Heating Element Design Factors

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Heating elements sound very simple and straightforward, but
Resistance there are, many different factors that engineers have to
Heating consider in designing them. There are roughly 20 – 30
Elements different factors that affect the performance of a typical
heating element, including obvious things like the voltage
Commercial
and current, the length and diameter of the element, the
Heating
type of material, and the operating temperature. There are
Elements
also specific factors you need to consider for each different
Selecting type of element. For example, with a coiled heating element
Heating made of round wire, the diameter of the wire and the form
Elements of the coils (diameter, length, pitch, stretch, and so on) are
among the things that critically affect the performance. With
Heating Element a ribbon heating element, the ribbon thickness and width,
Design Factors surface area, and weight all have to be factored in.
Improved NiCr And that's only part of the story, because a heating element
Heating Element doesn't work in isolation: you have to consider how it will fit
CuNi Alloy into a bigger appliance and how it will behave during use,
Heater when it's used in different ways. How, for example, will your
element be supported inside its appliance by insulators? How
Wire Heating big and thick will they need to be and will that affect the
Element size of the appliance you're making? For example, think
Materials about the different kinds of heating elements you'd need in a
soldering iron, the size of a pen, and a large convector
Nickel is a versatile heater. If you have an element "draped" between supporting
element and will alloy insulators, what will happen to it as it gets hotter? Will it sag
with most metals. too much and will that cause problems? Do you need more
Complete solid solubility insulators to stop that happening, or do you need to change
exists between nickel the material or the element's dimensions? If you're designing
and copper. Wide something like an electric fire with multiple heating
solubility ranges between elements close together, what will happen when they're used
iron, chromium, and
individually and in combination? If you're designing a heating
nickel make possible
element that has air blown past it like in a convector heater
many alloy
combinations.
or a hair dryer, can you generate enough airflow to stop the
element overheating and dramatically shortening its life? All
these factors have to be balanced against one another to
make a product that's effective, economical, durable, and
safe.

Heating Element Design

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Heating Element Design Factors

The following calculations give a guide to selecting an

electrical resistance wire heating element for your
application

Heating Element Design Calculations

Here is an introduction to electrical resistance of tape and

wire heating elemets, a calculation of element resistance
and a temperature-resistance table.
To perform as a heating element the tape or wire must resist
the flow of electricity. This resistance converts the electrical
energy into heat which is related to the electrical resistivity
of the metal, and is defined as the resistance of a unit length
of unit cross-sectional area. The linear resistance of a length
of tape or wire may be calculated from its electrical
resistivity.
Where:

ρ = Electrical Resistivity (μΩcm)

R = Element Resistance at 20 °C (Ω)
d = Wire diameter (mm)
t = Tape thickness (mm)
b = Tape width (mm)
l = Tape or wire length (m)
a = Tape or wire cross-sectional area (mm²)
For Round Wire

a = π x d² / 4

For Tape

a = t x (b - t) + (0.786 x t²)

R = (ρ x l / a) x 0.01

As a heating element, tape offers a large surface area and

therefore, a greater effective heat radiation in a preferred
direction making it ideal for many industrial applications
such as injection mould band heaters.
An important characteristic of these electrical resistance
alloys is their resistance to heat and corrosion, which is due
to the formation of oxide surface layers that retard further
reaction with the oxygen in air. When selecting the alloy
operating temperature, the material and atmosphere with
which it comes into contact must be considered. As there are
so many types of applications, variables in element design
and different operating conditions the following equations
for element design are given as a guide only.

Electrical Resistance at Operating Temperature

With very few exceptions the resistance of a metal will

change with temperature, which must be allowed for when
designing an element. As the resistance of an element is

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Heating Element Design Factors

calculated at operating temperature, the resistance of the

element at room temperature must be found. To obtain the
elements resistance at room temperature, divide the
resistance at operating temperature by the temperature
resistance factor shown below:
Where :

F = Temperature-Resistance Factor
Rt = Element resistance at operating temperature (Ω)
R = Element resistance at 20°C (Ω)

R = Rt / F

Surface Area Loading

It is possible to design a heating element in a variety of sizes

all of which would in theory give the desired wattage load or
power density dissipated per unit area. However, it is
essential that the load on the surface of the heating element
is not too high as the transfer of heat by conduction,
convection or radiation from the element may not be rapid
enough to prevent it over-heating and failing prematurely.
The suggested surface loading range for the type of
appliance and heating element are shown below – but this
may need to be lower for a heating element working with
more frequent operating cycles, or at nearly its maximum
operating temperature, or in harsh atmospheres.
heres.

Suggested
Surface
Element
Appliance Loading
Type
Range
(W/cm²)
Spiral
Fire Element in 4.5 – 6.0
Free Air

Fire Pencil Bar 6.0 – 9.5

Mica-Wound
Band Heater 4.0 – 5.5
Element

Mica-Wound
Toaster 3.0 – 4.0
Element

Spiral
Convector 3.5 – 4.5
Element

Storage Spiral
1.5 – 2.5
Heater Element

Spiral
Fan Heater 9.0 – 15.0
Element

Oven Element 8.0 – 12.0

Grill Element 15.0 – 20.0

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Heating Element Design Factors

Hotplate 17.0 – 22.0

Tubular
Sheathed
Water
Element
Immersion 25.0 – 35.0
Heater

Kettle
35.0 – 50.0
Element

Designing a Round Wire Element

Where:

V = Voltage (Volts)
W = Power (Watts)
S = Surface Area Loading (W/cm²)
Rt = Element Resistance at Operating Temperature
(ohms)
R = Element Resistance at 20°C (ohms)
F = Temperature-Resistance Factor
I = Wire Length (m)
A = Resistance per meter (ohms/m)
Here is how the design calculations are done:
1.  Calculate the wire diameter and length required,
operating at a maximum temperature of C°C, the total
resistance of the element at operating temperature (Rt) will
be:

Rt = V² / W

2.  Using specific heating element alloy wire, find the

Temperature Resistance Factor at C°C operating temprature
as F thus the total resistance of the element at 20°C (R) will
be:

Rt = R t / F

3.  Knowing the dimensions of the heating element type, the

length of wire that may be wound round it may be
estimated. Thus, the resistance required per metre of wire
will be:

A=R/L

4.  Find the heating element wire of standard wire diameter

which has a resistance per metre which is closest to A.
5.  To verify the actual wire length (L):

L=R/A

A change in heating element wire length may mean adding or

subtracting the pitch of the wire to achieve the total
resistance value required.

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Heating Element Design Factors

6.  To verify the surface area loading (S):

S = W / (l x d x 31.416)

This surface area loading should fall within the range shown
in the table above for heating element type noting that a
higher value gives a hotter element. The surface area loading
can be higher or lower if it is considered the heat transfer be
better or worse, or depending upon the importance of the
heating elements life.
If your calculated surface area loading is too high or low you
should re-calculate changing one or more of the following:

The wire length and diameter

The grade of heating element alloy

Coiled or Spiral Elements

Wire heating elements formed into a coil allow a suitable

length of wire to be accommodated in a relatively short
space, and also absorb the effects of thermal expansion.
When forming the coil care must be taken not to damage the
wire by nicking or abrasion. Cleanliness of the heating
element is also important. The maximum and minimum
recommended ratios of inside-coil diameter to wire diameter
are 6:1 and 3:1. The length of the close wound coil may be
found using the equation below.
Where:

d = Wire diameter (mm)

D = Inside-Coil diameter (mm)
L = Length of wire (m)
X = Length of close wound coil (mm)

X = L x d x 1000 / π x (D + d)

When this close wound coil is stretched the stretch should be

about 3:1 as closer winding will result in hotter coils.
Apart from accidental damage the service life of a heating
element may be shortened by localised burn-outs (hot spots).
This may be caused by change to the wire's cross section
(e.g. nicks, stretching, kinks), or by shielding an area where
the heating element cannot dissipate its heat freely, or by
poor supporting points or terminations.

Designing a Tape Element

The method for designing a tape heating element is similar to

that used in designing a round wire heating element.
Where:

b = Tape width (mm)

t = Tape thickness (mm)
Here is how the design calculations for the tape heating

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Heating Element Design Factors

element are done:

1.  To calculate the tape size and length required for a
specific heating element in heater, operating at a maximum
temperature of C°C, the total resistance of the element at
operating temperature (Rt) will be:

Rt = V² / W

2.  Using specific heating element alloy wire, find the

Temperature Resistance Factor at C°C operating temprature
as F thus the total resistance of the element at 20°C (R) will
be:

Rt = R t / F

3.  Knowing the dimensions of the heater, the length of the

tape that may be wound round it may be estimated. Thus,
the resistance required per metre of tape will be:

A=R/L

4.  Find a heating element tape of standard size of b mm x t

mm having a standard resistance per metre of stock size
which is near to A ohms/m.
5.  To verify the actual tape length (L)

L=R/A

A change in tape length may mean altering the pitch of the

tape to achieve the total resistance value required.
6.  To verify the surface area loading (S):

S = W / 20 x (b + t) x L

If your calculated surface area loading is too high or low as

per the table above, you should re-calculate changing one or
more of the following:

– The tape length and size

Practical Design Considerations

This article discusses general issues relating to the use, care
and maintenance factors relative to obtaining longevity in
electric heaters and furnaces. The complexity of issues
relating to resistance type heaters indicates the need for a
universal guide as a starting point.

Electrical Lead Considerations

Heating Element Leads and Power Connections
Lead Styles
Single Conductor Leads
Twisted Pair Leads

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Heating Element Design Factors

Rod Leads
Pad or Bar Lead
Bending Radius
Brittleness
Terminations
Lead Protection
Repairs
Handling, Storage, Environmental Factors
Vibrations
Loading
Drying Out Procedure
Embedded Elements
Refractory Materials
Cycling

Electrical Lead Considerations

It is not just necessary to consider the type of electric

heating element heater and placement and wattage
requirements, but it is also necessary to consider the
different types of electrical leads used and the methods by
which they exit and terminate the heated area. Certain
considerations while selecting leads are listed below:

Temperature of lead area

Flexibility
Relative cost
Contaminants in the lead area
Abrasion resistance needed
Convenience to controls

Heating Element Leads and Power Connections

Certain norms to be followed with regards to electric

connections to electric heating elemets in heaters are listed
below:

The line voltage should be compatible with the heater's

rated voltage.
Electric wiring to the heater must be installed in
accordance with national and local electric codes.
Polarity should be observed always. Adjacent leads
should always be connected to the same polarity. Failure
to observe polarity may result in premature heater
failure.

Lead Styles

Element leads for connecting electric heating element

heaters are available in a wide variety of styles, but can
normally be grouped into certain categories that include the
following:

Single Conductor
Twisted Pair
Rod
Pad or Bar

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Heating Element Design Factors

Single Conductor Leads

The single conductor concept is the most common and is

mostly the standard form of supply for ceramic and vacuum
formed fiber, heating elements.

Twisted Pair Leads

Twisted pair indicates a lead in which the element conductor

is folded back on itself and then twisted together in a
particular manner. This type of lead configuration is
recommended where possible.

Rod Leads

Rod leads include fastening a heavier lead to the actual

element. Typically a rod will be welded to the heating
element conductor.

Pad or Bar Lead

The pad or bar lead is similar in nature to the rod concept

only that either a flat bar is used or if the element uses
"strip" instead of wire, the strip is often folded back on itself
once or twice to expand the cross-sectional area. This style
of lead is used with fiber based heating element packages

Bending Radius

It must be possible to bend the lead wire from the heating

elements as per customer's requirements. The minimum bend
radius of the wire must be four to eight times the wire
diameter. This rule applies to both iron-chrome-aluminum
alloys and nickel- chrome alloys. In really cold conditions
iron-chrome-aluminum alloys may still break or crack on
bending.

Brittleness

Traditional iron-chrome-aluminum materials become brittle

on reaching a temperature of 950°C and this happens
immediately. The powder metal based alloys also become
brittle on heating though this is more gradual and depends on
temperature and time. It is important to cool these alloys to
a color temperature above 500°F so that they can be
repositioned without incurring any mechanical damage.
These are also brittle at low temperatures so if they need to
be worked with it is better to have a temperature of around
70°F or more. It is also important to note that on welding of
these alloys, the nearby areas become brittle hence must be
handled carefully.

Terminations

Proper terminations are crucial to a successful heating

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Heating Element Design Factors

element application and if not performed appropriately will

affect element life drastically. It is important to ensure that
the bulk of the element lead wire is in close physical contact
with the actual termination.

Lead Protection

Often it is desirable to provide a protective coating over the

element leads. This may be required based on electrical or
mechanical considerations. The selection of a protective
shield for the leads must be done with great care. Generally
use of self sticking tapes should b avoided as even the high
temperature grades use organic based mastic/adhesive which
can break down into carbon based substances. These may
react with the wire causing embrittlement, corrosion and
carbon infiltration. Insulation grades must be carefully
examined. While handling refractory fiber based materials,
an approved respirator should be worn especially if the
heater has been at a high temperature for a long time and is
being replaced.

Repairs

In larger rod-style elements it may be possible to repair a

break. For iron-chrome-aluminum alloys, a similar operation
is used except that the material should be heated to "red"
color temperature before it is moved. This will allow bending
of the conductor segments without causing any breakage.

Handling, Storage, Environmental Factors

The reason behind modern metallic based heating elements

operating at temperatures up to 1400°C for long time periods
is that they form an outer protective oxide coating. In case
there is any kind of surface contamination, the element will
fail prematurely. Hence the element cleanliness needs to be
maintained.
Element storage is again an important area of consideration.
It is important to keep them weather-protected and stored in
a dry, cool place preferably one preferably having a low
humidity. It is also important to wear cotton gloves to
protect exposed elements from body oil present on the
hands. Smaller sizes are more prone to getting
contaminated. The elements need to be always kept on a
protective barrier avoiding direct contact to the shop floor or
other contaminated areas.
After storage, heaters must be warmed to a minimum
temperature of 68°F before installation. 68°F may be ideal
as a minimum temperature, practically up to 100°F is
desirable. As ceramic based heaters can get damaged easily,
one needs to be careful not to force fit them or drop them.

Vibrations

For places with high vibration, shock mounting is essential

using standard shock mounting techniques. Too much of

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Heating Element Design Factors

vibration may also impact wire connections.

Loading

A 20% maximum load reduction should be allowed for if a

contactor is used instead of an SCR control. It needs to be
noted that this SCR control is either a phase angle fired or
variable time base fired zero cross over unit. Normally, a
zero crossover unit is more desirable but actual application
will determine the practical choice.

Drying Out Procedure: Embedded Elements

Before initially heating the furnace, it is necessary to see

whether any embedding cement has broken loose from the
ceramic heaters and if the heater wire is visible. Then
application of embedding cement can be done as per
instructions for patching heaters.

Drying Out Procedure: Refractory Materials

It is highly recommended to increase temperature gradually

in order to dry the moisture from the refractory lining. It is
suggested that the unit be heated to 200°F for one to two
hours, then increased to 500°F and maintained at this
temperature for four to six hours, open to air. Then the
temperature should be increased at 150°F per hour
thereafter until the normal operating temperature is
achieved.

Cycling

The most efficient way to get long life is to utilize a large

cross sectional area element with moderate watt loading,
and never shut it off. The problem with cycling is that the
oxide will either crack or spall off exposing the base material
to more oxidation and eventual failure.

Helpful Practices and Suggestions

Some helpful practices while handling furnace heating

elements are listed below:

The equipment needs to be maintained clean, especially

surrounding the terminals, wiring enclosure, and heater
itself, using a regular maintenance program.
Field wiring that can withstand the temperatures must
be used. It is essential to avoid the use of wax, rubber,
thermoplastic or impregnated insulated wire for high
temperature heater applications.
Thermal insulation needs to be used wherever possible in
order to reduce heat losses and cost of operation.
Furnace heating elements need to be maintained well in
order to ensure that they serve their purpose and remain
useful during their lifetime.
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Heating Element Design Factors

C o n te n t C o p y r i g h t o f R e s p e c t i v e C o p y r i g h t H o l d e r s .

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