Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 61–68

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Effect of pre-setting pressure applied to mechanical behaviours of reactive

powder concrete during setting phase
Metin Ipek a,*, Kemalettin Yilmaz b, Mansur Sümer b, Mehmet Saribiyik a
a
Sakarya University, Technical Education Faculty, Construction Education Department, 54187 Sakarya, Turkey
b
Sakarya University, Engineering Faculty, Civil Engineering Department, 54187 Sakarya, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, mixing rates, fiber content and pre-setting pressure of reactive powder concrete (RPC) were
Received 18 February 2010 examined. Mixing ratios were determined by different mixing techniques in literature using material
Received in revised form 18 June 2010 characteristics via computer software. The samples were prepared according to these mixing ratios.
Accepted 19 June 2010
The fresh (plastic) concrete samples were filled in a specified mould. Six different (0, 5, 10, 15, 20,
Available online 13 July 2010
25 MPa) pre-setting pressure were applied. It is observed that application of pre-setting pressure
increased compressive strength of the samples about twice.
Keywords:
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Reactive powder concrete
Pre-setting pressure
Fiber
Curing
Compressive strength

1. Introduction low: not using coarse aggregate in order to increase the homogene-
ity of the material:
Researchers at the laboratory of Bouygues’s company in Paris
developed the first RPC in the early 1990s [1]. RPC firstly used in  increased compactness through optimization of the grading,
the Sherbrooke Pedestrain Bikeway Bridge Quebec, Canada and  improvement of the microstructure by pressure-casting with
its application areas have gradually increased in the following heat treatment curing,
years [2]. RPC is a rather new cement-based material. RPC is com-  further addition of steel fibers to improve ductility.
posed of cement and very fine powders such as crushed quartz, sil-
ica fume. RPC also has an ultra-dense microstructure as ultra high Fine powders such as crushed quartz (100–600 lm) are used in-
strength concrete. RPC based on the densest packing theory with stead of coarse aggregate in order to increase the homogeneity of
heat curing was investigated and it was observed that it exhibits RPC. The water/cement ratio of RPC is reduced to less than 0.20
compressive strength of more than 200 MPa with great ductility by using superplasticizers. Addition of silica fume to RPC reduced
[3–7]. the total pore volume of the cement paste and the average diame-
RPC is a cement-based ultra high performance concrete which ter of the pores. Furthermore researchers reported that application
has superior mechanical and physical properties, exhibiting of different heat cure processes improve mechanical properties of
excellent ductility and durability characteristics. RPC has compres- RPC substantially after the application of 50 MPa pre-setting
sive strength of 150–800 MPa, while its, tensile strength changes pressure to fresh RPC [1,3,10]. Application of pressure to fresh
between 25 and 150 MPa. Moreover, specific gravity of RPC is RPC during setting phase for 6–12 h can eliminate some amount
between 2.5–3 t/m3 and its fracture energy changes between of pores caused by autogenous shrinkage. Pressure applied during
1200–40,000 J/m2. Finally its ultimate tensile strain is at the order setting stage caused micro cracks in the sample. Micro cracks
of 1%. The durability properties of RPC are better than current high which are in fresh RPC are improved in consequence of expansion
performance concrete in orders of magnitudes [1–8]. of aggregate after discharging the applied pressure [1].
The basic principles for the development of RPC was explained Dugat et al. [3], applied 60 MPa pre-setting pressure to samples
by Richard and Cheyrezy [1,9]. These principles can be listed as be- of fresh (plastic) RPC800. In addition to that, they applied heat
treatment cure to these samples at 90 °C and 250 °C, respectively.
Consequently, they reached compressive strength of about
* Corresponding author. 500 MPa, static young’s modulus of 36,000–74,000 MPa for
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Ipek). RPC800.

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.06.056
62 M. Ipek et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 61–68

Bonneau et al. [10], studied confinement behaviour of the RPC Table 1

in a steel tube. Confinement of the RPC was obtained with a com- Properties of cement and silica fume.

pressive strength of 285 MPa. They reported that compressive Component Chemical composition (%)
strength up to 200 MPa could be achieved in both examined cases: Cement Silica fume
which are the case involving after curing in hot water at 90 °C and
CaO 64.47 0.50
the case involving in low-pressure steam chambers at the precast SiO2 20.09 96
plant. C – 1.50
Teichman and Schmidt [11] studied structural properties of Al2O3 5.01 0.70
RPC. Effects of these structural properties were investigated on Fe2O3 2.73 0.25
MgO 1.72 0.60
strength and durability. In addition, they compared them with
K2O 0.66 0.85
other concrete types. Steam curing were applied to ordinary and Cl 0.01 0.10
high strength concrete samples for 2 days at 90 °C and RPC samples Na2O 0.21 0.25
were exposed to heat curing for 7 days at 250 °C after 2 days of P2O5 – 0.10
SO3 3.03 0.50
demoulding. However, cement content of this mixture was as high
H2O – 0.80
as 1900 kg/m3. Furthermore, plastic RPC samples were exposed to Fever loss 2.11 1.50
pre-setting pressure of 50 MPa. The highest compressive strength pH value – 5.0–8.0
value reached was 487 MPa with RPC samples. C3S 60.7 –
Pulverized fly ash (FA), pulverized granulated blast furnace slag C2S 11.8 –
C3A 8.6 –
(PS) and silica fume (SF) were quantitatively studied with the
C4AF 8.3 –
incorporation of Portland cement (PC) by Yazici [12]. PC was re- Silicate modulus 2.6 –
placed with FA or PS at percentages of 0–20–40–60–80%, respec- Alumina modulus 1.8 –
tively. Three different curing methods (standard, autoclave and Hydraulic modulus 2.3 –
steam curing) were applied to the specimens. Consequently, com- Total alkaline 0.58 –

pressive strength of control mixture was 170 MPa, while compres- Physical properties
sive strengths of PS20, PS40 and PS60 mixtures were 178.7, 185 Cement Silica fume
Blaine specify surface 5162 cm2/g 200,000 cm2/g
and 168.9 MPa, respectively. In this case, UHSC could also be Unit volume weight – 0.650 g/cm3
achieved with high volume PS60 binder phase. Cement content Specific gravity 3.14 2.26
of this mixture was only 340 kg/m3. Initial setting time 154 min –
Topçu and Karakurt [13] applied pre-setting pressure of 2.5 MPa Final setting time 191 min –
Volume expansion Genlesßmesi 0.8 mm –
to RPC mixture. This mixture was exposed to steam curing for
7 days at 250 °C and then kept in water for 7 days at 90 °C. For this Compressive strength of cement (MPa)
2 days 39.8 MPa –
mixture highest compressive strength of 253.2 MPa and flexural
7 days 54.2 MPa –
strength of 63.67 MPa were obtained. 28 days 61.8 MPa –
In this study, effect of pre-setting pressure, which was applied
during setting phase to reactive powder concrete in order to im-
prove its mechanical behaviours was investigated. Mechanical
zolanic material that will fill voids of micro particulates in binder
and chemical properties of materials, constituting the mixture
paste and will contribute strength by producing secondary hy-
up, were determined. In order to determine the mixture ratios,
drates by puzzolanic reaction with the lime resulting from primary
computer software and basic principles from literature were used.
hydration. This necessity is met by silica fume (SF) the best
At specified ages, compressive strength tests are applied to the
[1,9,14–16]. In this study undensified SF provided from Elkem
samples prepared according to this mixing ratio and the sample
Company in Norway was used. The physical, chemical and
with the highest compressive strength value was selected. Micro
mechanical properties of Portland cement (PC 52.5 CEM I) and sil-
size fibers were replaced at different six ratios percentage of 0, 2,
ica fume presented in Table 1. Two different quartz sands and pow-
4, 6, 8, 10 of all volume.
der used as aggregate with maximum particle size of 0.6 mm,
Samples had a length of 200 mm and a diameter of 100 mm. The
0.3 mm and 0.100 mm, respectively. Figs. 1 and 2 show the granule
compressive strength, young modulus and poisson ratio tests were
applied to the samples and optimum fiber content was determined
as 4% by volume. Test samples were prepared according to this
optimum fiber content. These samples were exposed to cure pro-
gram given in Experimental Procedures and then samples were
kept in the moulds for 24 h at room temperature of 20 °C. These
fresh (plastic) concrete samples prepared with the optimum fiber
content were filled to the mould which was specially designed
for this study and six different pre-setting pressure (0, 25, 50, 75,
100, 125 MPa) were applied by concrete test press.

2. Experimental

2.1. Material

RPC is a concrete whose main constituent is cement and its

quantity is (about 1000 kg/m3) higher than that of a custom con-
crete. Earlier studies have shown that high performance cement
was used in RPC [1,2,9,12]. Therefore PC 52.5 CEM I R type high
performance cement was preferred for this study. RPC needs a puz- Fig. 1. Granule structure of the quartz powder.
 M. Ipek et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 61–68 63

mixer should be specified according to a particular system in order

to produce the desired mixture. Otherwise with same, either high
or low strength concrete can be obtained. Therefore following mix-
ing process was used:

 All the granule materials without fiber were filled to mixer and
they were mixed for five minutes at low speed of 400 rpm.
 The speed of mixer was adjusted to 1400 rpm as soon as water
and SP were sprayed into the mixer. The mixing process contin-
ued for about five minutes at this speed.
 The mixture was additionally mixed for two minutes after the
addition of fiber. Samples which pre-setting pressure was not
applied were produced using standard vibration method in
the sismic table. These samples were used to determine the
mixture ratios, fiber ratio and cure type.

Cure type which was taken from literature and applied to the
Fig. 2. Particle size analysis of granule materials. samples is shown in Table 2 [1,3,11,12,16,24,25]. The remaining
specimens were cured in standard conditions (water curing at
20 °C) for 28 days. Maximum and minimum temperatures were
Table 2 reached with increment or decrement of 10 °C per hour and that
Cure programme and sample codes. concludes several experiments. In curing experiments, dry heat
air curing was directly applied to the samples without steam cur-
Sample code Cure type
ing whose effect was negative in spite of low heat rise rate. These
W 28 days 20 °C water cure
samples were cracked or broken into pieces without reaching the
3HW 3 days 90 °C hot water cure
3S 3 days 90 °C steam cure temperature of 100 °C (Fig. 3). Compressive strength testing of
3S2A 3 days 90 °C steam cure later12 h 200 °C dry air cure cured samples was determined for 10, 28 and 56 days.
3S3A 3 days 90 °C steam cure later 12 h 300 °C dry air cure Placement and compression factors affect all properties of con-
3W3HW 3 days 20 °C in water later 3 days 90 °C hot water cure crete. Concrete must be placed to minimum voids. It is well known
5W3HW 5 days 20 °C in water later 3 days 90 °C hot water cure
7W3HW 7 days 20 °C in water later 3 days 90 °C hot water cure
that reducing voids positively affected mechanical and durability
properties of hardened concrete [26]. The increment of air volume
clearly understood with examination of samples due to air-entrai-
ner property of SP during application of vibration to RPC. Flowabil-
structure of the quartz powder and particle size analysis of granule ity can be brought to desired level due to high ratio of SP, although
materials, respectively. A polycarboxylate based superplasticizer RPC has low water cement ratio. However, water and compressed
was used to fluidify the mixture. Effect of this superplasticizer is air of closed pockets found in the RPC. It was seen that swelling
to maintain fluidity within time of fresh concrete and to attain high overflow from mould or forming of bubbles at surface due to air
strength in a short time. The short brass coated steel fibers without bubbles of concrete. The voids were formed between fiber and con-
hooked ends with length of 6 mm and diameter of 0.16 mm were crete interface. It was also seen that these voids produced defects
used. The steel fiber had tensile strength of 2250 MPa, specific in interface when samples were analyzed by microscopy (Fig. 4).
gravity of 7.181 g/cm3 and aspect ratio of 37.5. In this condition adherence affected negatively between fiber and
concrete interface and consequently the strength reduced. It was
2.2. Experimental procedures decided to compress the fresh RPC with applying pressure (pre-set-

Different mixing theories were used such as; Mooney suspen-

sion model, Fuller (the laws of proportioning concrete), mathemat-
ical relation for beds of broken solids of maximum density, packing
calculations and concrete mix design, software programs based on
models given here and also we used mixture ratios which were
chosen in previous works within literature [1,10,11,16–22]. By
using these theories, 33 different mixtures including no fiber were
prepared. Mixture having the highest compressive strength was
selected and used in following experiments.
Mixing process was adopted from literature [1,23]. The order of
the ingredients to be added into the mixture and the speed of the Fig. 4. Non pre-setting pressurized specimens.

Fig. 3. Damaged samples due to thermal stresses.

64 M. Ipek et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 61–68

Fig. 5. Pre-setting pressure mould.

Fig. 6. Experimental set-up of compressive strength and young’s modulus.

Table 3
Compressive strength values and compositions of different mixtures (kg).

Material Fiber ratio (%)

Ctrl. 2 4 6 8 10
Cement 900 882 864 846 828 810
Silica fume 270 265 259 254 248 243
Q. Powder 360 353 346 338 331 324
Q. Sand (100–300) 258 253 248 243 237 232
Q. Sand (300–600) 258 253 248 243 237 232
Water 225 221 216 212 207 203
SP 27 27 26 25 25 24
Air (%) 2 1.8 1.8 1.9 2 2,1
Steel fiber 0 144 287 431 575 718
7 days Compr. Strength (MPa) 113.2 129.8 145.8 151.86 156.67 177.89
28 days Compr. Strength (MPa) 125.63 154.83 170.29 181.52 206.74 230.28

Fig. 7. Compressive strength of 4% fiber content RPC in comparison to deformation. Fig. 8. Compressive strength and young’s modulus in comparison to fiber content.
 M. Ipek et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 61–68 65

Fig. 9. SEM images of different cure condition, (a) 20 °C water cure, (b) 3 days 90 °C hot water and steam cure, (c) 3 days 90 °C steam cure later 12 h 200 °C dry air cure and (d)
3 days 90 °C steam cure later 12 h 300 °C dry air cure.

ting pressure) to minimize the negative effects. Due to of high dos- of pre-setting pressurized samples, specific elasticity module
age of superplasticizer with vibration effect, swelling overflow of frame were designed.
RPC from mould or forming of bubbles on entire RPC was clearly
seen.
Application of pre-setting pressure is applied for minimizing 3. Results and discussion
adverse effects of autogenous shrinkage and for removing water
and air in the RPC. RPC is needed to stay under pressure for Compressive strength results and material quantities of the
minimizing adverse effects of autogenous shrinkage during samples which are based on fiber ratios are presented in Table 3.
setting phase [1]. Moreover, the sample was expanded due to The compressive strength of RPC increased with increasing of
pushing of the pressed grains to each other. When the pressure the fiber ratio. Compared to control (zero fiber as percentage)
was removed consequently, density of the sample was decreased. RPC, samples which include fiber ratios of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 as percent-
The desired compression level was not obtained. During the set- age have increment ratios of 23%, 36%, 44.5%, 63.8% and 83.3%,
ting phase of RPC samples must be stayed at press for desirable respectively depending on 28 days compressive strength test re-
compression level. This process was very difficult in terms of sults (Fig. 7). The compressive strength was increased by micro fi-
applicability. For this reason, some changes in mould design were bers that were scattered as a rigid aggregate in RPC. As fiber ratio
made to prevent pressure discharge and setting of RPC under was increased especially when it exceeded 6% several serious diffi-
pressure was provided and then plastic RPC in mould was taken culties were experienced in the mixing and placement processes.
away from the press. In addition, increase in fiber ratio has negative effects on cost of
A mould was specially designed for application of pre-setting RPC. Based on previous criteria, such as; difficulties, lowest incre-
pressure process. As can be seen in Fig. 5, the mould has internal ment strength ratio (between 4% and 6%) and increase in cost
diameter of 50 mm, height of 140 mm and it is made of 1040 hard- due to high fiber ratio, 4% fiber ratio was determined as optimum
ened steel by heat treatment. The prepared plastic RPC having opti- during performing our experiments.
mum fiber ratio was filled to the mould.
The pressure (control-without pressure, 25, 50, 75, 100,
125 MPa) was applied to plastic RPC by this mould mechanism.
Specific gravities of samples were measured to see the effects of
compression. It is well known that specific gravity values of sam-
ples will increase with increasing pre-setting pressure. However,
specific gravity values may be inconsistent due to eccentricity of
piston, friction to the side wall of the mould or unestimated nega-
tive situations. Therefore, specific gravity values are extremely
important in terms of the experimental control. Pre-setting pres-
surized samples were cured during three days at 90 °C water steam
then for 12 h at 300 °C dry air was applied and in remaining days it
was hold in water at 20 °C after demoulding. Samples were cut to
height by 100 mm before the experiment. Compressive strength
and young’s modulus tests were made on these samples. Young’s
modulus and poisson ratio tests were made by computer-aided
system was able to measure load, axial and lateral deformation
at the same time (Fig. 6). For determination of young’s modulus Fig. 10. Compressive strength in comparison to cure type.
66 M. Ipek et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 61–68

Fig. 11. Failure forms of pre-setting pressurized samples.

Fig. 13. Pre-setting pressure to the compressive strength and young’s modulus
effect.

Fig. 12. Images of the between fiber and paste interface (a) pre-setting pressurized
sample and (b) non pre-setting pressurized sample. Fig. 14. Pre-setting pressure of 125 MPa applied sample.

Young’s modulus of the RPC was between 50,000 and It is known that for the custom concretes the higher com-
70,000 MPa. Young’s modulus of the samples using different fiber pressive strength value, the more Young’s modulus increment.
ratios are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. Increment of fiber ratio at RPC increased ductility as well as
 M. Ipek et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 61–68 67

compressive strength. This can be explained by fibers acting as pressive strength, young modulus and poisson ratio tests were ap-
aggregate in concrete due to shortness of fiber length. It was seen plied to the samples and optimum fiber content was determined as
that Young’s modulus increased with the high increment rates of 4% by volume. When pre-setting pressure of 100 MPa was applied
compressive strength. Poisson ratio of RPC was between 0.20 and to the samples, their compressive strength became 475 MPa. It was
0.22 as custom concrete. Optimum fiber ratio was determined as seen that pre-setting pressure of 25 MPa was sufficient for going
4% when all results were taken into account. out of large air spaces and free water in the samples. Permeability
Treatment of hydration increased or continued for a long time of pre-setting pressurized samples could be decreased owing to
due to heat cure process of RPC. Puzzolanic activate was increased increment of specific gravity values. Hence, properties of durability
by high ratio SF in the samples and it directly affected compressive could be improved. This is very important for the elements which
strength. Compressive strength value of heat cured specimens was are exposed to external factors. In terms of applicability, pre-set-
higher than that of water cured specimens. The hydration of the ce- ting pressure of 25 MPa was more suitable. Although, the highest
ment compounds proceeded more rapidly but the hydration reac- compressive strength was reached to 475 MPa by choosing pre-
tions were basically similar. C–S–H remained as an amorphous setting pressure at 100 MPa.
material, although its compositions changed with temperatures. Pre-setting pressure method was used in production of prefab-
The reactions of pozzolans were also accelerated by the higher cur- rication although it was applied in lower pressures. It is estimated
ing temperatures. As seen in Fig. 9, pores of the microstructures of that when this method is used in production prefabrication ele-
hot water and steam cure at 90 °C are less than the standard cure. ments with RPC, strength based cost would be decreased. RPB ele-
The pores were reduced with increasing temperatures. These ment can be used not only in concrete materials but also in other
microstructures explained the compressive strength changes. materials as alternative in industry.
3S3A of the samples had the highest compressive strength follow-
ing that of 3S2A of the samples (Fig. 10). According to application Acknowledgement
time, compressive strength increased a small amount in the ap-
plied samples hot steam curing after 3, 5 and 7 days. The authors would like to thank Sakarya University and TCMA
Pre-setting pressure caused water and air exiting from the sam- due to its financial support for this study.
ples and drew near of grains each other. As a result, specific gravity
of pre-setting pressurized samples increased. Specific gravity of References
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