Object Oriented

Programming in Java
Classes

A programming problem
• Given a file of cities' (x, y) coordinates,
which begins with the number of cities:
6
50 20
90 60
10 72
74 98
5 136
150 91

• Write a program to draw the cities on a DrawingPanel, then drop a

"bomb" that turns all cities red that are within a given radius:
Blast site x? 100
Blast site y? 100
Blast radius? 75
Kaboom! 2
 A bad solution
Scanner input = new Scanner(new File("cities.txt"));
int cityCount = input.nextInt();
int[] xCoords = new int[cityCount];
int[] yCoords = new int[cityCount];
for (int i = 0; i < cityCount; i++) {
xCoords[i] = input.nextInt(); // read each city
yCoords[i] = input.nextInt();
}
...

– parallel arrays: 2+ arrays with related data at same indexes.

• Considered poor style.

Observations
• The data in this problem is a set of points.
• It would be better stored as Point objects.
– A Point would store a city's x/y data.

– We could compare distances between Points

to see whether the bomb hit a given city.

– Each Point would know how to draw itself.

– The overall program would be shorter and cleaner.

4
 Classes and objects
• class: A program entity that represents either:
1. A program / module, or
2. A template for a new type of objects.

– The DrawingPanel class is a template for creating

DrawingPanel objects.

• object: An entity that combines state and behavior.

– object-oriented programming (OOP): Programs that perform
their behavior as interactions between objects.

Blueprint analogy
iPod blueprint
state:
current song
volume
battery life
behavior:
power on/off
change station/song
change volume
choose random song

creates

iPod #1 iPod #2 iPod #3

state: state: state:
song = "1,000,000 Miles" song = "Letting You" song = "Discipline"
volume = 17 volume = 9 volume = 24
battery life = 2.5 hrs battery life = 3.41 hrs battery life = 1.8 hrs
behavior: behavior: behavior:
power on/off power on/off power on/off
change station/song change station/song change station/song
change volume change volume change volume
choose random song choose random song choose random song

6
 Abstraction
• abstraction: A distancing between ideas and details.
– We can use objects without knowing how they work.

• abstraction in an iPod:
– You understand its external behavior (buttons, screen).
– You don't understand its inner details, and you don't need to.

Our task
• In the following slides, we will implement a Point class as a
way of learning about defining classes.

– We will define a type of objects named Point.

– Each Point object will contain x/y data called fields.
– Each Point object will contain behavior called methods.
– Client programs will use the Point objects.

8
 Point objects (desired)
Point p1 = new Point(5, -2);
Point p2 = new Point(); // origin, (0, 0)

• Data in each Point object:

Field name Description
x the point's x-coordinate
y the point's y-coordinate

• Methods in each Point object:

Method name Description
setLocation(x, y) sets the point's x and y to the given values
translate(dx, dy) adjusts the point's x and y by the given amounts
distance(p) how far away the point is from point p
draw(g) displays the point on a drawing panel
9

Point class as blueprint

Point class
state:
int x, y
behavior:
setLocation(int x, int y)
translate(int dx, int dy)
distance(Point p)
draw(Graphics g)

Point object #1 Point object #2 Point object #3

state: state: state:
x = 5, y = -2 x = -245, y = 1897 x = 18, y = 42
behavior: behavior: behavior:
setLocation(int x, int y) setLocation(int x, int y) setLocation(int x, int y)
translate(int dx, int dy) translate(int dx, int dy) translate(int dx, int dy)
distance(Point p) distance(Point p) distance(Point p)
draw(Graphics g) draw(Graphics g) draw(Graphics g)

– The class (blueprint) will describe how to create objects.

– Each object will contain its own data and methods.
10
 Object state: Fields

Point class, version 1

public class Point {
int x;
int y;
}
– Save this code into a file named Point.java.

• The above code creates a new type named Point.

– Each Point object contains two pieces of data:
• an int named x, and
• an int named y.

– Point objects do not contain any behavior (yet).

12
 Fields
• field: A variable inside an object that is part of its state.
– Each object has its own copy of each field.

• Declaration syntax:
type name;

– Example:
public class Student {
String name; // each Student object has a
double gpa; // name and gpa field
}

13

Accessing fields
• Other classes can access/modify an object's fields.
– access: variable.field
– modify: variable.field = value;

• Example:
Point p1 = new Point();
Point p2 = new Point();
System.out.println("the x-coord is " + p1.x); // access
p2.y = 13; // modify

14
 A class and its client
• Point.java is not, by itself, a runnable program.
– A class can be used by client programs.

Point.java (class of objects)

PointMain.java (client program) public class Point {
public class PointMain { int x;
main(String args) { int y;
Point p1 = new Point(); }
p1.x = 7;
p1.y = 2;

Point p2 = new Point(); x 7 y 2

p2.x = 4;
p2.y = 3;
...
} x 4 y 3
}

15

PointMain client example

public class PointMain {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// create two Point objects
Point p1 = new Point();
p1.y = 2;
Point p2 = new Point();
p2.x = 4;
System.out.println(p1.x + ", " + p1.y); // 0, 2
// move p2 and then print it
p2.x += 2;
p2.y++;
System.out.println(p2.x + ", " + p2.y); // 6, 1
}
}

• Exercise: Modify the Bomb program to use Point objects.

16
 Arrays of objects
• null : A value that does not refer to any object.
– The elements of an array of objects are initialized to null.
String[] words = new String[5];
DrawingPanel[] windows = new DrawingPanel[3];

index 0 1 2 3 4
words value null null null null null

index 0 1 2
windows
value null null null

17

Things you can do w/ null

• store null in a variable or an array element
String s = null;
words[2] = null;

• print a null reference

System.out.println(s); // null

• ask whether a variable or array element is null

if (words[2] == null) { ...

• pass null as a parameter to a method

System.out.println(null); // null

• return null from a method (often to indicate failure)

return null;
18
 Null pointer exception
• dereference: To access data or methods of an object with the
dot notation, such as s.length() .
– It is illegal to dereference null (causes an exception).
– null is not any object, so it has no methods or data.

String[] words = new String[5];

System.out.println("word is: " + words[0]);
words[0] = words[0].toUpperCase(); // ERROR
index 0 1 2 3 4
Output: value null null null null null
word is: null
Exception in thread "main"
java.lang.NullPointerException
at Example.main(Example.java:8)
19

Looking before you leap

• You can check for null before calling an object's methods.
String[] words = new String[5];
words[0] = "hello";
words[2] = "goodbye"; // words[1], [3], [4] are null

for (int i = 0; i < words.length; i++) {

if (words[i] != null) {
words[i] = words[i].toUpperCase();
}
}

index 0 1 2 3 4
words
value "HELLO" null "GOODBYE" null null

20
 Two-phase initialization
1) initialize the array itself (each element is initially null)
2) initialize each element of the array to be a new object

String[] words = new String[4]; // phase 1

for (int i = 0; i < words.length; i++) {
coords[i] = "word" + i; // phase 2
}

index 0 1 2 3
words
value "word0" "word1" "word2" "word3"

21

Bomb answer 1
import java.awt.*;
import java.io.*;
import java.util.*;

// Displays a set of cities and simulates dropping a "bomb" on them.

public class Bomb {
public static void main(String[] args) throws FileNotFoundException {
DrawingPanel panel = new DrawingPanel(200, 200);
Graphics g = panel.getGraphics();

Scanner input = new Scanner(new File("cities.txt"));

Point[] cities = readCities(input, g);

// drop the "bomb"

Scanner console = new Scanner(System.in);
Point bomb = new Point();
System.out.print("Blast site x? ");
bomb.x = console.nextInt();
System.out.print("Blast site y? ");
bomb.y = console.nextInt();
System.out.print("Blast radius? ");
int radius = console.nextInt();
boom(bomb, radius, cities, g);
}
...

22
 Bomb answer 2
// Reads input file of cities and returns them as array of Points.
public static Point[] readCities(Scanner input, Graphics g) {
int numCities = input.nextInt(); // first line = # of cities
Point[] cities = new Point[numCities];
for (int i = 0; i < cities.length; i++) {
cities[i] = new Point();
cities[i].x = input.nextInt(); // read city x/y from file
cities[i].y = input.nextInt();
g.fillOval(cities[i].x, cities[i].y, 3, 3);
g.drawString("(" + cities[i].x + ", " + cities[i].y + ")",
cities[i].x, cities[i].y);
}
return cities;
}
// Simulates dropping a bomb at the given location on the given cities.
public static void boom(Point bomb, int radius, Point[] cities, Graphics g) {
g.setColor(Color.RED);
g.drawOval(bomb.x - radius, bomb.y - radius, 2 * radius, 2 * radius);
for (int i = 0; i < cities.length; i++) {
int dx = cities[i].x - bomb.x;
int dy = cities[i].y - bomb.y;
double distance = Math.sqrt(dx * dx + dy * dy);
if (distance <= radius) {
g.fillOval(cities[i].x, cities[i].y, 3, 3);
g.drawString("(" + cities[i].x + ", " + cities[i].y + ")",
cities[i].x, cities[i].y);
}
}
System.out.println("Kaboom!");
}
}

23

Object behavior: Methods

 Client code redundancy
• Our client program wants to draw Point objects:
// draw each city
g.fillOval(cities[i].x, cities[i].y, 3, 3);
g.drawString("(" + cities[i].x + ", " + cities[i].y + ")",
cities[i].x, cities[i].y);

• To draw them in other places, the code must be repeated.

– We can remove this redundancy using a method.

25

Eliminating redundancy, v1
• We can eliminate the redundancy with a static method:
// Draws the given point on the DrawingPanel.
public static void draw(Point p, Graphics g) {
g.fillOval(p.x, p.y, 3, 3);
g.drawString("(" + p.x + ", " + p.y + ")", p.x, p.y);
}

• main would call the method as follows:

// draw each city
draw(cities[i], g);

26
 Problem with static method
• We are missing a major benefit of objects: code reuse.
– Every program that draws Points would need a draw method.

• The syntax doesn't match how we're used to using objects.

draw(cities[i], g); // static (bad)

• The point of classes is to combine state and behavior.

– The draw behavior is closely related to a Point's data.
– The method belongs inside each Point object.

cities[i].draw(g); // inside object (better)

27

Instance methods
• instance method (or object method): Exists inside each
object of a class and gives behavior to each object.

public type name(parameters) {

statements;
}

– same syntax as static methods, but without static keyword

Example:
public void shout() {
System.out.println("HELLO THERE!");
}
28
 Instance method example
public class Point {
int x;
int y;
// Draws this Point object with the given pen.
public void draw(Graphics g) {
...
}
}

– The draw method no longer has a Point p parameter.

– How will the method know which point to draw?
• How will the method access that point's x/y data?

29

Point objects w/ method

• Each Point object has its own copy of the draw method, which
operates on that object's state:
p1
Point p1 = new Point();
p1.x = 7;
p1.y = 2;
x 7 y 2
Point p2 = new Point(); public void draw(Graphics g) {
p2.x = 4; // this code can see p1's x and y
p2.y = 3; }

p1.draw(g);
x 4 y 3
p2.draw(g); p2 public void draw(Graphics g) {
// this code can see p2's x and y
}

30
 The implicit parameter
• implicit parameter:
The object on which an instance method is called.

– During the call p1.draw(g);

the object referred to by p1 is the implicit parameter.

– During the call p2.draw(g);

the object referred to by p2 is the implicit parameter.

– The instance method can refer to that object's fields.

• We say that it executes in the context of a particular object.
•draw can refer to the x and y of the object it was called on.

31

Point class, version 2

public class Point {
int x;
int y;
// Changes the location of this Point object.
public void draw(Graphics g) {
g.fillOval(x, y, 3, 3);
g.drawString("(" + x + ", " + y + ")", x, y);
}
}

– Each Point object contains a draw method that draws that point
at its current x/y position.

32
 Kinds of methods
• accessor: A method that lets clients examine object state.
– Examples: distance, distanceFromOrigin
– often has a non-void return type

• mutator: A method that modifies an object's state.

– Examples: setLocation, translate

33

Mutator method questions

• Write a method setLocation that changes a Point's
location to the (x, y) values passed.

• Write a method translate that changes a Point's location

by a given dx, dy amount.

– Modify the Point and client code to use these methods.

34
 Mutator method answers
public void setLocation(int newX, int newY) {
x = newX;
y = newY;
}

public void translate(int dx, int dy) {

x = x + dx;
y = y + dy;
}

// alternative solution that utilizes setLocation

public void translate(int dx, int dy) {
setLocation(x + dx, y + dy);
}

35

Accessor method questions

• Write a method distance that computes the distance
between a Point and another Point parameter.

Use the formula: x2  x1 2   y2  y1 2

• Write a method distanceFromOrigin that returns the

distance between a Point and the origin, (0, 0).

– Modify the client code to use these methods.

36
 Accessor method answers
public double distance(Point other) {
int dx = x - other.x;
int dy = y - other.y;
return Math.sqrt(dx * dx + dy * dy);
}

public double distanceFromOrigin() {

return Math.sqrt(x * x + y * y);
}

// alternative solution that uses distance

public double distanceFromOrigin() {
Point origin = new Point();
return distance(origin);
}

37

Printing objects
• By default, Java doesn't know how to print objects:
Point p = new Point();
p.x = 10;
p.y = 7;
System.out.println("p is " + p); // p is Point@9e8c34

// better, but cumbersome; p is (10, 7)

System.out.println("p is (" + p.x + ", " + p.y + ")");

// desired behavior
System.out.println("p is " + p); // p is (10, 7)

38
 The toString method
tells Java how to convert an object into a String

Point p1 = new Point(7, 2);

System.out.println("p1: " + p1);

// the above code is really calling the following:

System.out.println("p1: " + p1.toString());

• Every class has a toString, even if it isn't in your code.

– Default: class's name @ object's memory address (base 16)

Point@9e8c34

39

toString syntax
public String toString() {
code that returns a String representing this object;
}

– Method name, return, and parameters must match exactly.

– Example:
// Returns a String representing this Point.
public String toString() {
return "(" + x + ", " + y + ")";
}

40
 Object initialization:
constructors

Initializing objects
• Currently it takes 3 lines to create a Point and initialize it:
Point p = new Point();
p.x = 3;
p.y = 8; // tedious

• We'd rather specify the fields' initial values at the start:

Point p = new Point(3, 8); // better!

– We are able to this with most types of objects in Java.

42
 Constructors
• constructor: Initializes the state of new objects.

public type(parameters) {
statements;
}

– runs when the client uses the new keyword

– no return type is specified;
it implicitly "returns" the new object being created

– If a class has no constructor, Java gives it a default constructor

with no parameters that sets all fields to 0.
43

Constructor example
public class Point {
int x;
int y;

// Constructs a Point at the given x/y location.

public Point(int initialX, int initialY) {
x = initialX;
y = initialY;
}

public void translate(int dx, int dy) {

x = x + dx;
y = y + dy;
}

...
}
44
 Tracing a constructor call
• What happens when the following call is made?
Point p1 = new Point(7, 2);

p1 x y

public Point(int initialX, int initialY) {

x = initialX;
y = initialY;
}

public void translate(int dx, int dy) {

x += dx;
y += dy;
}

45

Client code, version 3

public class PointMain3 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// create two Point objects
Point p1 = new Point(5, 2);
Point p2 = new Point(4, 3);
// print each point
System.out.println("p1: (" + p1.x + ", " + p1.y + ")");
System.out.println("p2: (" + p2.x + ", " + p2.y + ")");
// move p2 and then print it again
p2.translate(2, 4);
System.out.println("p2: (" + p2.x + ", " + p2.y + ")");
}
}
OUTPUT:
p1: (5, 2)
p2: (4, 3)
p2: (6, 7)
46
 Multiple constructors
• A class can have multiple constructors.
– Each one must accept a unique set of parameters.

• Exercise: Write a Point constructor with no parameters that

initializes the point to (0, 0).

// Constructs a new point at (0, 0).

public Point() {
x = 0;
y = 0;
}

47

Common constructor bugs

1. Re-declaring fields as local variables ("shadowing"):
public Point(int initialX, int initialY) {
int x = initialX;
int y = initialY;
}
– This declares local variables with the same name as the fields,
rather than storing values into the fields. The fields remain 0.

2. Accidentally giving the constructor a return type:

public void Point(int initialX, int initialY) {
x = initialX;
y = initialY;
}
– This is actually not a constructor, but a method named Point
48
 Encapsulation

Encapsulation
• encapsulation: Hiding implementation details from clients.

– Encapsulation forces abstraction.

• separates external view (behavior) from internal view (state)
• protects the integrity of an object's data

50
 Private fields
A field that cannot be accessed from outside the class

private type name;

– Examples:
private int id;
private String name;

• Client code won't compile if it accesses private fields:

PointMain.java:11: x has private access in Point
System.out.println(p1.x);
^
51

Accessing private state

// A "read-only" access to the x field ("accessor")
public int getX() {
return x;
}
// Allows clients to change the x field ("mutator")
public void setX(int newX) {
x = newX;
}

– Client code will look more like this:

System.out.println(p1.getX());
p1.setX(14);

52
 Point class, version 4
// A Point object represents an (x, y) location.
public class Point {
private int x;
private int y;
public Point(int initialX, int initialY) {
x = initialX;
y = initialY;
}
public int getX() {
return x;
}
public int getY() {
return y;
}
public double distanceFromOrigin() {
return Math.sqrt(x * x + y * y);
}
public void setLocation(int newX, int newY) {
x = newX;
y = newY;
}
public void translate(int dx, int dy) {
setLocation(x + dx, y + dy);
}
}
53

Benefits of encapsulation
• Abstraction between object and clients

• Protects object from unwanted access

– Example: Can't fraudulently increase an Account's balance.

• Can change the class implementation later

– Example: Point could be rewritten in polar
coordinates (r, θ) with the same methods.

• Can constrain objects' state (invariants)

– Example: Only allow Accounts with non-negative balance.
– Example: Only allow Dates with a month from 1-12.
54
 The this keyword
• this : Refers to the implicit parameter inside your class.
(a variable that stores the object on which a method is called)

– Refer to a field: this.field

– Call a method: this.method(parameters);

– One constructor this(parameters);

can call another:

55

Variable shadowing
• shadowing: 2 variables with same name in same scope.
– Normally illegal, except when one variable is a field.

public class Point {

private int x;
private int y;
...
// this is legal
public void setLocation(int x, int y) {
...
}

– In most of the class, x and y refer to the fields.

– In setLocation, x and y refer to the method's parameters.
56
 Fixing shadowing
public class Point {
private int x;
private int y;
...
public void setLocation(int x, int y) {
this.x = x;
this.y = y;
}
}

• Inside setLocation,
– To refer to the data field x, say this.x
– To refer to the parameter x, say x

57

Calling another constructor

public class Point {
private int x;
private int y;

public Point() {
this(0, 0); // calls (x, y) constructor
}

public Point(int x, int y) {

this.x = x;
this.y = y;
}

...
}

• Avoids redundancy between constructors

• Only a constructor (not a method) can call another constructor
58
 Static methods/fields

Multi-class systems
• Most large software systems consist of many classes.
– One main class runs and calls methods of the others.

• Advantages:
– code reuse
– splits up the program logic into manageable chunks

Main Class #1
main
method1
method2

Class #2 Class #3
method3 method4
method5 method6

60
 Redundant program 1
// This program sees whether some interesting numbers are prime.
public class Primes1 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] nums = {1234517, 859501, 53, 142};
for (int i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
if (isPrime(nums[i])) {
System.out.println(nums[i] + " is prime");
}
}
}
// Returns the number of factors of the given integer.
public static int countFactors(int number) {
int count = 0;
for (int i = 1; i <= number; i++) {
if (number % i == 0) {
count++; // i is a factor of the number
}
}
return count;
}
// Returns true if the given number is prime.
public static boolean isPrime(int number) {
return countFactors(number) == 2;
}
} 61

Redundant program 2
// This program prints all prime numbers up to a maximum.
public class Primes2 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Scanner console = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("Max number? ");
int max = console.nextInt();
for (int i = 2; i <= max; i++) {
if (isPrime(i)) {
System.out.print(i + " ");
} }
System.out.println();
}
// Returns true if the given number is prime.
public static boolean isPrime(int number) {
return countFactors(number) == 2;
}
// Returns the number of factors of the given integer.
public static int countFactors(int number) {
int count = 0;
for (int i = 1; i <= number; i++) {
if (number % i == 0) {
count++; // i is a factor of the number
} }
return count;
}
62
}
 Classes as modules
• module: A reusable piece of software, stored as a class.
– Example module classes: Math, Arrays, System
// This class is a module that contains useful methods
// related to factors and prime numbers.
public class Factors {
// Returns the number of factors of the given integer.
public static int countFactors(int number) {
int count = 0;
for (int i = 1; i <= number; i++) {
if (number % i == 0) {
count++; // i is a factor of the number
}
}
return count;
}
// Returns true if the given number is prime.
public static boolean isPrime(int number) {
return countFactors(number) == 2;
}
} 63

More about modules

• A module is a partial program, not a complete program.
– It does not have a main. You don't run it directly.
– Modules are meant to be utilized by other client classes.

• Syntax:
class.method(parameters);

• Example:
int factorsOf24 = Factors.countFactors(24);

64
 Using a module
// This program sees whether some interesting numbers are prime.
public class Primes {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] nums = {1234517, 859501, 53, 142};
for (int i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
if (Factors.isPrime(nums[i])) {
System.out.println(nums[i] + " is prime");
}
}
}
}

// This program prints all prime numbers up to a given maximum.

public class Primes2 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Scanner console = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("Max number? ");
int max = console.nextInt();
for (int i = 2; i <= max; i++) {
if (Factors.isPrime(i)) {
System.out.print(i + " ");
} }
System.out.println();
}
}
65

Modules in Java libraries

// Java's built in Math class is a module
public class Math {
public static final double PI = 3.14159265358979323846;

...

public static int abs(int a) {

if (a >= 0) {
return a;
} else {
return -a;
}
}

public static double toDegrees(double radians) {

return radians * 180 / PI;
}
}

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 Static members
• static: Part of a class, rather than part of an object.
– Object classes can have static methods and fields.
– Not copied into each object; shared by all objects of that class.
class
state:
private static int staticFieldA
private static String staticFieldB
behavior:
public static void someStaticMethodC()
public static void someStaticMethodD()

object #1 object #2 object #3

state: state: state:
int field2 int field1 int field1
double field2 double field2 double field2
behavior: behavior: behavior:
public void method3() public void method3() public void method3()
public int method4() public int method4() public int method4()
public void method5() public void method5() public void method5()
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Static fields
private static type name;
or,
private static type name = value;

– Example:
private static int theAnswer = 42;

• static field: Stored in the class instead of each object.

– A "shared" global field that all objects can access and modify.
– Like a class constant, except that its value can be changed.

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 Accessing static fields
• From inside the class where the field was declared:
fieldName // get the value
fieldName = value; // set the value

• From another class (if the field is public):

ClassName.fieldName // get the value
ClassName.fieldName = value; // set the value

– generally static fields are not public unless they are final

• Exercise: Modify the BankAccount class shown previously so

that each account is automatically given a unique ID.
• Exercise: Write the working version of FratGuy.
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BankAccount solution
public class BankAccount {
// static count of how many accounts are created
// (only one count shared for the whole class)
private static int objectCount = 0;

// fields (replicated for each object)

private String name;
private int id;

public BankAccount() {
objectCount++; // advance the id, and
id = objectCount; // give number to account
}
...
public int getID() { // return this account's id
return id;
}
}
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 Static methods
// the same syntax you've already used for
methods
public static type name(parameters) {
statements;
}

• static method: Stored in a class, not in an object.

– Shared by all objects of the class, not replicated.
– Does not have any implicit parameter, this;
therefore, cannot access any particular object's fields.

• Exercise: Make it so that clients can find out how many total
BankAccount objects have ever been created. 71

BankAccount solution
public class BankAccount {
// static count of how many accounts are created
// (only one count shared for the whole class)
private static int objectCount = 0;
// clients can call this to find out # accounts created
public static int getNumAccounts() {
return objectCount;
}
// fields (replicated for each object)
private String name;
private int id;
public BankAccount() {
objectCount++; // advance the id, and
id = objectCount; // give number to account
}
...
public int getID() { // return this account's id
return id;
}
}
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 Summary of Java classes
• A class is used for any of the following in a large program:
– a program : Has a main and perhaps other static methods.
• example: GuessingGame, Birthday, MadLibs, CritterMain
• does not usually declare any static fields (except final)

– an object class : Defines a new type of objects.

• example: Point, BankAccount, Date, Critter, FratGuy
• declares object fields, constructor(s), and methods
• might declare static fields or methods, but these are less of a focus
• should be encapsulated (all fields and static fields private)

– a module : Utility code implemented as static methods.

• example: Math
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