium decay series that seeps into the atmosphere
from the ground and can accumulate in cellars and ground-floor rooms if
they are not properly ventilated.
Nuclear
Food weapons
lear industry
Nuclear

cal
Medical

R
Radon

Rocks and soill

Cosmic rays

25.4.2 Measuring Radiation Dose

Several different units are used to measure the absorbed radiation dose.
The gray is used to measure the total energy absorbed per kilogram of living
tissue:
Q Radiation dose in gray  energy absorbed (J)/mass of tissue (kg)
1 gray (Gy)  1 Jkg1
This does not take into account the nature of the radiation absorbed.
The same dose in gray can produce very different effects depending on
whether the tissue has absorbed alpha, beta, or gamma radiation.
The equivalent dose takes into account the nature and energy of the
radiation absorbed by multiplying by a weighting or quality factor WR
determined by the type and energy of the radiation absorbed. Equivalent
dose is measured in Sievert (Sv):
Q Equivalent dose in Sieverts  radiation dose in gray  weighting factor
The Sievert is also in Jkg1 because the weighting factor is dimensionless.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY • 507

Typical weighting factors

X-rays, -rays, -particles : WR  1
Neutrons : WR  2–5 (depending upon energy)
Protons : WR  2
-particles, fission products : WR  20
When considering radiation hazards we must also bear in mind penetrating
power. Alpha-particles have a very high weighting factor but are strongly
absorbed and stopped by the outer layers of our skin. These layers are
mainly dead cells, so alpha radiation is not particularly dangerous from
outside the body. However, if an alpha source gets inside the body, e.g.,
breathing in a radioactive gas, it is particularly dangerous.
An older unit for equivalent dose is the rem (Roentgen equivalent man).
This is still used in many textbooks (especially in the USA). 1 rem  0.01 Sv

25.4.3 Effect of Radiation Dose on Human Health

There are many different factors that need to be considered when estimating
the risks to human health from ionizing radiation. These include the nature
and energy of the radiation, the tissues that are exposed to the radiation,
the radiation dose, and the rate at which that dose is received. Most of
the information about the effects of large absorbed doses comes from
studies on the survivors of the nuclear attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki;
and whilewe have a pretty good idea about the immediate effects of very
high exposures, the long-term and random effects of lower doses are not
well understood. The table below gives an idea of the effects of different
radiation doses.
Equivalent dose (in 1day) Effects
/milli-sievert /rem
0–250 0–25 No observable damage
250–1000 25–100 Mild symptoms, damage to bone marrow and spleen; short
illness is likely—the higher the dose, the more serious the
effects
1000–3000 100–300 Nausea, radiation sickness, suppression of the immune
system and susceptibility to disease, more severe damage
to spleen, lymph nodes and bone marrow—recovery often
possible if treated
3000–10,000 300–1000 More severe than above but also hair loss, skin burns,
diarrhea, hemorrhaging, damage to the central nervous
system, sterilization … death likely (and almost certain if not
treated)
508 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

According to UK government data, the annual average equivalent

radiation dose for a UK citizen is 2.7 mSv (0.27 rem),while in the USA, this
is 6.2 mSv (0.62 mSv).
Patients who survive high radiation doses have a significantly increased
risk of developing cancers such as leukemia in the future. Those who have
not been sterilized by the radiation also risk passing on genetic damage to
their children, resulting in still births and birth defects. Approximately 50%
of people exposed to 5000 mSv (500 rem) will die.
The annual exposure limit for nuclear industry employees in the UK is
20 mSv, about double the dose from a CT scan of the spine.

25.4.4 Reducing Risks in the Laboratory

There are several simple precautions that should always be followed when
carrying out experiments with radioactive sources in a laboratory. The first
and most obvious is that a risk assessment should be carried out before
starting! This should include an estimate of the likely dose that will be
received during the duration of the experiment and a list of actions that
will be taken to minimize this dose. A judgement must also be made—do
the benefits of carrying out the experiment (e.g., educational or medical
benefits) outweigh the increase in the risk of damage to your or other
people’s health? In a school laboratory, sources are usually weak and
well protected so that their use will result in a negligible increase in dose
compared to the natural background; however, it is always important to be
confident that this is the case!
Here are some additional procedures that should be used:
Q Keep the source inside its shielded container except when carrying out
the experiment
Q Maximize the distance between the source and the experimenters
Q Minimize the time of the experiment
Q Do not direct a collimated beam toward anyone
Q Always handle sources remotely, e.g., using tongs
Q Include shielding between the experiment and experimenters
Q Do not eat or drink while carrying out the experiment
Q Wash your hands thoroughly after the experiment
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY • 509

Q Cover any open cuts or scratches with a plaster

Q If you drop the source or suspect it is damaged in any way, report this
immediately

25.5 Radioactive Decay and Half-Life

Radioactive decay takes place inside the nucleus. It is a random process;
we cannot predict when a particular nucleus will decay or in which direction
the ionizing radiation will be emitted. It is also a spontaneous process;no
external factors (e.g., temperature or pressure) affect when a decay will
occur. Even though the process is random, it is still possible to predict the
pattern of decay for a sample containing a large number of unstable nuclei.
This is the probability of decay per unit that time remains constant so that
the same proportion of nuclei decay in the same time.
Radioactive decay can be modeled quite simply using dice. Each die
has 6 faces so the probability of landing with a “6”showing upwards is 1/6.
If a large number of dice are rolled together, we would expect about 1/6 of
them to show heads. The larger the number of dice, this prediction becomes
better. In a similar way, the fraction of nuclei that decay in a particular
time interval is always the same for any particular type of unstable nucleus
(particular nuclide), and the rate of decay will be directly proportional to
the number of nuclei in the sample. This leads to a differential equation:

dN
N
dt
dN
N
dt
N is the number of nuclei present at time t and the minus sign indicates that
the number is falling with time.
is the decay constant and depends on the nuclide being considered. It
has an S.I. unit s1 and represents the probability of decay per unit time in
the limit of small time intervals.
This is a first-order differential equation that can be solved by separation
of variables. Its solution represents how the number of nuclei in the sample
varies with time:
N  N0 et
This is exponential decay. The term et is equal to the fraction of the
initial number of nuclei remaining after time t.
510 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The half-life of the nuclide is the time taken for the number of nuclei
in the sample to halve.
1
et1/2 
2
ln 2
t1/2 

The graph below shows the decay curves for three nuclides, A, B, and C.
Their half-lives are shown on the time axis. A has a half-life of about 0.35y,
B has a half-life of about 0.69 y, and C has a half-life of about 1.4 y.
% of N0

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30 A
20
10
B
0 C
0 1 t1(A) 2 3 4 5
t1(C) t1(B)
2 2
2

The fraction remaining after n half-lives is 1/2n. While the mathematical

model suggests that the sample never completely decays, the number of
nuclei remaining will eventually become so small that the model does not
apply and the random nature of radioactive decay will result in significant
fluctuations in decay rate until the last nucleus eventually decays.
The activity of a radioactive source is defined as the number of
disintegrations (decays) per second taking place inside the source. This is
not the same as the count rate in a detector because many emissions will
miss the detector or not be detected and some will be absorbed before even
leaving the source.
Activity  number of decays per second inside the source
dN
A 
dt
The S.I. unit of activity is Becquerel (Bq). 1 Bq  1 decay per second.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY • 511

This can be rewritten in terms of the number of nuclei in the source:

dN
A  N0 et N
dt
A N
This is a useful relationship that can be used to determine the half-lives
of long-lived radioisotopes such as uranium. N can be determined from
the mass of the sample, and A can be calculated from measurements of
ionizing radiation emitted by the sample—i.e., a detector is placed close to
the sample and the count rate is measured and scaled up to find the activity.
Once A and N are known, the decay constant can be calculated and used to
find the half-life.

25.6 Nuclear Transformations

When a nucleus decays, it changes to become a nucleus of a different
element. The nuclear transformations equations for alpha, beta-minus, and
gamma-decays are shown below along with two additional decays: beta-plus
and electron capture. The numbers at the top of the equation are nucleon
numbers (protons or neutrons). The numbers at the bottom of the equation
are charges. Both nucleon numbers and charge numbers must balance on
either side of the equation.

25.6.1 Alpha Decay

An alpha-particle is a helium nucleus consisting of 2 protons and 2 neutrons:
4 4
2 Heor 2 

Here is the transformation equation for the alpha decay of uranium-238:

238
 234
92 U
4
90Th  2 
The general equation for the alpha decay of X to Y would be:
A
ZX  A-4 4
Z-2Y  2 

A has reduced by 4 and Z has reduced by 2.

25.6.2 Beta-Minus Decay

A beta-particle is a high-energy electron created inside the nucleus during
beta-decay.
0
1 eor 01 
This is a subtle process involving the weak nuclear force and occurs when
a neutron decays to become a proton inside the nucleus. In addition to the
512 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

creation of an electron, conservation of lepton number (see Section 26.4.1)

demands that an anti-neutrino is also emitted. This is an anti-particle of
the neutrino; it is neutral, has a tiny rest mass, and is like an uncharged
electron. Its symbol is 00 .
The bar over the symbol indicates that this is an anti-neutrino.
Here is the transformation equation for beta-minus decay of carbon-14:
14 14 0
6 C  7 N  1  00 
The general equation for the beta-minus decay of X to Y would be:
A
ZX  ZA1Y  01  00 
There is no change in mass number A because one type of nucleon, a
neutron, has changed into another type, a proton. Z increases by 1. The
underlying nucleon transformation is:
1 1 0
 00 
0 n  1 p  1
Beta decay results in three particles moving away from the position of the
original nucleus. This can occur in a variety of ways with almost all the
energy released being shared by the electron and anti-neutrino. The way in
which this energy is shared is random, so the beta-particles emitted from
a source have a continuous range of kinetic energies up to some maximum
value.
Number of beta
particles

Kinetic
energy
Cut off

This differs from alpha decay where, with only two emerging particles, the
energy is shared in a definite way and the alpha-particles have a discrete
energy spectrum.

25.6.3 Gamma Emission

Gamma-rays are high-frequency electromagnetic photons. Gamma-ray
emission occurs after some alpha or beta decays when the resultant nucleus
is left in an excited state. The excited nucleus loses energy by making
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY • 513

discrete quantum jumps to lower states until it reaches its lowest or ground
state. Each quantum jump results in the emission of a gamma-ray photon
whose energy is equal to the difference in energy between the nuclear
energy levels.
E  hf
This results in a discrete energy spectrum for the gamma-rays.
Cobalt-60 decays to nickel-60 by emitting a beta-minus particle.
However, the decay can occur to one of two excited states of the nickel
nucleus (indicated by asterisks below) each of which then decays by emitting
a gamma-ray.
Energy
60
27 Co
Beta-minus:
0.31 MeV
60
27 Ni
∗∗

Beta-minus:
1.48 MeV Gamma-ray: 1.17 MeV

60
27 Ni
∗

Gamma-ray: 1.33 MeV

60
27 Ni

25.6.4 Beta-Plus Emission

Some proton-rich nuclei can decay by emitting a positron, an anti-electron.
This converts a proton in the nucleus into a neutron. The emission of the
positron is accompanied by the emission of a neutrino, and the positron
and neutrino share the energy of the decay in a random way. This results
in a continuous spectrum of positron energies. The nuclide oxygen-15 is a
beta-plus emitter.
15 15 0
8 O  7 N  1  00 
The general equation for beta-plus decay is:
A
ZX  ZA1Y  01  00 
514 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

and the underlying nucleon decay is:

1 1 0
1 p  0 n  1  00 
The mass number A is unchanged, but atomic number Z decreases by 1.

25.6.5 Electron Capture

Electron capture is another way that a proton-rich nucleus can decay.
The nucleus captures one of the atom’s inner electrons and combines it
with a proton to create a neutron and emit a neutrino, so the net effect on
the nucleus is the same as beta-plus decay. However, the loss of an inner
electron allows other electrons to cascade down to lower energy levels
inside the atom emitting characteristic X-rays.
The general equation for electron capture is:
A 0 A 0
Z X  1 e  Z1Y  0 

and the underlying nucleon transformation is again:

1 0 1 0
1 p  1 e  0 n  0 

Electron capture is an alternative mode of decay for nuclei that undergo

beta-plus decay.

25.7 Radiation Detectors

Alpha, beta, and gamma emissions are all forms of ionizing radiation, so
ionization is the key to detection. A single alpha-particle, for example, can
create tens of thousands of ion pairs before it is stopped in the air. Air is
usually an insulator, but when ionizing radiation passes through the air,
the ion pairs created make the air slightly conducting. This change in its
electrical properties, or in the electrical properties of other gases, can be
used to make a radiation detector.

Alpha source
Ion pair
+ −
Positive ions are
attracted to the cap
Negatively and negative ions are
charged repelled from it
electroscope
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY • 515

Alpha-particles are very strongly ionizing, much more so than beta-

particles or gamma-rays; and if an alpha source is held close to a charged
electroscope, the electroscope is discharged. Ions created in the air close to
the cap create a weak conducting path to earth. A more sensitive detection
method is required for beta-particles and gamma-rays unless the source is
particularly intense.

25.7.1 Spark Counter

If the electric field strength in air is high enough, the air becomes ionized
and it begins to conduct—a spark is formed. The breakdown field strength
in air is about 3 106 Vm1. In the spark counter the field strength between
a fine wire and a metal grille is adjusted so that it is just less than this value.
When an alpha source is brought nearby so that ionizingradiation enters
the gap between the electrodes, electrons are accelerated in the field,
collide with air molecules, and cause further ionization. This results in an
avalanche of charge that forms a spark. The greater the intensity of the
ionizing radiation, the higher the spark rate. Spark detectors only work well
with strongly ionizing radiation such as alpha-particles, but the principle
behind the spark counter is used in many particle and radiation detectors.

Variable H.T.
Alpha source supply

Fine wire

Gap of ~ 1 mm

Fine metal grille

25.7.2 Geiger Counter

The Geiger counter is the most familiar radiation detector. It is really a
more sophisticated version of the spark counter. However, it is much more
sensitive than the basic spark counter and it counts individual ionization
events inside a Geiger-Müller tube.
The tube itself contains an inert gas at low pressure, and a fine wire
anode lies along the axis of the tube. When a potential difference is applied
516 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

between this anode and the surrounding cylindrical cathode, there is a radial
electric field inside the tube. When ionizing radiation passes through the
low-pressure gas, some of the gas molecules become ionized. The electric
field between the anode and cathode accelerates these ions and there is a
small pulse of current in the external circuit. This generates a voltage pulse
that can be detected and counted.
Alpha- and beta-radiation enters the Geiger-Müller tube through a thin
end window, but gamma-radiation can also enter through the walls of the
tube. All of the pulses are identical, regardless of the type of radiation, so
a Geiger counter does not indicate the type of radiation detected. There
is also a “dead time” following each voltage pulse. During this time the
detector will not register any further ionization events. This limits the
maximum count rate that can be measured accurately.

Low-pressure inert gas (e.g.,

Cylindrical helium, neon, or argon)
metal cathode

Voltage pulse
Central
wire anode
(+) −

Variable supply
400–600V
Thin end window

The count rate from a Geiger counter should not be confused with the
activity of a source. The latter is the number of disintegrations per second
inside the source. The count rate on the Geiger counter is related to this
but is usually only a small fraction of the activity because of the emissions
that miss the counter, are not detected by it, or are absorbed inside the
source or between the source and the detector.
Count rates are usually recorded as counts per minute (cpm) and
often have to be corrected for the average background count where the
experiment is being carried out.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY • 517

25.7.3 Using a Geiger Counter to Measure Count Rates

Before measuring the count rate from a radioactive source we must
measure the average background count from the surroundings. This is
done by setting up all of the apparatus except the source and then taking a
series of measurements using the Geiger counter. Typically we might make
five readings, each over 5minutes, and then use the average cpm as the
average background count. After this has been done, we can carry out the
experiment with the Geiger counter in the same position and the source
present and measure the total cpm in a similar way (based on an average of
five readings of 5minutes each). The corrected count is then the difference
between the total count rate and the average background count rate.
Corrected count rate (ccpm)  total count rate (tcpm)  average
background count rate (bcpm)
The diagram below shows a possible arrangement of apparatus to
measure the penetrating power of beta-rays through aluminum:
Constant distance

GM tube
Sealed Counter or
source rate meter

Absorber (variable thickness)

25.8 Using Radioactive Sources

All of the properties of ionizing radiation have useful applications.
Q The exponential decay and constant half-life can be used like a clock to
date archeological samples and minerals on Earth and elsewhere in the
solar system (as described below).
Q The penetrating power of ionizing radiation can be used to measure the
thickness of materials and to locate medical tracers inside the body.
Q The energy of ionizing radiation can be used to sterilize equipment and
to kill cancer cells.
Q The absorption of ionizing radiation can be used to form images of
pipelines and structures and to locate cracks and defects.
518 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

25.8.1 Radiological Dating

The best-known dating technique uses the isotope carbon-14, a beta-minus
emitter with a half-life of 5730 years. Approximately 1 in 1012 atoms of
carbon in the Earth’s atmosphere is carbon-14. The rest are carbon-12 and
carbon-13, both of which are stable.
Atmospheric carbon-14 is continually replenished by cosmic rays from
space that bombard the atmosphere resulting in a flux of neutrons. When
neutrons strike nitrogen atoms (78% of the Earth’s atmosphere is nitrogen),
carbon-14 is created:
1 14 14 1
0 n 7 N  6C +0 p

This maintains a roughly constant proportion of carbon-14.

Living things continually exchange carbon with the atmosphere, so
while they are alive, they contain the same proportion of carbon-14 as the
atmosphere. When a living thing dies, the exchange ceases so the proportion
of carbon-14 decays exponentially. Radiocarbon dating measures the
fraction of carbon-14 in the carbon content of a sample of once-living
material and uses this to estimate the age of the sample.
If the fraction in the atmosphere is f0 and the fraction in the sample is f:
f  f0 et
where  is the decay constant for carbon-14.
The age of the sample is then:
 f   f 
ln  ln 
f
 0  f0 
t 
 ln 2
f/f0 × 100%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 Time /y
573 1146 17190
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY • 519

This method assumes that there has been no contamination of the sample
and that the fraction of carbon-14 in the atmosphere has remained constant
over the time period being measured. Radiocarbon dating methods are
calibrated against other methods such as dendrochronology (tree ring
counting).

25.8.2 Radiological Dating of Rocks

Radiocarbon dating cannot be used to date non-organic material unless
there is some organic material known to be of the same age associated
with it. However, radioactive dating methods (radiometric dating) using
other isotopes can be used to date rocks. One method uses two unstable
isotopes of uranium—uranium-238 (with a half-life of 4.5 billion years) and
uranium-235 (with a half-life of 700,000 years). Both decay, via many steps,
to stable isotopes of lead (lead-207 and lead-206, respectively), so the ratio
of lead to uranium grows as time goes on and this ratio can be used as a
clock. Another method uses the decay of potassium-40 to argon-40 (with a
half-life of 1.3 billion years). All such methods rely on assumptions about
the initial state of the rocks, e.g., that there was no argon present in a rock
when it solidified so that all of the argon now present must have come
from the decay of potassium, and about the isolation of the rock since its
formation, i.e., so that no potassium or argon has been added from or lost
to external sources.

25.8 Exercises

1. The discovery of the electron by J.J.Thomson in 1897 showed that atoms

are not fundamental particles. Thomson thought that atoms were like
“plum puddings” with negatively charged electrons embedded in a
sphere of positive matter. However, Rutherford’s interpretation of the
alpha-particle scattering experiment carried out by Geiger and Marsden
showed that Thomson’s model was not correct and led to the nuclear
model of the atom.
(a) Use a diagram to describe Rutherford’s alpha-particle scattering
experiment.
(b) List the main observations from the experiment.
(c) Explain how evidence from the experiment supports the idea that:
(i) atoms are mainly empty space
(ii) then ucleus is charged
(iii) then ucleus contains most of the mass of the atom.
520 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(d) Explain how, if we know the incident energy of alpha-particles, it is

possible to estimate an upper limit for the size of a nucleus.
(e) Calculate the closest approach of 5.0 MeV alpha-particles to a gold
nucleus (Z  79).
(f) State an assumption that was made to carry out the calculation in (e).
2. State and explain two advantages of using high-energy electron beams
from an accelerator rather than alpha-particles from radioactive sources
to measure nuclear diameters.
3. (a) Complete the table below for neutral atoms.
Isotope Symbol Atomic Nucleon Protons Electrons Neutrons
number number
Hydrogen 1
Carbon-12 12
6C

Carbon-13
Carbon-14
Oxygen-16 8
Iron- 56
26 Fe

Gold- 79 197
Uranium-235 92
Uranium-238
(b) Use examples from the table to explain what is meant by an
“isotope.”
(c) The heavier nuclei, such as iron, gold, and uranium, have an excess
of neutrons. Suggest a reason for this.
4. A radioactive rock is tested in a school laboratory. Here are the results:
Setup Number of counts in 5 minutes
No rock present 100
Rock alone present 900
Rock behind card 402
Rock behind 2mm aluminum sheet 398
Rock behind 1 cm lead 123
Rock alone present 24 hours later 197

(a) What is the average background count (in cpm)?

(b) Why must we use the term “average”?
(c) Roughly what is the half-life of the source?
(d) What is/are the main type(s) of radiation emitted by the rock? Give
reasons for your answer.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY • 521

5. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years. While alive, organisms exchange

carbon with their surroundings and maintain a constant small fraction
of the isotope carbon-14. When a living creature dies, its carbon-14
content is not replenished, so this fraction falls. If the activity due
to carbon-14 is measured, the time since the organism died can be
calculated.
(a) Calculate the decay constant of carbon-14.
(b) A sample taken from an archeological relic contains only 1/16 of
carbon-14 that would be present in a sample of the same mass taken
from a living creature. How old is the relic? What assumptions have
been made?
(c) How long does it take after death for the ratio of carbon-14 to
carbon-12 to fall to 10% of its original value?
6. Two radioisotopes—X and Y—have half-lives of 1 and 2 hours
respectively. N atoms of X have an activity equal to that of M atoms of Y.
What is the ratio M/N?
7. Nuclide P decays to nuclide Q with half-life 1000 years. Q is stable.
At t  0 there are N atoms of P and none of Q present.
Work out the number of nuclei of P and Q after 1000, 2000, 3000,
and 5000 years. Tabulate your results and use them to sketch a graph
showing how the number of atoms of both nuclides varies with time.
8. 8. Gamma-ray photons of a particular energy from a radioactive source
have a 98% probability of penetrating 0.10 mm of lead.
(a) A lead shield is placed in front of the source. Show that the intensity
of transmitted radiation falls off exponentially with the thickness of
the lead shield.
(b) Calculate the half-thickness of lead for this radiation.
(c) For safety reasons the intensity of gamma-rays from this source
must be reduced to 1% of its original value. Calculate the thickness
of lead shielding required to do this.
9. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using radioactive sources as
tracers in medical diagnosis.
10. There are four naturally occurring radioactive series, all of which end
with a stable isotope of lead. The uranium series starts with urani-
um-238 (Z  92) and ends with lead-206 (Z  82).
(a) All of the decays in the series are either alpha decays or beta-minus
decays. State the number of each type of decay in the entire series.
522 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(b) The first three nuclides in the series are: uranium-238 (atomic
number 92), thorium-234, palladium-234, and uranium-234. Write
down balanced nuclear transformation equations for the first three
decays.
(c) The half-lives of the four nuclides above are: 4.51 109 years, 24.1
days, 77s, and 2.47 107 years. Suggest how the relative abundances
of each nuclide compare.
(d) The isotope bismuth-214 (Z  83) can decay by either alpha or beta-
minus decay, but whichever decay it undergoes, the series reaches
lead-210 (atomic number 82) in two steps. Write down the nuclear
transformation equations to show how this occurs by each route.
(The element with Z  81 is thallium and the element with Z  84 is
polonium.)
11. An experiment was carried out using a Geiger counter to monitor the
activity of a radioactive source. The table below gives the average cpm,
corrected for background, recorded during the experiment.
Time/s Activity/1013 s1
0 1.64
50 1.36
100 1.13
150 0.935
200 0.775
250 0.643
300 0.533
50 0.422
400 0.366
450 0.304
500 0.252

Use a log-linear graph to determine the decay constant and half-life of

this source.
 CHAPTER

26
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

26.1 Nuclear Energy Changes

Nucleons inside nuclei are in bound states. This means that their total energy
is negative and work would have to be done to separate them. The work
that must be done is called the binding energy (B.E.) of the nucleus. Note
that this is not energy in the nucleus, it is energy that must be supplied to
break it apart or that would be released if the nucleus formed from separate
nucleons. When nuclear transformations such as radioactive decay, nuclear
fission or nuclear fusion occur, the total B.E. of the system changes and
energy can be released, e.g., in the form of kinetic energy of the products of
reaction. Einstein’s mass–energy relationship, E  mc2, links these energy
changes to mass changes.

26.1.1 Nuclear Binding Energy

The B.E. of a nucleus is equal to the work that must be done to separate
all of the nucleons in the nucleus so that they are no longer interacting.
In theory, this would mean separating them to infinite distances but the
strong nuclear force that binds them together is extremely short range and
effectively falls to zero at distances greater than a few times 1015 m:
The energy of a nucleon is lower when it is inside the nucleus than
when it is a free particle so its mass is also lower. The total mass of a nucleus
is therefore less than the sum of the rest masses of the free nucleons from
which it is made. The difference in mass between the mass of the free
nucleons and the mass of the nucleus is called the mass defect m for the
524 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Repulsion

Strong nuclear force ~3 × 10−15

Attraction
nucleus. The B.E. of the nucleus is equal to the mass defect multiplied by
the speed of light squared.
Mass defect  (sum of masses of free nucleons)  (mass of nucleus)

m  Zm p  Nm n  Mnucleus 
B.E.  c2m
B.E. per nucleon:
B.E./A  c2m /A
When carrying out calculations of nuclear B.E. it is important to use nuclear
mass and not atomic mass. Most tables of data give atomic masses so the
mass of Z electrons must be subtracted from this. The data below has been
used to calculate the B.E. and B.E. per nucleon of an oxygen-16 nucleus.
Particle Mass/kg
Electron 9.10941031
Proton 1.67261027
Neutron 1.67501027
Oxygen-16 atom 26.56761027
Mass of oxygen-16 nucleus  (mass of oxygen16 atom)
 8 (mass of electron)
 26.5603  1027 kg
Mass of nucleons  8 (mass of neutron)  8 (mass of proton)
 26.7808  1027 kg
Mass defect  m  (mass of nucleons)  (mass of nucleus)
 0.2205  1027 kg
B.E.  c2m  1.9845  1011 J  124.0 MeV
B.E. per nucleon  B.E./16  7.752 MeV/nucleon
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS • 525

26.1.2 Atomic Mass Units (A.M.U.)

Atomic masses are usually stated in terms of unified atomic mass units, u.
1 u  1/12  (mass of an unbound carbon-12 atom in its ground state)
1 u  1.660 539 040  1027 kg
The mass of a carbon-12 atom in these units is 12 u and 1 u is approximately
equal to the mass of a nucleon (proton or neutron).
The energy equivalent of 1 u is 1.494  1010 J  932.9 MeV
Nuclear energy calculations are often carried out by finding the mass
defect in atomic mass units and then multiplying by the energy equivalent
to 1 u.

26.1.3 Energy Released by Nuclear Decays

To calculate the energy released in a radioactive decay process we must
find the mass defect for the reaction. Here are some examples.
Alpha decay of uranium-238 is:
238
92  234 4
90Th  2 

The relevant atomic masses are:

Atom Mass
4
2 He
4.002603 u

234
90Th 234.04364 u

238
92 U 238.05082 u

The mass defect for the reaction is the difference between the nuclear
masses on each side of the equation. To calculate the nuclear masses we
need to subtract 92 me from the left-hand side and (90 2)me from the
right-hand side. These electron masses cancel so we can work directly with
the atomic masses:
m  238.05082 u  (234.04364  4.002603) u  0.00458 u
The energy released is E  932.9  0.00458  4.27 MeV
This is shared between the alpha particle and the recoiling nucleus
and linear momentum must be conserved so (in the reference frame of the
original uranium-238 atom) the two must travel in opposite directions and:
m nucleus vnucleus  m  v
526 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

so that:
m   234 
v  nucleus vnucleus  v
 m   4  nucleus
The alpha particle travels much faster than the recoiling nucleus and carries
away most of the kinetic energy.
2
1 2 1  mnucleus  2
E  m  v  m  v
2 2  m   nucleus
m   234 
 nucleus Enucleus  E
 m    4  nucleus
The alpha particle gets 234/238 E.
Beta-minus decay of carbon-14 is:
14 14 0
6 C  7 N  1  00 
The relevant atomic masses are:
Atom Mass
0
1  0.000549 u
14
6C 14.003242 u
14
7N 14.003074 u

The neutrino has negligible rest mass.

The mass defect for the reaction is the dfifference between the total
rest masses on each side of the equation. To calculate the nuclear masses of
carbon-14 and nitrogen-14 we must subtract 6 me from the atomic mass of
carbon-14 and 7 me from the atomic mass of nitrogen-14.
Mass defect  (14.003242  6 0.000549) u
 ((14.003074  7 0.000549)  0.000549) u
When the beta-minus is included, the electron masses cancel:
 m  (14.003242  14.003074) u  0.000168 u
The energy released is E  932.9  0.000168  157 keV
This energy is shared between the recoiling nitrogen-14 nucleus, the
beta-particle and the neutrino. The mass of the neutrino and beta-particle
is negligible compared to the mass of the nucleus so virtually all the energy
goes to the two light particles. However, this energy is shared randomly
between them so beta-particles from a carbon-14 source are emitted with a
continuous range of kinetic energies up to a cut-off value of 157 keV.
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS • 527

26.2 Nuclear Stability

Inside an atomic nucleus the nucleons are bound together by the strong
nuclear force. However, the protons are all positively charged and repel
one another so the strong nuclear forces and the electrostatic forces act in
opposition. These two forces are very different—the nuclear force becomes
very strong at short distances, binding nucleons together when they are close,
but it has a very short range so it only strongly affects nearest neighbors. The
electrostatic force however, obeys an inverse-square law, so all the protons
exert significant repulsive forces on all other protons in the nucleus.
For very large nuclei the cumulative effect of coulomb repulsion
outweighs the attractive force between nearest neighbor nucleons and the
nucleus becomes unstable. Ultimately this sets a limit to the size of stable
nuclei and explains why the periodic table contains only about 100 elements.
26.2.1 Nuclear Configuration and Stability
If a graph of neutron number against proton number is drawn the stable
nuclei form a narrow band. On each side of this band there are unstable
nuclei with specific decay modes that result in product nuclei lying closer
to the band of stability.
Band of stability
Neutron number:
N=A−Z Alpha emitters
Z

Beta-minus
=
N

emitters

Beta-plus emitters
and electron capture

Proton number: Z
Q Beta-minus emitters: N/Z too high—neutron-rich nuclei that approach
stability by converting a neutron to a proton.
Q Beta-plus emitters and electron capture nuclei: N/Z too low—proton-
rich nuclei that approach stability by converting a proton to a neutron.
Q Alpha emitters: N/Z too low—heavy proton-rich nuclei that approach
stability by reducing both N and Z by 2. Since N  Z this reduces the
ratio of N to Z.
528 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q Nuclear fission: some heavy nuclei close to the top of the band can
undergo induced or spontaneous nuclear fission to create pairs of
neutron-rich daughter nuclei which lie about half-way down the band
and are beta-minus emitters.
The diagram below shows the effect of alpha and beta decays on a plot of
proton number against neutron number:
Neutron
number
Z− 2 Z− 1 Z Z+ 1 Z+ 2
Z+ 2

Z+ 1
β+
ec
Z
β−
α
Z− 1

Z−2
Proton number

26.2.2 Nuclear Binding Energy and Stability

The diagram below shows the variation of nuclear B.E. per nucleon with
nucleon number across the periodic table.
B.E. per nucleon/MeV
10.0
56
26Fe
16
8O
8.0 4
2He 19
9F
14 238
7N 92U
12
6C
6.0
6
4Li

4.0
3
1H
2.0
2
1H
Nucleon number
0.0
50 100 150 200 250
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS • 529

It is better to compare B.E. per nucleon rather than total nuclear B.E.
because the latter depends on the number of nucleons in the nucleus so
that a large value does not necessarily mean that the nucleus is particularly
stable.
Q B.E. per nucleon increases rapidly with nucleon number for light nuclei.
Q The curve has a peak value that occurs for iron-56. This is the most
stable nuclide.
Q For nuclides heavier than iron-56 the B.E. per nucleon gradually falls.
Q Most nuclides (from Oxygen to Uranium) have a B.E. per nucleon
between 7.5 and 8.5 MeV/nucleon.
Q Some light nuclides, such as helium-4, carbon-12 and oxygen-16 have
particularly large B.E. per nucleon compared to other nearby nuclides.

26.3 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion

Einstein’s equation E  mc2 explains where the energy released in
radioactive decays comes from but it also raised the question of whether
there were other ways to release nuclear potential energy. There are two
important processes that can be used to do this, nuclear fission and nuclear
fusion. Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus to create two
lighter daughter nuclei and nuclear fusion is the combination of two light
nuclei to create a more massive nucleus. The B.E. per nucleon curve shows
that both processes will release energy.
“Daughter nuclei”
B.E./A

Nuclear fission

Nuclear fusion

A
530 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The initial steepness of the curve shows that nuclear fusion releases
more energy per kilogram of fuel than nuclear fission. However, the high
nucleon number of the fissioning nucleus shows that nuclear fission releases
more energy per reaction than nuclear fusion.

26.3.1 Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission was discovered by Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner in 1938.
They were bombarding uranium with neutrons and noticed that lighter
nuclei with mass numbers approximately half that of uranium were being
formed. They came to the correct conclusion that the neutrons had induced
fission reactions in nuclei of uranium. However, natural uranium consists
almost entirely of two isotopes, uranium-238 (99.3%) and uranium-235
(0.7%). The fissionable isotope is uranium-235 while uranium-238 is more
likely to absorb neutrons than fission.
There are many ways that the uranium-235 nucleus can split when it
absorbs a neutron. Here is one nuclear equation for the induced fission of
uranium-235:
1 235 144 90 1
0 n  92 U  56 Ba  36 Kr  2 0 n
The relevant atomic masses are:
Atom Mass
1
0n 1.009 u
235
92 U 235.044 u
144
56 Ba 143.923 u
90
36 Kr 89.920 u

We need to work with nuclear masses, but since there are equal numbers
of electrons to subtract from each side of the equation we can, once again,
simply use the atomic masses.
Mass defect  (235.044  1.009) u  (143.923  89.920  2 1.009)
u  0.192 u
The energy released is E  932.9  0.192  179 MeV
The fact that additional neutrons are emitted could lead to further
nuclear fission reactions. The Hungarian physicist Leo Szilardrealized that
it would be possible to initiate a chain reaction if more than one neutron per
fission on average went on to cause further fission reactions.
A chain reaction can release a huge amount of energy. If it is allowed to
run out of control this energy is released explosively—this is the principle
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS • 531

behind an “atom bomb.” However, if the chain reaction can be controlled at

a constant power, it can be used to generate electricity. This is the principle
behind thermal nuclear power stations. The main problem facing both
approaches is that 99.3% of natural uranium is uranium-238, a neutron
absorber. This reduces the average number of neutrons per fission that can
initiate further fission and effectively stops the reaction.
Incident neutron

Uranium-235 nucleus
undergoing fission

One way around this problem is to use enriched uranium, i.e., uranium
with a higher content of uranium-235, but this is difficult to obtain in
large quantities because uranium-235 and uranium-238 are isotopes of
the same chemical element and so have the same chemical properties.
Various separation techniques have been used but the most successful
involves centrifuging uranium hexafluoride, a gaseous uranium compound,
to increase the concentration of uranium-235. Since this method can be
used to produce fuel for nuclear reactors (about 4% enrichment) and for
weapons (about 80% enrichment) it is very difficult to distinguish between
the peaceful production of enriched uranium and its production for atomic
bombs.

26.3.2 Principle of the Atomic Bomb

The first atomic bombs were developed in the USA during World
War II. In August 1945, atomic bombs were dropped on the Japanese
532 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The Hiroshima bomb used fission of

uranium-235 and the Nagasaki bomb used fission of plutonium-239.
To get an uncontrolled chain reaction a minimum or critical amount of
fissionable material had to be produced. This is because the surface area
to volume ratio decreases with the volume of material. The rate at which
neutrons are produced depends on the volume of the sample, whereas the
number lost from the surface depends on its surface area, so decreasing this
ratio tips the balance toward the chain reaction. When a critical assembly is
produced, the reaction proceeds very rapidly and there is a huge explosion.
In both the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs, sub-critical amounts
of fissionable material were made critical when the bomb detonated.
However, the techniques used were quite different. The Hiroshima bomb
used a gun design where a sub critical amount of uranium-235 was fired
(by conventional explosives) into another subcritical amount so that the
combination became critical and exploded.

Conventional
explosive
(detonator)

Sub-critical mass of Sub-critical mass of

uranium-235 uranium-235

In the Nagasaki bomb a spherical lump of plutonium-239 was surrounded

by shaped conventional explosives. When it detonated shock waves
compressed the sphere so that its surface area reduced and it became
critical. It too exploded. The energy released by each bomb was equivalent
to the explosion of about 10,000 tons of TNT (conventional high explosive).
Shaped explosives

Sub-critical assembly of
plutonium-239

Compressed, critical
assembly of
plutonium-239

While atom bombs are incredibly powerful weapons they release far less
energy than a hydrogen bomb, which is based on nuclear fusion reactions. In
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS • 533

order to initiate the intense conditions of temperature and pressure under

which nuclear fusion reactions take place, a fission weapon is detonated
first, for this reason such weapons are called thermonuclear devices.

26.3.3 Nuclear Reactors

In the core of a nuclear reactor the chain reaction is allowed to grow steadily
until it reaches a constant power level and then it is kept at that level. Under
these conditions exactly one neutron per fission goes on to initiate further
fission reactions. These reactions heat the core and energy is extracted by
pumping a coolant, usually water, through the core. The heated water is
used to generate steam to drive turbo generators. In many respects this is
the same principle as in a fossil-fueled power station. The main difference
is that the source of the energy is nuclear rather than chemical.
To achieve a stable critical assembly a moderator is used. This is a
material that slows down the neutrons emitted when a uranium-235 nucleus
undergoes fission. The fast neutrons emitted by fission have a chance of being
absorbed by a uranium-238 nucleus or initiating fission in a uranium-235
nucleus. Slowing them down increases both probabilities but has a much
greater effect on the probability of initiating fission in uranium-235 so it
allows a chain reaction to proceed at lower levels of enrichment than are
needed for the spontaneous chain reaction in a bomb. The moderator
contains nuclei of relatively light elements (e.g., carbon, water or heavy
water) so that fast neutrons make a number of collisions with these nuclei
and transfer energy and momentum to them, slowing down as they do so.
Eventually the mean kinetic energy of the neutron is comparable to the
thermal kinetic energy of particles in the moderator, so they are called
thermal neutrons. Fuel rods are surrounded by moderating material:
Fuel rods
Sow (thermal) neutron
Moderator initiates fission

Slow (thermal) neutron

initiates fission
Fast neutron
from fission
534 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The reaction is controlled using neutron-absorbing material such as

boron or cadmium in control rods that can be raised or lowered inside the
core of the reactor. In an emergency, the control rods are dropped into the
core and the chain reaction stops.
Coolant is pumped through the core of the reactor. This extracts
energy to generate electricity but also stops the reactor core overheating
and melting (“melt down”). Failure of the coolant system activates fail-safe
systems that immediately lower the control rods and switch off the reactor.
The diagram shows a simplified arrangement for a pressurized water
reactor. This is the most common type of nuclear reactor and is in use in
many countries including the USA, France, Russia, Japan, and China.

Containment

Control rods
Steam to
Pressure vessel
turbo-
generator
Core
Fuel rods

Heat

Cool water
condensed
Light water
moderator
from steam
Steam
Pump generator

There are two cooling circuits. In the primary circuit water is pumped up
through the core and then returns to the core via a heat exchanger. In the
heat exchanger energy is transferred to water in the secondary circuit. This
generates steam that is used to drive a turbo generator to generate electricity.
The steam is then condensed and returned to the heat exchanger. Cold
water from a lake or river is needed to operate the condenser and large
cooling towers are used to cool this water once it has returned from the
condenser.

26.3.4 Plutonium
Plutonium is a fissile material that can be used in bombs and reactors.
However, it does not occur naturally on Earth in any significant quantities
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS • 535

but it is created as a by-product of nuclear fission reactions in a reactor

core. Neutrons that are absorbed by uranium-238 create an unstable and
short-lived nuclide, uranium-239 that undergoes a beta-minus decay to
form neptunium-239. This is also unstable with a relatively short half-life
and it undergoes a second beta-minus decay to form plutonium-239:

0 n  92 U → 92 U
1 238 239

239
92 U → 93 Np  1
239 0
 00 
239
93 Np → 239 0
94 Pu 1  00 
Plutonium can be harvested from spent fuel rods. This is called
“reprocessing.”

26.3.5 Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fusion is the combination of two light nuclei to form a more massive
nucleus with the release of a great deal of energy. Here is an example
of a nuclear fusion reaction which combines two isotopes of hydrogen
(deuterium and tritium) to form helium-4 and release a neutron. This
reaction might be used in future fusion reactors:
2
1 H  1 H → 2 He  0 n
3 4 1

The relevant atomic masses are:

Atom Mass
1
0n 1.008664 u
2
1H 2.014102 u
3
1H 3.0160492 u
4
2 He 4.002603 u

We need to work with nuclear masses, but since there are equal numbers
of electrons to subtract from each side of the equation we can, once again,
simply use the atomic masses.
Mass defect  (2.014102  3.0160492) u  (4.002603  1.008664) u
 0.0189 u
The energy released is E  932.9  0.0189  17.6 MeV
This is about 3.5 MeV/nucleon compared to about 0.76 MeV/nucleon from
nuclear fission (combustion releases less than 1 eV per nucleon!).
536 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

For nuclear fusion to take place the reacting nuclei must come close
enough (a few times 1015 m) for the short range strong nuclear force to
bind them together. However, all nuclei are positively charged and repel
one another. To approach close enough for fusion to take place they must
have a very large kinetic energy. This can be achieved by accelerating
the nuclei and then crashing them together in a device such as the Large
Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN or by confining the reactants and heating
them to extreme temperatures.
Three situations that involve nuclear fusion reactions are:
Q Nucleosynthesis—the formation of heavy nuclei from light nuclei in the
cores of stars.
Q Thermonuclear weapons—the nuclear fusion of isotopes of hydrogen in
a bomb.
Q Fusion reactors—commercial reactors designed to produce electrical
energy from nuclear fusion.

26.3.6 Nucleosynthesis
Soon after the Big Bang the early universe consisted mainly of hydrogen
with some helium and trace amounts of other nuclei. Nuclei of all the
heavier elements were formed (and are still being formed) by nuclear
fusion reactions taking place in stars. Nuclei of elements up to iron-56 are
formed in the cores of stars during most of their “normal life” (when they
are on the “main sequence”). Nuclei beyond iron-56 are formed when very
massive stars explode at the end of their lives (forming supernovae).
Stars form when clouds of gas and dust collapse under their own
gravitational forces. As gravitational potential energy falls the gas and dust
heats up and when the temperature and pressure at the core of the collapsing
mass become high enough nuclear fusion reactions begin. At this point a
proto star is formed. The higher the mass of the star the more extreme the
core conditions and elements higher up the periodic table can form. This
process of nucleosynthesis stops at iron-56 because this is the most stable
nuclide. Nuclides lighter than this are formed by exothermic reactions
whereas those beyond iron-56 are only formed in endothermic fusion
reactions and so need an external source of energy. The energy released
in the core by exothermic nuclear fusion reactions generates an outward
radiation pressure that supports the star against further gravitational
collapse during most of its “life.”
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS • 537

Star formation: Nuclear fusion Star in equilibrium:

gravitational reactions nucleosynthesis reactions in
collapse of gas ignite in core: core. Outward radiation
and dust protostar pressure balances pressure
forms from gravitational forces

As fuel for the fusion reactions in the core runs out gravitational forces
cause the core to collapse. What happens next depends on the mass of the
star (see Section 28.1.1) but when stars of mass greater than about 10 times
the mass of the Sun collapse they undergo a sequence of fusion reactions
and create all the nuclides up to iron-56 and then explode in a supernova.
Some of the energy released in the explosion creates the heavier nuclei up
to uranium and the explosion distributes them throughout space.
Our Sun is a medium-sized star and will spend almost all of its life
synthesizing helium from the hydrogen in its core. The net effect is to
convert four protons into a helium nucleus but the probability of this
happening in one step by a fortunate collision of four particles with enough
energy to get close enough to fuse is effectively zero. The main process by
which helium is created is called the proton-proton cyclethat proceeds in
three steps.
Q Step 1: Two protons collide to form a deuteron, a positron (anti-
electron) and a neutrino:
1
1H 1H → 1H 1 e  0 
1 2 0 0

Q Step 2 (twice): A proton collides with a deuteron to form a nucleus of

helium-3 and emit a gamma-ray:
1
1 H  1 H → 2 He  0 
2 3 0

Q Step 3: Two helium-3 nuclei collide to form a helium-4 nucleus and

release two protons:
2 He  2 He → 2 He  2 1 H
3 3 4 1
538 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

This process releases about 26 MeV per helium-4 nucleus produced. The
overall reaction for the proton-proton cycle is then:
4 11 H → 42 He  2 10 e  2 00 
The two positrons created in the core almost immediately annihilate with
electrons creating high-energy gamma-rays that contribute to the outward
radiation pressure that supports the star. The neutrinos are very weakly
interacting and pass through the outer layers of the Sun and into space. The
flux of solar neutrinos detected on Earth gives astronomers a way to monitor
the fusion processes going on in the Sun’s core. Astronomers estimate that
there is enough hydrogen left in the core for the Sun, which was formed
about 5 billion years ago, to continue to shine for another 5 billion years.

26.3.7 Thermonuclear Weapons

The need to form a critical mass and for a significant amount of the fissile
material in that mass to fission in a chain reaction limits the maximum yield
of an atom bomb (fission weapon). A thermonuclear weapon uses a fission
explosion to create the extreme temperatures and pressures under which
isotopes of hydrogen can fuse. This makes the yield of a fusion weapon
(hydrogen bomb) effectively unlimited. The most powerful thermonuclear
bomb ever exploded was the RDS-220 or “Tsar bomb” detonated by Russia
in 1961. It released an energy equivalent to about 50 million tons of TNT,
which is about 5000 times more energy than the atom bomb dropped on
Hiroshima.
The Teller-Ulam design of a hydrogen bomb, as shown below, has two
distinct parts: a primary device rather like the implosion weapon dropped

Shaped explosives

Primary device Fissile core

Fissile “spark plug”

Secondary device Fusion fuel

 NUCLEAR PHYSICS • 539

on Nagasaki, and a secondary device containing the fusion fuel that is

imploded by a focused shock wave from detonation of the primary device.
A fissile “spark plug” runs through the center of the second device and both
enhances the reaction and propagates the shock wave that compresses the
fusion fuel. The implosion creates the extreme conditions needed for the
fuel (ultimately deuterium and tritium) to undergo nuclear fusion reactions
and release a huge amount of energy.

26.3.8 Fusion Reactors

All existing commercial nuclear reactors use nuclear fission reactions in
uranium or plutonium. While this is a well-established technology there are
significant disadvantages to the use of nuclear fission to generate electricity:
Q Fission reactors produce high level nuclear waste consisting of a
complex cocktail of radioactive nuclides. Proposed strategies for
the long term safe storage of nuclear waste (where these exist) are
controversial.
Q The fuel for fission reactors, uranium and plutonium, is limited, and
sources of fuel are not accessible to all nations equally.
Q Equipment needed to enrich uranium for reactors can also be used to
enrich it to weapons grade so it is difficult to distinguish peaceful from
military nuclear programs.
Q When a reactor fails, e.g., in a melt-down of the core, there is the
potential for massive environmental damage (e.g., Chernobyl,
Fukushima) as radioisotopes escape from the reactor.
Q Nuclear fission reactors are complex and the cost of decommissioning
reactors at the end of their working life adds a significant amount to the
cost of the electricity they generate.
If a reactor could be constructed that would generate electricity
commercially from nuclear fusion reactions it would avoid most of the
problems associated with nuclear fission.
Q Fusion reactions involve light nuclei and produce very little radioactive
waste.
Q The fuel for fusion reactors, isotopes of hydrogen, are plentiful and
spread all around the world.
Q Nuclear fusion reactors work in a very different way to thermonuclear
weapons so it would be easier to distinguish peaceful from military
projects.
540 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q When fusion reactions fail the reactor simply switches off, there is no
core and no possibility of a meltdown.
Q While the cost of a commercial fusion reactor is likely to be high the
decommissioning costs should be significantly less than for a fission
reactor because there is no highly radioactive core or spent fuel rods to
deal with.
The challenge of creating a commercial fusion reactor is very great and
stems from the need to create and maintain the extreme conditions under
which fusion reactions can take place. The two main approaches are:
Q Tokamaks—reactors that support a plasma (a gas of ionized particles)
in a toroidal magnetic field and then pump it to high temperature to
initiate the fusion reactions.
Q Inertial confinement—focusing intense lasers onto a pellet of fusion fuel
so that it implodes, reaches extreme temperatures and pressures and
fuses.
Both methods have achieved some success in producing fusion reactions but
have a long way to go before they can be used in a commercial reactor. The
largest current project is the International Thermonuclear Experimental
Reactor that is being built in France by an international collaboration of
countries representing over half the world’s population. Its aim is to test the
feasibility of magnetic fusion reactors (Tokamaks).
The tokamak method is likely to use the fusion of deuterium (about
0.015% of all hydrogen atoms on Earth are deuterium) and tritium, which
can be created from lithium (a common element in the Earth’s crust).
2
1 H  1 H → 2 He  0 n
3 4 1

The reactor would be surrounded by a lithium blanket. Once self-sustaining

fusion reactions are taking place in the plasma a constant flux of neutrons
can be absorbed in the blanket where they convert lithium to tritium,
effectively creating more fuel for the reactor, e.g.,
7 1
3 Li  0 n → 24 He + 31 H  01 n
The blanket would also heat up and a suitable coolant (water) could be
pumped through the lithium blanket and used to raise steam to drive turbo-
generators.
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS • 541

26.4 Particle Physics

Throughout the twentieth century, experiments with cosmic rays and in
nuclear physics revealed the existence of many new subatomic particles,
with a range of different properties. As more and more were discovered,
patterns and relationships between them were identified and physicists
suspected that there might be something like the periodic table for these
particles. They were right, and, as with the periodic table, the patterns were
present because of an underlying structure to the particles.
The different types of atom are all constructed from just three types of
particle: protons, neutrons and electrons. It turns out that all of the subatomic
particles can be explained in terms of two simple classes of particle: the
quarks and the leptons. The grand scheme that was constructed to explain
particle physics is called the Standard Model. Here we will simply describe
the main characteristics of each type of particle and the structure of the
model.
26.4.1 Leptons
The anti-neutrino, emitted in beta-minus decay, and the neutrino, emitted
in beta-plus decay, are closely related to the electron and positron that are
also emitted in those decays. These are all leptons, particles that interact by
the weak nuclear force. Surprisingly it turns out that there are also heavier
versions of these particles so that there are three generations of leptons:
Generation Particle/anti-particle Particle/anti-particle
1st Electron and positron Electron-neutrino and anti-electron neutrino
2nd Muon and anti-muon Muon-neutrino and anti-muon-neutrino
3rd Tau and anti-tau Tau-neutrino and anti-tau neutrino

The muon and tau are effectively more massive versions of the electron
and they tend to undergo decays that eventually produce electrons. The
neutrinos are all neutral and have very low rest mass. Beams of neutrinos of
any one type begin to oscillate between the different “flavors” of neutrino
so that soon the beam contains equal numbers of electron-, muon-, and
tau-neutrinos. The discovery that this occurs solved the so-called “solar
neutrino problem” where only about 1/3 of the electron-neutrinos emitted
by nuclear fusion reactions in the Sun were detected here on Earth. The
other 2/3 had oscillated to muons or tausen route.

26.4.2 Hadrons and Quarks

Hadrons are strongly interacting particles like protons and neutrons but
they are not fundamental, they consist of combinations of smaller particles
542 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

called quarks. Most hadrons contain quark pairs (mesons) or quark triplets
(baryons) and the quarks, like the leptons, come in three generations, each
with a pair of different “flavors.”
Generation Particle/anti-particle Particle/anti-particle
1st Up and anti-up Down and anti-down
2nd Strange and anti-strange Charm and anti-charm
3rd Bottom and anti-bottom Top and anti-top

The up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of 2/3 e.

The down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of 1/3 e.
Mass increases as we go down the table so that hadrons formed from
bottom quarks tend to be very heavy (and highly unstable).
Theory suggests that quarks cannot exist as free particles and we do not
see fractional charges in nature. Quarks bind together with the “color force”
which is the origin of the strong nuclear force, and they do so into triplets
(baryons) or pairs (mesons) with integer or no charge.
Q Protons consist of two up and one down quark: uud. Charge  (2/3 
2/3  1/3) e  e
Q Neutrons consist of one up and two down quarks: udd. Charge  (2/3 
1/3  1/3) e  0
While quarks interact by the strong force they are also affected by the weak
nuclear force and this can cause them to change flavor. For example, when
a beta-minus decay occurs and a neutron changes to a proton one down
quark inside the neutron changes to an up quark (this is a weak interaction)
creating an electron and anti-neutrino in the process.
Mesons are particles made from a quark and antiquark pair. For
example the positive pi-meson  consists of an up quark and an anti-down
quark: ud . Virtual pi-mesons are exchanged between protons and neutrons
to bind them together in nuclei.

26.4.3 Fundamental Interactions

There are four fundamental interactions in nature:
Q Gravitation—infinite range; described by Einstein’s general theory of
relativity.
Q Electromagnetism—infinite range; described by Maxwell’s equations
and quantum electrodynamics(QED).
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS • 543

Q The weak nuclear force—short range; described by electroweak theory.

Q The strong nuclear force (color force)—short range; described by
quantum chromodynamics.
Three of these have been described using quantum theory and two of them,
the weak nuclear force and electromagnetism, have been unified into a single
theory, electroweak theory, so that they are seen as manifestations of the
same underlying interaction. The color interaction is described by a similar
quantum mechanism so it too is expected to unify with the electroweak
interaction to form a single super interaction at very high energies.
e– Exchange of e–
virtual photons

The underlying process that explains how these three quantum forces work
is based on the exchange of virtual particles. A virtual particle can be
created by “borrowing” energy from the universe for a short time and then
“paying it back” when the particle disappears. This is possible because of
the energy-time Uncertainty principle in quantum theory. For example, the
electromagnetic repulsion between two electrons comes about as a result of
an exchange of virtual photons.
The exchange particles for electromagnetism are photons, for the weak
force they are W, W, and Z0 particles and for the strong force they are
different kinds of gluons. Richard Feynman developed a pictorial way to
represent interactions. His method was useful because it provided a link
to the mathematical methods needed to solve problems in QED. The
diagrams are known as Feynman diagrams and the diagram on the next
page shows two of the many ways a pair of electrons might interact:

e– e–
e– e–
Exchange of a single photon Exchange of two photons
544 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

In QED all possible ways in which an interaction could take place

contribute to the probability of how it does take place, and Feynman
diagrams provide a way to identify and order the different possibilities.
Gravity is still described by Einstein’s general theory of relativity. This
is an elegant and highly successful mathematical theory but it is based on
continuous variations in the geometry of space-time and so far, no one has
succeeded in finding an acceptable theory of quantum gravity. This is one
of the most important outstanding questions in physics—how to connect
general relativity and quantum theory.

26.4.4 Conservation Laws

We are familiar with conservation of momentum, mass energy, and charge
but there are several other important conservation laws in particle physics,
in particular:
Q Conservation of baryon number: the total number of baryons in the
universe cannot change. Each baryon, e.g., proton or neutron, has
baryon number B  1. Anti-baryons have number B  1. Mesons have
baryon number zero. Effectively quarks have a baryon number 1/3
and anti-quarks have baryon number 1/3.
Q Conservation of lepton number: the total number of leptons in the
universe cannot change. Each lepton, e.g., electron, neutrino, tau, has
lepton number L  1. Anti-leptons have lepton number L  1.
(According to the Standard Model, lepton numbers in each generation
are separately conserved and neutrinos are massless. However, recent
discoveries have shown that neutrinos have a very small mass and can
oscillate between the three flavors. While this does not affect conservation
of total lepton number it does undermine the conservation of lepton
number by flavor.)

26.4.5 Standard Model

The fact that everything can in principle be explained by a few leptons,
quarks and force carriers is amazing, as is the achievement of physicists in
discovering that this is the case.
The only particle that has been added to the Standard Model in recent
years is the Higgs boson, discovered at the LHC in 2012. This particle is
a quantum of the Higgs field that fills the Universe. The interaction of
each particle with the Higgs field is responsible for setting the mass of the
particle.
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS • 545

All of the particles in the table on the next page have anti-particles (or
are their own anti-particle).
The table below summarizes all the particles in the Standard Model.
QUARKS FORCE
1st generation 2nd generation 3rd generation CARRIERS
UP CHARM TOP GLUON
Charge 2/3 e Charge 2/3 e Charge 2/3 e Charge 0
Spin ½ Spin ½ Spin ½ Spin 1
DOWN STRANGE BOTTOM PHOTON
Charge 1/3 e Charge 1/3 e Charge 1/3 e Charge 0
Spin ½ Spin ½ Spin ½ Spin 1
Z BOSON
Increasing mass Charge 0
Spin 1
ELECTRON MUON TAU W BOSON
Charge e Charge e Charge e Charge e
Spin ½ Spin ½ Spin ½ Spin 1
ELECTRON- MUON-NEUTRINO TAU-NEUTRINO
NEUTRINO Charge 0 Charge 0
Charge 0 Spin ½ Spin ½
Spin ½
LEPTONS

HIGGS BOSON
Charge 0
Spin 0

The fact that there are three generations of quarks and three generations
of leptons suggest that there is an underlying symmetry linking the quarks
and the leptons. This has led to several hypotheses about new particles
and mechanisms for changing leptons to quarks and vice versa, but so far
there has been no experimental evidence to support these ideas. While the
Standard Model is incredibly impressive, it is unlikely to be the last word on
particle physics; there are too many arbitrary constants that have to be put
into the model to make it work.

26.4.6 Dark Matter and Dark Energy

Despite the success of physicists in constructing the standard model,
discoveries in cosmology have raised the strong possibility that there are
as yet undiscovered forms of matter. Careful measurements of the rotation
rates of galaxies suggest that there is nowhere near enough visible matter
in these galaxies (i.e., stars) to provide the gravitational force needed to
maintain the rotation. In other words, the total gravitational force from
546 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

visible matter inside the galaxy is much less than the required centripetal
force for the outer parts to rotate as they do. This was first pointed out by
Fritz Zwicky in 1933 when he tried to understand the motion of the Coma
cluster of galaxies.
These observations led physicists to suggest that there must be a lot of
invisible or dark matter in the galaxies to provide the additional centripetal
force. This idea has been supported by evidence from gravitational
lensing—the deflection of light close to galaxies because their mass distorts
the local space-time geometry. The mass required to account for the
observed lensing effects is much greater than the mass of the visible matter
in the galaxies. While a small proportion of the dark matter is probably
cool baryonic matter (i.e., “ordinary matter”) the rest is yet to be identified.
Dark matter is thought to make up 23% of the mass of the universe whereas
ordinary matter is thought to make up just 4.6%. The remaining 72% of the
mass is thought to be dark energy.
Ordinary
matter
5%

Dark matter
23%

Dark energy
72%

Dark energy is a relatively new idea put forward to explain an unexpected

discovery in cosmology. In 1998, Saul Perlmutter and others measured the
red-shifts of distant type-1a supernovae and came to the conclusion that
the expansion of the universe is accelerating. This was a surprise because
gravitational attraction between the galaxies would be expected tom slow
the expansion. Other observations seemed to support the conclusion that
the expansion rate is increasing so theoreticians needed to come up with a
new model to explain this. Their idea is that an unknown form of energy
fills the universe and creates an outward pressure, rather like a negative
gravitational force, causing space-time to expand at an accelerating rate.
The energy density is such that the mass equivalent of dark energy in the
universe accounts for 72% of the total mass!
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS • 547

26.5 Exercises

1. (a) Explain what is meant by nuclear B.E..

(b) Sketch a graph to show how nuclear B.E. per nucleon varies with
nucleon number and use it to explain:
(i) Why iron-56 is regarded as the most stable nucleus.
(ii) How nuclear fission reaction of some heavy nuclei can release a
large amount of energy.
(iii) How nuclear fusion of some light nuclei can release a large
amount of energy.
(c) Suggest why a nucleus of an element with atomic number 120 is
likely to be highly unstable.
2. Use data from the table below to calculate the B.E. and B.E. per
nucleon for iron-56 (Z  26).
Particle Mass
Electron 0.000549 u
Proton 1.007276 u
Neutron 1.008665 u
Iron-56 atom 55.934934 u
3. Uranium-235 (atomic number 92) is unstable and decays to thorium-231
by emitting an alpha particle of energy 4.77 MeV.
(a) Write down a nuclear transformation equation for the decay.
(b) Calculate the kinetic energy of the thorium-231 nucleus as it recoils.
(c) Calculate the mass defect in kilograms for the decay.
4. Here is data for the beta-minus decay of the rare isotope carbon-16.
Particle Mass
0
1  0.000549 u

16 16.01470 u
6C
(atom)

16 16.006103 u
7N
(atom)

(a) Write down a balanced nuclear equation for this decay.

(b) Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of an emitted beta-particle
in this decay.
(c) Explain why this is a maximum-value and beta-minus particles from
different decaying carbon-16 nuclei will have a range of kinetic
energies.
548 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(d) Carbon-16 has a half-life of just 0.74 s. Explain why it is not

surprising that this nucleus is highly unstable.
5. Nitrogen (atomic number 7) has 7 isotopes from nitrogen-12 to
nitrogen-18. 99.63% of all nitrogen is the stable isotope nitrogen-14 and
the rest is almost entirely nitrogen-15, which is also stable. Here is some
data that will be useful when answering the questions that follow.
Atom Mass
Electron 0.000549 u
12
7N 12.01864 u

13
13.005738u

14
7N 14.003074 u

15
7N 15.000108 u

16
7N 16.006103 u

17
7N 17.00845 u

18
7N 18.0142 u

13
6C 13.003354 u
13
8O 13.0248 u
Proton 1.007276 u
Neutron 1.008665 u

Nitrogen-12 and nitrogen-13 decay by beta-plus emission while the

other unstable isotopes of nitrogen decay by beta-minus emission.
(a) Write down nuclear transformation equations for the beta-plus and
hypothetical beta-minus decay of nitrogen-13.
(b) Calculate mass defects for each of the reactions in (a) and use the
values to explain why nitrogen-13 cannot decay by beta-minus
emission.
(c) Calculate the B.E. per nucleon for nitrogen-14 and nitrogen-15.
Both isotopes are stable but 99.63% of all nitrogen is nitrogen-14.
Comment on this in the light of your calculation.
(d) Suggest, with reasons, how the half-lives of nitrogen-16, nitrogen-17
and nitrogen-18 are likely to compare.
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS • 549

6. Beta-decay is a weak interaction in which the flavor of a quark inside a

baryon changes causing a change in the type of baryon in the nucleus. In
beta-minus decay a neutron changes to a proton and in beta-plus decay
a proton changes to a neutron.
(a) Sketch a graph of proton number against neutron number for the
stable nuclides and use it to explain where on the chart beta-plus or
beta-minus emitting nuclides are likely to be found.
(b) (i) Write down the nuclear equation for the beta-minus decay of
carbon-14 to nitrogen-14.
(ii) Write down an equation for the decay of a neutron to a proton
inside the carbon-14 nucleus in the decay in (b)(i).
(iii) Write down an equation for the change of flavor of a quark in
the neutron in the decay in (b)(ii).
(c) Discuss whether a quark changes flavor when electron capture
occurs.
 CHAPTER

27
QUANTUM THEORY

27.1 Problems in Classical Physics

Classical physics is based on Newtonian mechanics (and gravitation)
and Maxwell’s electromagnetism. By the end of the nineteenth century
these two theories had been incredibly successful in explaining diverse
phenomena from the laws of thermodynamics and the propagation of radio
waves to the paths of planets in their orbits. However, a few problems were
beginning to emerge that resisted an explanation using classical physics.
Here are three examples:

Black Body Radiation Spectrum

The shape of the black body radiation spectrum was well known, but all
attempts to use classical physics to derive a formula for the spectrum failed.
In fact, they agreed with the spectrum at long wavelengths (low frequencies)
and but diverged drastically from it at short wavelengths (high frequencies),
predicting an infinite amount of high frequency radiation from a hot body.
This was clearly wrong. It was called the “ultraviolet catastrophe.”

Heat capacities of gases

According to classical equipartition theory (see Section 9.3.5) thermal
energy at temperature T should be distributed equally amongst all the
degrees of freedom available to the particles of the gas such that each
degree of freedom gains an energy of ½ kT. For a monatomic gas there are
just three degrees of freedom corresponding to translations in the x-,y-, and
552 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Power radiated per

unit wavelength

Prediction of classical
theory: ultraviolet
catastrophe

Black body radiation

spectrum

Wavelength

z-directions, so the energy per molecule is 3/2 kT. For more complex
molecules, vibrational and rotational degrees of freedom can also be excited
and these should, according to classical theory, get ½ kT as well. The greater
the energy per molecule at a particular temperature the higher the heat
capacity of the gas, so measurements of heat capacity allowed physicists to
test the predictions of classical equipartition theory. They found that while
the predictions were usually good at high temperatures they sometimes
broke down at lower temperatures, as if some degrees of freedom were not
contributing to the heat capacity. This was unexpected and could not be
explained using the classical theory.

Photoelectric effect
Heinrich Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect in 1887. He noticed
that when ultraviolet light was shone onto a pair of electrodes it was easier
to form sparks between them. Ultraviolet light seemed to be able to knock
electrons out of the surface of the metal electrode. Further investigation
showed that the effect depended on the frequency of the absorbed radiation
but not on its intensity. This was a complete surprise. According to classical
theory ejecting an electron from the surface of a metal should depend on
the energy of the incoming radiation and not on its frequency.
 QUANTUM THEORY • 553

Incident EM Ejected electron

radiation of (“photoelectron”)
sufficiently high
frequency
−

Metal surface

27.1.1 Planck and Black Body Radiation Spectrum

In 1900 Max Planck managed to derive the correct equation for the black
body radiation spectrum, but to do so he had to make a revolutionary
assumption. He assumed that the atomic oscillators vibrating in the black
body can only have discrete amounts of energy and that the energy of any
particular oscillator is a multiple of a smallest quantity or quantum of
energy equal to a constant multiplied by its frequency. The energy of an
atomic oscillator is:
E  nhf
n is an integer, f is the frequency of the atomic oscillator and h is the Planck
constant.
h  6.62607004 1034 Js
This was a radical suggestion. In classical physics energy is a continuous
variable so atomic oscillators at any frequency could have any energy. By
quantizing energy in this way Planck showed that the quantum of energy
for a high frequency oscillator is much larger than for a low frequency
oscillator.
Energy

n=4

n=3

n=2

n=1

Low-frequency High-frequency
oscillator oscillator
554 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

This makes it far less likely that a high frequency oscillator will be
excited because it needs a large energy to start vibrating. The effect is
to suppress high frequency vibrations and dramatically reduce the high-
frequency electromagnetic radiation they emit, thus preventing the
ultraviolet catastrophe. At low frequencies, the allowed energies are very
close together and behave more like the classical continuum of allowed
energies. That is why the long wavelength, low-frequency part of the curve
can be explained classically.
Planck’s quantization of energy was the first of several ad hoc
quantizations discovered in the early part of the twentieth century. This
was the beginning of quantum theory, but at that time no one understood
why quantization worked!

27.1.2 Explaining Heat Capacities

Planck’s idea, that the energy of an atomic oscillator is quantized, can also
be used to explain why, at low temperatures, some modes of molecular
rotation or vibration are suppressed. The argument is the same as for high-
frequency atomic vibrations in a black body. The energy of a vibrational
mode is quantized and if the mean thermal energy, ½ kT, is less than the
minimum energy needed to excite a mode of vibration, hf, then those modes
will not be excited and the heat capacity will be lower than expected. At high
temperature ½ kT > hf so the modes are excited and do contribute to the
heat capacity. Measurements of heat capacity as a function of temperature
shows that it increases toward the value predicted by equipartition as
temperature increases.

27.1.3 Explaining the Photoelectric Effect

Einsteinrealized that the photoelectric effect could be explained by
assuming that electromagnetic radiation can only exchange energy with
matter in discrete amounts or quanta. These quanta or “photons” have an
energy:
E  nhf
where f is the frequency of the radiation and h is the Planck constant.
There is a minimum energy, , needed to remove an electron from
the surface of a metal. This is called the “work function”for the metal and
it depends on the element used, being lower for more reactive metals.
Einstein assumed that when radiation is absorbed by matter one photon
transfers all its energy to one electron. The photon energy must be greater
than the work function for the electron to be ejected (some electrons will
 QUANTUM THEORY • 555

require more energy than  because they are not at the surface of the
metal). For electrons to be ejected from the surface:
hf  
This explains why there is a threshold frequencyf0 below which photoelectric
emission does not occur:
hf0  
This was another radical departure from classical physics where light was
considered part of the electromagnetic spectrum and was assumed to
be a continuous wave that can take any energy. Einstein’s theory treated
electromagnetic radiation as if it consisted of discrete packets of energy
and transferred that energy discretely too. The photon theory treated light
more like a particle model than a wave model.

27.1.4 Characteristics of Photoelectric Emission

To understand the significance of Einstein’s photon theory we must first
review the characteristics of the photoelectric effect. One way to do this
is to use light sources of various frequencies to illuminate the negatively
charged plate of a gold-leaf electroscope. If the leaf falls the light source is
ejecting electrons. Typical experiments that can be carried out quite simply
in a laboratory are shown below.

f > f0
f < f0
Cap: metal with
work function Φ

Electroscope is
discharged

Q If the metal is zinc, then visible light does not discharge the electroscope
even if it is very intense but ultraviolet radiation will discharge it even if
its intensity is low.
Q Increasing the intensity of the ultraviolet radiation discharges the
electroscope more rapidly.
Q When ultraviolet radiation is used, the leaf begins to fall as soon as it is
illuminated: there is no delay.
556 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q When ultraviolet radiation is used, the kinetic energy of the ejected

electrons has a continuous spectrum up to a maximum value and this
maximum kinetic energy increases if higher frequency ultraviolet
radiation is used.
These observations cannot be explained using a classical wave model of
light.
Q According to the wave model, energy is spread across the wave front and
delivered continuously to the metal surface. If this was the case, then
energy would need to accumulate close to a surface electron before it
was ejected. For typical light intensities used in these experiments this
would take a long time, but no delay is observed. Electrons are emitted
as soon as light of high enough frequency strikes the surface. The wave
model cannot explain how this energy suddenly gets concentrated into a
few different places to eject the electrons.
Q In the wave model the parameter that determines how much energy is
delivered is the intensity of the radiation and not the frequency, so the
wave model cannot account for the threshold frequency or the increase
of kinetic energy with frequency and not intensity.
Einstein’s photon model can explain all the observations. Photons are
distributed randomly in the arriving radiation but transfer all their energy to
individual electrons. We have already seen that this explains the existence of
a threshold frequency f0. It also explains the immediate ejection of electrons:
as soon as the first photon strikes the surface it will eject a photon (if f  f0).
Increasing the intensity of the radiation increases the number of photons
per second arriving at the metal surface so the electroscope discharges
more rapidly (again only if f  f0). Finally, increasing the frequency above
the threshold frequency gives photons more than enough energy to eject
an electron from the surface so the excess energy gives the electron kinetic
energy and the maximum kinetic energy will be:
KEmax  hf   hf  hf0
So the maximum kinetic energy is directly proportional to (f f0) as observed.
27.1.5 Measuring the Planck Constant
The Planck constant can be determined using a photocell. This is an
electrical component that uses the photoelectric effect to produce an
output voltage when light is shone onto it. The symbol for a photocell is
shown below. It consists of a metal emitter and a collector. When light
strikes the emitter electrons are ejected and travel across to the collector. If
the photocell is connected into a circuit it provides an emf that can transfer
energy to other components.
 QUANTUM THEORY • 557

− +

Collector Emitter

Electrons driven this way

The circuit shown on the next page can be used to find the maximum
kinetic energy of the emitted electrons by applying an opposing voltage to
the cell and increasing this until the current in the circuit is reduced to zero.
Measurements of this “stopping voltage” for incident light with a range of
different frequencies can be used to find the Planck constant and the work
function of the emitter.

Photocurrent

By making the emitter positive with respect to the collector electrons

must do work to move between them. When the voltage between the two
electrodes is V the work that must be done is eV. Increasing V increases the
work that must be done and the photocurrent falls to zero when the work
is equal to the maximum kinetic energy. The voltage at which this occurs is
called the stopping voltage VS:
eVS  KEmax  hf 
558 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

If the stopping voltage is measured for light sources with a range of

frequencies (e.g., by using different colored filters in front of a white light
source) then a graph of VS against f can be used to find both the Planck
constant and the work function.
h 
VS   f  
e  e 
Comparing this with:
y  mx  c
the gradient is h/e, the intercept on the voltage axis is /e, and the intercept
on the frequency axis is f0:
Stopping
voltage Gradient h/e

0
f0 Frequency

−Φ/e

Robert Millikan used a similar method to make the first measurement of

the Planck constant in 1916.

27.2 Matter Waves

Einstein’s photon theory showed that a particle model can be used to
explain some aspects of the behavior of light. However, superposition
effects such as interference and diffraction can only be explained using a
wave model. Neither model completely describes the nature of light and
physicists sometimes say that light exhibits “wave–particle duality.” In 1919
Louis de Broglie suggested that if radiation exhibits wave–particle duality
then perhaps matter does too and he proposed an equation that could link
the wave and particle models together. This is known as the de Broglie
relation.
 QUANTUM THEORY • 559

27.2.1 de Broglie Relation

de Broglie showed that the characteristic wave-like property of light, its
wavelength, is linked to a characteristic particle-like property of the photon,
its momentum. Here is an argument that shows how they are linked.
Photon energy:
E  hf
Mass equivalent to this energy:
E
m
c2
Momentum associated with this mass:
E hf h
p  mc   
c c 
This is the de Broglie relation, the link between wavelength and momentum.
While we have derived it for the photon, de Broglie’s hypothesis was that
it also applied to matter. This would imply that a moving particle has an
associated wavelength given by:
h

p
At velocities small compared to the speed of light this becomes:
h

mv
The faster the particle moves the shorter its de Broglie wavelength.

27.2.2 Electron Diffraction

If de Broglie’s hypothesis is correct then matter ought to exhibit wave-
like properties such as interference and diffraction just like light. The
question is, on what scale? If a person walking through a doorway behaves
like a wave, shouldn’t they diffract like light going through a narrow slit? A
rough calculation shows that even if they do, the diffraction effects would
be undetectable. Recall that the first minimum of a single slit diffraction
pattern occurs at an angle whose sine is /b where  is the wavelength and
b is the width of the slit. For a 70 kg human walking at 1 ms1 this is:
6.6 1034
sin   ~ 1035
70 1
This is unbelievably tiny so the diffraction pattern would effectively have
zero width and so would not affect the classical expectation that the person
continues through the doorway with no diffraction at all.
560 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

However, if an electron is travelling at 5% of the speed of light its de

Broglie wavelength is about 5 1011 m. This is comparable to the spacing
of atoms in a crystal lattice so we might expect to detect interference and
diffraction effects when electron beams accelerated to comparable speeds
are directed at crystals. This would only require an accelerating voltage of
about 600 V.
The first physicists to detect electron diffraction were Davisson and
Germer in 1925 when they fired electron beams at a crystalline sample
of nickel. They noticed that the electrons were scattered into a pattern of
maxima and minima similar to the one that would be obtained if X-rays
were passed through the structure. Furthermore, the wavelength of
X-rays needed to obtain the same pattern corresponded to the de Broglie
wavelength of the electrons.
At almost the same time G.P. Thomson, the son of J.J. Thomson (who
had shown that the electron can be treated as a particle), produced electron
diffraction rings by passing a beam of electrons through a thin slice of
graphite. The experimental arrangement is shown below.
Accelerating
voltage V
Vacuum

Diffraction
Electrons pattern
(rings)
Heater
supply (low
voltage) Hot cathode Anode Graphite
target

Fluorescen
t screen
 QUANTUM THEORY • 561

Graphite consists of planes of atoms arranged in a hexagonal pattern. Rows

of atoms within these planes act like the lines in a diffraction grating. For
planes separated by a distance d there will be diffraction maxima at angles
given by:
n
sin  
d
The fact that there are many such planes in all orientations relative to
the incident beam results in diffraction maxima being formed around the
surface of a cone with half angle  for each set of planes and each order of
diffraction. Where these cones of diffracted electrons hit the end of the
vacuum tube they form a pattern of concentric rings.

d
Planes of atoms
acting like lines in a
diffraction grating

Atomic arrangement
in graphite

The radius of diffraction rings can be used to find the spacing of atomic
planes in the crystalline structure. Changing the accelerating voltage
changes the wavelength of the electrons and the radius of each ring. Higher
voltage gives the electrons greater momentum and smaller de Broglie
wavelength so the rings get smaller:

r
Electron
beam
θ

L
Graphite
 h h
sin   
d dmv d 2 meV
r
For small angles, sin  ~  ~ , so that:
L
hL
r~
d 2 meV
562 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

where d is the spacing of a particular set of atomic planes and V is the

accelerating voltage for the electrons. The radius of a diffraction ring is
approximately proportional to the reciprocal of the square root of the
accelerating voltage.

27.2.3 Compton Effect

In 1923, Arthur Compton showed that when X-rays are scattered by
electrons the process behaves just like a collision between two particles. This
was an important result because the wavelength shift in the scattered X-rays
could not be explained using a wave model for the radiation. In Compton’s
experiment the X-ray photons had much greater energy than the ionization
energy of the atom so the electrons behaved like free particles.
Incident photon
of wavelength λ

Scattered electron
with momentum p
− −
φ
θ

Scattered photon of
wavelength λ′ − λ

Compton treated this as a collision between particles and used the equations
for conservation of energy and momentum to find the relationship between
the X-ray scattering angle and the change in wavelength of the X-rays:
 '    mh c 1  cos  
e
This was verified experimentally and showed once again that the particle
model must be used for some interactions between radiation and matter.

27.3 Wave–Particle Duality

The de Broglie equation applies to both electromagnetic radiation and
matter—sometimes a wave model is needed and sometimes a particle model
is needed. Neither model gives a complete description of the underlying
 QUANTUM THEORY • 563

phenomenon, but there is a deeper problem because the two models seem
to contradict one another.
We have already seen that the wave model of light, with energy spread
continuously across the wave front, cannot be used to explain photoelectric
emission. However, if instead of directing the light onto a metal plate we
had passed it through a double slit apparatus we would have to assume
that the energy is spread continuously to explain the resulting interference
pattern.
EM radiation (e.g., light) Matter (e.g., electrons)
Evidence for the Young’s double slit experiment Electron diffraction
wave model Diffraction patterns Electron standing waves in atoms
Evidence for the Photoelectric effect Discrete nature of electric charge
particle model Compton effect Momentum of individual
electrons
How can these two apparently irreconcilable models be related?
27.3.1 Young’s Double Slit Experiment Revisited
The double slit experiment, first used to support the wave model of light,
is an ideal example to use when trying to reconcile the wave and particle
models.
In the double slit experiment a monochromatic light source is directed
at a double slit and an interference pattern consisting of regularly spaced
maxima and minima appears on a screen. The maxima occur in positions
where waves arriving from each slit are in phase and interfere constructively.
The minima occur where the waves arrive in antiphase ( phase difference)
and interfere destructively. The resultant intensity at any point on the
screen is calculated by adding the phasors from each slit and then squaring
the resultant amplitude. This approach, the wave model, works (up to a
point). It explains the intensity variation across the screen.
If we now assume that the light is emitted and absorbed as individual
photons we run into difficulty. Consider, for example, a minimum position.
When both slits are open the minimum is dark, so no photons arrive at
this position. If we cover either one of the slits, then light does arrive at
this position. So we have a problem. It seems that opening the second slit
and allowing light to reach that position from either slit results in less light
arriving …. how can identical photons cancel one another out? How can
energy disappear?
The diagrams on the next page illustrate this. In the top diagram, only
the top slit is open and NA photons reach point P. In the middle diagram,
564 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

NA photons
Bottom slit from slit A
covered
P
B
Laser
A

Single
slit Diffraction
pattern
Single
Screen
slit B

NB photons
from slit B
Top slit
covered P
B
Laser
A

Single
slit
Diffraction
Single Screen pattern
slit A

Zero
Both slits photons
open

P
B
Laser
A

Single
slit
Interference
pattern
Double slit A and B Screen

only the bottom slit is open and NB photons reach point P. With both slits
open one might expect (NA  NB) photons to reach point P but in fact zero
photons are detected at P.
 QUANTUM THEORY • 565

It seems that opening the second slit affects where photons passing
through the first slit can go. On the face of it, this is bizarre!
One, unlikely, possibility is that when both slits are open photons from
A and B somehow interact on their way to the screen and this prevents
them reaching P. To rule this out the experiment has been repeated using
a filter in front of the source to reduce the intensity so far that only one
photon at a time is interacting with the apparatus. Now photons arrive one
at a time at the screen and cannot interact with one another en route. What
happens?
At first the photons seem to be arriving completely randomly but after
a short while it becomes apparent that the same patterns as before are
produced with single or double slits. If we insist that the photons behave
like particles then each photon can only pass through one of the slits. If it
passes through slit A when B is closed it can reach P. If it passes through slit
B when A is closed it can also reach P. However, if it passes through slit A
when slit B is open it cannot reach P! Similarly, if it passes through slit B
when A is open it cannot reach P! To maintain the particle model we would
need to assume that when the photon passes through one of the slits its
future path is affected by the state of the slit through which it did not pass.
Individual photons Photons cluster
pass through slit A around maxima and
OR slit B do not go to minima

Laser

Filter Single
slit

Double Screen
slit Interference pattern
builds up gradually

A single photon passing through a double slit apparatus cannot reach any of
the minimum positions, even though it could reach all of them if it passed
through either slit when the other one is closed! This shows that photons do
not interfere with each other but every photon interferes with itself. Where
does this leave us?
566 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q The wave model can be used to explain the intensity distribution in

superposition effects.
Q The particle model can be used to explain the discrete emission and
absorption of radiation.
A similar experiment can be carried out with electron beams. The results
are exactly the same. Wave–particle duality affects matter and radiation in
the same way.

27.3.2 Interpreting Wave–Particle Duality

Einstein suggested that the solution to the problem of wave–particle duality
might be to treat the waves as waves of probability so that the higher the
intensity of the radiation the higher the probability of finding a photon
(or electron) there. Max Born developed this idea into the “statistical
interpretation” of quantum mechanics and this became a cornerstone
of the most popular interpretation of the theory—the Copenhagen
Interpretation (see Section 27.5.1).
When light or electrons pass through a double slit apparatus each
photon or electron is associated with a wave (the “wave function”) whose
intensity is directly proportional to the probability of finding a photon or an
electron at each point in space. When an observation is made, for example
a photon is detected on the screen, the wave function “collapses” to zero
everywhere except at the position where the photon or electron is detected.
This interpretation is radical in several respects.
Q Prior to the observation the wave function changes in a continuous
way but when the observation is made there is a discontinuous collapse
so that the probability changes suddenly even at great distances from
the observation. There is no known physical process that can explain
the collapse of the wave function. This is sometimes called “the
measurement problem.”
Q The idea that distant parts of the wave function can change when an
observation is made shows that quantum theory is non-local.
Q The wave function is the most complete description of the system but
it deals only with probability. This means that even if we could know
the initial conditions of a system with absolute precision (e.g., how
a particular electron is approaching a double slit apparatus) we can
only make statistical predictions about the future state of the system
(e.g., where the electron will hit the screen). Quantum theory is
indeterministic—the future of the universe is not uniquely determined
 QUANTUM THEORY • 567

by its present state. This is a complete departure from the determinism

of classical physics.

27.3.3 Schrodinger Equation

Waves are solutions to differential equations. The one-dimensional wave
equation is:
2 y 1 2 y

x2 v2 t 2
where y is the wave disturbance and v is the speed of the wave in x-direction.
A solution to this is:
y  A cos  t  kx 
where   2f and k  2/.
A similar pair of equations for the electric field (E) and magnetic field
(B) in a vacuum can be derived from Maxwell’s equations. These form the
electromagnetic wave equations (in one dimension):
2 E 2 E
2  0 0
x t 2
2 B 2 E
  
0 0
x 2 t 2
0 is the permittivity of free space and 0 is the permeability of free space.
Comparing the electromagnetic equations with the original one-
dimensional wave equation we can see that the speed of electromagnetic
waves is:
1
c
0 0
The electromagnetic wave equations provide a way to derive the wave
function for light, but is there a corresponding wave equation for the de
Broglie waves of an electron? Erwin Schrodinger thought that there should
be and in 1925 he found it. This is the most important equation in quantum
theory: the Schrodinger equation. However, unlike the equations above,
the Schrodinger equation deals with complex quantities (combinations of
real and imaginary numbers). The details of how the Schrodinger equation
was derived are beyond the scope of this book but here is the time-
dependent equation:
ih  h2 2 
 2 V
2  t 8  m x2
568 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

where  is the wave function,i is the square root of minus one, and m is the
mass of the electron. V is the potential energy that might vary with position
and time. If the electron is moving freely in space then V  0.
It is possible to find wave-like solutions to this equation. These represent
the de Broglie waves of the electron. Once Schrodinger had published
his equation physicists could use it to solve a vast range of problems, and
Schrodinger himself showed how it could explain the energy level structure
and spectrum of the hydrogen atom. In Schrodinger’s atomic model the
electron orbitals are three-dimensional standing wave solutions to the
equation.
According to the Copenhagen Interpretation, the square of the
magnitude of the wave function at each point in space is equal to the
probability per unit volume of finding the electron at that point. Since the
wave function is itself a complex quantity it is not directly observable, and
its magnitude is found by multiplying it by its own complex conjugate:
Probability of finding electron in small region xyz  (x, y, z) (x, y, z)
if this is integrated over all of space it must equal 1: the electron will be
found somewhere in the universe!

27.4 Quantum Atom

The Rutherford nuclear model of the atom consists of electrons in orbit
around a positively charged nucleus. Such a model would allow the
electrons to orbit at any distance from the nucleus and to have any energy.
However, there is a serious problem with this model. According to Maxwell’s
equations, charged particles radiate energy when they are accelerated and
according to Newtonian mechanics a particle moving in orbital motion has
a centripetal acceleration. Orbiting electrons ought to radiate energy and
fall rapidly into the nucleus. Classical physics leads us to the conclusion that
Rutherford’s nuclear atom is unstable.
It was also known that excited atoms emit a line spectrum, i.e., the
radiation emitted by isolated atoms contains a set of discrete frequencies. If
the photon model is considered this suggests that the emission of radiation
involves discrete energy jumps E  hf for each spectral line. This further
suggests that the electrons inside an atom cannot have any value of energy
but can only exist at certain discrete energy levels.
 QUANTUM THEORY • 569

27.4.1 Bohr’s Model of the Hydrogen Atom

The fact that atoms exist and are stable shows that something is missing
from Rutherford’s nuclear atom. Niels Bohr realized that quantization
might solve this problem and at the same time give a way to calculate the
frequencies present in atomic line spectra.
Bohr assumed that:
Q The electron can move in one of several discrete circular orbits and that
each orbit has a specific energy (energy levels)
Q The angular momentum of the electron is quantized in integer units of
h/2.

Electron
rn
−
F mvn
+
Proton

The diagram above shows an electron in the nth orbit inside the hydrogen
atom. The dotted lines indicate other quantized orbits. The energy of the
nth orbit is derived below.
Angular momentum:
nh
mvn rn 
2
Centripetal force:
mvn2 e2

rn 4 0 rn2
Kinetic energy:
1 e2
KE  mvn2 
2 8 0 rn2
570 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Potential energy:
e2
PE =
4 0 rn
Energy:
1 e2 e2
En  KE  PE  mvn2  
2 4 0 rn 8 0 rn
Bohr used these equations to eliminate rn from the energy equation and to
express the energy of an electron in the nth level in terms of the quantum
number n.
me4  1  13.6 eV
En  2 2  2 
8 0 h  n  n2
This is a very important result as it provides an accurate method to calculate
the ionization energy of hydrogen and the frequencies of the lines in the
hydrogen line emission spectrum. The number n is called the principal
quantum number and n 1 represents the lowest allowed energy state for
an electron in the hydrogen atom: the ground state. All the energies are
negative because the electron is bound to the nucleus.
The diagram below is an energy level diagram for the hydrogen atom
based on the Bohr model.
Energy

13.6 n=∞
− = −0.85 eV 0
42 n=4
n=3
13.6
− = −1.5 eV
32 n=2
13.6
− = −3.4 eV
22

13.6
− = −13.6 eV n=1
12

As n increases the energy levels get closer and closer together becoming a
continuum of states as n approaches infinity. The energy needed to remove
an electron from the ground state of the hydrogen atom (its first ionization
energy) is 13.6 eV, the energy needed to move from n  1 to n   where
the energy would be zero (a free electron).
 QUANTUM THEORY • 571

27.4.2 Explaining the Hydrogen Line Spectrum

It had been well known since the end of the nineteenth century that the
wavelengths of the lines in the hydrogen spectrum fall into several series
which are linked by simple mathematical formulae. The spectral series with
most lines in the visible part of the spectrum is called the Balmer series
after the Swiss school master who first worked out the formula that linked
individual lines in the series. Balmer’s formula (in a form later adopted by
Johannes Rydberg) is:
1 1 1
 R 2  2 
n 2 n 
R is the Rydberg constant. R  1.097373157  107 m1. n is an integer
greater than 2.
Rydberg generalized this formula for all the series in the hydrogen
spectrum:
1  1 1
 R 2  2 
n m n 
where m and n are integers with n > m.
Bohr was able to derive this formula from his atomic model and to find
an expression for the Rydberg constant. He assumed that the spectral lines
correspond to quantum jumps made by electrons moving from excited state
to less excited states so that the Rydberg formula corresponds to a quantum
jump from the nth energy level to the mth energy level when (n > m). When
the electron loses an energy Emn it emits a photon of frequency fmn given
by Emn  fmn. The diagram below shows how a photon is emitted when an
electron jumps from n  4 to m  2.
Energy

13.6 0 n=∞
− = −0.85 eV n=4
42
n=3
13.6
− = −3.4 eV n=2
22

13.6
− = −13.6 eV n=1
12
572 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

For the transition above (from n  4 to n  2):

me4  1  me4  1  me4  1   1 
E24  E4  E2        
8 20 h2  42  8 02 h2  22  8 20 h2  22   42 
3 me4

128 20 h2
3 me4
hf24 
128 20 h2
3 me4
f24 
128 20 h3
c 128 c20 h3
24    4.9 107 m
f24 3 me4
The Rydberg formula is derived in a similar way but using a transition from
n to m.
me4  1  me4  1 
Emn  En  Em  2 2  2  2 2  2 
8 0 h  m  8 0 h  n 
me4  1   1 
   
8 20 h2  n2   m 2 
hc
Emn  hfmn 
mn
1  me4  1   1 
 
  
mn  8 c20 h3  n2   m 2 
The Rydberg constant is:
 me4 
R  2 3

 8 c0 h 
27.4.3 Electron Waves in Atoms
The success of the Bohr model was impressive but it was still an arbitrary
quantization rule. However, an alternative way to think about the
quantization rule gives us a clue to the real reason that atoms have energy
levels. Bohr’s quantization of angular momentum is:
nh
mvn rn 
2
which can be rearranged to give:
 h 
2 rn  n 
 mvn 
 QUANTUM THEORY • 573

The de Broglie relation can be used to introduce a wavelength:

 h 
n  
 mvn 
2 rn  n n
The left-hand side of this equation is equal to the circumference of the
circular orbit. The right-hand side of the equation is an integer number
of de Broglie waves. Bohr’s quantum condition is equivalent to saying that
energy levels can only occur when the circumference is an integer number
of electron wavelengths. This guarantees only a discrete set of energy levels
in the atom in a similar way that a stretched string can vibrate in only a
discrete set of frequencies (the fundamental and harmonics).
The energy levels of an atom correspond to standing wave patterns
for the de Broglie electron waves. The lowest or ground state is when the
circumference of the orbit corresponds to a single electron wavelength.

27.4.4 Schrodinger Atom

While Bohr’s model was surprisingly successful in explaining the energy
levels and spectrum of the hydrogen atom it was quite obviously not the
final word on the atom. In Bohr’s model the electron is restricted to a planar
circular orbit whereas an electron in a real atom could be anywhere in the
three-dimensional space surrounding the nucleus and the orbits could be
different shapes. Bohr’s model was adapted to include elliptical orbits but
the solution for a three-dimensional atom was found by Schrodinger using
the Schrodinger equation.
The mathematical derivation of formulae for electron orbitals is beyond
the scope of this book but it is interesting to outline the method and to
describe some of the important results. First of all Schrodinger needed
to put a potential energy term V into his equation. This is simply the
electrostatic potential energy of the electron in the field of the nucleus:
e2
PE =
4 0 r
Then he needed to solve the equation in spherical polar coordinates (r, ,
). These coordinates are used because of the symmetry of the problem—
solving a spherically symmetric problem in Cartesian coordinates is much
harder and the solutions are unlikely to be easy to interpret!
The equation separates into three separate equations in r, and . This
results in three separate quantum numbers, one associated with each of the
coordinates.
574 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

n  principle quantum number—(linked to r) this determines the energy

of the electron as before
l  orbital quantum number—(linked to ) this determines the angular
momentum and shape of the orbit
m  magnetic quantum number—(linked to ) this determines the
orientation of the orbit.
There is another property of electrons that is not included in the
Schrodinger equation, its spin. Electrons have spin angular momentum of
magnitude h/4. This is usually referred to as spin-½ because the unit of
angular momentum used in atomic physics is h/2 (or ‘h-bar). Spin is a
quantum mechanical property and when it is measured along any particular
axis a spin-½ particle is found to have either ½ or ½ a unit of spin. This
introduces another quantum number:
s  spin quantum number—if this is 1 the spin is “up” and if it is 1
the spin is “down” relative to the axis of measurement.
Pulling all of this together we can see that there will be four integer
quantum numbers associated with each allowed state. The equation also
constrains the values of these quantum numbers so that:
For any n: l can have any value from 0 to (n  1)
For any l: m can take integer values from  l to  l.
s can only be 1 or 1.
The three-dimensional shapes of the n 1 (s) and n  2 (2s and 2p) orbitals
are shown approximately (and not to scale) below. The s-orbitals (with
l  0) are spherical. The p-orbitals (l  1) form three dumbbell shaped
orbitals with different orientations (m  1, 0, 1). Two electrons can
occupy each orbital. The shapes represent probability distributions for the
electrons.

1s 2s 2p
 QUANTUM THEORY • 575

Wolfgang Pauli realized that no two electrons in the same atom can
have the same set of quantum numbers. This is an example of the Pauli
exclusion principleand the consequence is incredibly important. If it
were not the case then all the electrons in a multi-electron atom would fall
into the lowest energy level and different elements would have very similar
chemical properties. The Exclusion principle prevents this and ensures that
the electrons must fill up each energy level in turn. In a very general sense
this is what gives us chemistry. It certainly accounts for the Periodic Table.
For example:
When n  1: l  0, m  0 and s  1. Two electrons can occupy these
states. These are the 1s states in the atom and correspond to a spherically
symmetric wave function. Hydrogen, with one electron has a half-filled 1s
shell. This can be represented by 1s1.
The first number is the energy level or principal quantum number,
the letter refers to the type of orbital (related to the value of l) and the
superscript is the number of electrons in the shell.
This accounts for its reactivity—it can complete the shell by reacting
with other elements with one or more outer electrons.
Helium, has two electrons, so the 1s shell is full and the atom is very
stable. Its electronic configuration is 1s2.
Lithium has three electrons so n  1, l  0, m  0 and s  1;states
are filled by two electrons so the 1s shell is full and the third electron has
to go into one of the eight available states with n  2 (the 2s shell). The
lowest energy state is the n  2, l  0, m  0, s  1 (or 1) state. This
leaves the 2s shell partially filled and lithium is again reactive. Its electronic
configuration is:
1s22s1
This filling of energy shells continues as we move to larger and larger atoms.
The periodicity of the periodic Table comes about as successive shells fill
up and electrons start to fill the next shell.
The fifth element in the Periodic table is Boron. This must accommodate
five electrons so both the 1s and 2s shells are full and the next electron must
have an orbital quantum number l  1. This is called a p-shell and has a
different shape to the spherical s-shells. There are three p-shells (m   1,
0 and 1) in different orientations and each is shaped like a dumbbell. Two
electrons can go into each shell (with s  1 or s  1). The electronic
configuration for Boron is:
1s22s22p1
576 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The table on the next page shows the order of the first few electronic energy
levels and the corresponding electronic configurations. Just a few examples
will show how the electronic configuration, determined by solutions to the
Schrodinger equation, affects chemical properties.
Q Atoms with filled shells tend to be very stable—e.g., helium, neon.
Q Atoms with a single electron in an otherwise empty shell tend to be very
reactive because they easily lose that electron to an atom that needs one
or more electrons to complete its own outer shell—e.g., sodium.
Q Atoms with an almost full shell are also very reactive, easily gaining
electrons from other atoms that have only one or a few electrons in their
outer shell—e.g., fluorine.
Q Carbon has 2 electrons in the 2p shell, so to complete this shell carbon
must gain four electrons. This makes it “4-valent.” Carbohydrates
(compounds of carbon and hydrogen) are the most important class
of compounds for living things and illustrate how valency is linked to
electronic configuration. In methane, CH4, each hydrogen atom shares
one electron so that the carbon 2p shell is completed and the hydrogen
1s shell is completed, so both achieve more stable (lower energy
configurations) and four covalent bonds are formed.
n l m s Configuration Element (ground state)
1s shell 1 0 0 1 1s1 Hydrogen
1 1s2 Helium
2s shell 2 0 0 1 1s22s1 Lithium
1 1s22s2 Beryllium
2p shell 1 1 1 1s22s22p1 Boron
1 1s22s22p2 Carbon
0 1 1s22s22p3 Nitrogen
1 1s22s22p4 Oxygen
1 1 1s22s22p5 Fluorine
1 1s22s22p6 Neon
3s shell 3 0 0 1 1s22s22p63s1 Sodium
1 1s22s22p63s2 Magnesium
…

This gives a very simple explanation of key chemical properties. More

detailed analysis of chemical bonding requires a solution of the Schrodinger
equation for electrons in the field of both atoms. The Schrodinger equation
is the fundamental equation in chemistry.
 QUANTUM THEORY • 577

27.5 Interpretations of Quantum Theory

While relativity challenges our preconceived ideas about space and time,
quantum theory challenges our ideas about the nature of reality. Wave–
particle duality shows that it is impossible to capture all the features of
a quantum object in a visualizable classical model and any such attempt
leads to contradictions. However, the Schrodinger equation and other
developments in quantum theory provide a powerful set of mathematical
equations that allow us to make predictions about the physical world to an
incredible degree of precision. While some physicists think we should just
accept and use the equation and give up on trying to find any underlying
meaning to them others have felt that it is important to interpret the wave
function and seek a deeper understanding of what is actually going on in
a quantum process. This has led to several different “interpretations” of
quantum theory but there is still a lack of consensus. Here we will give a
brief description of three alternative approaches to the theory:
Q The Copenhagen Interpretation which developed around Niels Bohr
and Werner Heisenberg in Copenhagen (where Bohr worked).
Q The sum-over-histories approach developed by Richard Feynman.
Q The many-worlds theory developed by Hugh Everett III.

27.5.1 Copenhagen Interpretation

The Copenhagen interpretation has been the “establishment”
interpretation of quantum theory for nearly a century despite having
obvious shortcomings. The central idea is the wave function (). This is a
solution of the Schrodinger equation that represents all it is possible to know
about a physical system. For example, the wave function for light leaving
a source might be a series of waves spreading out in all directions. But
these waves are not directly observable, they are related to the probability
of observing a photon at each point in space. The Schrodinger equation
allows us to calculate how the waves change as they spread out and interact
with the apparatus. For example, when the waves pass through a double
slit arrangement they diffract at each slit and then superpose, producing
an interference pattern consisting of regularly spaced maxima and minima.
However, this pattern is only related indirectly to the light that is detected
on the screen (or by any other kind of detector). The “intensity”(2) of the
interference pattern represents a probability distribution for the arrival of
photons on the screen. High intensity corresponds to high probability and
low intensity corresponds to low probability. The pattern applies to each
578 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

individual photon, so if only one photon interacts with the apparatus the
same probability distribution is used to work out where it is likely to be
detected.
Now we reach the most controversial aspect of the Copenhagen
interpretation, the act of observation or measurement. Up to this point
the wave function has evolved continuously according to the Schrodinger
equation. At the moment of observation or measurement the probability
distribution, which spreads across the entire screen in the double slit
experiment, suddenly and discontinuously changes. It becomes instantly
zero everywhere except at the point where the photon is observed. This
is called the “collapse of the wave function.” This is not explained by the
Schrodinger equation and there is no agreement on any physical mechanism
by which it occurs. This is called the “measurement problem”and is the
main reason many physicists think that the Copenhagen Interpretation
is unacceptable (even if it does give us a useful way to describe quantum
processes).
The diagram below gives a simplified explanation of the double slit
experiment using the Copenhagen Interpretation.

Wavefunction for light Wavefunction for light Wavefunction for light

approaching slits modified by apparatus collapses as observations
are made and photons
arrive at particular places

Prior to observation the photon could be anywhere within the probability

distribution. It is said to be in a “superposition of states.” After the
observation, the photon has arrived at a particular place on the screen.
Here is a summary of the main features of the Copenhagen
Interpretation.
 QUANTUM THEORY • 579

Q The wave function  (a solution of the Schrodinger equation) gives the

most complete description of a quantum state (this is unobservable).
Q Schrodinger’s equation governs the behavior of the wave function and
its interaction with the apparatus.
Q The evolution of the wave function is continuous and deterministic (i.e.,
if we know its initial state we can calculate, with certainty, its future
state.
Q 2 gives probability of finding photon at each point in space (Born’s
statistical interpretation).
Q Before an observation or measurement photons are in a superposition of
states.
Q Observation or measurement results in the discontinuous collapse of the
wave function.
Q We can only make statistical predictions about the outcome of wave
function collapse so quantum theory is indeterministic.
When we use high intensity light (large numbers of photons) the quantum
distribution is identical to that expected from classical physics. This is not
really surprising, if there is a large amount of energy the discrete nature of
individual quanta is hard to observe. The idea that quantum predictions
merge smoothly into classical predictions at high energies is called the
correspondence principle.

27.5.2 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty (Indeterminacy) Principle

In classical physics it is, in principle, possible to measure the position and
momentum of a particle as precisely as our instruments allow. It is assumed
that a particle possesses a definite position and momentum at all times even
if we do not choose to measure these quantities. The forces between the
particles are also determined by other properties such as mass and charge
so that it should be possible, in principle, to predict future positions and
momenta by carrying out suitable calculations using the initial values.
More importantly, classical physics is deterministic—the future is entirely
determined by the present state whether or not we have this information.
This is not the case with quantum theory.
Consider trying to determine the exact position of an electron at some
moment. One way of doing this would be to direct single electrons at a
narrow hole. If an electron gets through the hole and reaches the other
580 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

side then it must have been localized in the region of the hole as it passed
through, so we know its location at that moment with an uncertainty about
equal to the diameter of the hole. However, we must take into account the
wave nature of the electron. As it passes through the hole its wave function
diffracts and spreads out in all directions. This is equivalent to giving the
electron a random sideways momentum as it passes through the hole. As the
hole is made smaller the diffraction effects increase and the random changes
of momentum are likely to be larger. Making a precise measurement of the
position of the electron in the plane of the hole introduces an uncertainty
in the momentum of the electron in that plane.
x

Having passed through

hole, electron gets
random momentum
parallel to x-axis

Wavefunction for electron diffracts

at hole

If the hole diameter is x the angular spread of the first diffraction maximum
(which is where most electrons will be found after passing through the hole)
is given by:
1.22 
sin  
x
For small angles this is approximately:

 ~
x
The de Broglie wavelength links wavelength to momentum, so:
h

p
h
 ~
px
where p is the original momentum of the electrons (perpendicular to
x). After the electron passes through the hole its momentum also has an
x-component p perpendicular to its original momentum:
 QUANTUM THEORY • 581

Δp
θ
p

For small angles:

p
~
p
Combining the last two equations:
p h
~
p px
h
p ~
x
px ~ h
While this is a rough derivation, it does suggest that the uncertainty in
x-position and the uncertainty in x-momentum are inversely proportional
and that their product is of the order of the Planck constant. The more
precisely we measure the position of the electron (smaller hole) the greater
the uncertainty in its momentum (greater spread). But this is not just about
our ability to make precise measurements. The wave function contains
complete information about the electron, so the properties of position and
momentum are indeterminate—the electron does not possess independent
properties of position and momentum at each moment.
This discovery, made by Werner Heisenberg in 1927, is one of the
defining features of quantum theory and is known as the uncertainty
principle or indeterminacy principle. Its more formal statement is in terms
of an inequality:
h
xp 
4
If particles do not possess defined properties such as position and
momentum then it is impossible to predict the future in detail based on
the total information about the state of the present. This makes quantum
theory indeterminate and leaves the future open. It also undermines our
classical ideas about the nature of reality—how can an electron be regarded
as a real particle if it does not possess definite values for momentum and
position?

27.5.3 Sum-Over-Histories Approach

In 1980, Freeman Dyson described the sum-over-histories approach:
Thirty-one years ago, Dick Feynman told me about his “sum over histories”
582 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

version of quantum mechanics. “The electron does anything it likes,” he

said. “It just goes in any direction at any speed, ….however it likes, and
then you add up the amplitudes and it gives you the wave function.” I said
to him, “You’re crazy.” But he wasn’t.
Feynman embraced the idea that photons or (electrons or any other
quantum object) are free to get from one point to another by any route
at all, and assumed that these alternative “histories” contribute in some
way to what the electron or photon actually does. This seems to be what
is happening in the double slit experiment because the slit through which
the photon does not pass does affect where it can hit the screen. To do this
he associated a rotating phasor with each photon. Different routes have
different lengths and take different times to complete so the phasors from
different routes will have a range of phases (i.e., they point in a range of
different directions) when they arrive at any point on the screen. The phase
can be worked out if we know the wavelength associated with the photon
(e.g., a path of length 72.5 wavelengths introduces a phase difference ).
The next step is to add up the phasors at each point on the screen. The
square of the resultant phasor amplitude is proportional to the probability
that the photon is found at that point. The diagram below shows three
phasors for three of the many possible routes a photon could take from one
point, A, to another, B.

Possible path 1

Phasor:
Point B path 1
Possible path 2
Phasor:
Phasor at path 2
point A
Phasor: Sum of
Possible path 3 path 3 phasors

This can be summed up in a series of rules.

Q Rule 1: photons/electrons “explore all paths”
Q Rule 2: each path contributes a phasor
Q Rule 3: the phasors add like vectors at the detector
Q Rule 4: the square of the resultant phasor is proportional to the
probability of finding the electron/photon at that point.
 QUANTUM THEORY • 583

Considering double slits, the photon can reach the detector via either slit,
so each possible route contributes a phasor. The paths are different lengths
so there is a phase difference.

Path via A Detector

A
Source

Path via B
B

Path B is longer than path A, so the phasor has rotated more times and
there is a phase difference between phasors via A and via B.
Via B

Via A
Resultant

The length of the resultant will vary as the detector is moved to different
positions. If the two phasors arrive in phase they reinforce so the probability
at that point is a maximum value. At positions where the phasors arrive in
antiphase ( phase difference) they undergo destructive interference and
cancel out. The probability at that point is zero so no photons actually arrive
there.
This “sum-over-histories”approach is particularly helpful in particle
physics where all possible mechanisms for a particular interaction
contribute a phasor and the sum of all the phasor amplitudes (squared)
gives the probability of the process. As an interpretation of quantum theory
it suggests that beneath what we regard as the real world of actual events
there are potential events (possible paths) that may not actually be where
the photon is found but which nonetheless contribute to what it can do.

27.5.4 Many-Worlds Theory

The many-worlds theory was first suggested in 1957 by Hugh Everett III
and it was an attempt to solve the measurement problem. Everett thought
584 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

that the Schrodinger equation should give a complete explanation of what

happens in a quantum system and felt that the measurement problem only
arises if we treat the system we are measuring as a quantum system and
the apparatus we use to measure it (or even the observers who observe
it) as classical systems. He argued that all observations and measurements
were interactions between quantum systems so both the observed and the
observer (the measured system and the measuring apparatus) must be
described by the Schrodinger equation.
The wave function, a solution to the Schrodinger equation, represents a
superposition of states. According to the Copenhagen Interpretation this
superposition collapses into a particular state when an observation is made.
Everett argued that if we really take the Schrodinger equation seriously we
should assume the there is a wave function describing both the observed
system and the observer and that this wave function contains a superposition
of all possible states of both. For example, if an atom of a radioactive
element has a 50% chance of decaying in 1 hour then the wave function of
the system consists of two parts, one representing the undecayed atom and
the other representing the decayed atom and the emitted radiation. During
1 hour the amplitude of the first part gets weaker and the second part gets
stronger until at the end of the hour both parts have equal strength. This
represents an equal chance of having decayed or not having decayed. Now
consider an observer who can detect whether the atom has decayed or not.
According to Everett the observer is also described by a wave function
and this contains a superposition of two states, one in which the observer
detects a decay and the other in which he does not. As time goes on the
amplitude of the first part grows and the amplitude of the second part falls
until after 1 hour they have equal amplitudes. No collapse has occurred
but the description of the universe now contains two observers, one having
observed the decay, the other having observed no decay. The single world
has split into two.
According to Everett’s model the wave function for the whole universe
contains a superposition of all possibilities. We only think that the wave
function collapses because we, as individuals, only experience one path
through this ever-splitting universe even though copies of ourselves occur
in many of the other parallel worlds. The attraction of the many-worlds
theory is that it solves (or at least removes) the measurement problem. Its
drawback is the weird multiplicity of universes it imagines.
Q Every measurement causes the world to split into multiple copies of
itself, each copy containing one possible outcome of the measurement
AND a copy of the measuring device giving that outcome.
 QUANTUM THEORY • 585

Q This solves the measurement problem—No “collapse of the wave

function”
Q But it suggests that world is continually splitting into multiple copies of
itself—many-worlds.

ψ1 World 1
M1 [Observer 1]

[Observer]
World 2
ψ IN M M2 ψ2
[Observer 2]

ψ3 World 3
M3 [Observer 3]

M is a measurement and M1, M2 and M3 are three different possible results

of that measurement that exist as super positions in the wave function.
In the many-worlds interpretation everything that is not impossible
actually occurs in some world—if life is highly improbable but not impossible
it must exist in part of the multiverse!

27.5.5 Schrodinger’s Cat

Erwin Schrodinger realized that quantum theory challenged our
conventional view of how the universe functions. He tried to draw attention
to its counter intuitive nature using a thought experiment in which quantum
effects on the atomic scale are amplified up to affect objects on an everyday
scale. This thought experiment is known as Schrodinger’s cat.
A cat is placed in a box along with a mechanism that is designed to break
a vial of poison if a radioactive atom decays. If this does happen the poison
will kill the cat. The box is closed and left for a time so that the probability
that the atom has decayed and the poison has been released to kill the cat is
exactly ½ . The box is then opened. The cat is either dead or alive but what
was its state prior to opening the box?
Classically the answer to this question seems very obvious—the cat was
either alive or dead before we opened the box, we just do not know which
state it was in. Quantum theory gives a different and rather disturbing
answer. The atom is described by a wave function that has two parts—
one describing its undecayed state and the other describing its decayed
586 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

state. Prior to opening the box and making an observation the most we can
deduce about the system is that the atom is in a superposition of the decayed
and undecayed states. But there is also a wave function for the state of the
detector and the vial of poison. These too must be in a superposition of
states. So must the cat! It is not dead or alive prior to opening the box but in
a superposition of those states! And we can go further—the experimenter
who opens the box can also be described by a wave function. Until we
interact with him and ask him what has happened to the cat we must
describe him, the cat, the detector and the atom by a wave function that
includes a superposition of both alternatives….
If we stick to the Copenhagen Interpretation each wave function is
collapsed by successive observations. This is where the many-worlds theory
offers a way out of these endless wave function collapses. The cat is both
dead and alive but not in the same world. In one world the atom decayed,
the poison was released and the cat died. In that world the experimenter
opened the box to find the dead cat. But in another world the atom did not
decay, the poison remained trapped in the vial and when the experimenter
opened the box the cat was alive and well.

Vial of
poison
Hammer
release
?
Detector

Radioactive
atom

The arguments about how to interpret quantum theory go on!

27.6 Exercises

1. (a) Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron that has been

accelerated through a potential difference of 500 V.
 QUANTUM THEORY • 587

(b) (i) Calculate the energy of an X-ray photon of wavelength 2.0 

1010 m. Express your answer in both J and eV.
(ii) Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron that has the
same energy as the photon in (b)(i).
(c) The first ionization energy of most atoms is around 10 electron volts.
Explain why visible light is not ionizing but X-rays are.
2. (a) Explain what is meant by each of the following:
(i) the photoelectric effect,
(ii) threshold frequency,
(iii) work function
(b) Describe the dependence of the photoelectric effect on:
(i) frequency of radiation, (ii) intensity of radiation
(c) Give one aspect of the photoelectric effect that cannot be
satisfactorily explained using a wave model of light.
(d) Describe Einstein’s photon theory and explain how it can account
for the frequency and intensity dependence of the photoelectric
effect.
3. (a) Why will weak red light emit no electrons from the surface of zinc?
(b) Why doesn’t increasing the intensity of red light lead to the
emission of electrons from the surface?
(c) Why can UV light of wavelength 200 nm emit electrons from zinc?
(d) What changes if the intensity of the UV light falling on the zinc is
increased? Why?
(e) Blue light of wavelength 450 nm can emit electrons from potassium.
Explain why this can occur for potassium but not zinc.
(f) How would electrons emitted from potassium by violet light differ
from those emitted by blue light? Explain.
Work functions: zinc: 4.3 eV; potassium: 2.3 eV
4. (a) Calculate the maximum kinetic energy for electrons emitted from
the surface of a metal of work function 2.0 eV by light of wavelength
450 nm.
(b) Calculate the maximum velocity of these electrons.
(c) Calculate the stopping voltage for these electrons.
(d) State and explain what happens if the intensity of the light is
increased.
5. The energy levels of the hydrogen atom are given by the equation:
13.6 eV
En 
n2
588 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(a)How much energy is needed to ionize a hydrogen atom from its

excited n 2 state?
(b) What is the wavelength of the photon emitted by a hydrogen atom
when it decays from the n  4 state to the n  2 state? What part of
the EM spectrum does this radiation belong to?
(c) An electron with kinetic energy 11 eV scatters from a hydrogen
atom in its ground state. Describe the states of the hydrogen atom
and electron after the collision if:
(i) It is an elastic collision.(ii) It is an inelastic collision.
6. (a) Estimate the number of photons of visible light emitted by a 100 W
filament lamp per second. Assume the light efficiency is 10% and take
photons of visible light to have a wavelength around 500 nm.
(b) Why don’t we notice the quantum nature of light in everyday life?
7. (a) Derive an algebraic expression for the recoil force on a torch if it
emits a beam of light of optical power P.
(b) Solar sails could be used to reflect light from the Sun and generate
a thrust to propel a spacecraft away from the Sun. Estimate the
minimum area of solar sail necessary to generate a thrust of 1.0 N
at a distance of 1.5 1011 m from the Sun (1 AU). The Sun’s
luminosity is 3.8  1026 W.
8. (a) Summarize the main features of the Copenhagen Interpretation.
(b) Use the Copenhagen Interpretation to explain the formation of an
interference pattern when monochromatic light is shone through
double slits.
(c) Explain what is meant by “the measurement problem.”
(d) Why is the “measurement problem”a problem for the Copenhagen
Interpretation?
(e) How does the many-worlds interpretation “solve” the measurement
problem?
9. (a) Describe the Schrodinger’s cat thought experiment.
(b) At the end of the experiment a box is opened and the experimenter
finds a cat that is either dead or alive. How does the description
of the state of the cat inside the box, before it is opened, differ
in classical physics and in quantum physics (according to the
Copenhagen interpretation)?
(c) What happens, according to the Copenhagen interpretation, when
the box is opened and the experimenter looks inside?
(d) Suggest a reason why this thought experiment is so shocking.
 QUANTUM THEORY • 589

(e) How does the many-worlds theory account for what happens in this
thought experiment?
10. The energy levels of the hydrogen atom are given by the equation:
13.6 eV
En 
n2
(a) Derive a similar equation for the singly ionized atom of helium
(Z  2).
(b) Describe how you would expect the line emission spectrum from
singly ionized helium to compare with that of hydrogen.
(c) Explain why we cannot use the same simple method to derive the
energy levels for the second electron in the neutral helium atom.
 CHAPTER

28
ASTROPHYSICS

28.0 Physics Astrophysics and Cosmology

Much of astrophysics differs from other branches of the subject because
we cannot set up experimental stars and vary parameters to see what
happens. However, there are many billions of stars in space and we can test
our theories by observing their radiation using telescopes here on Earth.
The first telescopes used for this purpose were optical but in the second
half of the twentieth century other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum
were also used; first radio but now infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray and even
gamma-ray telescopes have been built and used. The Earth’s atmosphere
is almost transparent to visible light and some radio wavelengths but much
of the rest of the spectrum is strongly absorbed, so telescopes working at
other wavelengths are usually mounted on satellites orbiting beyond the
atmosphere.
Different wavelengths provide information about different processes
going on in the source stars. It is usually the case that the higher the
frequency of the radiation the more energetic the underlying process that
emitted it. In recent years, the detection of gravitational waves (predicted
in Einstein’s general theory of relativity) has opened the possibility of
gravitational wave telescopes in the future. These would provide evidence
about some of the most dramatic astronomical events, e.g., the collapse of
giant stars collisions of black holes.
Here we will focus on some of the physics that is important in astrophysics
and include aspects of cosmology, the study of the entire universe.
592 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

28.1 Stars
Before the start of the twentieth century, physicists were unable to explain
how a star like the Sun could continue to radiate energy for billions of
years. No known chemical or gravitational process could provide a large
enough source of energy. This was not a major problem until the theories of
long-term geological processes and evolution by natural selection became
established. Both required the Earth to have existed, and had a source of
energy, for billions of years.
The problem of the Sun’s energy source was solved by the discovery
of Einstein’s mass–energy equation and the process of nuclear fusion (see
Section 26.3.4). Stars fuse light nuclei into heavy nuclei in their cores
releasing a huge amount of energy. Radiation from the core supports the
star against gravitational collapse while energy is transferred to its surface
where it radiates out into space.

28.1.1 Mass
The most important parameter when modelling a star is its mass. The greater
the mass of the star the higher the temperature at its core. This can allow
fusion reactions to proceed faster and nucleosynthesis (see Section 26.3.5)
to produce heavier elements. Increasing mass rapidly increases the reaction
rate in the core so that more massive stars use up their fuel relatively more
quickly than less massive stars and reach the end of their lives earlier.
Mass determines the fate of a star.
Q Low mass stars are stable for a long time but their cores are not hot
enough to create nuclei beyond carbon. When they run out of fuel they
swell to become red giant stars before shedding their outer layers of gas
and forming a planetary nebula. This exposes the white-hot core. This
final state is called a white dwarf star. Fusion reactions have now ceased
so the white dwarf cools down over a long period of time (of the order of
a billion years) eventually becoming a dense black dwarf star.
Q High mass stars have shorter lives but the core becomes hot enough
for nuclear fusion to create iron. Iron is the most stable nuclide so
at that point fusion reactions stop suddenly and the star undergoes a
violent collapse and explosion called a supernova. This can increase the
luminosity of a star by a factor of around 1010 for a short period (days or
weeks). The supernova explosion has two effects—some of the energy
creates heavier nuclei than iron and the process blasts these out into
space, where they can become part of the raw material for second and
 ASTROPHYSICS • 593

third generation stars to form. Our own Solar System must have formed
from supernovae remnants because it contains significant amounts of
the heavy nuclides (e.g., uranium in the Earth’s crust).
Mass also determines what happens to the core left after the supernova
explosion.
Q The core is so massive (typically 2–3 times the mass of the Sun) that
the forces that prevent collapse of ordinary matter—i.e., forces that
stop atoms being crushed (called electron degeneracy pressure)—
are overcome by gravity. This effectively forces orbital electrons and
nuclear protons to combine to form neutrons. When this happens the
core radius decreases enormously (to about 10 km!) and the density
of the core, which is now almost entirely made of neutrons, increases
spectacularly to around 1017 kgm3. One centimeter cubed of this
neutron star material would have a mass of one hundred million tons!
The core is now called a neutron star. This collapse causes the rotation
rate to increase too so neutron stars spin rapidly, sometimes completing
a revolution in milliseconds). Neutron stars form from the collapse of
stars with initial masses in the approximate range 10–30 times the mass
of the Sun.
Q Another effect of the collapse is to intensify the magnetic field of the
star. This has the effect of directing a beam of radio waves out along the
magnetic axis of the star. Since this axis can be in a different place to the
rotation axis the beam sweeps around like the light from a lighthouse. If
the Earth happens to be struck by this beam we receive regular pulses.
When these pulses were first discovered they were so regular that
astronomers thought they might be alien radio signals. They are called
pulsars.
Q If the mass of the core is greater than about 5 times the mass of the
Sun then the collapse to a neutron star is not the end of the story.
The gravitational forces are so strong that the neutrons themselves
are crushed and at the present time we know of no physical force that
prevents collapse to a point or singularity. A black hole is formed.
The reason for the name is that at a certain distance from the central
singularity the escape velocity is c, the speed of light. Since this is a
universal speed limit no material or information from points closer to
the singularity can reach the outside world. The surface at which this
occurs is called the event horizon of the black hole (see Section 23.2.5).
594 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Stellar nebula: cloud of

gas and dust in which
protostars form from
gravitational collapse

Low-or medium-mass High-mass star—

star—nucleosynthesis nucleosynthesis up to
up to carbon-12 iron-56

Red giant Red supergiant

Supernova
Planetary explosion
nebula
Nucleosynthesis-up
to uranium-238

White dwarf Neutron star or black hole

28.1.2 Stars as Black Bodies

Energy released by nuclear fusion reactions in the core of a star raises
its surface temperature so that it emits a spectrum of electromagnetic
radiation into space like a black body. The total power radiated by a star
 ASTROPHYSICS • 595

is called its luminosity L (measured in watts). However, whilst the black

body model is fine for the overall shape of the spectrum, there is a great
deal of fine detail too. This results in a complex pattern of dark absorption
lines corresponding to elements in the outer layers of the star that have
absorbed radiation at particular frequencies. Analysis of stellar spectra can
tell us a great deal about the nature of the star, its surface temperature
and composition, as well as allowing us to classify stars in a useful way. In
addition to this, motion of the star relative to the Earth results in a Doppler
shift of these absorption lines and by measuring this shift we can determine
the relative velocity of the star.
The peak wavelength in the black body radiation spectrum can be
measured using a telescope attached to a spectrometer. Wien law (see
Section 8.5) can then be used to find the surface temperature of the star.
Power radiated per unit
wavelength

Stellar (black body) radiation

spectrum

Wavelength
λpeak

max T  2.9  0103 mK

2.90 103
T
max
If the luminosity is also known it is possible to use Stefan law to calculate
the radius of the star:
L  AT 4  4 r 2 T 4
L
r
4 T 4
28.1.3 Stellar Spectra and the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
Astronomers classify stars according to their spectral type. This also
corresponds to their surface temperature because as the temperature rises
596 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

different types of spectral lines appear in the spectrum. The details of this do
not need to concern us here but what is interesting is that when luminosity
is plotted against temperature (spectral type) for all of the observable stars a
clear pattern emerges. This was first done by Hertzsprung and Russell and
the plot is called a Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram. Note that the x-axis
points in the direction of decreasing temperature.
Luminosity
Increasing radius
(relative to the Sun)
M Deneb
ain
106 seq Rigel
Betelgeuse
ue
nc
e
Super giants
Antares
Short lifetime:
107 years
Siriu
Giants
Sun

White dwarf
M
stars ain
seq
ue
nc
Long lifetime: e
10 −4 1011 years
O B A F G K M

30,000 3000 K
Increasing temperature

The diagram above shows (in a very simplified form) the main regions of
the HR diagram. The letters refer to spectral classes used in astronomy.
The Sun is in class G and has a surface temperature of about 5800 K.
A diagonal band runs from large luminous hot blue-white stars at top
left to small dim red stars at bottom right. This is called the main sequence
and stars spend most of their lives on this band. At the end of their lives,
when nuclear fusion fuel in their core runs out, they move off the band as
they become red giants or super giants and eventually white dwarf stars,
neutron stars or black holes. These final two star types do not appear on
the HR diagram because their luminosity and spectrum is not measured
directly (and luminosity is very low).
 ASTROPHYSICS • 597

28.2 Distances
One of the greatest challenges for astronomers and cosmologists is to find
ways to determine accurate distances to the objects they observe. Ancient
Greek astronomers managed to find ingenious methods to estimate the size
of the Earth and the distances to the Moon and Sun but modern space
exploration has provided accurate methods for surveying our immediate
surroundings in space. Distances to objects beyond the solar system are
determined by several different overlapping methods and these regions of
overlap can be used to calibrate one technique against another.

28.2.1 Trigonometric Parallax

The Earth’s orbital motion causes the apparent positions of relatively
nearby stars to shift against the background of very distant (“fixed”) stars.
This parallax shift can be used to measure the distance to the nearby star.

very distant stars

R

Background of
α
d

Telescopes can be used to measure the parallax angle . This is half of the
total angular shift in the star’s position during a 6-month period (as the
earth completes half of an orbit).
R
 tan 
d
Parallax angles are tiny so we can use the small angle approximation and
replace tan() with  (in radians).
R
d

where R is the radius of the Earth’s orbit. This is known very accurately from
laser ranging within the solar system and trigonometry. If R is measured in
meters and  in radians then d will also be in meters. Astronomers often use
different (non S.I. units):
1 Astronomical unit (AU)  149,597,870,700 m
598 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

They also measure the parallax angle in seconds of arc where:

1 second of arc  1/3600 degree
When these units are substituted into the equation for distance above, the
result is in parsecs (pc) so that a star with a parallax angle of 0.1 seconds of
arc is at a distance of 10 pc.
1 parsec (pc)  3.0857  1016 m  2.26156 light years
The parallax method using Earth-based telescopes is limited to about
100 pc because as distance increases the parallax angles soon become
too small to be resolved. However, space telescopes (e.g., the Hipparcos
satellite) can extend this method to about 1000 pc.

28.2.2 Inverse-Square Law and Cepheid Variables

Telescopes can be used to measure the intensity (or flux) I of stellar radiation
as it reaches the Earth. If we also know the luminosity L of the star being
observed then the inverse-square law can be used to calculate its distance d.
L
I 2
d
L
d
I
In 1912, Henrietta Leavitt discovered a relationship between the period
of a certain type of variable star, a Cepheid variable, and its luminosity.
This period-luminosity rule provides a way to discover the luminosity of
Cepheid variables by measuring their period from the Earth. This is easily
done simply by monitoring the flux from the star over a period of time.
Flux of radiation
at Earth

Mean flux
at Earth

Period of Cepheid
Variable, T
 ASTROPHYSICS • 599

Cepheid variables are very luminous so they can be detected out to a

very great distance. This gave astronomers a method to extend distance
measurements from our own galaxy to other quite distant galaxies.
Luminosity

Period
T
The way to determine distance using Cepheid variables is summarized
below:
Q Monitor the flux from a Cepheid variable.
Q Measure its period T and mean intensity I.
Q Use the period-luminosity relation to find the luminosity L.
Q Use the inverse-square law to find the distance d.

This method can be calibrated against the parallax method using nearby
Cepheids.
Hubble used this distance method with groups of Cepheids in nebulae
and showed that the nebulae were actually separate galaxies outside the
Milky Way.
28.2.3 Hubble Law
In the 1920s, Edwin Hubble and Vesto Slipher measured the spectra and
distances for many observable galaxies. When a galaxy is in motion relative
to the Earth the spectrum measured on Earth is shifted relative to the
spectrum of the same elements from a stationary source. This is a Doppler
effect (see Section 14.4.1) and can be used to calculate the velocity of the
source, in this case the velocity of the galaxy. The wavelength shift  is
given by:
   0 
600 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Where 0 is the wavelength from a stationary source and  is the wavelength

from the moving source.

Astronomers usually work with the fractional shift, z  . If this is
0
positive the wavelengths are increased and it is called a “red-shift.” If it is
negative the wavelengths are decreased and it is called a “blue-shift.”
For velocities small compared to the speed of light the relationship
between the fractional shift in wavelength  and the velocity is given by:
0
 v
z 
0 c
To their surprise they discovered that:

Q z is positive for all distant galaxies, i.e., light from all distant
0
galaxies is red-shifted;
Q the red-shift is directly proportional to the distance of the galaxy:
 v
z   d
0 c
Hubblerealized that:
Q Distant galaxies are moving away from us—the universe is expanding.
(A few nearby galaxies are actually moving toward us but that is because
their own proper motion is greater than the global motion due to
expansion.)
Q The recession velocity of a distant galaxy is directly proportional to its
distance:
v d
v  H0 d
This final equation is the Hubble law.
Red-shift or
recession velocity

Distance
 ASTROPHYSICS • 601

Having established Hubble law, red-shifts can be used to determine the

distances to distant galaxies. However, for very distant objects the source
must be extremely bright otherwise the flux of radiation reaching the Earth
is too weak for measurements to be made. Fortunately, there are extremely
bright objects that can act as “standard candles”for these measurements.
One such object is a type 1a supernova. Astronomers understand the physics
of these stars and can predict their luminosity, which is great enough for
them to be seen in the most distant galaxies. At these distances the recession
velocities are a significant fraction of the speed of light so relativistic effects
must also be taken into account.

28.3 Cosmology
Cosmology is the science of the universe as a whole, dealing with its origin,
nature, evolution and end. All of the evidence that we have suggests that the
laws of physics we have discovered from our own planet operate throughout
the universe, so we use these to try to understand it. Whilst cosmology
deals with physics on the largest scale it is intimately linked to physics on
the smallest scales and discoveries in particle physics and cosmology are
often linked. The enormous energies present soon after the Big Bang are
reproduced in particle physics experiments such as the Large Hadron
Collider at CERN.

28.3.1 Origin and Age of the Universe

Hubble law shows that the universe is expanding, so it is tempting to think
that if all the distant galaxies are moving away from us (as they are) then
we must be at the center of this expansion. However, this is not how a
cosmologist would view the expansion. An observer on any of the galaxies
would see all the other galaxies moving away from him in the same way
that we do. There is no center to the expanding universe, all points are
equivalent. A way to understand this is to imagine that the universe is
two-dimensional and shaped like the surface of a balloon with the galaxies
as spots on the surface. As the universe expands the balloon gets larger
and all the spots move apart. Those initially close together move apart
slowly, those that started farther apart separate more rapidly, exactly as the
Hubble law describes. An observer placed on any one of the spots could
discover this law and would see the universe expanding in exactly the same
way—there would be no center to this surface. A section of the expanding
surface is shown below as it doubles in size. The black dots represent three
galaxies—A, B, and C. Distance AC is double the distance AB.
602 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Big Bang A B C
A B C
Tim

As the scale doubles, AB also doubles. An observer on A sees B recede at

some velocity v. AC also doubles, so the same observer (on A) also sees C
recede. However, the recession velocity of C is double that of A because
AC  2AB in both diagrams. This confirms the Hubble law—a galaxy
at double the distance has double the recession velocity, vd. The same
argument would hold equally well for observers at B or at C.
If the universe is expanding now, it must have been much smaller in
the past. Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose showed that it must have
begun as a point or singularity of infinite density that exploded and has
been expanding ever since. This initial explosion is called the Big Bang.
We can use Hubble law to estimate how much time has passed since
the Big Bang. This is an estimate of the age of the universe. The method
assumes that the galaxies have always had their present relative velocities.
We can calculate how long they have been separating by dividing their
current separation by their current recession velocity:
d 1
T 
v H0
This is the Hubble time. It does not take into account the variation in
galactic velocities caused by gravitational forces but does give a good order
of magnitude for the age of the universe. More sophisticated methods
using evidence from the cosmic background radiation (measured by the
Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy probe [WMAP] in 2012) have given a
much more precise estimate of the age of the universe.
Age of universe  13.772  0.059  109 years
So far we have described the red-shifts as if they are caused by the motions
of galaxies through space. However, we have already seen that the concept
of absolute space had to be abandoned and only relative motions are
 ASTROPHYSICS • 603

significant. Einstein’s general theory of relativity goes further showing that

space has geometrical properties that can be changed by the presence of
matter or energy (space-time curvature). This theory provides a different
interpretation of red-shifts and the Big Bang and expansion. According to
general relativity space itself is expanding (rather like the surface of the
balloon in the analogy above). The red-shifts are therefore a result of the
stretching of electromagnetic waves as they cross the expanding space
between galaxies. Hubble law is consistent with this approach (as can
be seen from the example above). One new consequence of Einstein’s
approach is that there will be “horizons” in the universe. Whilst no object
can move through space faster than the speed of light it is possible for
the space between two galaxies to expand so fast that light cannot travel
between them. When this happens the galaxies effectively disappear over a
cosmic horizon.

28.3.2 Evidence for the Big Bang

The Big Bang model of the origin of the universe is supported by several
strong strands of evidence:
Q The red-shifts of distant galaxies are consistent with the universe having
evolved from a tiny dense point.
Q The universe is filled with cosmic microwave background radiation. This
has a blackbody radiation spectrum corresponding to a temperature
of about 2.7 K. This was predicted from the model and detected,
accidentally, by Penzias and Wilson in 1964. Soon after the Big Bang
the universe was filled with high-intensity gamma-radiation that was
in thermal equilibrium at a very high temperature. As the universe
expanded it cooled and the radiation was red-shifted to longer
wavelengths forming the microwave background that we detect today.
The fact that the spectrum is a blackbody spectrum confirms that the
radiation was in (almost) thermal equilibrium and the fact that it is
uniform from all parts of the sky confirms that it filled the universe.
Q Tiny fluctuations in the microwave background radiation (detected
and measured by the COBE and WMAP satellites) are of the correct
magnitude to account for galaxy formation. If the current microwave
background radiation had been perfectly uniform, then the early
universe would not have contained enough concentrations of matter for
galaxies to form.
604 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Q The ratios of light nuclides (e.g., hydrogen, helium, lithium) throughout

the universe are consistent with the amounts expected to have been
formed by nuclear fusion reactions as the universe expanded. There was
a brief period after the Big Bang when the universe was hot and dense
enough for some nucleosynthesis to take place but this soon stopped
as the universe expanded and cooled. All the heavier elements were
synthesized by nuclear fusion reactions in stars.
Q The Big Bang and expanding universe model is consistent with
Einstein’s general theory of relativity. In fact his theory requires a
Universe that either expands or contracts.

28.4 Exercises

1. (a) The surface temperature of the Sun is about 5800 K. Sketch a

graph to show how the intensity of radiation varies with wavelength
for electromagnetic waves leaving the surface and calculate the
wavelength at which the peak of this distribution occurs.
(b) The luminous flux from the Sun is about 1400 Wm2 at the radius
of the Earth’s orbit. Calculate the luminous flux at the orbit of Mars
(about 1.5 times further away than the Earth).
(c) The luminosity of the Sun is about 4  1026 W with a surface
temperature of about 5800 K. Calculate its radius.
(d) Toward the end of its life the Sun will become a white dwarf star
with a surface temperature of about 105 K. How will this affect the
spectrum of radiation it emits? Support your answer with a relevant
calculation.
Wien constant  2.90 × 103mK,
Stefan constant  5.67  108 Wm2K4
2. The peak wavelength in the spectrum of light emitted by the super-giant
star Betelgeuse is 830 nm and its luminosity is 3.5 × 1031 W
(a) Calculate its surface temperature.(b) Calculate its radius.
Wien constant  2.9 × 103mK, Stefan constant  5.67 × 108 Wm2K4
3. A distant galaxy has a red-shift of 0.05. The Hubble constant is about
2.2 × 1018 s1 in S.I. units.
(a) Calculate the velocity of the galaxy relative to the Earth and state
the direction in which it is moving.
(b) Calculate the distance of the galaxy.
(c) Use the Hubble constant to estimate the age of the universe in years
and explain why the actual age is likely to differ from this value.
 ASTROPHYSICS • 605

4. (a) Describe a parallax method for measuring the distance to a relatively

nearby star.
(b) Show that 1 parsec is about 3 1016 m and about 3.26 light years.
(c) Explain why stellar parallax cannot be used to measure the distance
to very distant stars.
1 AU  1.496  1011 m
(d) How far away (in pc) is a star with parallax 0.052 second of arc?
5. (a) Two similar galaxies are observed. The brightest blue stars in galaxy
A have an apparent brightness 10,000 times greater than those in
galaxy B. Galaxy A is 107 light years away. How far away is galaxy B?
(b) Two type Ia supernovae are observed one week apart. The first
is 100 Mpc away but its apparent brightness is only 0.070 of the
apparent brightness of the second. How far away is the second
supernova?
6. (a) Explain what is meant by a “standard candle” in astronomy.
(b) Explain how a Cepheid variable can be used as a standard candle to
measure distances to galaxies beyond the Milky Way.
7. (a) A rocket is traveling away from the Earth at a velocity of
9.0  106 ms1 when it transmits a signal to the Earth on a carrier
frequency of 10.000  1010 Hz. To what frequency should the
receiver on Earth be tuned?
(b) A distant galaxy has a red-shift of 0.030. Aliens on a planet in this
galaxy transmit a signal to Earth on a carrier frequency of 10.000 
1010 Hz. To what frequency should the receiver on Earth be tuned?
(c) Compare your answers to (a) and (b) and discuss whether or not the
shift in frequency has the same physical cause.
(d) Estimate the time taken for the signal in (b) to reach the Earth.
H0  2.2 × 1018 s1
8. (a) Explain how observations of galactic spectra led to the ideas of the
expanding universe, Hubble law, and the Big Bang.
(b) State and explain two other pieces of evidence for the Big Bang as
the origin of the universe.
 CHAPTER

29
MEDICAL PHYSICS

29.1 Ultrasound

29.1.1 Overview of Ultrasound

Ultrasound (sonography) uses high-frequency sound waves to form images
of structures inside the human body and is particularly suited to imaging soft
tissues. Typical frequencies are in the range 1–20 MHz with corresponding
wavelengths from 2–0.1 mm. Distances to tissue boundaries are computed
using the time for reflected pulses to return:
1
Distance to boundary =  speed of ultrasound in tissue
2
 time for pulse to return
The speed of ultrasound in the body is about 1550 ms1. The higher
frequency waves provide higher resolution but are absorbed more strongly
so do not penetrate so far into the body.
Ultrasound transducers use piezoelectric crystals to generate and
detect the waves. When an alternating voltage is applied across the crystal it
vibrates and when the crystal experiences an alternating stress (as it absorbs
an ultrasound wave) it generates an alternating voltage.
There are several different types of ultrasound scan. An A-scan(“amplitude
mode”) is the simplest procedure, using a single transducer to detect
echoes. As the scanner is moved along a line the depth is computed and
displayed on a screen. A B-scan (“brightness mode”) uses a linear array
608 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

of transducers and creates a 2D image as the scanner is moved. It is also

possible to ultrasound pulses to compute the velocities of tissue boundaries
in order to create a moving image, this is M-mode (“motion mode”). When
ultrasound reflects from a moving object it is Doppler shifted. Doppler
mode ultrasound uses these shifts to measure and display blood flow rates.
Studies into the safety of ultrasound techniques have shown that they
present very low risk with no confirmed evidence that normal ultrasound
scans cause any significant damage to humans. This makes them preferable
to X-ray techniques for many diagnostic uses, including prenatal scanning.

29.1.2 Ultrasound and the Eye

A-scans are used to measure the structure and dimensions of the human
eye to ensure that the correct lens implant is used following surgery for
the removal of a cataract. The diagram below shows how an A-scan result
relates to the eye. The speed of the ultrasound waves in the eye is 1550 ms1.
The dotted lines on the upper diagram correspond to tissue boundaries

Cornea Retina

Gel Lens

Ultrasound
transducer

Distance from probe

Signal strength

Ultrasound pulse

Time/µs
0 40
 MEDICAL PHYSICS • 609

responsible for the peaks in the detected signal. The gel between the
transducer and the cornea reduces the amount of the incident signal that is
reflected by the outer surface and does not enter the eye.
B-scans of the eye are used to diagnose problems such as a detached
retina, glaucoma, or cataracts or to monitor the shape and size of a tumour.
In the B-scan the incident ultrasound is moved back and forth to scan slices
of the eye. These can then be combined to form an image. The eye is quite
small so ultrasound does not have to penetrate far and higher frequencies
can be used. Recently frequencies up to 50 MHz have been used to provide
extremely high resolution images of structures at the front of the eye. At
these frequencies penetration is just a few millimeters.
B-scans in prenatal scanning have to penetrate farther into the body so
these are limited to lower frequencies. This reduces their resolution but the
structures being imaged tend to be larger so this is not a major problem.

29.1.3 Doppler Ultrasound for Blood Flow Measurements

Ultrasound is directed into a blood vessel and reflects from the moving
cells. The reflected waves are Doppler shifted and the frequency difference
between the incident and reflected waves is proportional to the speed of
the flow. The diagram below illustrates how this is carried out:

Coupling gel Ultrasound transducer

Blood flow

As the blood flow pulses the frequency difference shows a series of peaks:
Frequency

Time
610 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

29.1.4 Using Ultrasound to Break Kidney Stones

Kidney stones can be painful and might get stuck in the tubes connecting
your kidney to your bladder. Small stones are usually passed out of the
body in urine but larger ones can be located using ultrasound and then
broken into small pieces by high intensity ultrasound pulses. This technique
is called Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy.

29.2 X-rays
29.2.1 Overview of Medical X-Rays
X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Roentgen and he won the very
first Nobel Prize for physics in 1901. X-rays are a form of high-frequency,
short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation emitted when electrons moving
at high speed crash into a target and stop suddenly. The radiation is ionizing
and highly penetrating and Roentgen took the first X-ray photograph, of his
wife’s hand, soon after his discovery.
X-rays are now used routinely in medicine to create images of the
inside of the human body. In conventional X-ray radiography the X-rays
pass through the body and are absorbed to differing extents by the tissues
through which they pass, creating a shadow image that can be captured
on film or by arrays of detectors. A more sophisticated technique, called
computed tomography (CT), involves rotating the X-ray source and
detectors around the body to create a 3D image.
X-rays are ionizing radiation so they can damage tissues and doctors
must always balance risk against benefit when deciding whether to use
them. The risks depend on the wavelength and intensity of the X-rays, the

7 6
6
5
Dose/mSv

4
Average annual radiation dose
3 2
2 1.5 1.5
1 0.1 0.4
0.001 0.005
0
CT scan of chest

CT scan of head

CT scan of spine
Body extremity

Dental X-ray

Chest X-ray

Mammography

Spinal X-ray

Procedure
 MEDICAL PHYSICS • 611

duration of the procedure and the tissues being exposed. To assess the
risk, the X-ray dose is compared to the annual radiation dose from natural
background sources. The chart below shows typical doses from different
types of X-ray procedure.

29.2.2 Generating X-Rays

To generate X-rays an electron beam is accelerated through a potential
difference of between 30 and 150 kV and directed onto a target cathode
made of tungsten. As the electrons stop some of their kinetic energy is
transferred to X-ray photons. The radiation is called “bremsstrahlung,”
which means “braking radiation.” The rest of the incident energy (99% or
more) is transferred to heat in the target. Removal of heat from the target
is a serious problem in X-ray tube design. Modern CT machines are rated
at up to 100 kW and the focal spot on the anode can reach temperatures
in excess of 2000C. A high melting point target, e.g., tungsten, is mounted
in a material with high thermal conductivity, e.g. copper and a coolant is
pumped through the copper. The shape of the anode is designed to produce
a narrow beam of X-rays from a fairly broad beam of electrons.
There are two main adjustments to the tube—the electron current and
the accelerating voltage. Increasing the current increases the number of
electrons per second striking the target and this increases the number of
X-ray photons emitted per second. Increasing the voltage increases the
Accelerating voltage, e.g., 50 kV

Rotating tungsten
anode (target)
Cathode
Vacuum Cooling system for
anode

Electron
beam

Lead shielding Lead shielding

X-rays
612 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

energy of the electrons and the maximum frequency of the X-ray photons.
It also increases the number of photons emitted.
The spectrum of X-rays produced is continuous, but also contains some
sharp emission lines that are characteristic of the target element. These
lines are created when electrons strike atoms in the target and eject an
electron from an inner orbits (e.g. K-shell or L-shell). The vacancy is then
filled by electrons from higher orbits cascading down and emitting photons
as they do so.
X-ray intensity
K-lines

L-lines

Wavelengt

The largest energy jumps are for electrons dropping into the innermost
shell, the K shell, and these correspond to the shortest wavelength spectral
lines. The energy jumps into the K and L shells correspond to X-ray photon
energies.
The short wavelength cut off corresponds to all the energy of one
incident electron being transferred to a single X-ray photon. The rest of
the continuous spectrum corresponds to more complex interactions and
multiple collisions.
The higher frequency, shorter wavelength X-rays are the most
penetrating. These are called “hard X-rays” and are the ones needed for
image formation. Longer wavelength, “soft X-rays” are usually filtered out
because they do not contribute to the image but do increase the radiation
dose. The absorption of X-rays by tissues attenuates the beam. The amount
of attenuation increases with the density of the tissue, so bones absorb
X-rays more strongly than the surrounding soft tissues. This is what creates
the contrast in an X-ray image and X-rays are particularly good for imaging
bones and bone damage. Soft tissues do not create much contrast so often
a contrast medium is injected prior to the X-ray. CT scans are better at
imaging soft tissue than standard X-rays.
 MEDICAL PHYSICS • 613

29.2.3 Attenuation of X-Rays in Matter

There are two mechanisms by which X-rays are absorbed in matter:
Q The photoelectric effect—where an incident X-ray transfers all of its
energy to an electron and this electron undergoes multiple collisions.
The probability of photoelectric scattering drops rapidly with X-ray
energy. The photoelectric effect is the mechanism that determines
contrast in an X-ray image.
Q Compton scattering—the incident X-ray transfers some energy to an
electron but scatters off with lower energy (longer wavelength) and
interacts with other electrons. The probability of Compton scattering
falls only slowly with increasing X-ray energy. Compton scattering is the
mechanism that determines the noise in an X-ray image.
The intensity of an X-ray beam falls off exponentially as it passes through
matter according to the Beer-Lambert law:
Iout  Iin ex
where  is the linear absorption coefficient of the material (m1).
This has two important consequences. A certain minimum intensity is
required to produce an image so the exposure time will depend on the
size of the patient and larger patients will need longer exposures and will
receive a larger dose. Also, since the intensity falls exponentially through
the patient, tissues near the top surface, where the X-rays enter the body,
receive a larger dose than tissues near the X-ray detector. Most of the dose
is absorbed close to the skin at the top surface of the patient, and this is
where there is most risk of tissue damage.
Different materials have different absorption coefficients and these
differences are responsible for creating contrast in X-ray images. The
differences become larger at lower X-ray energies so these are preferable
for high contrast imaging. The drawback is that the low energy X-rays are
absorbed more strongly than high energy X-rays so the dose increases.
Absorption coefficients for soft tissues do not vary much so contrast
media are often used to create X-ray images of blood vessels, the fallopian
tube, the urinary tract, the digestive system, etc. These are based on iodine
or barium compounds that absorb X-rays strongly.

29.2.4 Creating X-Ray Images

A simple medical X-ray imaging machine uses a film placed underneath the
patient to detect the X-rays.
614 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

X-rays

Patient

Lead grid
Film
Some of the X-rays passing through the patient are scattered off-axis so
a lead grid is slowly moved between the patient and the film during the
exposure. This eliminates off-axis X-rays and increases the signal to noise
ratio for the image.
An intensifying screen can be used to increase the number of light
photons created from each X-ray photon. This consists of thin layers of
fluorescent material placed in front of the film. The fluorescent layers
absorb the X-rays and emit visible photons. The arrangement is housed in a
cassette that is placed under the patient for exposure.
An X-ray filter (usually a metal plate) is placed between the X-ray
source and the patient to filter out the low energy (long wavelength) X-ray
photons. This reduces the total dose given to the patient but does not affect
the intensity of the image because low energy photons would have been
absorbed in the body.
An X-ray image intensifier can also be used to increase the brightness
of the image. Incident X-rays strike a phosphor screen that converts the
Electrodes to accelerate and
focus electrons
Output phosphor screen

Fiber optic cable

X-rays

To camera/viewer
Vacuum

Input phosphor screen

Photocathode Photomultiplier tube
 MEDICAL PHYSICS • 615

X-rays to photons of visible light. These strike a photocathode which emits

electrons. The electrons are accelerated and focused in a photomultiplier
tube and converted back to photons when they strike another phosphor
screen.
CT scans rotate an X-ray source and collimator around the patient to
create detailed images of slices of the body. An array of fixed detectors
surround the patient.
X-ray source and collimator rotated
around patient

X-rays X-rays
Fixed detectors

CT

Whereas 2D images are composed of 2-dimensional picture elements or

“pixels,”3D images are composed of volume elements or “voxels.” Each

X-rays

8 voxel cube Detectors

616 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

voxel is assigned a value that represents how strongly it attenuates the

X-rays that pass through it. The voxel values are calculated by a computer
algorithm based on the attenuation of X-rays passing through from different
directions (hence the need to rotate the X-ray source around the patient).
The X-ray attenuation across different directions is used to determine
the value for each individual voxel.

29.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

29.3.1 Overview of MRI
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is particularly useful for imaging soft
tissues that have low contrast with X-ray techniques, e.g., brain imaging. It
involves placing the patient in a strong magnetic field but does not involve
the use of ionizing radiation, so the risks to the patient are very low and long
exposures are possible. However, the strong magnetic field must be created
using superconducting electromagnets and this makes this an expensive
procedure.

29.3.2 Physics of MRI

Nuclei are positively charged and when the nucleus of an atom spins it
creates a magnetic field that is like that of a bar magnet. Magnetic resonance
techniques manipulate the nuclear spin of hydrogen atoms to generate a
signal that can be used to form images. Since hydrogen atoms are spread
throughout the human body, mainly in water molecules, they are ideal for
imaging all parts of the body.

Axis of dipole precesses around

external magnetic field direction
N Proton (hydrogen nucleus) with
magnetic dipole
S

When an external magnetic field is applied the spinning nuclei precess

around it at a fixed frequency called the Larmor frequency:
B
f 0
2
where  is the gyromagnetic ratio.
The gyromagnetic ratio for a hydrogen nucleus (a proton) is
42.6 MHzT1.
 MEDICAL PHYSICS • 617

Clinical MRI scanners use magnetic field strengths in the range 0.2–3.0
T and research scanners use up to 11 T. These give Larmor frequencies that
correspond to radio waves. An additional weaker variable magnetic field is
applied along the axis of the patient so that the Larmor frequency varies
with position. Pulses of radio waves corresponding to the Larmor frequency
across a particular slice of the body are then transmitted through the body.
This disturbs the precessing nuclei in that slice so that they create a rotating
magnetic field at the same frequency. It is this field that is detected using
coils placed outside the body. The rate at which this field decays depends
on the type of tissue surrounding the nuclei so can be used to distinguish
different types of soft tissue and to achieve much higher contrast than X-ray
techniques. By varying the frequency of the radio waves nuclei in different
locations resonate and an image can be built up.
Superconducting coils in
liquid helium cryostat
Layers of thermal
insulation Magnetic field
gradient coils

Radio frequency
transmit coils

Scanner
table Moveable
detection coils

MRI

29.4 Radioactive Tracers

29.4.1 Overview of the Use of Radioactive Tracers
A radioactive tracer is an element or compound containing a radioactive
atom that is introduced into the body so that the emitted radiation can be
detected outside the body. If the tracer is linked to an element or compound
used in a particular metabolic process the doctors can monitor the build-up
and discharge of this compound in particular organs. The thyroid gland in a
human uses iodine to produce hormones, so introducing some radioactive
iodine as a tracer can help a doctor to diagnose a faulty thyroid gland. The
meta-stable gamma-emitter, technetium-99m can be added to a number
618 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

of important biological compounds and is used to diagnose a wide range of

illnesses, including kidney problems.
Radioactive tracers are usually gamma-emitters because gamma-rays
are the most penetrating and least ionizing form of radiation and can be
detected, using a gamma-camera, outside the body. Sources with a half-
life of a few hours are ideal because they remain in the body long enough
for the procedure to be carried out but fall to safe levels relatively soon
afterwards.
X-rays are used to image static structures inside the body but radioactive
tracers are used mainly to monitor functions.
29.4.2 Gamma-Camera
Gamma-rays are detected when they fall onto a scintillator containing
sodium iodide crystals that emit photons of visible light when they absorb
gamma-ray photons. The scintillator is mounted in front of an array of
photomultipliers that emit electrons and amplify the signal. A computer
processes their electrical output to produce the final image. A lead grid is
placed in front of the scintillator to reject off-axis gamma-rays and create a
sharper image.

Gamma-rays

Collimator:
lead grid
Scintillator:
sodium iodide
Photomultipliers

Compute

Display
 MEDICAL PHYSICS • 619

29.5 Positron Emission Tomography (PET scans)

Positron emission tomography (PET) detects gamma-rays emitted when a
positron annihilates with an electron inside the body. The positrons result
from the beta-plus decay of a radioactive tracer injected into the body
prior to the scan. This technique is particularly useful for investigating how
different organs are functioning or to monitor the extent, development and
response to treatment of cancers. It can be combined with CT scans or
MRI scans to produce detailed 3D images of the body.

29.5.1 Physics of PET Scans

The radioactive tracers used for PET scans are short half-life beta-plus
emitters such as fluorine-18 (half-life about 110 minutes), carbon-11 (half-
life about 20 minutes), or oxygen-15 (half-life about 2 minutes). These are
attached to compounds that the body uses for particular biological pathways,
e.g., glucose. The uptake of the compound can be then monitored from
outside the body by detecting the pairs of 511 keV gamma-rays emitted
as the beta-plus particles, positrons, annihilate with electrons in the
surrounding tissue.
The equations below summarize the process:
18
9F → 188 O  10 e  00 

1 e  1 e →
0 0
2 00 
The positron emitted in this decay only travels a short distance (<1 mm)
through the tissue before meeting an electron and annihilating. The
annihilation of the electron-positron pair results in emission of a pair of
gamma-rays that travel in opposite directions (a pair must be emitted in
order to conserve linear momentum). The position of the annihilation along
the line determined by the two gamma-rays is determined from the time
delay in arrival at detectors on either side of the patient.
The detectors only respond to near simultaneous pairs of photon arrivals
(within about 10 ns of each other) and then measure the small additional
time delays for each pair.
620 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

B
PET

Annihilation

Gamma-ray photon arrives at A at Scintillators and

time δt before the corresponding photomultipliers
gamma-ray photon arrives at B A

For a time delay t the annihilation event must have been at a position that
is ct/2 closer to A than the center of the chord AB, i.e. a distance AB/2
ct/2 from A and AB/2  ct/2 from B.
In practice the two gamma-rays emitted from an annihilation event
are not emitted at exactly 180 so this introduces an uncertainty into the
position of the chord. In addition to this the detector can only resolve events
that are more than about 0.50 ns apart so this introduces an uncertainty into
the positon along the chord. The image quality and resolution improves
as more events are detected (signal to noise ratio falls) and resolutions of
about 1-2 mm are possible with clinical scanners. This is not as good as a
CT image but PET scans can be used to investigate a very wide range of
metabolic pathways and when used alongside CT or MRI scans information
about both structure and function can be combined.
The injection of a radioactive tracer means that the patient remains
radioactive for a short time after the procedure. For a typical PET scan
involving fluorine-18 the total activity injected is about 370 MBq. The
patient will absorbs a radiation dose equivalent to that of a full body CT
scan (about 7 mSv). If the PET scan is combined with a CT scan the total
dose will be the sum of doses from the two procedures.

29.6 Exercises

1. (a) State and explain the risks associated with X-ray imaging of the human
body.
 MEDICAL PHYSICS • 621

When an X-ray tube is used to produce a photographic image of a

patient an aluminum plate is placed between the patient and the X-ray
tube.
(b) Explain how this can reduce the radiation dose without affecting the
intensity of the X-ray image that is formed.
2. Some tissue injuries can be imaged equally effectively using ultrasound
or an MRI scan.
(a) Compare the physical principles used in the two processes.
(b) If you were a doctor which would you recommend and why?
3. The diagram below shows a typical spectrum from a medical X-ray
machine.
X-ray intensity
K-lines

L-lines

Wavelength

(a) Explain how the continuous spectrum arises and why it has a short
wavelength cut-off.
(b) Calculate the cut-off wavelength for a 40 kV X-ray machine.
(c) Explain how the line spectra come about and account for the
difference between the K and L lines.
4. State and explain four factors that must be considered when selecting a
suitable radioisotope to use as a tracer in the human body.
5. (a) Explain why the annihilation of an electron and a positron during
a PET scan is likely to result in two gamma-rays of the same
wavelength emitted in opposite directions.
(b) Calculate the wavelength of these gamma-rays.
 APPENDIX

A
ESTIMATIONS AND FERMI
QUESTIONS

A.0 Fermi and the Trinity Test

The first atomic bomb was tested at the Trinity site in New Mexico in
1945. The physicists and engineers involved in its design and construction
placed bets on the energy that would be released by the explosion. Enrico
Fermi, the Italian physicist who had designed and tested the first controlled
nuclear chain reaction, observed the test from a safe distance of about
12 km. The explosion created a shock wave in the atmosphere that spread
out in all directions. Fermi dropped several pieces of paper as the shock
wave reached him and observed that they were displaced horizontally
about 2.5 m by the disturbance. From this information (and his knowledge
of physics!) he estimated the yield of the bomb to be about 10 kT (i.e.,
equivalent to the explosion of 10 kT of TNT, a conventional chemical high
explosive). Later, more detailed calculations showed that the actual yield
was closer to 20 kT.
It seems remarkable that Fermi was able to do this, based on such
minimal information and a very simple experiment, but a good understanding
of the underlying physics provides the tools to make useful estimates of a
very wide range of physical quantities and the skills used in making these
estimations can also be employed to non-physical problems. Such methods
are invaluable because real-world problems are rarely fully defined and
it is important to have a ball-park figure in mind before committing to a
project or experiment. It is also useful to estimate expected results so that
you can tell whether the actual results from an experiment or calculation
are reasonable.
624 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Fermi built up quite a reputation for being able to estimate values

based on minimal information and these types of problem are often called
“Fermi problems” for that reason.
I do not know what method Fermi used to make his estimation but
there are usually many ways to solve a Fermi problem and here is a (very
simple) approach to this one.
Let’s assume that the energy released by the explosion pushes the
atmosphere back so that a hemisphere of air with a radius equal to Fermi’s
distance from ground zero (the position of the explosion) is displaced
outwards by 2.5 m. Work must be done against the atmospheric pressure
further out, so the energy transfer can be calculated using force times
distance:
Surface area of hemisphere  2r2
Outward force F  2r2 p
where p is the atmospheric pressure (about 105 Pa).
Work done  Fx
Where x is the outward displacement of the air.
Work done  2 (12,000)2  105  2.5  2  1014 J
1 kT  4.2  1012 J

Fermi

Not to scale 12,000 m

2.5 m 2.5 m

Ground zero

This gives a result of about 50 KT, much greater than Fermi’s estimate and
about 2.5 times the actual yield of the Trinity test. However, it is the correct
order of magnitude, which is pleasing given the incredibly simple model
used to make the estimate! Fermi would have used a more sophisticated
model, taking into account the actual pressure differences in the shock wave
and the proportion of the input energy that went into it. His estimate of
 APPNEDIX A: ESTIMATION AND FERMI QUESTIONS • 625

10 kT was impressive, but did not win the bet. Isodor Rabi was the winner
with an estimated yield of 18 kT. We do not know how he did this (or maybe
he just got lucky).

A.1 Making Estimations

A good estimation is usually based on a simplification of the relevant physics
and reasonable estimates of the size of relevant parameters. In addition
to this we usually need to make some assumptions to simplify the actual
calculations. In the example above we reduced a complex process of energy
transfer to the expansion of a gas at constant pressure so that we could use
the equation W  pV  Fx. We estimated the atmospheric pressure
and we assumed that the pressure and displacement was constant over the
hemisphere. We also assumed that all the energy released by the explosion
was used to move this layer of air back. You will also notice that we tended to
round values off quite severely, often to one significant figure (e.g., distance
to ground zero and atmospheric pressure). This makes sense because we
are not dealing with definite known values and we cannot justify great
precision. Many estimates will produce a value that can only be quoted
to one significant figure and that has an uncertainty of over 100%! In this
section, we will illustrate how to make estimates by using a few examples.

A.1.1 How Many Air Molecules in the Earth’s Atmosphere?

Method 1
Atmospheric pressure is due to weight of air in atmosphere, so we can use
the equation for fluid pressure at depth: p  gh to work out the effective
depth of the atmosphere if it was of uniform density.
gh  10 5
10 5
h  10 4 m
1 10
This is much less than the radius of the Earth so the atmosphere can
be treated as a thin layer (like a carpet with an area equal to the surface
area of the Earth). The volume of this layer can then be used to find how
many moles of gas are present and this can be used to find the number of
molecules. The atmosphere is equivalent to a 10 km deep uniform layer.
The fact that the density of the atmosphere varies with height does not
affect this estimate—it would have the same weight and exert the same
pressure at the surface for any pattern of density variation because it is
only the total weight of all the molecules that is responsible for the surface
pressure.
626 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

The surface area of the Earth is A  4  (6.4 106 )2  5.15 1014 m2

The volume of air at atmospheric temperature and pressure that would
exert the same pressure at sea level as the Earth’s atmosphere is:
V  5.15 1014 10 4 m3
1 mole of an ideal gas at atmospheric temperature and pressure occupies a
volume of 24 liters or 0.024 m3, so the number of moles of air molecules in
the atmosphere is:
5.15 1014 10 4 m 3
n  2.1 1020 moles
0.024
1 mole contains 6.02 1023 molecules so the total number of air molecules
in the atmosphere is:
N  2.1 1020  6.02 1023  1.3 10 44 molecules

There are about 1044 air molecules in the Earth’s atmosphere.

Method 2
This method has some similarities to the first but uses the total mass of
the atmosphere and the mass of an “air molecule.” The total weight of the
atmosphere is equal to the atmospheric force exerted on the entire surface
of the Earth:
F  pA 10 5  4   (6.4 106 )2  5.15 1019 N
The mass of the atmosphere is:
F
m   5.25 1018 kg
g
Air consists mainly of oxygen (molar mass  32g) and nitrogen (molar mass
 28 g) so an “air molecule” is taken to have a molar mass of 30 g.
Number of moles of air molecules in the atmosphere:
5.25 1018
n  1.75 1020 moles
0.030
The number of air molecules in the atmosphere:
N  1.75 1020  6.02 1023  1.05 10 44 molecules
There are about 1044 air molecules in the Earth’s atmosphere.
This is (not surprisingly) consistent with our first method.
 APPNEDIX A: ESTIMATION AND FERMI QUESTIONS • 627

A.1.2 What is the Minimum Area for a Parachute?

First we must interpret the question. Why is there a minimum area? If
the parachute is too small the terminal velocity of the parachutist will be
too high and they will be injured or killed when they hit the ground. The
first thing to do therefore is to estimate a maximum safe landing speed. It
might be tempting to guess what this is but it is better to make a reasoned
estimate based on sensible assumptions. One way to do this would be to
think about the highest object you could jump, from and still expect to land
safely—perhaps this is about 2 m high. This can then be used to calculate a
maximum safe landing speed.
v2  u2  2 gh  0  2  9.8  2  39.2
v  6.3 ms1
So a maximum safe landing speed is about 6 ms1.
Now we need a physical model of the falling parachutist. At terminal
velocity the weight of parachutist and parachute is equal and opposite to
the total drag force acting upwards on the parachute. Where does this drag
force come from? It comes from the collision of the parachute canopy with
air molecules as it moves downwards—the canopy exerts a downward force
on the molecules and the molecules, by Newton’s third law, exert an equal
upward force on the canopy. Using Newton’s second law, the magnitude
of these forces must equal the rate of change of momentum of the air
molecules. This is what we will estimate next.
Parachute
canopy of radius r

ds = vδt

Air

During a time t the canopy moves down through a distance vt and sweeps
through a volume r2vt of air. The mass of air in this volume is equal to
r2vt where  is the density of the air. If we assume that all of this air
628 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

must be accelerated up to speed v as the canopy passes we can work out the
rate of change of momentum.
mass of air swept out in t  speed
Rate of change of momentum =
t
2
r2v t
  r 2 v2
t
This is equal to the drag force on the parachute and, at terminal velocity,
the weight of the parachute and parachutist:
r 2 v2  mg
This equation can be rearranged to give an expression for r, the radius of
the parachute:
mg
r 2
2v
Now we need to input some reasonable values: mass of parachutist and
equipment, m  100 kg; density of air,   1.2 kgm3; maximum speed,
v  6 ms1
This gives a minimum safe radius of:
100  9.8
r  7.2 m
1.2  2  62
This is probably an over estimate but is certainly of the correct order of
magnitude. It corresponds to a minimum area of about 160 m2.
The approach above was based on momentum but different estimates
result if we consider kinetic energy instead. To make the estimate more
realistic we should consider the drag coefficient for a parachute of a
particular shape. Nonetheless, our simple method has produced a useful
equation to begin an investigation of how parachute size and terminal
velocity are related.

A.2 Useful Values

You will have noticed that values such as atmospheric pressure and the
density of air at a.t.p. featured in the estimations above. As a physicist it is
useful to have some values at your fingertips because they are important
in so many different situations. Here are some numbers that are worth
remembering (they are not precise—these are for use in estimates):
Speed of light : 3.00  108ms1
Speed of sound (in air at sea level) : 330 ms1
 APPNEDIX A: ESTIMATION AND FERMI QUESTIONS • 629

Density of air at a.t.p. : 1.2 kgm3

Density of water : 1000 kgm3
Density of aluminum : 2700 kgm3
Density of steel : 8000 kgm3
Density of mercury : 13,600 kgm3
Specific heat capacity of water : 4200 Jkg1 C1
Atmospheric pressure : 105 Pa
Molar volume of an ideal gas at a.t.p. : 0.024 m3 (24 liters)
Wavelength of visible light : 500 nm
Wavelength range of visible light : 400–700 nm
Audible frequency range for humans : 20 Hz–20 kHz
Speed of ultrasound in water or tissue : 1500 ms1
Size of an atom : 1010 m
Size of a nucleus : 1015 m
Avogadro number : 6  1023mol1
Mass of a proton : 1.7  1027 kg
Mass of an electron : 9.1  1031 kg
Charge on an electron : 1.6  1019 C
Radius of Earth : 6400 km
Mass of Earth : 6  1024 kg
Mass of Sun : 2  1030 kg
Distance to Moon : 400,000 km (1.3 light seconds)
Distance to Sun : 1.5  1011 m (8 light minutes)
Age of the universe : 13.7 billion years
Number of stars in the Milky Way : 400 billion (4  1011)
You can add to this list. It is also helpful to know the values of several
physical constants and be able to recall the important equations!
630 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

A.3 Fermi Questions

Whilst there is no clear distinction between a simple estimation and a fermi
question the latter tend, on first reading at least, to seem rather abstract.
Perhaps the most famous of these is:
“How many piano tuners in Chicago?”
This seems to have nothing to do with physics and yet questions like this
have been used in selection interviews for places to read the subject at top
Universities. Why? The reason is simple. A good physicist has to be able
to use her knowledge and skills to solve problems in unfamiliar contexts.
She must deconstruct the question and then tackle it logically, making
reasonable estimates of quantities she will need to feed into a calculation.
Look at the question above and ask yourself what information you might
need to solve it. Here are a few suggestions:
Q the population of Chicago (a)
Q the fraction of the population that have a piano (b)
Q the number of times per year on average each piano is tuned (c)
Q the time taken to tune a piano (d)
Q the average number of hours worked per day by a piano tuner (e)
Q the number of days per year that a piano tuner works (f)
there may well also be other things to consider or estimate, but nothing
in this list should cause too much of a problem or give too wild a result.
Once these values have been estimated they can be fed into a calculation
like the one below:
Q Number of pianos to be tuned in 1year:abc
Q Number of pianos tuned by one piano tuner per year:fe/d
Q Number of piano tuners in Chicago:abcd/fe
Try it! Which estimates are you most confident about and which have
largest uncertainty? How would varying these parameters affect the final
estimate? Can you put an upper and lower limit on the number of piano
tuners in Chicago? Is there any way to test your estimate?
 APPNEDIX A: ESTIMATION AND FERMI QUESTIONS • 631

A.4 Drake Equation

In 1961, Dr. Frank Drake posed a Fermi question:
“How many advanced civilizations exist in our galaxy?”
Drake approached this problem in the same way that we approached the
problem of piano tuners in Chicago. He considered different factors that
might affect the number of advanced civilizations and then constructed a
formula to determine that number. This formula is known as the Drake
equation. However, the factors he identified are much harder to estimate
than those in our problem so the Drake equation is used to discuss
possibilities rather than to provide a ball park answer. Adjusting the factors
can lead to a prediction that the galaxy is teeming with intelligent life or that
we are alone in it!
As we discover more about the Universe we are gradually able to fine
tune the values that we input to the equation. For example, one of the
factors is the number of stars in our galaxy that have planets orbiting them.
In Drake’s time the only star known to have a planetary system was our
Sun. Now we know that a very large number of extrasolar planets exist and
it might be the case that most stars have planetary systems. We have also
discovered some “Earth-like” planets orbiting other stars. This increases
another factor in the equation making the likely number higher. However,
the uncertainties in other factors, and especially in those linked to the
emergence and evolution of life, are huge.
N  Rfp ne f l fi fc L
where
Q N  number of advanced civilizations whose EM communications are
detectable
Q R  rate of formation of suitable stars (stars such as our Sun)
Q fp  fraction of those stars with a planetary system
Q ne  number of Earth-like worlds per planetary system
Q fl  fraction of those Earth-like planets where life actually develops
Q fi  fraction of planets where life develops that evolve intelligent life
Q fc  fraction of planets where intelligent life develops that develop
detectable communications
Q L  “lifetime” of communicating civilizations
632 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Some of these factors are reasonably well known—e.g., R is thought to be

about 10 new stars per year in the Milky Way and fp is probably between
0.5 and 0.8. L is usually assumed to be of the order of human written
history, around 10,000 years, but that’s a rather arbitrary choice. The others
are harder to pin down. Make estimates and see what these imply for N.
This should give you a feel for how this equation can promote arguments
between astrobiologists!

A.5 Estimates and Fermi Questions

Here are some problems to try. There are no definite correct answers but
they are not guesses either! Start from what you know or can reasonably
estimate and then use physical and logical principles to work your way to an
answer. Once you have done this ask yourself whether it seems reasonable.

1. How many atoms in a golf ball?

2. How far can a car go before it rubs off a layer of rubber one molecule
thick?
3. How many molecules from Isaac Newton’s last breath do we inhale
when we breathe in?
4. What area of solar panels is needed to supply all of Britain’s energy
requirements?
5. How many trucks would be needed to cart away all the rock in Mount
Everest?
6. How long would it take to fill an Olympic swimming pool from a kitchen
tap?
7. How many photons enter your eye per second on a sunny day?
8. How many times more expensive is electrical energy from an AA battery
than from the mains electrical supply?
9. If all the atoms in an elephant were put in a line, how long would the
line be?
10. How many photons are emitted by a camera flashgun?
11. What is the speed of the wing tip of a bee?
12. How many leaves on a mature oak tree?
 APPNEDIX A: ESTIMATION AND FERMI QUESTIONS • 633

13. What is the drag force on a large truck travelling at speed on a motor-
way?
14. What is the power output of a racing cyclist?
15. What is the greatest distance at which the human eye can resolve car
headlamps?
16. Will relativistic effects be important for an electron in the ground state
of a hydrogen atom?
17. What is the spring constant of a car’s suspension system?
18. How many hairs on your head?
19. How much energy can be supplied by a car battery?
20. What is the temperature at the center of the Sun?
 APPENDIX

B
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS

B.0 Introduction: Nature of Science

The defining characteristic of science is that it is based on evidence and
that evidence comes from experiment. You might have a wonderful theory
about the nature of the universe, but if it is not testable it is not a scientific
theory. If it is a scientific theory then it can be used to make predictions
that can be tested by experiment. If repeated experiments agree with
these predictions then your theory is a good one. However, if the results of
experiments do not agree with your theory, and the experiments have been
carried out carefully and by reputable scientists and repeated by different
groups, then the theory might have to be abandoned or modified. One
interesting consequence of this definition of science is that even if we have
a brilliant theory that agrees with all the evidence we have ever collected,
we still do not know that it is the final theory—there might be other tests
that we have not thought about or conditions we could not create in our
tests and the theory might then fail. For example, the theory that atoms
are the smallest units of matter is a good one but failed when J.J.Thompson
showed that all atoms contain electrons. A good theory is a survivor but we
cannot ever be absolutely certain it will not fail and be replaced by a better
or more comprehensive theory at a later time.
The philosopher Karl Popper suggested that the criterion that defines
science is that it is in principle “falsifiable.” When Einstein’s general
theory of relativity suggested that the presence of matter should curve
space and deflect light, the astronomer Arthur Eddington set out to detect
636 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

and measure this deflection. His measurements, during a total eclipse of

the Sun in 1919, showed that light is deflected by matter and the measured
deflection was consistent with Einstein’s predictions. This propelled
Einstein to international fame and helped secure the general theory of
relativity. Had Eddington failed to detect the deflection, or shown it to be
much larger or smaller than predicted, then Einstein’s theory would have
been thrown into doubt. Of course, the experiment too would have been
critically assessed to make sure it was capable of detecting the predicted
effects and it would have been repeated, but a continued failure to detect
the deflection of starlight by matter would have undermined general
relativity.
The success of general relativity was at the expense of the existing
theory, Newton’s theory of gravity, so in a sense Eddington’s experiment
falsified Newton’s theory. Does that mean that, from 1919 on we have
abandoned Newtonian gravitation? If so at least one chapter of this book is
redundant! No: whilst we know that the Newtonian theory is not the most
comprehensive theory of gravity, it is much simpler to use than Einstein’s
theory and it works very well for calculating planetary orbits or spacecraft
trajectories. However, if we want to explain gravitational lenses or the
behavior of space and time close to a black hole, we must use Einstein’s
full theory. On a fundamental level our best theory of gravity is Einstein’s
but on a practical level Newton’s theory is precise enough for the majority
of applications. The reason for this is that Einstein’s equations reduce to
Newton’s when the gravitational field is weak and the curvature of space-
time is small. So, continuing to use Newton’s equations does not contradict
our knowledge that general relativity gives a more complete description of
space and time.

B.1 Carrying Out an Experiment

An experiment is an attempt to gather evidence that can be used to answer
a question. There are several reasons why you might do this:
Q To investigate the relationship between different parameters—e.g.,
how does mass and resultant force affect the acceleration of a dynamics
vehicle?
Q To make a careful measurement of a physical quantity—e.g., what is the
resistivity of nichrome?
 APPNEDIX B: EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS • 637

Q To determine the parameters that affect an important quantity—e.g.,

how does changing the length, mass, and amplitude of a simple
pendulum affect its period?
Q To test a hypothesis—e.g., does painting a coffee cup silver keep coffee
hot for a longer time?
To carry out and write up an experiment effectively you will need to:
Q Have a clear aim.
Q Consider relevant underlying physical principles (this might involve
research).
Q Identify relevant parameters and decide which will be varied and which
will be held constant.
Q Select appropriate measuring instruments bearing in mind their range
and precision.
Q Plan an experimental procedure.
Q Carry out a risk assessment.
Q Decide how to record and analyze the data including uncertainties.
Q Draw a conclusion.
Q Evaluate the experiment.
Q List any references you have used.

B.1.1 Variables
To make your experiment a fair test, the parameter you are investigating
must be affected only by the parameter you are varying. For example, if you
are investigating factors affecting the acceleration of a dynamics vehicle you
might vary its mass by adding loads to the vehicle. However, if you then
pull it with different forces you have varied two parameters, both of which
affect its acceleration, so you will not be able to separate the effect of mass
from the effect of resultant force. To make this fair you need to keep the
resultant force constant while varying the mass and then carry out a separate
experiment in which the mass is kept constant and the resultant force is
varied. The three parameters, mass, resultant force and acceleration are
examples of the three types of variable parameter in all experimental work:
Independent variable: the unique variable that we change (e.g., mass)
638 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Dependent variable: the variable that we are investigating (e.g.,

acceleration)
Control variable: the variable we keep constant (e.g., resultant force) so
that it will not affect the dependent variable
In most experiments there are many control variables that must be kept
constant.

B.1.2 Selecting Measuring Equipment

It is important to select measuring equipment that can be used to provide
good quality data and that is safe for the selected use. For example,
measuring the temperature of a Bunsen flame with a mercury in glass
thermometer is dangerous, the glass might melt and release the mercury,
and impractical, the range of the thermometer does not go to high enough.
A better choice would be a thermocouple or a pyrometer.
You need to consider the precision and range of each measuring
instrument.
Q Precision: smallest scale division
Q Range: difference between smallest and largest value that can be
measured
Even simple measurements of length require careful thought. Four common
pieces of laboratory apparatus to measure length are tape measures, rulers,
calipers and micrometer screw gauges. The table below shows typical values
and uses for each of these.
Instrument Range Precision Example of use
Tape measure 10.00 m 0.01 m (1 cm) Displacement of a
student in the lab
Ruler 1.000 m 0.001 m (1 mm) Length of a simple
pendulum
Vernier caliper 0.0200 m 0.0001 m (0.1 mm) Thickness of small
density blocks
Micrometer screw 0.01000 m 0.00001 m (0.01 mm) Wire diameter
gauge

Selecting appropriate instruments for electrical experiments is particularly

important. If you connect a sensitive ammeter into a circuit which carries
a large current you will damage the meter so it is important to consider
the likely currents before switching on! It is also important to connect
the apparatus correctly. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance so if you
 APPNEDIX B: EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS • 639

accidentally connect it in parallel with a component (as if it was a voltmeter)

it will short the component and might damage the circuit and meter.
When you are writing up an experiment it is important to list or label
the measuring equipment and include its range and precision.
You should also consider whether the measuring equipment itself will
affect the measurement. For example, a real ammeter has a small resistance
that will reduce the current in the circuit. If the ammeter resistance is
comparable to that of the circuit this will be a significant effect. An ideal
voltmeter should have infinite resistance but real voltmeters have a large
finite resistance. This will only be a problem if the voltmeter is connected
across a component which also has a comparably large resistance. A
mechanical example is the use of tickertape—the tape drags as it moves
through the ticker-timer and this affects the motion that is being measured.

B.1.3 Planning a Procedure

Once you have decided what you are going to measure and how you are
going to measure it you must consider three things:
Q The range of measurements for each variable. Try to make this as
wide as possible because a limited range might not reveal the underlying
pattern of behavior—all curves look straight if you only consider a small
section!
Q The number and spacing of measurements within the range.
Aim for at least five well-spaced readings across the entire range of
measurements. A larger number is usually better and if the behavior is
non-linear it will be worth taking more readings where it is changing
rapidly.
Q Repeating and averaging measurements. If possible repeat each
measurement several times and use an average value. This helps to
reduce the effects of random errors and if one of your repeats is very
different from the others it can be ignored—this is called an anomalous
result.
Recording and analyzing data, plotting graphs and dealing with uncertainties
is dealt with in detail in Chapters 2 and 3.

B.1.4 Risk Assessments

You should carry out a risk assessment before performing any experiment.
Many experiments have low risk but you will only know this if you think about
it! Some simple experiments can be dangerous, for example, overstretching
640 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

a steel spring can result in it flying up and hitting you in the eye. This
risk should be identified before attaching loads to the spring and suitable
eye protection should be worn. If you are carrying out an experiment that
involves the use of radioactive sources you will need to consider the likely
total radiation dose you will receive an ensure that this is low enough to
justify doing the experiment. There are three stages to a risk assessment:
Q Identify the risks to you and others.
Q Adapt the experimental procedure to minimize the risk—i.e., take
precautions.
Q Decide whether the risk is low enough to justify carrying out the
experiment.
There are guidelines that must be followed when you work with hazardous
chemicals, electricity, radioactive sources, vacuum containers, etc. Your
teacher or supervisor should be consulted about these and if you are ever in
doubt about the risk of an experimental procedure, do not proceed!

B.1.5 Writing Upon Experiment

An experimental account should address all the points noted in B.1 and
could use these headings:
Aim: this can be a simple statement and should not run to more than two or
three sentences. State what you are hoping to achieve—e.g., to determine
how the current in a thermistor varies with temperature.
Theory: use what you know or have found out through research to propose
a hypothesis—e.g., thermal energy can release additional charge carriers
E

and the number is expected to depend on the Boltzmann factor e kT so the
E

current should be given by an equation of form: I  Ce kT .
Variables: state the independent and dependent variable and all of the
important control variables, e.g., dependent variable is current, independent
variable is temperature, control variable is potential difference across the
thermistor.
Apparatus: you could give a list of instruments, or label them clearly on
a diagram showing the experimental setup. Either way it is important to
state (and if necessary justify) their range and precision, e.g., a suitable
thermometer and ammeter. A voltmeter will also be needed to ensure that
the potential difference is constant.
 APPNEDIX B: EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS • 641

Procedure: a clearly labeled diagram showing the experimental

arrangement can save a lot of writing and is easier to understand than a
block of text. Take care over the diagram and if you draw it yourself use
a ruler. Explain what you will measure and why and state the range and
number of readings you intend to take, including any repeats. For an
electrical experiment draw a circuit diagram and make sure the symbols
you use are correct!
Risk assessment: once you have planned a procedure look at it critically.
Assess the risks and plan precautions to minimize them. This might
mean modifying your experiment or seeking advice from your teacher or
supervisor. Do not carry out an experiment if you have any doubts about its
safety. Include a summary of the risk assessment as part of the experimental
account.
Results: tabulate your results including the uncertainty in each
measurement. Take care over: table headings (include units) and significant
figures (especially for any calculated values). If you repeat measurements
and take an average include all the raw data in your table.
Analysis: this will often involve plotting a graph and taking a gradient (see
Chapter 2). Take care over: axis labels; plotting points; drawing best fit and
worst acceptable lines. Make sure everything is clearly labeled. The analysis
should be based on the theory you have used to propose a hypothesis, e.g.,
for the current through a thermistor a graph of ln (I) against (1/T) should be
a straight line with a negative gradient.

Uncertainties
Include an analysis of uncertainties so that any value calculated from
your data should be quoted to an appropriate degree of precision and be
accompanied by its own uncertainty. For example, if you are carrying out
an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of water and come
up with a value of 4000 Jkg1C1 there is no way to know if your experiment
was a good one even though your value is within 5% of the expected value
(4200 Jkg1C1). However, if your result is 4000  400 Jkg1C1 it is clear that
the expected value is within the range of your experimental uncertainties
and that your result has an uncertainty of 10%. Refining your methods
should reduce the uncertainties but keep the expected value within the
range of your results. If you end up with a result of 4000  100 Jkg1C1 this
does not include the expected value so either you have underestimated the
uncertainties or there is a systematic error in your measurements.
642 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Conclusion
It is surprising how often students forget to state a conclusion to their
experiments. This should be a simple statement of what you have achieved
in your experiment and should relate back to the original aims.
Evaluation
Having carried out the experiment and drawn a conclusion you should
consider:
Q How strongly the conclusion is supported.
Q How any calculated values compare with expected or known values.
Q The significance of the uncertainties.
Q Likely sources of error.
Q Suitability of the apparatus used.
Q How the experiment could be improved.
If possible make your evaluation quantitative by referring to the range of
uncertainties in measurements and their impact on your final result.

Glossary
Include a list of technical terms you have used in your account along with
brief explanations.

References
Include a list of references indicating where you have used each source.
Provide enough information so that someone reading your report can easily
find the information you used. This should include:
Q the title of the work or article
Q the author or authors
Q publisher and publication date
Q the page or pages used
Q URL and date accessed (for websites)

B.2 Investigations
An investigation is a more open-ended project that involves a considerable
amount of preliminary research and pilot experiments (to try things out
 APPNEDIX B: EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS • 643

and to explore the phenomena). These will help you to plan a sequence
of experiments, but as you proceed you should be prepared to modify
your plans in the light of results, or when you discover that a particular
experiment does not work!
It takes time to get into an investigation, and you must not be easily
deterred, especially at the start when there is a lot of uncertainty about how
to begin. Researchers spend a lot of time getting nowhere, but without trying
a range of different approaches you are unlikely to hit upon the method that
actually works. You might also discover interesting and unexpected aspects
of the problem along the way.
Science is a collaborative endeavor and carrying out an investigation
usually requires you to discuss ideas with your teacher or supervisor and
to think about the feedback they give you. You are also likely to need a
fair amount of apparatus, and this could involve discussing your needs with
laboratory technicians or equipment suppliers (in advance!) In both cases
it is important to be as clear as you can about what you need and what you
need it for—asking for a “block of wood” is pretty meaningless: what type
of wood? What dimensions? What is it for?
Writing up an investigation can be a daunting task, especially if you
leave it all until you have finished in the laboratory. It is worth using a
laboratory notebook and it is essential to write up and process data from
every experiment before moving on. A good investigation cannot be
completely planned in advance, it evolves as you discover more about the
problem you are tackling. There are many ways to write up an investigation
but the written report could take the following form:
Aim: statement of what is to be investigated
Background physics: summary of research about the problem identifying
aspects for investigation.
Pilot experiments: these should be used to explore the phenomena
and test methods or instruments to see if they are suitable. These pilot
experiments are not intended to produce precise data for analysis although
they might suggest relationships to be investigated in more detail later.
Plan of investigation: this should outline a sequence of related experiments
that can be used to collect good relevant data to move the investigation
forward.
Experiments: each experiment should be written up fully (using the
guidelines in Section B.1) including risk assessments and taking account of
644 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

anything learnt in earlier experiments. The glossary and references can be

left to the end of the complete report.
Conclusions: whilst each individual experiment might lead to its own
conclusion this section takes an overview of the whole investigation and
must be written at the end of the work. It should relate back to the original
aims.
Evaluation: this covers the same points as an individual experimental
evaluation but refers to the whole investigation. It might consider the
relevant merit and contribution of different experiments.
Glossary: a list of technical terms you have used in your investigation along
with brief explanations.
References: The point of a reference is so that someone reading your
work can find the information easily without having to search through an
entire book or article, so give full details. There are several standard ways
to provide references; one of the most widely used is the Harvard system.
 APPENDIX

C
UNITS, CONSTANTS, AND
EQUATIONS

C.1 S.I. Units

Base units
Quantity Name Symbol
S.I. base unit
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampère A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd

Derived units
Derived quantity Name Symbol
S.I derived units S.I base units
Force Newton N kgms2
Pressure Pascal Pa kgm1s2
Energy Joule J kgm2s2
Power Watt W kgm2s3
Charge Coulomb C As
Resistance Ohm  kgm2s2A2
646 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Derived quantity Name Symbol

S.I derived units S.I base units
Potential difference Volt V kgm2s2A1
Capacitance Farad F kg1m2s3A2
Magnetic field Tesla T kgs2A1
strength
Magnetic flux Weber Wb kgm2s2A1
Inductance Henry H kgm2s1A2

C.2 Simple Approximate Combinations of Uncertainties

Combination Rule
Uncertainty in a sum: y  a  b Add absolute uncertainties y  a  b
Uncertainty in a product: y  ab Add fractional uncertainties y a b
 
y a b

a Add fractional uncertainties y a b

Uncertainty in a quotient: y   
b y a b
Uncertainty in a power: y  an Multiply fractional uncertainty y a
by power n
y a

C.3 Useful Derivatives

Function: y Derivative (rate of change): dy/dx
Constant value, e.g. y  8 0
dy
Power law, e.g. y  Axn  nAx n1
dx
dy
Exponential function: y  ex  ex
dx
dy
Exponential relationship: e.g. y  Aebx  bAe bx
dx
dy
Sine function: y  sin x  cos x
dx
dy
Cosine function: y  cos x sin x
dx
dy
Sinusoidal variation: e.g. y  A sin (bx)  bA cos(bx)
dx
dy
Cosinusoidal variation: y  A cos (bx) bA sin(bx)
dx
 APPNEDIX C: UNITS, CONSTANTS, AND EQUATIONS • 647

C.4 Differential Equations

Topic Differential Solution Conditions
equation
dN
Radioactive decay t N  N0 et N  N0 at t  0
dt
dQ Q 
t
Capacitor discharge  Q  Q0 e RC Q  Q0 at t  0
dt RC

Newton’s second law d2 x F 1 F  F, m, u constants

 x  ut   t 2
(constant acceleration) dt 2 m 2 m  x  0 at t  0

Simple harmonic d2 x A, w, f constants

2 x x  Acos(t  )
motion dt 2 (w  2f)

C.5 Differentials and Integrals

Context Differential form Integral form
ds
Dynamics v
dt

s  vdt

dv
Dynamics a
dt

v  adt

d(mv)
Newton’s laws F
dt

mv  mu  Fdt

dQ
Electric circuits I
dt

Q  Idt

dN
Radioactivity
dt
N  dN
N
dt

dQ Q dQ dt
Capacitors
dt

RC
 Q  RC

C.6 Equations

Mechanics
Equations for constantly accelerated motion:
v  u  at
 u  v t
s
2
1
s  ut  at 2
2
648 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

1
s  vt  at 2
2
v2  u2  2 as
u2 sin 2 
Range of a projectile : R
g
Coefficient of friction :
Flimit = N, S = tan  ( is limiting angle)
Weight : W  mg
m
Density : 
V
F
Pressure : p A
Linear momentum : p  mv
dp F
Newton’s second law : F a
dt m
(constant mass)
Impulse and change of momentum : Fdt  dp  p
Ft   mv  mu (constant mass)
m 
Rockets : v f  v0  u ln 0 
mf 
Work done : W  Fs cos 
Gravitational potential energy : GPE  mgh
Kinetic energy : KE  ½ mv2
useful output energy
Efficiency :  100%
total input energy
dE ds
Power : P  dt P  F  Fv
dt
E
Photon momentum : pphoton  c
I
Radiation pressure : p c
Lagrangian : L  T V
  L  L
Euler–Lagrange equations : 
t q  q
 APPNEDIX C: UNITS, CONSTANTS, AND EQUATIONS • 649

Fluids

Fluid pressure : p  gh

v L
Reynold number : Re 

Equation of continuity : 1A1v1  2A2v2

Stoke law : F  6hrv

Turbulent drag : F  ½ CD  Av2

1 1
Bernoulli equation : P1  v12  gh1  P2  v22  gh2
2 2
pa4
Poiseuille equation : Q
8 l
Materials

Hooke law : F  ke

Spring systems : 1 1 1 1
   
kseries k1 k2 k3
kparallel  k1  k2  k3 
1 1
Strain energy (spring) : EPE = Fe  ke2
2 2
EPE 1
Strain energy (wire) :  
V 2
F e
Stress and strain :  
A l0

Young modulus : E

Thermodynamics
Temperature scales : T    273.15;  T  273.15( in
°C, T in K)
dQ d
Thermal conduction : kA
dt dx
Wien displacement law : T  constant  2.9103 mK
Stefan–Boltzmann law : P  eAT 4
E
Specific heat capacity : c
m
650 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Specific latent heat : E  mL

Ideal gas equations
Boyle law : pV  constant (constant mass and
temperature)
Charles law : V/T  constant (constant mass and
pressure)
Gay Lussac law : p/T  constant (constant mass and
volume)
pV
Ideal gas equation :  constant; pV  nRT
T
Adiabatic compression : pV   constant
1 1
Kinetic theory equation : pV  Nmv 2 ; p  v2
3 3
1 2 3 R 3
Mean molecular KE : mv  T  kT
2 2 NA 2

3kT
RMS molecular speed : vrms  v2 
m
1 3
Internal energy : U Total KE  N A mv2  RT
2 2
3 5
Heat capacities (ideal gas) : cV  R cP  R
2 2
c
Adiabatic gas constant :  P
cV
p
Speed of sound in gas : c

E

Boltzmann factor : f e kT

First law of thermodynamics : U Q – W

W Q T
Heat engine efficiency : 1 2 1 2
Q1 Q1 T1
state B dQ
Reversible heat transfer : S   state A T
Entropy change : S  k ln(W )
1 dS
Thermodynamic temperature : 
T dQ
 APPNEDIX C: UNITS, CONSTANTS, AND EQUATIONS • 651

Qcold 1
Refrigerator : CoPrefrigerator  
W Thot
1
Tcold
Qhot 1
Heat pump : CoPheat pump  W  T
1 cold
Thot
Oscillations
1
Frequency : f
T
Angular frequency :   2f
d2 x
SHM : a  2 2 x
dt
: x = A cos(t  )
x = A cos t
dx
v  A sin t
dt
dv
a  2 A cos t 2 x
dt
1 k m
Mass-spring system : f T  2
2 m k
1 g l
Simple pendulum : f T  2
2 l g
1
Total energy : TE  m 2 A2
2
Damped SHM : x  Aet cos(t)
Resonance condition : fd  f0
Rotational dynamics
l
Angles in radians : 
r
Small angle approximations : As  0 : sin , cos  1,
tan   ( in radians)
v
Angular velocity : 
r
a
Tangential acceleration : 
r
v2
Centripetal acceleration : a   r 2
r
mv2
Centripetal force : F  ma   mr 2
r
652 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Equations of motion for constant angular acceleration (by analogy):

v  u  at   f  i  t

 u  v t

    t
i f
s 
2 2
1 1
s  ut  at 2    i t  t
2 2
1 1
s  vt  at 2     f t  t 2
2 2
v  u  2 as 
2 2
2f  2i  2 

Moment of inertia : I  iN

i1
m i ri2 
1
Rotational KE : RKE = I2
2
Angular momentum : L  I
d(L) d
Torque :  I  I
dt dt
Moments of inertia for uniform objects:
Point mass : I  mr2
1 1
Rod : Iend  ml 2 ICM  ml 2
3 12
Thin hoop : I  mr2
1
Disc/cylinder : ICM  ma2 (radius  a)
2
2
Sphere : ICM  ma2 (radius  a)
5
Waves

Wave speed : v  f
T
1D traveling wave : y  A cos  t  kx 
Intensity : I  A2
c
Wave speed in medium : v
n
Refraction : n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2
n
TIR : sin c  2
n1
 APPNEDIX C: UNITS, CONSTANTS, AND EQUATIONS • 653

Malus law (polarization) : Itrans  I0 cos2

n2
Brewster law : tan  B 
n1
1
Speed of light : c (vacuum)
0 0

1
v (medium)
0 r 0 r
Refractive index : n r r
1
Power of a lens : P
f
h v
Linear magnification : m i 
ho u
Lens equation : 1 1 1
 
f u v
 f
Astronomical telescope : M  o
 fe
v
Doppler shift (light) :  0
c
 0 v
Red shift : z 
0 c
Hubble law : v  H0d
2 x
Phase difference : 

sy
Young’s double slit : 
d
Diffraction grating maxima : n  d sin 
1.22
Single slit minima : sin  
D
1.22
Rayleigh criterion :  (for resolution)
D
T
Waves on a string : v


RT E
Speed of sound : v (ideal gas); v (solid)
M 
654 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

I
Decibel scale : intensity level  B log10 
 I0 
Acoustic impedance : Z  (speed of sound)  (density)
2
Reflection : I r ⎛ Z 2 − Z1 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
I 0 ⎜⎝ Z 2 + Z 1 ⎟⎠
Electricity
dQ Q
Electric current : I ; I  ; (constant current)
dt t
Q1Q2
Coulomb law : F
4 0 r 2
F dV
Electric field strength : E  ; E 
q dx
F Q
E-field strength (point charge) : E 
q 4 0 r 2
EPE
Electric potential : V
Q
W
Potential difference : V 
Q
Q
Electric potential (point charge) : E
4 0 r
iN
 Qi
Gauss theorem :  E.dS 
0
i1

surface

Electric current : I = nAve

Kirchhoff second law :  emfs   p.d.s

closed closed
loop loop

V
Resistance (Ohm’s law) : R
I
iN
Resistors in series : Rseries  R i
i1
iN
1
Resistors in parallel :
Rparallel
  R1 i
i1
 APPNEDIX C: UNITS, CONSTANTS, AND EQUATIONS • 655

RA
Resistivity : 
l
Electrical energy : E  VIt
Real cell : V  E  Ir

Capacitance :
Q2 CV 2 QV
Energy stored (capacitor) : E  
2C 2 2
 A
Parallel plate capacitance : C 0 r
d
t

Capacitor discharge : Q  t   Q0 e RC I t 
t t
 
 I0 e RC V  t   V0 e RC

Capacitor charging : 
Q  QF 1  e

t
RC 

V  VS 1  e

t
RC 
t

I  t   I0 e RC

Time constant :  RC

in
1
Capacitors in series :
Cseries
  C1 i
i1
in
Capacitors in parallel : Cpara  C i
i1

Q
Capacitance (charged sphere) : Csphere   4 0 a
V
Magnetism
Magnetic force : F  BIl sin (on current)
f  Bqv sin (on moving charge)
Lorentz force : f  qE qvB
mv
Radius of curvature in B-field : r
Bq
 I sin 
Biot–Savart law : B  0 2 l
4 x
656 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

0 NI
Magnetic field strength : B (narrow coil)
2r
I
B  0 (long straight current-
2 r
carrying wire)
  NI
B  0 r (long solenoid at center)
l
  NI
B  0 r (long solenoid at end)
2l
Ampère theorem :  B.dl   0 I
closed enclosed
loop by loop

Torque on coil in B-field :   NBIA

Magnetic flux :  
B cos dA (flux-linkage = NF)
surface
d(N)
Faraday law : E 
dt
dI
Self-inductance : E L
dt
dI dI
Mutual inductance : E2  M 1 ; E1  M 2
dt dt
1
Energy stored in inductor : W  LI 2
2
Ideal transformer : I2 V1 N1
 
I1 V2 N2
A.C. circuits
Alternating current and voltage : V  V0 sin t I  I0 sin t
I0 V
RMS values : Irms  ; Vrms  0
2 2
A.C. power : PAC  Irms Vrms
V 1 1
Reactance (capacitor) : C  0  
I0 C 2 fC
V
Reactance (inductor) :  L  0  L  2 fL
I0
V
Impedance : Z 0
I0
 APPNEDIX C: UNITS, CONSTANTS, AND EQUATIONS • 657

2
VS 2  1 
Z  R 2  2L  C2  R 2   L    (RCL series circuit)
I  C 
VL  VC  L  C
Phase angle : tan  
VR R
(RCL series circuit)
Resonant frequency : 1 1
f0 
(RCL circuit) 2  LC

Gravitational fields
Gm1 m2
Newton’s law of gravitation : F 
r2
Gravitational field strength : gravitational force F
g 
mass m
F GM
g  2 (point mass or uniform spherical mass)
m r
GPE
Gravitational potential : VG 
m
GM
VG  r   (point mass or uniform spherical mass)
r
GPE  mgh (h >> r)
2GM
Escape velocity : vesc 
r
2GM
Scwarzschild radius : RS  2
c
3
Kepler’s third law : r GM
2 
T 4 2
2GMmr
Tidal forces : F 
R3
 V 
Gravitational time dilation : T  T1  2  (weak fields)
 c 
Special relativity
1
Gamma-factor : 
v2
1
c2
Time dilation : T T
658 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

L
Length contraction : L' 

Lorentz transformations :
x   x  vt  z z
 vx 
y y t   t  
 
Inverse Lorentz transformations :
x    x  vt z  z
 vx 
y  y t   t  2 
 c 
 u  v
Velocity addition : w
 uv 
1  2 
 c 
Mass increase : m  m0
2
Mass and energy : E  c2 m; E2  p2 c2  m0 c2 

Atomic and nuclear physics

R
Inverse-square law for intensity : I
4 r 2
Attenuation of gamma-rays : I  I0 ex
ln 2
Half-thickness : x1/2 


Range of radiation : R

Radioactive decay : N  N0 et
dN
Activity : A  N0 et N
dt
ln 2
Half-life : t1/2 

Nuclear binding energy : B.E.  c2m
Binding energy per nucleon : B.E./A  c2m /A
Quantum physics
Photon energy : E  hf
Photoelectric effect : KEmax  hf   hf  hf0
eVS  KEmax  hf 
 APPNEDIX C: UNITS, CONSTANTS, AND EQUATIONS • 659

h
de Broglie relation : 
p
h
Compton Effect :     1  cos  
me c
me4  1  13.6 eV
Hydrogen atom energy levels : En   
8 0 2 h2  n2  n2
1 1 1
Balmer series :  R 2  2 
n 2 n 
1  1 1
Rydberg formula :  R 2  2 
n m n 
 me4 
Rydberg constant : R  2 3

 8 c0 h 
h
Heisenberg indeterminacy : xp 
4
relation
Astrophysics
 L 
Radius of a star : r  
 4 T 4 
Hubble law : v  H0 d
1
Hubble time : TH 
H0
Medical physics
Beer–Lambert law : Iout  Iin ex
B0
Larmor resonant frequency : f
2
C.7 Constants
Speed of light in a vacuum c 3.00  108ms1 299 792 458 ms1
Electronic charge (magnitude) e 1.60  1019 C 1.60217662  1019 C
Planck constant h 6.63  10 Js
19
6.62607004  1034Js
Gravitational constant G 6.67  1011Nm2kg2 6.67408  1011Nm2kg2
Avogadro constant L 6.02  1023mol1 6.02214086  1023mol1
Boltzmann constant k 1.38  1023 JK1 1.38064852  1023 JK1
1
Molar gas constant R 8.31 J mol 8.3144598 mol1
660 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Unified atomic mass unit u 1.661027 kg 1.660539040  1027 kg

Permeability of free space 0 7
410 Hm 1
1.25663706  106Hm1
Permittivity of free space 0 8.851012Fm1 8.85418782  1012Fm1
Stefan constant  5.67  108 Wm2K4 5.670367  108 Wm2K4
Wien constant W 2.90  103 mK 2.8977685  103 mK
Proton mass mp 1.67  10 27
kg 1.6726219  1027 kg
Electron mass me 9.11  1031 kg 9.10938356  1031 kg
Neutron mass mn 1.67  1027 kg 1.674927471  1027 kg
Rydberg constant R 1.10  10 m 7 1
1.0 973 731.568 508  107 m1
Standard acceleration of gravity g 9.81 ms2 9.806 65 ms2 (defined)
Standard atmospheric pressure atm 1.01  105 Pa 101 325 Pa (defined)
Molar mass of carbon-12 M(12C) 1.2  102 kgmol1 1.2  102 kgmol1 (defined)
 APPENDIX

D
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES

Descriptive answers are not usually included and can be found by

referring to the relevant chapter.

Chapter 1 The Language of Physics

1. (a) 0.267 kg; (b) 25 000 000 mm; (c) 5000 000 cm3; (d) 22.2 ms1;
(e) 0.0045 m2
2. (a) 1.44 108 km; (b) 9.47 1015 m; (c) 1.27 light seconds
3. (a) 2.00; (b) 0.00209; (c) 0.00950; (d) 3.14
4. (a) Nm2kg2 or m3kg1s2 (in base units)
5. (a) 0.012, 0.016, 0.050(b) 1.2 %, 1.6 %, 5.0 % (c) 5300  200 cm2
(d) 105 000  8000 cm3
T k
6. (a) 0.234  0.051kg; (b) time period 2 T  k . 
7. (a) Systematic errors affect all readings in the same way (e.g. constant
addition or subtraction) and can be corrected for if the error is
known (e.g. subtracting a zero error). Random errors cannot be
predicted and affect each data point independently.
(b) Repeat reading several times and use an average value (neglecting
obvious anomalies). (c) 0.32 mm
8. (a) 5.5 103; (b) 7 1010; (c) 1.2 1024
662 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

9. (a) 9.0 1015; (b) 9.0 103; (c) 2.0 108; (d) 2.0 1016
10. (a) 3.3 107 s or 1 year 20.6 days; (b) 4.0 109 s or 126 years 275.8 days.
(c) 2.8 1013 s or 900 000 years;
(d) 9.5 1020 s or 3.0 1013 years (>> age of Universe!)

Chapter 2 Representing and Analyzing Data

1. (a) 6; (b)  3; (c) 1.748; (d)  0.488; (e) 0

2. (a) 10,000; (b) 501.2; (c) 1.122; (d) 0.001995; (e) 0.8913
3. (a) 1/v on y-axis and 1/u on x-axis; (b) y-intercept is 1/f
4. (a) Plot p against 1/V. If pV  constant graph will be a straight line
through the origin. (b) –
5. (a) Plot log (T) against log (r). This should give a straight line with
gradient equal to n and n  3/2; (b) 225 days
6. Plot ln (I) against t. to get a straight line with gradient equal to  1/T.
RC 44 – 45 s

Chapter 3 Capturing, Displaying, and Analyzing Motion

1. Displacement 0.41 s 0.83 s 1.18 s

0.82 m
Time

−1.2 m

Velocity

4.0 ms−1
Time
−1
7.5 ms

Acceleration

Time

−9.8 ms−2
 APPENDIX D: SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES • 663

2. (a) 8.3 ms1; (b) 1.67 ms2

3. (a) 5.0 s; (b) 2.4 ms2
4. Car’s speed is 13.9 ms1(a) 27.8 m; (b) 36.1 m
5. 23.7 m
6. 0.067 ms2
7. Car B wins by 0.64 s
8. (a) 14.3 m; (b) 61.1 m

Chapter 4 Forces and Equilibrium

1. All of them.
2. (a) 2.83 N at 45 to left of vertical; (b) 5.10 N at 32.1 left of vertical
3. 6.2 N
4. 0.75 N
5. (a) FA  1225 N; FB  1715 N; (b) 2940 N
6. (a) S  0.466; (b) K  0.443
(c) Force
2.69 N
2.56 N

Time

Chapter 5 Newtonian Mechanics

1. Tension T  mg  ma. If the stone is lifted gradually the acceleration is

small and T mg. If the string is jerked the acceleration is large so ma is
large and the tension can exceed the breaking force for the thread.
2. (a) Passengers continue at constant velocity until acted upon by a
resultant force (N1). When the bus slows down no additional force
acts on the passengers so they continue moving forward relative
to the decelerating bus and this makes them think they have been
thrown forwards even though no forward force acts on them.
664 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(b) There is an interaction between the bullet and gun when the
propellant explodes. The forward force on the bullet is equal to the
backward force on the gun (N3).
(c) To accelerate upwards there must be a resultant upward force on
you (N2). This arises because the contact force from the floor of the
lift is greater than your weight: FC mg  ma. You do not feel your
weight but you do feel the contact force and it is this that makes you
feel “heavier.”
(d) These are opposite ends of the same interaction so they must be
equal (N3).
3. (a) 0.50 ms2 to the right; (b) a  19.4 ms2 to the right
4. (a) 30 000 kgms1; (b) 0.16 kgms1
5. 1.3 ms1 to the right
6. (a) v1  0.594 ms1; v2  0.316 ms1; (b) Initial KE  0.32 mJ and final
KE  0.23 mJ so the collision was inelastic. 094 mJ has been transferred
to other forms in the collision.
7. (a) 2500 N; (b)(i) Power needed to overcome drag is unchanged but
additional power must be supplied to increase the GPE of the car as it
rises; (ii) 111 kW
mu2
8. (a) s  uT 
2B
(b) mu2
s = uT +
2B
Distance

mu2
Braking distance = 2B

Thinking distance = uT

Speed

(c) Braking distance depends on u2, so halving u reduces this by a factor

of 4.

Chapter 6 Fluids

1. (a) p (due to 10 m of seawater)  101 kPa  1 atmosphere;

(b) 111 MPa; (c) Actual pressure > 111 MPa because there is more
 APPENDIX D: SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES • 665

mass in each unit volume so the weight of water creating the pressure is
greater than if the water was incompressible.
2. (a) p  gx; (b) F  ½ glh2; (c) Integrate moments on a narrow strip
of width x and equate the result to the moment of the total force at
height a above the base. Show that a  h/3.
3. (a) –; (b) The constant is dimensionless so changing its value does
not affect the balance of dimensions in the equation;(c) The Reynold
number will be too high; the flow will change from laminar to turbulent.
4. (a) Sensible estimates must be made for each quantity in the expression
for Reynold number. E.g. v  30 ms1,  1.2 kgm3, L  2 m,
 2 105 Pas giving Re 4 106. This is very high and implies
turbulent flow.
(b) (i) Smooth surfaces, streamlined shape, reduced cross-sectional
area; (ii) 765 N; (iii) 8; (iv) 68 ms1; (v) Engine efficiency likely to
fall and other frictional forces will increase.
5. (a)  0.08 m3; (b)  800 N; (c)  1 N; (d) about 0.1 % so probably not
noticeable.
6. (a) 6.83 105 N; (b) 1.12 105 N
(c) Free body diagram has two upward forces: buoyancy B and drag
D(v) and one downward force, weight mg. The resultant force
F  mg (B  D(v)) so the downward acceleration is
a  g  (B  D(v))/m. The weight and buoyancy forces are constant
but D increases with speed v. When the ball bearing is released
D  0 so the initial acceleration is a(0)  g  B/m. As D increases
the resultant force and acceleration decrease until mg (B 
D(v))  a  0, so the ball bearing then falls at a constant terminal
velocity.
(d) 1.4 Pas assuming Stoke law is valid—i.e., ball bearing falling slowly
in the center of a tube of diameter >> diameter of ball.
(e) Droplets were very small. Stoke law assumes that fluid is a
continuum. For tiny droplets we need to take into account the
particle nature of the air—this affects average viscosity.
7. (a) air<< water; (b) 27 ms1; (c)  1600; (d) Assumption of laminar flow is
dubious. If flow is turbulent result is not valid.
16 pX  pZ
8. pY  17
666 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

9. (a) Pressure at top of straw is reduced as you suck, so it is less than

atmospheric pressure. Pressure in straw at level of external fluid is
atmospheric. Pressure difference creates an upward force on fluid
inside straw; (b) Maximum pressure difference is 1 atmosphere so
ghmax 105 Pa. For water hmax 10 m.
10. E.g. by balancing units in Stoke law equation.
11. 183 ms1
12. (a) 1370 Pa; (b) 103370 Pa; (c) Mercury has a higher density so the dis-
placements are smaller for the same pressure difference. This increases
range but reduces precision.
13. At higher altitude the weight of air above each square meter of surface is
less so pressure is lower.
14. Area / cm2 Speed / cms1 Volume flow
rate / cm3s1
Aorta 3.0 30 90
Arteries 100 0.9 90
Capillaries 900 0.10 90
Veins 200 0.45 90
Vena cava 18 5.0 90
(b) The largest Reynold number is  1000 in the aorta. This is close
to the limit for laminar flow so some turbulence could occur, but
elsewhere the flow will be laminar.

Chapter 7 Mechanical Properties

1. (a) 2000 kgm3; (b) fractional uncertainty  0.1, absolute uncertainty 

320 kgm3
2. (a) 167 Nm1; (b) 2.7 J; (c) 0.12 m
3. (a) –; (b) 11 N; (c) 0.30 Ncm1 or 30 Nm1; (d) 33.2 cm; (e) 28.4 cm;
(f) eF (Hooke law obeyed); (g) 98.8 cm; (h) It has passed its elastic
limit and permanent plastic deformation has occurred; (i) Less stiff—
increases in extension become greater for the same increases in load.
4. (a) 1.1 mm; (b) 8.3 J
5. Loading/unloading cycle shows hysteresis so stretching forces are always
greater than recompression forces at the same extension. More work is
 APPENDIX D: SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES • 667

done to stretch it than it does when it recompresses. The difference is

transferred to heat.
6. A: stiff, strong, brittle.
B: less stiff and strong than A, small amount of plastic deformation
before fracture.
C: less stiff and strong than B, a significant amount of plastic
deformation before fracture.
D: Non-linear behavior. Not stiff. Tough and has a low yield stress.

Chapter 8 Thermal Physics

1. (a)  6 kW; (b) Other heat losses—e.g. through ground, draughts, etc…
2. 20.2 C
3. Cu: 24.4 JC1 mol1, Al: 24.2 JC1 mol1, Fe: 25.0 JC1 mol1,
Hg: 28.1 JC1 mol1
4. 5.3 MJ
5. Molten iron cooling / state change, liquid to solid while latent heat is
dissipated at constant temperature / solid iron cooling

Chapter 9 Gases

1. (a) 4.4 105 Pa, 15C

(b) No change. Work is done on the gas but this is equal to the heat
transferred to the surroundings.
(c) U  0, Q   W; (d) 1152 K (879C)
(e) Same number of molecules occupy larger volume so collision rates
are lower. To exert the same pressure the particles must move faster
(have more KE) so the gas must be heated and its temperature must
rise.
2. (a) 0.018 moles
(b) External forces cause compression/expansion and do work on the
tire and air, heating it up.
(c) 32C
(d) Assumes constant volume. In practice, volume might increase
slightly.
668 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Pressure

(b)
(a)

Volume

3. (a),(b)
(c) Slow compression: temperature is constant so U is constant. Heat
flow out of system is equal to work done on the system. Fast
compression: heat flow is minimal so work done on system increases
its internal energy, temperature, and pressure.
4. (a) 500 ms1; (b) Same mean KE at same temperature but molecular
masses are different: more massive molecules (oxygen) have lower
rms speed.
5. (a) Molecular volume can no longer be ignored.(b) Collisions become
inelastic.(c) Interactions can no longer be ignored (bonds will form).
6. –
7. (a) 0; (b) 519.5 ms1; (c) ) 519.9 ms1; (d) 7.3 1021 J
8. Internal energy U depends only on absolute temperature T. In an
isothermal change U is constant and so is T. Work done to compress the
gas equals the heat that flows out of the gas to the surroundings.
9. (a) –; (b)(i) U  0; (ii) W  H
10. (a) –; (b)(i) exponential increase; (ii) exponential decay; (iii) exponential
decay; (c) Increasing T increases the B.F. so a larger fraction of
collisions exceeds the activation energy and the reaction rate increases.
11. 2.5 
12. 1.3 105
13. (a) As T increases B.F. increases so a larger fraction of the electrons
have enough energy to jump to the conduction band.
E

(b) I  GV  const.×V×e kT so a graph of ln I against 1/T has gradient
E/k
14. (a) –; (b) 0.67; (c) 0.174 gs1
 APPENDIX D: SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES • 669

Chapter 10 Statistical Thermodynamics and the Second Law

1. –
2. (a) –; (b) Newton’s laws are reversible.(c) Entropy increases so the
future is distinct from the past as long as the universe started in a low
entropy state.(d) Cosmological expansion (but this is also dependent on
the universe starting in a low entropy state).
3. (a) It was very low.(b) If all possible initial conditions are considered
equally likely the one in which the universe actually began was one of
very low probability (i.e. a microstate belonging to a very small number
of microstates).
4. –; 5. –; 6. –

Chapter 11 Oscillations

1. (a) AC, (b) B, (c) B, (d) C, (e) B, (f) C.

2. (a) Position of zero resultant force; (b) Fx; (c) 0.50 Hz; (d) 6.0 cm;
(e) y  6.0 cos (t) (ve to right); (f) –; (g) vmax  0.19 ms1, KEmax 
0.014 J; (h) No change; (i) Increasing mass reduces acceleration at each
point increasing T; increasing k increases acceleration at each point
decreasing T; (j) Work done against frictional forces. Total energy and
amplitude decay; (k) E.g. look for constant ratio: 5.4/6.0  4.9/5.4 
4.4/4.9 etc. This supports exponential decay; (l) 2.1 cm
3. (a) Differentiate twice; (b)(i) 2.5; (ii) 0.20 s; (iii) 78.5 ms1;
(iv) 2470 ms2; (c)(i) 1540sin 2 10 t ; (ii) –; (iii) –
1 g
4. f 
2 A
5. (a) 9.93 1014 Hz; (b) 3.02 107 m, UV
6. (a) 0.635 m; (b) 0.5 % increase; (c) Mass-spring period unchanged,
pendulum period about 3.9 s

Chapter 12 Rotational Dynamics

1. (a) –; (b) Force and velocity are perpendicular so F.s  0.

5
2. (a) mrg
2
670 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(b) N

N N

mg mg mg mg
(c) No. Ball will have tangential acceleration as well as centripetal
acceleration and resultant force is parallel to resultant acceleration.
(d) v  rg
3. Velocities shown on diagram. Accelerations all equal to v2/r and directed
toward center.
2v
C

√2v

D 45° B

45°
√2v
v=0
A

4. (a) 1.82 s; (b) 0.55 Hz; (c) 3.5 rad s1; (d) 7.8 103 Js; (e) 0.054 Nm;
(f) 0.013 J
5. –
6. (a) 4.7 109 kgm2; (b) Astronaut experiences an inward contact force
which maintains his circular motion about the centerof rotation. This
feels like the reaction to a gravitational field of strength g  rw2;
(c) 0.22 rad s1; (d) 94 MJ
7. (a) 0.63 Js; (b) 26.2 s
8. No external resultant torque. Angular momentum is conserved. L  I.
I is reduced so  increases. Work must be done by the children as they
use forces to move inwards. This increases RKE.
9. 8.3 1028 Nm
 APPENDIX D: SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES • 671

Chapter 13 Waves

1. (a) amplitude  25 m frequency  4.8 Hz, wavelength  3.14 m;

(b) 15 ms1; (c) In the negative x-direction.
2. (a) One cycle with period 20s and amplitude 1.2 m; (b) f  0.10 Hz,
  12 m; (c) 90, (/2)
3. –
4. (a) Row 1: air or vacuum / 2.0 108 ms1 / 25; Row 2: 3.0 108 ms1 /
3.0 108 ms1 / 75; Row 3: 2.3 108 ms1 / 1.2 108 ms1 / 38;
Row 4: diamond / glass / 1.2 108 ms1
(b) –
(c) Lower critical angle, so light reflects internally to a greater extent
and returns to observer by many paths.
5. HINT: Exploit the symmetry.
1 1
6. (a) IT  I0 cos  cos 90   I0 sin 2  maximum when 2  90,
2 4
i.e.,   45; (b) 0.22

Chapter 14 Light

1. (a) 2.57 s; (b) to about 0.1 ns; (c) diffraction.

2. (a) –; (b) 4 times
(c) Image distance and magnification increase as u approaches f. When
u  f the image is at infinity. For u >f a real image is formed on the
far side of the lens, inverted, in the space between the eye and the
lens (if the eye is far enough away).
3. 1st row: 20 cm, 2, virtual erect; 2nd row: infinity, infinity, not defined;
3rd row: 60 cm, 2, real inverted; 4th row: 40 cm, 1, real inverted;
5th row: 20 cm, 0, not defined
4. 1st row: 6.7 cm, 0.67, virtual erect; 2nd row: 10 cm, o,50, virtual erect;
3rd row: 12 cm, 0,40, virtual erect; 4th row: 20 cm, 0, not defined
5. (a) 30 times; (b) 20 times and length increased by 2.0 cm.
6. (a) 12.5 ms1; (b) 3.4 1024 m
7. E.g. by measuring the Doppler shift of 21 cm hydrogen lines from spiral
arms and calculating their velocities relative to earth. From these 9 and
some geometry) the angular velocity of the galaxy can be calculated.
672 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Chapter 15 Superposition

1. (a) 0 (b) (c) /2; (d) Amplitude 2, intensity 4; (e) 0;
(f) Amplitude 1/2 , intensity ¼ (g) 0.026 m, 13.1 kHz; (h) doubles;
(i) halves; (j) the phase difference is between /2 and 
2. (a) –; (b) 9.8 mm; (c)(i) maxima closer together; (ii) minima not
completely dark; (iii) no effect; (iv) maxima farther apart; (v) maxima
farther apart; (vi) clarity of fringes varies—maximum at 0 and , but no
fringes at /2 and 3/2 when polarizations are perpendicular.
3. Same fringe separation but maxima 9/4 times brighter.
4. (a) 8.28, 8.97; (b) 1.44; (c) 6 orders
(d) 1st order diffraction minimum at 25.6 and third order grating
maxima at 25.6 and 27.9 so maxima absent or very dim here.
5. –
6. (a) 0.15; (b) –; (c) –; (d) Minima closer to centerof pattern.
7. –
8. (a) 1.2 104 rad; (b) about 8 m; (c) 2.4 104 light years; (d) Limited
by other factors—e.g. retinal cell density/sensitivity; optical quality of
cornea and lens; (e) Minimum angle resolved is inversely proportional to
diameter and dscope >> deye
9. (a) Assume: separation  2 m, dmax 20 km (in practice less than this
because of other factors); (b) Needs objective diameter  30 m, so no.
10. (a) 8.82 105 kgm1; (b) 543 ms1; (c) 362 Hz; (d) 362 Hz, 724 Hz,
1086 Hz

Chapter 16 Sound

1. –
2. (a) 30 dB; (b) doubles to 60 Db
3. (a) 0.283 m; (b) –; (c) h1  37.9 cm, h2  23.8 cm, h3  9.6 cm
4. (a) Otherwise most of the incident ultrasound would reflect off the
surface of the skin. Gel matches the impedance of tissue so most is
transmitted; (b) 31 %
 APPENDIX D: SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES • 673

Chapter 17 Electric Charge and Electric Fields

1. (a) 14 400 C; (b) 3.0 103 C; (c) 0.20 A

2. –
3. (a) Field strengths: A: 9.0 1015 Vm1 to left; B: 4.0 1015 Vm1 to
right; C: 8.4 1014 Vm1 to left; D: 4.0 1015 Vm1 to right;
E: 8.38 1014 Vm1 to left; Electric potentials: A: 0V;
B: 9.0 109 V; C: 0V; D:  9.0 109 V; E: 0V
4. (a) 8.19 108 N; (b) 2.2 106 ms1 , 2.2 1018 J;(c)  4.3 1018 J;
(d)  2.2 1018 J; (e)  2.2 1018 J
5. (a) –
(b) E  62500 Vm1 at 4.0 cm and 8300 Vm1 at 8.0 cm; V  2500 V at
4.0 cm and 910 V at 8.0 cm.
6. Field lines originate on charge and meet surface at 90. Equipotentials
perpendicular to field lines.
7. (a) Gaussian surface inside sphere encloses zero charge so net flux is also
zero. By symmetry zero everywhere inside.
(b) Use surface of small flat cylinder embedded in conductor with ends
inside and outside surface of conductor. All field lines must pass
through external surface and must be perpendicular to conductor
so EA  Q/0 and E  /0 where A is the surface of the conductor
inside the cylinder.
(c) Gaussian surface enclosing empty space encloses zero charge so net
flux through surface is zero and flux entering volume must equal
flux leaving it.
8. (a) –; (b) –; (c) 250 000 Vm1; (d) 8.0 1014 N; (e) No change (uniform
field); (f) ae  60 000 aion
9. (a) 2.3 107 ms1; (b) parabolic downward; (c) 2.2 109 s;
(d) 7.7 106 ms1; (e) 18.5; (f) 2.7 107 J

Chapter 18 D.C. Circuits

1. (a) –; (b) –
2. 7.0 105 ms1
3. (a) 0.26 A; (b) 3.3 105 Am2; (c) 17 1m1; (d) 0.026 1
674 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

4. (a) B lights normally, A does not light; (b) A lights almost normally and
B lights just below normal brightness.
ER
5. (a) –; (b) V   ; (c) Plot 1/V against 1/R: gradient  r/E and
R  r
intercept  1/E; (d) –
6. (a) copper; (b) 0.62 , 0.39 , 2.22 ; (c) 44%, 54%, 91%; (d) 0.43 ;
(e) 4.6 A
7. (a) 4.0 V, 0.020 A; (b) 3.87 V, 0.019 A
8. (a) in series: R, 2R, 3R; in parallel: R/2, R/3; seriesparallel: 2R/3, 3R/2
9. (Hint: redraw equivalent circuit as 3  6  3 groups of parallel resistors)
6R/5
10. (a) Dark 5.9 V, Light 0.55 V; (b) For high values the range of voltages
becomes smaller. This makes the device less sensitive but more linear.
11. ammeter 1: 0.060 A, ammeter 2: 0.135 A, ammeter 3: 0.075 A; voltme-
ter: 3.0 V

Chapter 19 Capacitors

1. (a) 1.32 mC; (b) 0.00396 J; (c) charge doubles, energy quadruples
2. (a) 0.103 s; (b)  0.5 s; (c) no change, time constant is the same;
(d) 30.7 k, 330 A
3. (a) exponential decay from I0  V/R; (b) V1  constant, V2 exponential
decay, V3 growing from zero at decaying rate toward V.
4. (a) 0.00040 C, 0.0016 J; (b) Q1  0.00013 C, Q2  0.00027 C;
(c) 0.00053 J energy dissipated as heat in connecting wires as charge is
redistributed; (d) Q1  0.00040 C, Q2  0.00080 C, Qtot  0.00120 C;
(e) 0.0048 J, cell does extra work to charge both capacitors to same
voltage
5. Series: C, C/2, C/3; parallel: 2C, 3C; seriesparallel: 2C/3, 3C/2
6. Charge is halved; current forced back through cell as plates separate;
energy halved; voltage constant.
7. 0.0011 C, 2.34 V
 APPENDIX D: SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES • 675

Chapter 20 Magnetic Fields

1. Temperature in core is above Curie temperature so permanent

magnetization not possible.
2. (a) Circular filed lines around each wire: direction from RH rule. Field
of either wire intersects other current at 90 creating a “motor effect”
force: directions from FLHR. Attraction; (b) 1.78 106 Nm1;
(c) Currents on opposite sides of coil have a repulsive interaction
producing an outward (explosive) force. This will be large if current and
number of turns is large.
m1 v m v 2  m1  m2  v
3. (a) –; (b) r1  ; r2  2 ; (c) separation =
Bq Bq Bq
4. (a) –; (b) Distance of line of action of force from axis varies as coil turns.
Max. at 0, min. at 90; (c) 0.0312 Nm, 0.027 Nm, 0.022 Nm, 0.016 Nm.
0 Nm

Chapter 21 Electromagnetic Induction

1. (a) Flux in coil is changing. By Faraday law this results in an induced

emf.
(b)(i) Larger deflection—greater dN ; (ii) negative deflection—sign
dt
dN  dN
of has changed; (iii) No deflection 0
dt dt
2. (a) 2.0 106 Wb; (b) 4.0 104 Wb; (c) –;(d) 1.3 104A;
(e) 6.7 105 C; (f) current increased 5 but charge is the same
3. Field of falling magnet cuts through conducting copper walls. Rate of
change of flux-linkage in copper creates eddy currents. These create a
magnetic field that acts back on the falling magnet opposing its motion
(Lenz law). Magnet accelerates until upward magnetic field balances
weight and then falls at a terminal velocity.
4. (a) Wings are conductors cutting through the magnetic field. Rate of
cutting flux is equal to induced emf; (b) 0.40 V; (c) No. Return path
would have same emf so sum of emfs around circuit would be zero. OR:
closed circuit encloses constant flux so no change and no emf around
loop.
5. (a) 100 turns; (b) –; (c) core forms a magnetic circuit so that the
changing flux in the primary coil also links the secondary coil;
676 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(d) laminations interrupt eddy currents reducing the heat dissipated in

the core. (e) Eddy currents / ohmic heating in coils / magnetic losses
caused by constant magnetization and demagnetization.
6. (a) 0.0017 H, 0.50 ; (b) 0.034 J; (c) When switch is opened I falls to
zero very rapidly so dN is large and there is a large induced emf. This
dt
appears across separating switch contacts. Air breaks down and a spark
is formed.
7. (a) 90.5 V; (b) –; (c) 1.81 A; (d) 164 W; (e) answer (b) is unchanged,
(c) and (d) are reduced

Chapter 22 Alternating Current

1. (a) D.C. batteries, compact, portable, no need to rectify but expensive,

limited life, disposal issues; A.C. supply: can be stepped up or down
with transformers, cheap at point of use, easy to generate
(b) Can be stepped up at generator and transmitted at high voltage and
low current reducing heat loss from transmission lines.
2. (a) 28.3 V; (b) 20 V; (c) May be shorter with A.C.> because of continual
heating/cooling stress
3. Resistor: 100  at all frequencies. Capacitor: infinity / 16  / 1.6  /
0.16 . Inductor: 0.063  / 0.63  / 6.3 
4. (a) 46.4 ; (b) 0.35 A; (c) 14 V; (d) 2.6 W; (e) current and voltage have a
90 phase difference so the integral, over one cycle, of P  IV is zero;
(f) voltage leads current by 62
5. (a) infinity / 12.1  / 10.0  / 10.3  / 32.9 ; (b) 4800 Hz; (c) current
rises to peak of 1.2 A at f  4800 Hz; (d) From low frequency limit with
voltage lagging current by 90 through 0 at 4800 Hz to voltage leading
current by 90 at high frequency limit; (e) Circuit is purely resistive
at resonance so power dissipated is maximum. Energy is dissipated as
heat in thee resistor but the capacitor and inductor alternately store and
release energy back to the circuit, they do not dissipate energy.

Chapter 23 Gravitational Fields

1. (a) 9.8 N; (b) 2.72 103 N; (c) 3600 and 3602—i.e. the ratios are the
same so it is consistent.
(d) –; (e) –; (f) –
 APPENDIX D: SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES • 677

GM GM 3GMm GM

2. (a) VP  ; (b) VQ  ; (c) W  ; (d) v  2 R ;
R 4R 4R
2GM GM
(e) vesc  ; (f) vesc  ; (g) GMm
R 2R 8R
4
3. (a) g  3 G r ; (b) g is greater at poles than equator; (c) about 3 %
4. 3.44 108 m from Earth
3
5. (a) –; (b) –; (c) r  GM so constant depends on central mass;
T 2 4 2
(d)4.32 107 m; (e) orbit is centered on centerof Earth so anything
other than an equatorial orbit would vary in latitude and not be
stationary with respect to the surface. (f) 1.4 h
6. 1.9 1027 kg
7. More than 6 times as far
8. –;
9. –

Chapter 24 Special Relativity

1. (a) –; (b) –; (c) –

2. (a) 87.2 m; (b) 5680 m; (c)(i) 22.2 y; (ii) 9.69 y; (d) 8.72 ly;
(e) Earth twin 65.4, traveler 40.4
3. (a) –; (b) 0.14 c / 0.42 c / 0.75 c / 0.98 c; (c) – ; (d) if v << c then  1 and
relativistic effects are negligible; (e) –; (f) 1.2 GV
4. (a) Traveling clock slows—shows less elapsed time; (b) 18 ns
l0
5. (a) –; (b) –; (c) –; (d) ; (e) B sees a synchronization error on A’s clocks

with X started before Y so that A’s measurement of time is incorrect. B
also sees both of A’s clocks running slow. A sees B’s clock running slow.
Both disagree with the way measurements have been carried out in the
other reference frame. However, both are in inertial reference frames
so their measurements are valid within their own frame.
678 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Chapter 25 Atomic Structure and Radioactivity

1. (a) –; (b) –; (c) –; (d) –; (e) 4.6 1014 m; (f) scattering is purely
electrostatic / Coulomb law is valid
2. Can control energy using an accelerator, Electrons do not feel the
strong nuclear force but alpha particle do so for close approach
electrons are only scattered by electrostatic forces.
3. (a) Element Symbol Atomic Nucleon Protons Electrons Neutrons
number number
1
1H
Hydrogen 1 1 1 1 0
12
Carbon-12 6C 6 12 6 6 6
13
Carbon-13 6C 6 13 6 6 7
14
Carbon-14 6C 6 14 6 6 8
16
Oxygen-16 8O 8 16 8 8 8
56
Iron-56 26 Fe 26 56 26 26 30
157
Gold- 79 Au 79 197 79 79 118
235
Uranium-235 92 U 92 235 92 92 143
235
Uranium-238 92 U 92 238 92 92 146

(b) E.g., carbon isotopes: same atomic number but different mass
number
(c) Electrostatic repulsion between protons is a cumulative long range
repulsion. Strong nuclear interaction between neutrons and protons
is short range. For a large nucleus more neutrons are needed to
stabilize the nucleus against the Coulomb force.
4. (a) 20 cpm; (b) radioactive decay is a random process so it fluctuates;
(c) 8 h; (d) alpha and gamma
5. (a) 1.22 104 y1 or 3.85 1012 s1; (b) 22 800 y assuming no
contamination with “younger” carbon; (c) 19,000 years
6. 2
 APPENDIX D: SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES • 679

7. Time / Years P Q
0 N 0
1000 N/2 N/2
2000 N/4 3N/4
3000 N/8 7N/8
5000 N/32 31N/32

Q rises from zero to asymptote at N, P falls exponentially from N to

zero
P  Q  N at all points sop graph lines cross at 1000 years.
8. (a) –; (b) 3.43 mm; (c) 23 cm
9. –
10. (a) 8 alpha and 6 beta
238
92 U → 90Th  2  ; 90Th
234 4 234
(b) → 234 0
91 Pd  1  00  ;
234
91 Pd → 92 U  1  0 
234 0 0

(c) Abundances in approximate ratio of half-lives

214
(d) 83 Bi → 210 4
81Tl  2  then 210
81Tl → 210 0
82 Pb  1  00 
214
OR 214
83 Bi → 214 0
84 Po  1  00  then 84 Po → 210 4
82 Pb  2 

11. Half-life approx. 185 s, decay constant approx. 3.7 103 s1

Chapter 26 Nuclear Physics

1. –
2. B.E.  470 MeV, B.E./A  8.3 MeV/nucleon
235
3. (a) 92 U → 231 4
90Th  2 ; (b) Use conservation of momentum:
KETh  81 keV; (c) 0.0052 u
16
4. (a) 6C → 167 N  01  00 
(b) 8.0 MeV; (c) Energy is shared randomly with anti-neutrino
(d) Neutron rich nucleus. Large mass defect for decay. High probability
of decay and therefore short half-life.
5. (a) 137 N → 136 C  01  00  (1); 137 N → 138 O  01  00  (2)
(b) For (1) m  0.0024 u, for (2) m   0.019 u, so mass of products
in (2) is greater than mass of original nucleus so that reaction cannot
proceed spontaneously.
680 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

(c) 7.5 MeV / nucleon, 7.7 MeV / nucleon—both are stable and
nitrogen-15 might be expected to be more abundant. In fact
nitrogen-14 is much more abundant because the odd-odd
configuration is much more stable than an odd-even configuration
of nucleons, allowing protons and neutrons to pair up.
(d) t1/2 (C  16) > t1/2 (C  17) > t1/2 (C  18). Neutron excess
destabilizes nucleus because neutrons are themselves unstable.
14
6. (a) –; (b)(i) 6C → 147 N  01  00 ; (ii) 01 n → 11 p  01  00 ;
(iii) 21/3 1/3 0 0
/3 d → 1/3 u  1  0 
(c) Yes—proton (uud) changes to a neutron (udd) so an up quark
changes to a down quark.

Chapter 27 Quantum Theory

1. (a) 5.5 1011 m; (b)(i) 6.2 keV; (ii) 1.6 1011 m

(c) Visible photon energy < 10 eV, X-ray photon energy > 10 eV
2. –
3. (a) photon energy < work function
(b) photons only transfer energy to single electrons (at the intensities
used)
(c) UV photon energy > 4.3 eV
(d) more photons per second arrive so more electrons per second
emitted
(e) work function zinc > blue photon energy > work function of
potassium
(f) Max. KE increases ( hf )
4. (a) 0.76 eV; (b) 5.2 105 ms1; (c) 0.76 eV
(d) No change in max. KE or stopping voltage but more electrons are
emitted per second so photocurrent increases.
5. (a) 3.4 eV; (b) 4.9 107 m, visible;
(c) (i) Elastic—scattered electron has 11 eV of KE.
(ii) Inelastic: electron excites atom to n  2 level. Atom absorbs
10.2 eV and electron is scattered with 0.8 eV of KE.
6. (a) 2.5 1019 s1; (b) Photon energy is so small that changes in intensity
are effectively continuous.
IA
7. (a) F  ; (b) Approx. 100 000 m2
c
 APPENDIX D: SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES • 681

8. –;
9. –
54 eV
10. En 
n2
Chapter 28 Astrophysics

1. (a) 5.0 107 m; (b) 620 Wm2; (c) 7.0 108 m; (d) Peak of curve shifts to
shorter wavelengths. 2.90 108 m (UV)
2. (a) 3500 K; (b) 5.7 1011 m
3. (a) 0.05 c moving away; (b) 7.2 light years
4. (a) –; (b) 3.09 1016 m, 3.26 light years; (c) parallax angle becomes too
small to measure; (d) 19.2 parsecs
5. (a) 10700 light years; (b) 26 Mpc
6. –
7. (a) 9.7 1010 Hz; (b) 9.7 1010 Hz
(c) Shift for rocket is caused by Doppler Effect due to relative motion,
shift for galaxy is caused by cosmological expansion of space.
(d) 4.3 108 years
8. –

Chapter 29 Medical Physics

1. –; 2. –
2. (a) –; (b) 3.1 1011 m; (c) –
3. 4. –
4. (a) Photons have momentum. In the CM frame the electron and
positron have net zero momentum sop if only a single photon was
emitted this would violate the law of conservation of momentum. In the
CM frame a pair of identical photons are emitted in opposite directions.
5. 2.4 1012 m
GLOSSARY

Absolute space: proposed by Newton as a background against which all

physical processes take place. All observers, regardless of their own motion,
would agree on the separation of events in absolute space. Einstein’s special
theory of relativity showed that this cannot be the case.
Absolute time: proposed by Newton as a universal time in which all
observer, regardless of their own motion, would agree on time intervals and
the rate of flow of time. Einstein’s special theory of relativity showed that
this cannot be the case.
Absolute uncertainty: likely range of values represented by a
measurement—e.g., a measurement of length might be 4.565  0.002 m:
an absolute uncertainty of 0.002 m (2 mm). The smaller the uncertainty
the more precise the measurement.
Absolute zero: lower fixed point of the thermodynamic temperature
scale. According to kinetic theory, molecular motion would stop at this
temperature.
Absorption lines: dark lines in a spectrum corresponding to wavelengths
that are strongly absorbed by the medium through which radiation has
passed.
Acoustic impedance: product of the speed of sound in a medium and
the density of the medium.
Action-at-a-distance: Newton’s original idea that gravitational forces
act on distant objects instantaneously and with nothing acting as an
intermediary.
684 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Activation process: process that depends, on a molecular scale, on the

molecules gaining an additional energy E above the average energy at that
temperature.
Activity: number of decays (disintegrations) per second inside a
radioactive source.
Adiabatic change: change that takes place with no transfer of heat in or
out of the system (Q  0 in the first law of thermodynamics).
Alpha particle: helium nucleus. Emitted from certain unstable nuclei in
radioactive decay.
Alternating current (A.C.): current alternates its direction of flow in
the circuit and the polarity of the supply alternates in a periodic way.
Ampère theorem: theorem that relates the line integral of the magnetic
field strength around a closed loop to the current passing through the area
enclosed by the loop.
Amplitude: maximum disturbance from equilibrium in a wave or
oscillation.
Angular momentum: sum of moments of linear momentum about
an axis of rotation for all points in a rotating body, given by L  I and
measured in Js.
Anode: positive electrical terminal.
Aphelion: point on an elliptical planetary orbit when the planet is farthest
from the Sun. The equivalent point in the orbit of an Earth satellite is called
apogee.
Archimedes principle: that the buoyancy force on an object placed into
a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.
Arrow of time: distinction between the past and the future linked to an
irreversible physical change, such as increasing entropy.
Atomic mass number (A): number of nucleons (protons  neutrons) in
the nucleus. Also called nucleon number or just mass number.
Atomic number (Z): number of protons in the nucleus. Corresponds
to the position of the element in the Periodic Table and the number of
orbiting electrons in the neutral atom.
Attenuation: reduction of intensity with distance as a result of absorption
in a medium.
 GLOSSARY • 685

Balmer formula: numerical relationship between visible wavelengths in

the hydrogen atom line emission spectrum. This relationship could not be
explained using classical physics.
Barometer: instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure.
Base unit: seven agreed independent units from which the S.I. system is
constructed.
Battery: several cells connected together in series or parallel to form a
power supply.
Beer–Lambert law: law of attenuation when radiation passes through
an absorbing medium.
Bernoulli equation: equation describing conservation of energy in a
flowing fluid. Can be used to relate pressures and flow rates in one part of
the system to those in another.
Beta radiation: high-energy electron () or positron () emitted when
an unstable nucleus decays.
Big Bang: origin of the universe exploding from a point about 13.7 billion
years ago.
Biot–Savart law: equation used to find the magnetic field due to electric
currents.
Black body radiation: spectrum of radiation emitted by an ideal radiator.
Black hole: object whose gravitational field is so strong that, at a certain
distance from its center, the escape velocity is equal to the speed of light.
Bohr model: model of the hydrogen atom in which electrons move in
circular orbits around the central nucleus but can only occupy orbits in
which their angular momentum is an integer multiple of h/2. This results
in a discrete set of allowed energy levels.
Boltzmann factor: ratio of numbers of particles expected to have energy
E  E to the number having energy E in a system. This is equal to the
probability that a particle can gain the extra energy E for an activation
E

process: f  e kT

Bourdon gauge: instrument used to measure pressure.

Boyle law: relationship between pressure and volume for a constant
mass of an ideal gas at constant temperature: pV  constant.
686 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Bremsstrahlung: “braking radiation”—continuous spectrum of X-ray

radiation emitted when an electron beam strikes a metal target and the
electrons decelerate as they collide with atoms in target.
Brewster law: light incident on the surface of a transparent material at
n
the Brewster angle, given by tan  B  2 , splits into refracted and reflected
n1
beams that are polarized perpendicular to one another.
Brittle: material property when little or no plastic deformation occurs
before fracture and fracture mechanism is by crack propagation.
Buoyancy: upward force on a body in a fluid caused by the pressure
difference between the top and bottom of the body. Also called “upthrust.”
The size of the buoyancy force is given by Archimedes principle.
Capacitor: pair of conductors separated by an insulator. When there
is a potential difference between the two conductors they store opposite
charges of magnitude Q  CV, where C is the capacitance of the capacitor,
measured in farads.
Cathode: negative electrical terminal.
Center of gravity: point where the resultant gravitational force on a
body acts.
Centripetal acceleration: an object in uniform circular motion has an
acceleration directed toward the center of the circle in which it moves.
Centripetal force: resultant force acting toward the center of the circle
when an object is in uniform circular motion.
Cepheid variable: type of variable star with a well understood intensity-
luminosity relationship so that its absolute luminosity can be inferred from
its period of variation. Used as a standard candle for distance measurements.
Ceramics: solid non-metallic materials formed by high temperature
firing, usually strong hard and brittle, e.g., pottery or brick.
Charge carriers: particles within an electrical conductor that are
responsible for the electric current (e.g., electrons in most metals).
Charles law: relationship between volume and temperature for a
V
constant mass of an ideal gas at constant pressure: T  constant
Classical physics: usually refers to Newtonian mechanics (including the
law of gravitation) and Maxwell’s laws of electromagnetism. It corresponds
to the known physics prior to 1900 and excludes: relativity, quantum theory,
and particle physics.
 GLOSSARY • 687

Closed system: in mechanics, a system with no external forces acting

upon it. In thermodynamics, a system which does not exchange heat with
its surroundings.
Coefficients of friction: ratio of frictional force to normal contact force
when the surfaces just begin to slip (static coefficient of friction) or when
they are sliding over one another (dynamic coefficient of friction).
Coherent sources: monochromatic sources that remain in phase or
maintain a constant phase difference.
Commutator: rotating switch in a D.C. motor that ensures the current
direction changes every half rotation so that the turning effect on the coil is
always in the same direction.
Composite materials: combinations of two or more different materials
designed to take advantage of the desirable properties of each individual
component.
Compound pendulum: pendulum in which the mass is spread out
rather than concentrated at one point (i.e., in the pendulum bob).
Compton Effect: scattering of X-rays from atomic electrons which can
be analyzed as if it was a collision between particles. The scattered X-ray
has a change of wavelength related to the angle of scatter.
Conservative field: if a particle is moved around a closed loop in
a conservative field there is no net change in energy. The electric and
gravitational fields are both conservative fields.
Continuity (equation of): equation stating that the mass flow rate of
a fluid at one point in a pipe is equal to the mass flow rate at another:
1 A1 v1  2 A2 v2 . If the fluid is regarded as incompressible this reduces
to: A1 v1  A2 v2 .
Control variables: variables that must be kept constant during an
experiment so that any change in the dependent variable is only caused by
a change in the independent variable. All control variables must be kept
constant for the experiment to be a fair test of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables.
Convection: transfer of heat in a fluid as a result of bulk movement of
particles in convection currents. These arise as a result of density changes
in the fluid when it is heated.
Conventional current: direction of current flow defined to be from
the positive terminal of the supply to the negative terminal of the supply
in the external field (i.e., the direction in which a positive charge carrier
688 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

would move) regardless of the sign(s) of the charge carriers that make up
the current.
Copenhagen Interpretation: mainstream interpretation of quantum
mechanics in which the state of a system is described by a wave function
and there is a collapse of the wave function when an observation or
measurement is made.
Copernican model: heliocentric (Sun at the center) model of the solar
system
Cosmic microwave background radiation: black body radiation
corresponding to a temperature of about 2.7 K present throughout the
universe. One of the key pieces of evidence supporting the idea of a Big
bang and the expanding universe.
Cosmology: the study of the origin nature and end of the entire universe.
QQ
Coulomb law: force law between electric charges: F  1 2 2 .
4 0 r
Couple: moment of a pair of forces of equal magnitude, acting in opposite
directions through different points in the same body: couple  magnitude
of one force  distance between lines of action of the two forces.
Creep: gradually increasing strain with constant stress.
Crystalline materials: having long range geometric microstructure,
e.g., metals.
CT (computed tomography): medical imaging technique using X-rays
to create detailed images of slices of the body.
Curie temperature: temperature above which thermal motions prevent
the permanent magnetization of a ferromagnetic material.
Damping force: force opposing motion causing the oscillator to do work
as it oscillates and resulting a decay of amplitude and energy.
De Broglie relation: fundamental relationship between the wave and
Planck constant
particle models of radiation and matter: wavelength = momentum .
Decibel scale: logarithmic scale of relative intensity used to compare
intensity levels with the level at the threshold of human hearing
I
(I0): intensity level dB 10 log10 
 I0 
Degeneracy pressure: the Pauli Exclusion Principleprevents fermions
(half-integer spin particles) from existing in the same set of quantum states,
so that when a gas of fermions is compressed the lower energy states
become filled and it exerts an outward pressure.
 GLOSSARY • 689

Degree of freedom: in kinetic theory, the different modes in which a

particle can absorb energy, e.g., translation, rotation, vibration.
Dependent variable: the variable you are investigating to find out how
it depends on an independent variable.
Derived unit: unit built up from more than one base unit, e.g., ms1
for velocity. Some derived units have their own name, e.g., the joule, for
energy. The joule is equivalent to kgm2s2 in base units.
Deterministic: where having complete knowledge of the present state
of a system is sufficient to make a complete prediction of its future state.
Newtonian mechanics is a deterministic system.
Dielectric material: insulating material that is polarized by an external
electric field. When a dielectric material is placed between the plates of a
capacitor increases its capacitance.
Diesel cycle: idealized cycle for a diesel internal combustion engine.
Diffraction grating: an optical component consisting of a large number
of narrow parallel slits—used in spectroscopy to analyze light.
Diffraction: spreading of a wave into a region of geometric shadow after
passing through an aperture or past an object or edge.
Dimension: the nature of a physical parameter independent of its
quantity, e.g., the dimension of time but not the actual duration of a
particular time.
Dipole (electric): two charges of opposite sign and equal magnitude
separated by a distance—e.g., in a polar molecule.
Dipole (magnetic): object (e.g., a bar magnet) with a south magnetic
pole at one end and a north magnetic pole at the other end.
Direct current (D.C.): current that always flows in the same direction
around a circuit. The polarity of a D.C. supply is constant.
Dispersion: when refractive index depends on wavelength (e.g., for
different wavelengths of visible light in glass) the amount of refraction will
also be wavelength dependent (e.g., when a triangular prism spreads white
light into a spectrum of colors).
Doppler effect: shift in observed wavelength and frequency of a wave as
a result of relative motion between the source and the observer.
Drag coefficient: constant in the drag equation related to the shape and
nature of the surface of a body moving through a fluid.
690 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Drift velocity: mean velocity of charge carriers in a current-carrying

conductor. Usually much lower than the random thermal velocities of the
charge carriers.
Ductile: property of a material that can be drawn out into wires—
depends on plastic deformation.
Dynamic (kinetic) friction: frictional force between two surfaces sliding
over one another.
Earth (electrical): connection to the planet Earth taken to be at a
constant potential of 0V.
Eddy currents: current loops inside a conductor when a changing
magnetic field passes through it. These cause energy losses in the
ferromagnetic core of a transformer and are important in electromagnetic
damping systems.
Elastic limit: up to the elastic limit extensions/strains are reversible when
the force/stress is removed. Beyond the elastic limit they are irreversible
and permanent plastic deformation occurs.
Electric field strength: force per unit charge acting on a charged
particle at a point in an electric field. Also equal to the potential gradient
at each point.
Electric potential energy: energy a charged object has as a result of
its position within an electric field. A property of the object placed at that
point in the field.
Electric potential gradient: equal to the electric field strength at a
point in the field.
Electric potential: electric potential energy per unit charge at a point
in an electric field. Property of the field at that point. The zero of electric
potential is defined to be at infinity.
Electromagnet: usually a coil that creates a magnetic field through its
center when current flows.
Electromagnetic induction: process where changing flux-linkage
through a coil or conductor induces an emf in the coil or conductor. The
essential principle behind transformers and generators.
Electron-capture: process in some proton-rich nuclei whereby an inner
electron combines with a nuclear proton to create a neutron and emit a
neutrino.
Electrostatics: study of electric fields and forces from stationary
arrangements of charges.
 GLOSSARY • 691

EMF: energy transferred from other forms to electrical energy per unit
charge passing through a power supply, measured in volts.
Energy availability: extent to which energy within a system can be
harnessed to do useful work.
Equilibrium: situation in which the resultant force and resultant moment
on a body are both zero.
Equipartition of energy: hypothesis that when energy is supplied to a
thermodynamic system each degree of freedom gets an average energy of
½kT.
Equipotential surfaces: surfaces perpendicular to electric field lines.
No work is done on or by a charged particle when it moves from one point
on an equipotential surface to another.
Equivalence principle: Einstein’s thesis that the laws of physics in a
freely falling reference frame are indistinguishable from the laws of physics
in a region of uniform gravitational field.
Error bars: drawn as a vertical or horizontal bar on either side of each
plotted point to indicate the range of uncertainty in that point. Error bars
can then be used to find the worst acceptable lines and the range in gradient
and intercept.
Escape velocity: minimum velocity that will allow an object to escape
from a point in a gravitational field to infinity (neglecting effects of non-
gravitational forces such as atmospheric friction).
Event horizon: surface surrounding a black hole such that no matter or
radiation can escape from within this surface and no event occurring inside
this surface can have an effect on an observer in the outside universe.
Exponential change: growth or decay that changes by a constant
proportion in a constant time—e.g., activity of a radioactive source has a
constant half-life. Described mathematically by an equation of the form:
y  Aex .
Extension: difference between unstretched length and stretched length,
e.g., of a wire.
Faraday cage: a conducting box (often a metallic mesh box) enclosing a
region of space and preventing the transmission of electromagnetic waves
into or out of the box.
Faraday law: fundamental law of electromagnetic induction equating
the induced emf to rate of change of flux-linkage.
692 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Ferromagnetic material: e.g., iron or nickel-containing atoms which

are themselves magnetic dipoles and which can be aligned with an external
field and remain aligned when the field is removed.
Fleming’s left-hand rule: used to work out the direction of the motor
effect force.
Forced oscillator: an oscillator coupled to and driven by an external
oscillating force.
Fractional uncertainty: ratio of absolute uncertainty x to measured
value of x: x .
x
Free fall: motion of an object when it falls solely under the influence of
gravitational forces.
Freebody diagram: diagram representing a body as a single object and
showing all of the forces that act on it.
1
Frequency: number of complete oscillations per second given by f 
T
, measured in Hz (1 Hz  1 cycle per second).
Galilean relativity: idea that the laws of mechanics are the same in all
uniformly moving (inertial) reference frames.
Galvanometer: meter used to detect and measure small currents.
1
Gamma-factor: relativistic factor,   , that occurs in the
 v2 
1  2 
 c 
calculation of many relativistic effects (e.g., time dilation, length contraction,
mass increase with velocity) and that can be used to gauge the significance
of relativistic effects.
Gauss law: mathematical equation connecting the flux of a field through
a closed surface to the number of sources enclosed by the surface, e.g., for
an electric field: the flux of electric field through the surface is equal to the
total charge enclosed divided by the permittivity of free space.
Gay Lussac law: relationship between pressure and temperature for a
p
constant mass of an ideal gas at constant volume:  constant
T
Geiger counter: instrument used to detect and measure ionizing
radiation from radioactive sources.
General relativity: Einstein’s theory of gravity as a distortion of space–
time geometry rather than a field of force.
 GLOSSARY • 693

Geodesic: shortest path through curved space–time. The path followed

by a freely moving body or a light ray. (A geodesic on the surface of the
Earth would be a great circle route.)
Geostationary satellite: satellite in an equatorial orbit placed at such
a distance that its period of orbit is equal to the Earth’s period of rotation
on its axis (23 hours and 56 minutes). Geostationary (or geosynchronous)
satellites remain above the same point on the Earth’s surface and are used
for global communications.
Glasses: similar to ceramics but they have a completely amorphous
microstructure and result from a rapidly cooled melt
Graham law of diffusion: rate of diffusion in a gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of the molecular mass.
Gravitational field strength: gravitational force per unit mass at a point
in the field. A property of the field.
Gravitational potential energy: energy an object has because of its
position in a gravitational field. A property of the body placed in the field.
Gravitational potential: gravitational potential energy per unit mass. A
property of the field at each point in space. The zero of potential is defined
to be at infinity.
Gravitational time dilation: effect of gravitational fields on the rate
at which time passes—a clock placed in a stronger gravitational time ticks
more slowly than one in a weaker field.
Gravitational waves: periodic disturbances of space–time geometry
that travel outwards from their source (e.g., a binary star system or
colliding black holes) at the speed of light. The gravitational equivalent of
electromagnetic waves.
Ground state: lowest allowed energy state for an electron in an atom
(n  1 state). Corresponds, in the Bohr model, to the state in which the
circumference of the orbit is exactly one wavelength.
Half-life: time taken for the activity of a radioactive source to halve or for
the number of unstable nuclei in the source to halve.
Hard/soft magnetic material: difficult/easy to magnetize and
demagnetize.
Hard: resists indentation and scratching
Heat capacity: energy required to raise the temperature of an object by
1 K.
694 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Heat death: idea that, as entropy continues to increase, the far future of
the universe will be characterized by an equilibrium state in which energy
availability has fallen to zero.
Heat engine: engine designed to extract useful work from a heat
reservoir.
Heat pumps: system in which work is used to pump heat from a heat
reservoir at lower temperature to a heat reservoir at a higher temperature.
Heating: energy transfer as a result of a temperature difference.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: principle that sets a limit on
how much can be known about certain pairs of variables, e.g., position
and momentum or energy and time. For example, the more precisely we
determine the location of an electron the smaller the uncertainty in its
position but the larger the uncertainty in its momentum.
Hertzsprung–Russell diagram: chart displaying luminosity against
spectral type (or inverse surface temperature) of stars, revealing several
distinct groups or bands including: the main sequence, red giants, and
white dwarf stars.
Homogeneous equation: an equation in which quantities, units, and
dimensions balance.
Hubble law: relationship between speed of recession and distance for
galaxies v  H0d.
Hubble time: reciprocal of the Hubble constant, a rough approximation
of the age of the universe.
Hydrostatic pressure: pressure due to a stationary fluid.
Hysteresis: e.g., when the force to load a sample is different from force
as it is unloaded, a cycle of loading and unloading results in a closed loop on
a graph of force against extension. This is a hysteresis loop. The area of the
loop is related to the energy dissipated by the sample during the process.
Ideal fluid: incompressible inviscid fluid.
Ideal gas equation: equation of state for an ideal gas, incorporating all
three gas laws: pV  nRT.
Ideal gas: theoretical model of a gas whose equation of state is pV  nRT.
Impedance: ratio of the peak voltage to the peak current in an A.C.
system even though these values occur at different times. Resistance
and reactance are special cases of impedance when the phase difference
between voltage and current is 0 or /2 respectively. Measured in ohms.
 GLOSSARY • 695

Impulse: integral of force and time equal to the change of momentum.

When force is constant impulse is Ft  mv mu.
Independent variable: the variable you vary to find its effect on the
dependent variable. Sometimes called the “manipulated variable.”
Indeterministic: where having complete knowledge of the present state
of a system is insufficient to make a complete prediction of its future state.
Quantum theory is an indeterministic system.
Indicator diagrams: plot of pressure against volume for a cyclic process
in a heat engine.
Inertial force: an apparent force that is a result of applying Newton’s laws
to an accelerating reference frame as if it is not accelerating. For example,
thinking that a force throws you forward when the train in which you are
travelling suddenly slows down. No physical force pushes you forward.
Inertial reference frame: an unaccelerated reference frame, one that
is at rest or moving at a constant velocity.
Intensity: energy per unit area per second in a wave front, measured in
Wm2 and proportional to the amplitude-squared.
Interaction: all forces arise from interactions. In nature there are four
fundamental interactions: gravitational, electromagnetic, and the strong
and weak nuclear forces.
Interferometer: instrument in which light rays travelling along two
perpendicular paths are brought back together and then allowed to
superpose and interfere in order to measure small differences in the optical
paths (e.g., to detect the distortions caused by gravitational waves passing
through the apparatus).
Internal energy: sum of random thermal kinetic energies and potential
energies of all particles in the body.
Internal resistance: resistance inside a cell or battery that dissipates
energy when current is drawn from the cell and results in a lost voltage so
that the terminal voltage is less than the emf of the supply.
Invariant: a quantity that is the same for all inertial observers (e.g., the
4D interval between events).
Inviscid fluid: fluid with zero viscosity.
Ionizing radiation: radiation capable of ionizing atoms, e.g., in the
electromagnetic spectrum, short-wavelength UV, X-ray, and gamma-rays.
Alpha and beta emissions from unstable nuclei are also forms of ionizing
radiation.
696 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Isobaric changes: changes that take place at constant pressure.

Isochoric changes: changes that take place at constant volume.
Isothermal changes: changes that take place at constant temperature.
Kelvin scale: thermodynamic scale based on the absolute zero of
temperature and the triple point of water.
Kepler laws: three laws of planetary motion based on elliptical orbits
with the Sun at the center of the system.
Kinetic theory: particle model of matter used with Newton’s laws to
derive the ideal gas equation.
Kirchhoff’s second law: statement of energy conservation for an
electric circuit stating that the sum of emfs must equal the sum of potential
differences around any closed loop in an electric circuit.
Larmor frequency: e.g., precession frequency for the axis of a magnetic
dipole rotating about the direction of an applied external magnetic field
during an MRI scan.
Law of Dulong and Petit: postulate that the heat capacity of all metals
is 3R.
Length contraction: the observed reduction of lengths in a reference
frame that is moving relative to the observer.
Lenz law: states that the direction of an induced emf is such as to oppose
the change that caused it. This ensures that energy is conserved.
Lepton: fundamental particle related to the electron. There are six
different leptons, each with its own antilepton.
Linear absorption coefficient: constant that relates the attenuation of
light in an absorbing medium to the properties of the medium.
Linear momentum: the product of mass and velocity, a vector quantity
with unit kgms1.
Local force: idea that forces do not come from a distance but are the
result of a local field that acts directly on a particle. This also explains why
effects take time to propagate from one place to another as changes spread
out through the field at a fixed speed (e.g., electromagnetic waves).
Logarithm: power of some base number that represents a quantity—
e.g., the logarithm of 1000 to base 10 is 3 because 10 to the power 3 is equal
to 1000.
 GLOSSARY • 697

Logarithmic scale: a scale that increases by a constant multiple, e.g., 1,

10, 100, 1000…. Useful for displaying data with a very wide range of values
onto a single graph or chart.
Longitudinal wave: wave in which the vibration direction is parallel to
the direction in which the wave transfers energy (e.g., sound/ultrasound)
creating regions of compression and rarefaction in the medium.
Lorentz transformation: series of equations that transform space and
time coordinates of an event from one inertial reference frame to another
(in agreement with the principle of relativity).
Luminiferousether: hypothetical medium supporting electromagnetic
fields and through which electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light.
Einstein’s special theory of relativity and the Michelson–Morley experiment
both showed that this cannot be the case.
Luminosity: total power radiated from a star.
Magnetic field strength: equivalent to magnetic flux density. Measured
in tesla (T) or webers per square meter(Wbm2).
Magnetic field: field created by moving charges (e.g., in an electric
current) that exerts forces on other moving charges (or currents).
Magnetic flux linkage: the magnetic flux through a coil multiplied by
the number of turns in the coil. Measured in webers (Wb).
Magnetic flux: integral of the perpendicular component of magnetic
field strength and area. Measured in Wb.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): medical imaging technique that
detects the radio waves emitted when nuclear magnetic dipoles in hydrogen
atoms inside the body align with an external field.
Main sequence: diagonal band on the HR diagram, running from top
left (high luminosity and high temperature) to bottom right (low luminosity
and low temperature). Most stars will spend most of their lives in this band.
Malleable: property of a material that can be beaten out into sheets—
depends on plastic deformation.
Manometer: U-tube containing a liquid, used to measure pressure
differences.
Many-worlds theory: interpretation of quantum theory put forward
by Hugh Everett III in which the wave function never collapses and each
separate possibility is realized in a separate world.
698 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Mass spectrometer: instrument used to find the relative masses and

abundances of isotopes in a sample.
Mass: fundamental property of matter that determines its inertia
(response to a resultant force) and its effect on and response to gravitational
fields.
Maxwell distribution: probability distribution for molecular speeds or
kinetic energies within a gas.
Maxwell’s equations: fundamental equations of electromagnetism
describing how electric and magnetic fields are related to each other and to
charges and how electromagnetic waves propagate.
Michelson–Morley experiment: an attempt to measure the effect of
the Earth’s motion through the postulated luminiferousether on the speed
of light relative to the Earth and thereby infer the velocity of the Earth
relative to the ether. No effect was detected.
Moment of inertia: property of a body that resists changes in angular
iN

velocity, given by m r i i
2
and measured in kgm2. Its value depends on the
i1
axis about which the body rotates.
Moment: turning effect of a force in Nm. Also called a torque.
Monatomic gas: gas consisting of individual atoms acting as particles
with no internal degrees of freedom.
Monochromatic: light consisting of a single wavelength (single “color”).
Monoenergetic: particles having a single energy.
Motor effect: force on a current-carrying conductor when placed into a
magnetic field such that there is a component of the field perpendicular to
the current.
Mutual inductance: when two coils are close together, a changing
current in either coil creates a changing magnetic field that affects the other
coil and induces an emf in it. The strength of this effect is measured by the
mutual inductance of the system of two coils in henries (H).
Natural frequency: frequency of free oscillations when the oscillator is
displaced and released.
Neutral point: point in space where the fields caused by two or more
sources cancels out.
Neutron star: fate of a heavy star that has formed a planetary nebula. Its
core continues to collapse beyond the white dwarf stage until it is prevented
from further collapse by neutron degeneracy pressure.
 GLOSSARY • 699

Newton’s law of gravitation: the gravitational force between two point

masses is proportional to the product of the masses and the inverse-square
Gm1 m2
of their separation: F  .
r2
Newton’s laws of motion: three fundamental laws of mechanics related
to the effects of resultant forces and the nature of interactions.
Nucleon: particle found in the nucleus—a proton or a neutron.
Null result: when an expected effect is absent even though the method
and precision should have detected it. The Michelson–Morley experiment
is the most famous example of a null result.
Optical Fiber: narrow transparent fiber along which light or infrared
radiation can be transmitted because it repeatedly undergoes total internal
reflection at the boundary. Used to transmit information, e.g., for computer
networks, telephone systems, and cable TV.
Oscillation: periodic motion about an equilibrium position, such as the
vibration of a mass on a spring or the swing of a simple pendulum.
Otto Cycle: idealized cycle for a petrol internal combustion engine.
Pair annihilation: conversion of the mass of a matter particle and its
corresponding anti-particle into energy in the form of gamma-rays.
Parsec: unit of distance in astronomy equal to about 3.26 light years.
Percentage uncertainty: ratio of absolute uncertainty x to measured
x
value x expressed as a percentage: x 100%
Perihelion: point on an elliptical planetary orbit when the planet is
closest to the Sun. The equivalent point in the orbit of an Earth satellite is
called perigee.
Permanent magnet: magnetic material in which the atoms are
themselves magnetic dipoles. If these are aligned (e.g., in a ferromagnetic
material such as iron) the sample becomes a magnetic dipole.
Permeability: property of a medium related to its ability to support a
magnetic field
Permittivity: property of a medium related to its ability to support an
electric field.
Phase velocity: velocity at which a point of constant phase in a wave
moves—e.g., the velocity of a wave crest.
Phase: position within a cycle of oscillation on a scale of 0 to 360 or 0 to
2 radians.
700 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Phasor: rotating vector used to represent an oscillation or point on a

wave. Length corresponds to amplitude, angle corresponds to phase, and
its rotation frequency is the same as the oscillation or wave it represents.
Photoelectric effect: ability of light, above a certain threshold frequency,
to eject electrons from a metal surface.
Photomultiplier tube: very sensitive light detector that can respond to
single photons by massively amplifying the number of electrons emitted by
each photon that is absorbed.
Photon: quantum of electromagnetic radiation.
Piezoelectric crystal: type of crystal used in ultrasound transmitters and
detectors. When the crystal is stressed it generates a voltage and when a
voltage is applied to it there is a corresponding strain.
Planck constant (h): fundamental constant in quantum theory.
Poincaré recurrence: idea that given enough time a system will return
to all of its possible macroscopic states an unlimited number of times.
Polar orbit: satellite orbit passing over the poles of the Earth. These
orbits are usually relatively low and with periods of a few hours, so the
satellite will pass over every part of the Earth’s surface as it completes
several orbits.
Polarization: selection of a particular vibration direction for a transverse
wave—e.g., vertical plane polarized waves or horizontally plane polarized
waves.
Polymers: materials consisting of long chain hydrocarbon molecules
which tend to align with an applied stress, e.g., rubber or polythene.
Positron emission tomography (PET): medical imaging technique
using a beta-plus emitter as a tracer. Positrons emitted from the tracer
annihilate with electrons in the body sending out a pair of gamma-rays of
the same energy moving in opposite directions.
Potential difference: difference in electric potential between two points
in space (or in an electric circuit).
Potential divider: arrangement of two resistors across a power supply
so that the voltage across one of them is a fraction of the supply voltage
determined by the resistance ratio.
Power: rate of transfer of energy, measured in watts (W). 1W  1Js1
Precession: for example, when the magnetic dipole axis of a nucleus
rotates about the direction of an applied magnetic field.
 GLOSSARY • 701

Principle of moments: condition for equilibrium of moments acting on

the same body; sum of clockwise moments must be equal to the sum of
counterclockwise moments about any point.
Progressive/traveling wave: wave that transmits energy from a source
to an absorber.
Pulsar: rapidly rotating neutron star whose intense magnetic field results
in two jets of radiation emitted in opposite directions. If the Earth lies in the
path of one of these jets then regular pulses of radiation will be detected.
Quantum of energy: smallest discrete unit of energy transfer—e.g., for
the emission or absorption of electromagnetic radiation at frequency f the
minimum transfer is one photon with energy E  hf.
Quark: fundamental particle found in all hadrons (baryons and mesons),
e.g., protons and neutrons. There are six different types of quark, each with
its own anti-quark.
Radian: unit for measurements of angle based on the geometry of the
circle. One radian is the angle subtended by an arc of length equal to one
radius of the circle. There are 2 radians in a complete circle so 2 radians
 360.
Radioactive emission: ionizing radiation emitted when an unstable
nucleus decays.
Radiological dating: use of known radioactive half-lives to work out the
age of archaeological or geological samples.
Random error: error making measured values larger or smaller than
true values by an unpredictable amount—e.g., in repeated measurements
of the time period of a pendulum. Significance of random errors can be
reduced by repeating measurements and using an average value.
Ray: line perpendicular to a wave front in the direction of energy transfer.
Rayleigh criterion: rule for comparing the diffraction limit to the
resolving power of optical instruments.
Reactance: A.C. impedance of a component (capacitor or inductor)
where the current and voltage vary with a phase difference of /2. Reactance
is equal to the ratio of the peak voltage to the peak current in the component
even though these occur at different times. Measured in ohms.
Red giant star: star approaching the end of its life. As fuel for nuclear
fusion reactions in its core begins to run out it swells up and its surface cools
until it is a huge red giant star.
702 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Red-shift: ratio of increase in wavelength to original wavelength,

 0
z , for waves reaching an observer from a source that is moving
0
away from the observer.
Refraction: change in direction of a wave when it crosses a boundary
between two media in which the wave speed is different.
Refractive index: the absolute refractive index of a transparent material
is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum (c) to the speed of light in the
c
medium (v): n  v .
Refrigerator: system in which work is used to extract heat from an
object at low temperature and dump it into a heat reservoir at a higher
temperature (e.g., the environment).
Relativity of simultaneity: two separate events that are simultaneous
for one observer can occur at different times for an observer in a different
inertial reference frame.
Resistance: ratio of potential difference across an electrical conductor to
V
the current in it: R  . Resistance is a property of a particular component.
I
Measured in ohms.
Resistivity: property of a material equal to the resistance across opposite
faces of a uniform cube of the material with sides of 1m. measured in ohm-
meters.
Resolving power: minimum angular separation of object points that
results in separate image points in an optical instrument.
Resonance: strong response of an oscillatory system when it is driven at
its natural frequency.
Resultant force: vector sum of all forces acting on the same body.
Reynolds number Re: dimensionless number that relates inertial forces
to viscous forces. For large Reynold number the flow is turbulent, for small
Reynold number the flow is laminar.
RMS values: root mean square value of a quantity, particularly important
1
in A.C. The rms value for quantities that vary sinusoidally is times the
Vpeak 2
peak value. For example, Vrms 
2
Rotational kinetic energy: energy of a rotating body given by RKE 
½ I2
 GLOSSARY • 703

Rutherford scattering experiment: in which alpha particles were fired

at thin gold foil. Analysis of the scattering data led to the discovery of the
atomic nucleus.
S.I.: Système international d’unités, an agreed international system of
units including m, kg, s.
Scalar field: region of space in which each point is associated with a
quantity having magnitude only—e.g., gravitational potential or electrical
potential.
Scalar: physical quantity with magnitude only, e.g., mass, temperature,
energy.
Schrödinger’s cat: thought experiment in which a microscopic quantum
effect, the decay of a radioactive atom, is linked to a macroscopic event, the
death of a cat. Prior to opening the box to see if the cat has survived it exists
in a superposition of states: both dead and alive.
Schrödinger’s equation: fundamental equation in quantum theory.
Solutions to the Schrodinger equation are wave functions.
Schwarzschild radius RS: surface surrounding a spherical black hole at
which the escape velocity is equal to the speed of light.
Scientific notation: method of expressing quantities in terms of a power
of 10 multiplied by a number between 1 and 10, e.g., c  3.00  108 ms1
Scintillator: material that emits light when it absorbs X-rays.
Self-inductance: when the current in a coil changes the magnetic field
also changes and affects the coil, inducing a (back) emf in the coil, opposing
the change. The strength of this effect is measured by the inductance of the
coil in henries (H).
Semiconductors: materials such as silicon and germanium that have a
small density of charge carriers at room temperature (compared to a metal)
but whose conductivity increases with temperature as more charge carriers
are freed.
Simple harmonic motion: oscillatory motion in which the acceleration
is directly proportional to displacement from equilibrium and directed back
toward equilibrium.
Simple pendulum: point mass suspended from a light inextensible
string.
Snell law: law of refraction stating that the ratio of the sine of the incident
angle to the normal to the sine of the refracted angle to the normal at the
boundary of two media is constant.
704 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Solenoid: long coil, usually used to create an electromagnet.

Sonography: use of ultrasound to scan the body.
Space–time curvature: disturbance of the geometry of space and time
as a result of the presence of matter or energy.
Specific heat capacity: energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg
of an object by 1 K.
Specific latent heat: energy required to change the state of 1 kg of
a material from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas with no change in
temperature (i.e., at its melting or boiling point).
Spectrometer: an instrument used to analyze the spectrum of a light
source.
Spectroscopy: analysis of light which involves spreading the light into
a spectrum and determining the wavelengths present and their relative
intensities.
Spectrum: range of wavelengths which might be continuous (e.g., the
colors of the rainbow) or might consist of lines or bands (e.g., atomic or
molecular emission spectra).
Speed of light (c): speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum.
Fundamental maximum speed at which matter and information can be
transmitted from one place to another.
Spring constant: ratio of force to extension in Hooke law, a measure of
the stiffness of a spring.
Stability: the extent to which a system can return to equilibrium after
being displaced from it.
Standard candle: astronomical object whose absolute luminosity is
known (e.g., Cepheid variable, type 1a supernova) so that it can be used to
determine distances.
Standard Model: current best model of all particles and forces in the
universe.
Standing/stationary wave: localized wave disturbance consisting of
a stationary pattern of nodes (positions of minimum disturbance) and
antinodes (positions of maximum disturbance).
Static friction: frictional force between two surfaces in contact with
each other and at rest.
Stefan–Boltzmann law: relationship between the power per unit area
emitted by a radiator and its temperature.
 GLOSSARY • 705

Stiff: material that has a large stress to strain ratio (large Young
modulus)—i.e., hard to stretch.
Strain energy: energy stored because of deformation, e.g., in a stretched
spring.
Strong: large breaking force (for a sample) or large breaking stress (UTS)
for a material.
Sum-over-histories: approach to quantum theory suggested by Richard
Feynman in which all possible paths contribute a phasor and the square of
the resultant phasor at each point represents the probability of the process
taking place.
Supernova: explosion of a massive star at the end of its life.
Superposition: when two or more waves are present at the same point
in space the resultant disturbance is the vector sum of the disturbances due
to each wave.
Symmetry principle: when an operation carried out on a system leaves
it unchanged.
Systematic error: measurement error that affects all measurements in
the same way—e.g., making them all too large or too small by the same
quantity or proportion. If the error is known it can be corrected for (e.g., by
subtracting a constant value from each measurement).
Tensile strain: ratio of extension to original length. Dimensionless.
Tensile stress: ratio of axial force applied to cross-sectional area of
sample perpendicular to the force, measured in Nm2.
Thermal conduction: transfer of heat as a result of particle to particle
interactions.
Thermal equilibrium: when two objects are at the same temperature
and, if placed in thermal contact, there is no net transfer of heat between
them.
Thermal radiation: emission of electromagnetic radiation with a
spectrum that depends on the temperature of the emitting body.
Thought experiment: an imagined experiment used to explore the
implications of theory, e.g., Schrodinger’s cat or the twin paradox.
Tidal forces: differential forces arising because of the difference in
gravitational force across the diameter of an orbiting body. Tidal forces
tend to distort the body along and perpendicular to the line joining it to the
body around which it orbits.
706 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Time dilation: the observed slowing of time in a reference frame that is

moving relative to the observer.
Time period: time for one complete cycle of oscillation.
Torricelli vacuum: space above the mercury inside a mercury barometer
containing very low pressure mercury vapor.
Total internal reflection: when a wave strikes the boundary between a
medium of higher refractive index and one of lower refractive index above
a certain critical angle and all of the wave energy is reflected back into the
first medium.
Tough: undergoes a considerable amount of plastic deformation and
absorbs a lot of energy before fracture.
Transformer: electrical device usually consisting of a primary coil and a
secondary coil wound onto the same ferromagnetic core. An A.C. voltage
in the primary can be stepped up or down according to the transformer
V N
equation: 2  2 .
V1 N1
Transverse wave: wave in which the vibration direction is perpendicular
to the direction in which the wave transfers energy (e.g., all electromagnetic
waves).
Trigonometric parallax: method for determining the distance to a star
by measuring the change in its apparent direction (parallax) angle as the
Earth orbits the Sun. The more distant the star, the smaller the parallax
angle. A method of triangulation with the Earth’s orbital diameter as
baseline.
Triple point of water: unique temperature at which ice, water and
water vapor are in equilibrium.
Twin paradox: thought experiment in which two twins separate on a
particular date with one taking a high-speed return journey to a star the
other remaining behind on Earth. According to special relativity the twins
should have different ages when they reunite—but which twin should be
younger?
Ultrasound: sound waves at a higher frequency than the upper limit of
human hearing, usually taken to be f> 20 kHz.
Ultraviolet catastrophe: the failure of classical theory, at short
wavelengths, to derive an expression for the black-body radiation spectrum.
The best attempts predicted an ever-increasing amount of radiation at the
UV end of the spectrum.
 GLOSSARY • 707

Uniform gravitational field: field of constant strength and direction

throughout a region of space. The gravitational field near the surface of the
Earth is approximately uniform over distances that are small compared to
the Earth’s radius.
Universal constant of gravitation: “big G,” the constant in Newton’s
law of gravitation.
Vector field: region of space in which each point is associated with a
quantity having magnitude and direction—e.g., gravitational field strength
or electric field strength.
Vector: physical quantity with magnitude and direction, e.g., force,
momentum, velocity.
Velocity selector: region of space in which a magnetic field and an
electric field act at right angles to one another and when charged particles
are fired through this region only those with a unique velocity remain
undeflected. Used in a mass spectrometer to ensure that all of the ions
enter the device at the same velocity.
Viscosity: measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Units of viscosity are
Pas.
Voxel: a volume element in a 3D image that is assigned a value determined
by how strongly it absorbs X-rays during a CT scan.
Wave function (Y): mathematical expression that describes the state of
a physical particle or system. The “intensity” of the wave function at a
point in space (||2) is proportional to probability, e.g., for a photon ||2V
represents the probability of finding the photon in a volume of space V.
Wave fronts: lines of constant phase (usually crests and/or troughs)
representing wave motion. Wavefronts are perpendicular to rays.
Wavelength: shortest distance between two points oscillating in phase
in a wave.
Wave–particle duality: loose description given to the observation that a
particle model and a wave model are needed to explain different aspects of
the behavior of matter and radiation, but neither model can give a complete
explanation of all aspects of behavior.
Weight: gravitational force acting on a body.
White dwarf star: fate of a medium mass star (like our Sun) after it
has swollen to become a red giant and its outer layers have drifted off
into space. A white-hot core remains, and electron degeneracy pressure
prevents further collapse.
708 • FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

Wien displacement law: relationship between wavelength at the peak

of the black body radiation spectrum and the temperature of the radiating
body: T = constant.
Work: energy transfer as a result of movement in the direction of an
applied force.
World line: path through space–time (line on a space–time diagram).
Yield stress: stress at which a material starts to deform plastically.
Young modulus: measure of the stiffness of a material, equal to the ratio
of stress to strain when the material obeys Hooke law (linear part of graph
of stress against strain).
Young’s double slit experiment: famous experiment in which
monochromatic light is passed through a pair of narrow parallel slits
and forms an interference pattern. This originally provided the first
measurement of the wavelength of light (thereby supporting a wave model
for light) and is now often used to explore ideas about the interpretation of
quantum theory.
Zero error: non-zero reading on an instrument when it should read zero
(e.g., when a micrometer screw gauge is closed but the scale reads 0.02
mm). Must be subtracted from readings when using the instrument.
INDEX

A annihilation, 487, 619–621, 699

antilogarithms, 32
absolute space, 473, 491, 683 anti-neutrino, 512
absolute time, 477 antinode, 306
absolute zero, 195, 145, 196, 367–368, 696 Aristotle, 455
accelerometer, 46 arrow of time, 186, 191, 194, 199, 201
A.C. parallel circuits, 439 artificial satellites, 458
A.C. power, 430 A-scan, 607
A.C. series circuits, 436 astrophysics, 591
activation energy, 170 atom bomb, 531
activity, 510 atomic bomb, 531
adiabatic change, 173, 178 atomic mass number, 499
adiabatic gas constant, 166 atomic mass units (a.m.u.), 525
alpha decay, 511 atomic number, 499
calculating energy released, 525 attenuation coefficient, 502
alpha particle, 511
alpha particles, 501 B
absorption, 504
alternating current, 429 background radiation, 505
ammeter, 347 Balmer’s formula, 571
Ampère’s theorem, 400 batteries and cells, 349
amplitude, 248 Becquerel, 500
Amplitude becquerel (S.I. unit), 510
of a wave, 248 Beer-Lambert law, 613
ancient Greeks, 455 beta emission, 500
angular magnification beta-minus decay, 511
of a telescope, 280 beta-plus emission, 513
angular momentum, 231 beta radiation
conservation of, 234 absorption, 503
710 • INDEX

Big Bang, 284, 601–605, 685 charge (charge conjugation) symmetry, 20

binding energy per nucleon, 524 charged particle
binomial theorem, 487 path in magnetic field, 393
Biot-Savart law, 396 Charles’s law, 160
black body radiation, 149, 685 chromatic aberration, 275
black-body radiation spectrum, 551, 603, 706 circular motion
black dwarf, 592 uniform, 221
black hole, 454, 467, 471, 593, 636, 691, 703 circular orbits, 457
Black holes, 454 classical physics, 473, 551, 568
blue shift, 283 Classical physics, 686
Bohr, Niels, 569, 570–573, 577, 685, 693 closest approach
Boltzmann, 150, 162, 165, 170, 182, 193, Rutherford scattering, 497
195–196, 640, 649–650, 659, 685, 704 cloud chamber, 505
Boltzmann factor, 170, 182, 640, 650, 685 COBE, 603
Boltzmann’s constant, 165 coefficient of friction
Born, Max, 566, 579 static and dynamic, 67
boundary conditions coherence, 288
standing waves, 306 collapse of the wave function, 566, 578
Boyle’s law, 158 commutator, 402
Brahe, Tycho, 456 compass needle
brittle, 139 behavior, 388
brushes, 402 composite materials, 140
B-scan, 607 compound microscope, 281
compound pendulum, 239
compression ratio, 178
C Compton, 562
candela, 1 Compton effect, 562
capacitance, 374 conservation of baryon number, 544
capacitance of a charged sphere, 384 conservation of lepton number, 544
capacitor, 373 control variable, 638
energy stored, 376 coolant, 534
capacitor charging, 381 Copenhagen Interpretation, 566, 568,
capacitor discharge, 379 577–578, 584, 586, 588, 688
capacitors Copernicus, 456
in series and parallel, 382 copper losses
carbon-14, 518 transformers, 419
Carnot, 190, 175 cosmic background radiation, 602
Celsius scale, 144 cosmic microwave background radiation,
center of gravity, 55 284, 603
Centrifugal forces, 224 cosmology, 201, 298, 545–546, 591, 601
centripetal acceleration, 222 Cosmology, 601
centripetal force, 223 couple, 61
Cepheid variables, 598, 599 creep, 139
ceramics, 140 critical angle, 254
CERN, 6, 368, 394, 601 critical mass, 532
chain reaction, 530, 532–534, 623 crystalline materials, 139
 INDEX • 711

CT scan, 508, 620, 707 eddy current losses

Curie, 500 transformers, 419
Curie temperature, 389 Einstein, 19, 54, 162, 265, 267, 269, 284, 463,
464, 466–467, 476–477, 479, 488, 523, 529,
D 542, 544, 554–556, 558, 566, 587, 591–592,
603–604, 635–636, 683, 691–692, 697
damping, 212
theory of gravity, 463
dark energy, 546
elastic, 138
Dark Energy, 545
electrical characteristics, 353
dark matter, 546
electrical potential difference, 336
Dark Matter, 545
electric flux, 333
datalogger, 44
electric motors, 401
Davisson and Germer, 560
electric oscillators, 440
de Broglie, 559
electric potential, 336
de Broglie equation, 499, 562
absolute, 340
de Broglie relation, 492, 558–559,
electric potential energy, 335
573, 659
electric potential gradient, 336
decibel scale, 314
electromagnetic damping, 421, 423
density, 127
electromagnetic field, 264
dependent variable, 638
electromagnetic induction, 405–409, 411, 691
deterministic theory, 579
electromagnetic waves, 264
deuterium, 535
electron-capture, 514
Diesel cycle, 179
electron diffraction, 498, 559–560, 563
differential equation, 13
Electron waves in atoms, 572
diffraction by slits and holes, 300
elements, 500
diffraction grating equation, 296
elliptical orbits, 456
diffraction gratings, 293
EMF, 360
diffraction through a circular hole, 303
energy availability, 200
dimensionless number, 4
energy level, 568, 570–571, 575
diode, 356
enriched uranium, 531
direct current, 429
entropy, 143, 187–190, 193–201, 669, 684,
dispersion, 255
694
Doppler effect, 281
equation of motion, 43
Doppler mode ultrasound, 608
equilibrium, 51
Doppler shifts, 282
of coplanar forces, 57
double slit experiment, 287, 296, 563, 578,
types of, 63
582, 708
equipartition of energy, 166, 691
Drake equation, 631
equipotential surfaces, 337
Dulong and Petit's law, 167
equivalence principle, 464
dynamics
equivalent dose, 506
defined, 37
evaluation, 642
event horizon, 454
E Everett, 577, 583–584, 697
Earth’s magnetic field, 389 expanding Universe, 600–601
Earth’s ocean tides, 461 exponential
Eddington, 465, 635, 636 relationship, 34
712 • INDEX

exponential decay, 34, 503, 509, 517, Gauss’s theorem, 334

668–669, 674 Gauss’s theorem, 333–335, 343, 654
Geiger, 495
F Geiger counter, 515
general relativity, 454, 464, 466, 544, 603,
fair test, 637
636, 692
Faraday, 263–264, 335, 387, 405, 407, 409,
general theory of relativity, 54, 284, 463, 464,
411–412, 414, 417, 425–426, 656, 675, 691
467, 488, 542, 544, 591, 603–604, 635
Faraday cage, 335
generations
Faraday’s law, 409
leptons, 541
Fermi, 623–624, 630–632
quarks, 542
ferromagnetic material, 389
generator, 420
Feynman, 21
geocentric model, 455
Feynman diagrams, 543–544
geodesics, 464
fine structure constant, 4
geometry
first law of thermodynamics, 166, 171–173,
and special relativity, 488
176, 684
geostationary satellites, 459
first law of thermodynamics, 180
geosynchronous orbit, 459
Fizeau, Armand, 266
glasses, 140
Fleming’s left hand rule, 391
GPS satellites, 459
flux losses
G.P. Thomson, 560
transformers, 419
Graham’s law of diffusion, 168
forced (or driven) oscillator, 213
Gran Telescopio Canaris, 280
Foucault, 266
graphs of motion, 38
Fourier analysis, 319
gravitational time dilation, 467
Fourier’s equation, 147
gravitational waves, 467
Fourier synthesis, 319
gray (S.I. unit), 506
free-body diagram, 51–52, 209
Great Magellan telescope, 280
Free-body diagrams, 51
ground state, 570
freely falling reference frames, 464
gyromagnetic ratio, 616
frequency, 244
friction
static, 67 H
frictional forces, 66
fundamental, 306 hadrons and quarks, 541
fundamental interactions, 542 Hahn, Otto, 530
half-life, 510
G half-thickness, 503
harmonics, 306
Galilean relativity, 473, 476, 491, 692 heat capacity, 151
Galileo, 456, 473 heat death of the Universe, 199
gamma-camera, 618 heat engine, 174–176, 178, 187, 189–190,
gamma emission, 512 197–198, 200–201, 695
gamma-factor, 479–480, 483, 491–492 Heat pumps, 198
gamma-rays Heisenberg, 577, 579, 581, 659, 694
inverse-square law, 501 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty(indeterminacy)
Gauss’s law, 333 Principle, 579
 INDEX • 713

henry (S.I. unit), 414 inverse-square law, 34

Hertz, 552 investigations, 642
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, 595–596, 694 ionizing radiation, 500, 501, 505, 507, 509,
Higgs, 544 511, 514–517, 610, 616, 692, 695, 701
Higgs field, 544 biological effects, 505
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 532 irreversible process, 185
Hubble, 283–285, 599–605, 653, 659, 694 isobaric change, 174
Hubble constant, 284–285, 604, 694 isochoric change, 174
Hubble’s law, 599, 601, 605 isothermal, 158, 172–173, 180, 182, 668
Hubble’s law, 284, 601–603, 653 isotopes, 500
Huygens, 263
hydrogen line spectrum, 571 J
hysteresis losses
J.J. Thompson, 495
transformers, 420
K
I
kelvin scale, 145
ideal gas equation, 162
Kepler, Johannes, 36, 456, 458, 470–471,
image, 272
657, 696
formation, 272
Kepler’s laws
in plane mirror, 276
of planetary motion, 456
real and virtual, 272
kinematics
impact parameter, 497
defined, 37
impedance, 434, 435, 656, 694
kinetic theory, 157, 162, 164, 168, 683, 689
independent variable, 637
kinetic theory equation, 164
indeterminacy, 579, 581, 659
Kirchhoff’s first law, 348
indeterministic theory, 566
Kirchhoff’s second law, 350
indicator diagram, 175
Induced emf, 405
induced fission, 530
L
inductance, 413 Larmor frequency, 616–617, 696
induction motors, 423 Leavitt, 598
inductor length contraction, 483
energy stored, 415 lens
inertia, 54 convex and concave, 271
inertial forces, 224 lens equation, 275
inertial frames, 473 Lenz’s Law, 412
integration, 14 Light
intensifying screen, 614 as an EM wave, 263
intensity light gates, 45
of a wave, 248 LIGO, 468
interferometer, 474 limit of resolution, 304
to detect gravitational waves, 468 linear magnification
internal energy, 171 of lens, 273
internal resistance of a real cell, 360 logarithms, 32
invariant, 19, 488, 490–491 longitudinal waves, 246
714 • INDEX

Lorentz, 394 mesons, 542

Lorentz force law, 394 method of dimensions, 4
Lorentz transformation, 484 Michelson, 266, 267, 474–476, 485, 492,
Lorentz transformation equations, 484 698–699
luminiferous ether, 265, 269, 474, 491, 698 Michelson-Morley experiment, 267, 474, 476,
485, 492, 698–699
M micro-states, 190
Minkowski, Hermann, 19, 488–489
macro-state, 190
moderator, 533
magnetic drag force, 423
molar heat capacity, 151
magnetic field, 387
mole, 1, 151, 162, 164, 166, 168, 181, 626, 645
center of narrow coil, 397
molecular kinetic energy, 164
current-carrying wire, 398
moment of a force, 59
rotating, 423
moment of inertia, 235
solenoid, 399
cylinder, 236
magnetic flux, 410
rod, 235
magnetic flux-linkage, 410
several point masses, 235
magnetic force
uniform sphere, 237
on electric current, 390
Morley, 475
on moving charge, 393
motion sensor, 44
magnetic quantum number, 574
multimeter, 352
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 616
mutual inductance, 416
main sequence, 596
many-worlds, 577, 583–586, 588–589
N
Marsden, 495
Mass neap tides, 462
relativistic, 486 neodymium magnet, 423
mass defect, 523 Neumann, 409
mass, energy and momentum neutral point, 332
in relativity, 491 neutron number, 499
mass spectrometer, 395 neutrons, 542
mass-spring oscillator, 208 neutron star, 593, 701
matter waves, 558 Newton, 14–15, 19, 21, 37, 162–163, 201,
Maxwell, 14, 21, 168–170, 263–265, 268–269, 222–224, 233–234, 239–240, 263, 280, 391,
473–474, 476, 542, 551, 567–568, 686, 698 423, 454–457, 463, 466, 469, 477, 627, 632,
Maxwell distribution, 168–169 636, 647–648, 657, 669, 683, 695–696,
Maxwell equations, 264 699, 707
Maxwell’s equations, 14, 21, 567 Newtonian mechanics, 19, 464, 473, 551, 568,
Maxwell’s equations, 265, 268–269, 474, 476, 663, 686, 689
542, 568, 698 node, 306
mean-squared speed, 164 Noether, Emmy, 19
measurement problem, 566, 578, n-type semiconductor, 345
583–585, 588 nuclear atom, 499
medical physics, 607 nuclear binding energy, 523
Meitner, Lise, 530 nuclear fission, 528, 529, 530
Melde’s experiment, 306 Nuclear fission, 530
 INDEX • 715

nuclear fusion, 523, 529–530, 532, 535, 541, photon theory, 555, 558, 587
547, 592, 594, 596, 604, 701 Planck, 553
nuclear stability, 527 Planck constant
nuclear transformations, 511 measuring, 556
nucleon number, 499 planetary nebula, 592, 698
Nucleons, 523 plastic, 138
nucleus, 496 plutonium, 534–535
null result, 475 plutonium-239, 532, 535
number of ways Poincaré recurrence, 194, 700
entropy, 191 polarization, 256
polarization by reflection and
O scattering, 259
polarizing filters, 258
Oersted, Hans Christian, 390
polymers, 139
Ohm, 354
Popper, 635
Ohm’s Law, 354
positron, 487, 513, 541, 619, 621,
optical fibers, 255
681, 685
optical infinity, 274
Positron Emission Tomography (PET scans),
orbital motion, 454
619, 700
orbital quantum number, 574
potential dividers, 364
orbitals, 574
power transfer
Otto Cycle, 176
electrical, 363
precision, 638
P predictable rays for thin lenses, 270
parallel plate capacitor, 377 prefixes, 5
parity symmetry, 20 pressure law (Gay Lussac’s law), 160
past hypothesis, 200 pressurized water reactor, 534
Pauli Exclusion Principle, 575, 688 principal quantum number, 570
Penzias, Arno, 284 principle of moments, 61
Penzias and Wilson, 603 projectile motion, 41
period-luminosity relation protons, 542
for Cepheids, 599 Ptolemaic system, 455
Perlmutter, Saul, 546 Ptolemy, 455, 456
permanent magnets, 389 p-type semiconductor, 345
permeability of free space, 268, 397, 567 pulsar, 468
permittivity of free space, 4, 268, 333,
567, 692
phase and phase difference, 207
Q
phase velocity, 245, 248 quantization of angular
phasor, 228 momentum, 572
phasors, 219, 228, 287, 293, 296, 423–435, quantization of energy, 554
563, 582–583 quantum atom, 568
photocell, 556 quantum chromodynamics, 543
photoelectric effect, 552, 554–556, quantum electrodynamics, 4, 542–543
587, 613 quantum of energy, 553
photomultiplier tube, 615 quark flavors, 542
716 • INDEX

R Roentgen, 500, 507, 610

Römer, 266
radian, 219 root-mean-squared speeds, 164
radiation Rotational dynamics, 219
thermal, 148 rotational Kinematics, 228
radiation detectors, 514 rotational kinetic energy, 229
radiation dose, 506 Rutherford, 495–496, 498–499, 519,
effect on humans, 507 568–569, 703
radioactive tracers, 617–619 Rutherford scattering experiment, 495
radioactivity, 500 Rutherford's scattering experiment, 495
radiocarbon dating, 518 Rydberg constant, 571
radiological dating, 518 Rydberg formula, 571
radiological dating of rocks, 519
radio telescopes, 281 S
random process, 509
range, 638 Schrodinger atom, 573
ray, 245 Schrodinger equation, 567, 573–574,
Ray diagrams 576–579, 584, 703
how to construct, 270 Schrodinger’s cat, 585
Rayleigh criterion, 304 Schwarzschild radius, 454
RCL series circuit, 438 scientific notation, 5
RC series circuit, 436 second law of motion for rotation, 233
reactance, 431 second law of thermodynamics,
real and apparent depth, 277 175, 185–187, 189, 197–201
red giant, 592, 701, 707 self-inductance, 414
red shift, 283 semiconductors, 366
red-shifts, 284, 546, 601–603 Sievert (S.I. unit), 506
reflection, 248 simple harmonic motion, 207
refraction, 249 simple pendulum, 209
refractive index, 251 simultaneity
refrigerator, 197 relativity of, 481
resistance, 351 single photon interference, 565
temperature coefficient, 368 single slit diffraction equation, 303
variation with temperature, 367 singularity, 593, 602
resistivity, 358 Slipher, 283, 599
resistors small angle approximations, 220
in parallel, 357 Snell’s law of refraction, 250
in series, 357 solenoid, 399
resolving power, 304 sound waves, 313
resonance, 214 space-time, 463, 489, 704
resultant force, 51 space-time curvature, 463
reversible process, 185 spark counter, 515
right hand grip rule, 390 special relativity, 473, 677
risk assessments, 639 specific heat capacity, 150
RL series circuit, 437 measuring, 151
rms values, 430 specific latent heat, 153
 INDEX • 717

spectrometer, 299 T
spectroscopy, 297
spectrum telescope
absorption, 298 astronomical reflecting, 280
line, band and continuous, 298 astronomical refracting, 278
speed of light temperature
constancy, 269 defined, 194
measuring, 266 temperature scales, 144
speed of sound, 168, 181, 309, 313–314, tesla, 391
317–318, 320, 654, 683 thermal conductivities, 147
in a gas, 168 thermal energy, 143
spherical aberration, 277 thermal neutrons, 533
spin quantum number, 574 thermistor, 355
spontaneous process, 509 thermometer
spring tides, 462 types, 144
Sputnik 1, 458 thin lenses, 269
stability, 63, 65 thought experiment, 464, 478, 585, 588–589,
standard candles, 601 703, 706
Standard Model, 544–545 threshold frequency, 555
standing (stationary) waves, 305 time constant
standing waves in air charging or discharging
columns, 315 capacitors, 380
standing waves on a string, 306 time dilation
stars, 592 special relativity, 477
stars as black bodies, 594 time period, 244
statistical interpretation time reversal symmetry, 20
of quantum theory, 566 Torque, 233
statistical thermodynamics, 185 torque, meaning, 60
Stefan-Boltzmann law, 150 total internal reflection, 254
stellar spectra, 595 toughness, 138
Stoke’s law, 3 transformer equation, 418
stopping voltage, 558 transformers, 419
strain, 133 transverse waves, 245
stress travelling or progressive wave, 244
tensile, 133 triangle of forces, 57
strong nuclear force trigonometric parallax, 597
(color force), 543 Trinity Test, 623
sum-over-histories, 577, 581, 583 triple point of water, 145
superconductor, 368–369 tritium, 535
supernova, 592–593, 601, 605, 704 twin paradox, 480
superposition, 287
surface density, 503 U
suvat ultimate tensile strength, 137
equations derived, 39 ultrasound, 318
symmetry, 19 ultrasound (sonography), 607
Szilard, 530 ultraviolet catastrophe, 551, 554
718 • INDEX

uncertainty Wien’s displacement law, 150

combining, 7 Wilson, Robert, 284
types, 7 WMAP, 602–603
uranium-235, 519, 530, 532, 533 work function, 554
uranium-238, 511, 519, 521–522, 525, 530,
531, 535 X
X-ray absorption coefficient, 613
V
X-ray filter, 614
variables, 637 X-ray image intensifier, 614
velocity addition equation, 485 X-ray images, 613
velocity-selector, 394 X-ray penetration, 503
video capture, 46 X-ray radiography, 610
virtual particles, 543 X-rays, 610
viscosity, 3, 66, 665, 695, 707 X-rays attenuation in matter, 613
visible light, 265 X-ray spectrum, 612
voltmeter, 349 X-ray tube, 612
voxels, 615
Y
W
yield point, 137
wave front, 245 Young, 5, 133–134, 136, 138, 141, 287, 314,
wave function, 566–568, 575, 577–582, 563, 649, 653, 705, 708
584–586, 697, 707 Young’s Modulus, 133
wavelength, 244
wave-particle duality, 263, 558, 562, 566, 707 Z
weak nuclear force, 543
Zeroth law of thermodynamics, 144
Wheeler, 21, 464
white dwarf, 592, 596, 604, 694, 698