1

Chapter I: Introduction

Action research is research that is customized to understanding a problem and piloting appropriate
solutions to address the problem. The process, for resolving a plethora of groundwater-related
problems, begins with a proper prognosis of resources, situations and society, the pillars for
developing groundwater management solutions. The purpose of an Action research component in
the PGWM programme was to enable the Resource Centers (RCs) - ACT, ACWADAM, PSI and
WASSAN - to develop capabilities in measurement, monitoring and analysis and more significantly,
in carrying the science of hydrogeology into a decision support role. This role, in turn, was envisaged
as a role to enable piloting of, at least some of the PGWM principles on the ground. The PGWM
design itself depended upon the context of groundwater resources that each RC was working on.
Action research was also thought to be important in strengthening the training and advocacy
components of the programme by feeding live examples of analyses and tools that would in turn build
and strengthen capacities at various levels at the same time enabling a more conducive policy
environment to undertake science, knowledge and action pertaining to groundwater resources.
ACWADAM‟s role, particularly in action research, was of particular relevance given that it was
decided in the project design that:

1. ACWADAM would help each RC in identifying sites for action research and would assist
them in developing action research design and plan.
2. ACWADAM itself would develop site-specific PGWM protocols and will implement them
during action research, in the form of pilots, with 2 more partner organisations – probably in
close proximity to Pune.
3. ACWADAM will develop status reports with the help of RCs – for 4-5 locations where
PGWM principles would be piloted.
Of these, many of the objectives under points 1 and 2 were achieved. This report is a summary of
status reports prepared by the four partners under point 3, with regard to their specific action
research status.

Groundwater will pose the biggest challenge-arena for the water management sector, the world over.
Evidence is slowly emerging that groundwater resources are supporting 38% of agriculture
worldwide (Siebert et al, 2010). This statistic is so much more relevant to India, because of the highly
decentralized and individualistic pattern of groundwater use that prevails today, a fact that few
surveys can capture. Groundwater is a common pool resource (CPR). Its management, therefore,
involves understanding the resource, its user base and their characteristics. Groundwater
management, as many have begun to realize, involves a correct combination of sound science,
appropriate technology and a strong social commitment in the setting up of processes. At the same
time, a process of social engineering is important in participatory groundwater management. Having
stated this, however, the right formula between these three is the real need to develop sustainable
solutions around groundwater issues – identifying problems and then proceeding to the solutions,
some of which already exist as part of how communities perceive the resource pool on which they
depend.

2
Most groundwater management work has piggybacked on programmes like watershed development
or conservation of water supply sources (wells are another common „development‟ instrument used
under various programmes), where the onus is on „treatment‟ of watersheds, rather than any
consideration to aquifers - the units in which groundwater accumulates and moves. It has become a
common observation that issues around groundwater resources, even in excellent watershed
development programmes, emerge in parallel to the programme. As users dig-and-drill on the back
of such programmes, with the notion of unlimited augmentation of underlying aquifers, the very
purpose of public investment lies defeated by rampant „free riding‟ of a „common pool‟ resource,
often by a select few.

The availability of groundwater resources is a function of aquifers, their boundaries and their
characteristics. The limits of maximum aquifer storage can be assumed to be definite. Moreover, the
limit to availability can also be quite dynamic depending upon deficits in recharge or excess of
pumping over recharge. Often, groundwater quality imposes such a limit even when groundwater is
available in aquifer storage. Depleted aquifer storage may be a temporary condition or a derivative of
longer-term increase in abstraction. The demand for water from an aquifer, particularly in regions
such as South Asia is constantly increasing and can be visualized as an increasing „line of demand‟
(Figure 1). Supply is usually in the form of steps, whether in the public domain of developing „public‟
supply for meeting drinking water and/or in the private/public domain to meet larger volumes of
demand from sectors like agriculture and industry, not to mention urban transfers.

3
Figure 1: Managing groundwater in an aquifer supplying groundwater to wells is about understanding available storage
(under variable conditions of recharge and pumping), managing supply and regulating demand. The limit of supply in
this case is governed by the rates and amounts of pumping by wells tapping the aquifer (after Kulkarni and Thakkar, 2012)

Therefore, a fresh paradigm of groundwater management should include supply augmentation,

demand management and resource-based interventions (as against the source-based approach
adopted hitherto). In fact, these three aspects are the framework on which PGWM principles have
evolved. Such a paradigm will attempt to bridge certain gaps within groundwater-related
programmes and allied projects such as watershed management and drinking water-sanitation. The
main gaps are:

 Knowledge regarding the resource base, i.e. aquifers, is too sketchy; existing information is
largely inaccessible.
 Capacity to look beyond the conventional - demystifying subjects like geology and
hydrogeology - does not figure within any current mainstream agenda, least in our academic
curricula.
 Field-based work, especially good hydrogeological mapping, on a local scale is nearly absent
in formal efforts to map groundwater resources.
 The linkages (or the independence) between groundwater problems (over-extraction and
groundwater quality) is still a grey area in the overall understanding of groundwater resources
in India.

Participatory Groundwater Management has emerged as a process that attempts to plug all these
gaps by decentralising capacities of understanding groundwater resources, keeping the national
typology of groundwater in mind and at the same time bearing in mind certain common principles
given below.

 Groundwater is Common Pool Resource (CPR)

4
  Groundwater problem be clearly defined through an understanding of the resource and its
use.
 Principles and processes of management should integrate different uses like drinking water,
irrigation etc.
 Minimum unit of management be the aquifer (at least a micro watershed, to begin with) and
maximum unit could be the regional aquifer system.
 Long term engagement in the process of management for at least 8 years.
 Planning, management and monitoring to be executed by the community with the support
from appropriate agencies.
 Local knowledge and formal science should be prioritized. No overriding aspects!

PGWM Action Research Sites

Piloting of the PGWM concept, based on the principles laid down earlier in the report, included the
important aspect of some basic hydrogeological research. This research, it was expected, would form
the basis for developing and influencing certain actions that capture at least a few of the seven
principles. The locations for the action research and piloting were so chosen as to represent at least
four of the six settings of India‟s broad groundwater typology (Kulkarni et al, 2009). Although the
approach to the action research would depend on the nature and scale of engaging communities in
the groundwater management effort, some flexibility in the design and approach was necessary,
bearing in mind the uniqueness of each of the four hydrogeological settings. However, this section
has attempted to standardise the presentation of some common data sets and analyses for the four
action research sites. The action research narrative, rather than following a conventional site-wise
approach, is based on the principle of a comparative description of the groundwater setting in the
four sites, beginning with the regional settings, including rainfall profiles before dovetailing into site-
specific data, analysis and decision support to influence social behavior in each of the for locations.

5
Chapter 2: Situation – Typology

ACWADAM, ACT, PSI and WASSAN have been working in different hydrogeological settings in
India on the concept and practice of Participatory Groundwater Management Programme (PGWM).
PGWM is a programme supported by Arghyam Trust, Bengaluru. ACWADAM‟s action research
sites are located in the Deccan Volcanic Province, dominated by basaltic lava flows in Maharashtra.
ACT has been working across a diverse setting in Kachchh but has concentrated on the Tertiary and
Jurassic age sedimentary formations – mainly sandstones – in the Kankavati river basin and the
Kamaguna-Vatacchad watershed in Kachchh district of Gujarat. PSI is working in the Himalayan
region in the district of Sirmour in the Proterozoic Formations of the Lesser Himalayan Region in
Himachal Pradesh. WASSAN is working in the areas of the Peninsular Gneissic Complex , mainly at
the interface of the Deccan basalts and migmatitic rocks in Rangareddy district, west of Hyderabad..
Figure 2 shows the location of PGWM pilot areas in India.

Map not to scale

Figure 2: Location of PGWM sites in India

SITUATION- Typology

Details of Action research sites

Action Research forms the core of participatory groundwater management and therefore, each of
the four partners selected one or two locations for their Action Research Pilots. A detailed
hydrogeological study was conducted at each of the locations, leading to an appropriate groundwater
management plan in close co-ordination the community. The process of hydrogeological study is
6
site specific and varies with each location. However, there were some common points on which
each of the partners developed their PGWM action research. Groundwater resource management
was the core purpose of this action research along with factors related to socio-economic
conditions, agriculture, and drinking water security. Table 1 gives the details of the location of each
action research site. Figure 3 shows location of the PGWM action research pilot initiatives in India.

Organisation Action research Taluka District State

site
ACWADAM Muthalane Junnar Pune Maharashtra
Randullabad Koregaon Satara Maharashtra
ACT Kankavati Abdasa Kachchh Gujarat
sandstone area
Kamaguna- Rapar Kachchh Gujarat
Vatachchad
PSI Thanakasoga Nahan Sirmour Himachal Pradesh
WASSAN Pargi Pargi Rangareddy Telangana
Table 1: Details of location of action research sites

Figure 3: Location of PGWM action research pilots

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Groundwater situation and dependency

These six PGWM pilot locations are very different from one another. There is variability in
geography, geology, hydrogeology, demography, weather conditions and socio-economic conditions.
There are fundamental differences in aquifer settings and characteristics. Sources for groundwater
access are different too. In Randullabad and Muthalane (Maharashtra) the community is dependent
on large diameter dug wells, while in Pargi (Andhra Pradesh), the community is dependent on bore
wells, although there are still some traditional dug wells in the area. In Kachchh district, the
community uses both dug wells as well and bore wells for groundwater access while in Thanakasoga
(Sirmour, Himachal Pradesh), the community is entirely dependent on springs for their domestic
water needs. The context of groundwater use is unique to each location and so are the issues related
to groundwater management. On the basis of CGWB‟s groundwater development stages (2009)
Randullabad and Muthalane fall in the semi-critical zone while the three locations in Kachchh, fall in
the critical zone. The Pargi and Thanakasoga pilot locations fall in the safe zone. 1 Figure 4 shows the
state of groundwater development India in 2009 and the location of PGWM pilot locations.
However, all the action research pilot locations have a high degree of dependence on groundwater
resources, whether in the form of meeting the drinking water and other domestic needs of people or
the agricultural demand for groundwater resources to mainly support irrigation for the rabi (winter)
crop. In most sites, except Muthalane, groundwater resources formed the main (often the only)
source of water supply for meeting both, agricultural and domestic demands.

1
Safe zone: CGWB has defined four stages of groundwater development on the basis of groundwater use. The safe
zone is where the use is between 0 and 50 %, semi-critical zone is where GW use is between 50 and 75% while
critical zone is where GW use is between 75 and 100% of the available GW.

8
 Figure 4: Location of PGWM pilots with respect to GW development in India

Rainfall pattern

Rainfall patterns indicate the spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall. In India there is a great
diversity in the rainfall pattern which ranges from more than 10000 mm in Meghalaya to less than
100 mm in Rajasthan. Rainfall, in most parts of the country occurs due to the southwest monsoon,
between the months of June and September. There are also some states receiving rains in the post
monsoon season due to the northeast monsoon. The PGWM action research sites are located in
different rainfall regimes. The average annual rainfall for Pune, Satara and Sirmour district is 1000
mm, 1200 mm and 1500 mm respectively while it is 360 mm and 790 mm for Kachchh and
Rangareddy districts respectively. There is also variability in the long term average annual rainfall at
district level and at the PGWM action research sites. The average annual rainfall for Satara district is
1200 mm. However, average annual rainfall for Randullabad is 700 mm which is well below the
district average. In the remaining pilot locations there is a relatively closer match between the district
average rainfall and rainfall at the PGWM pilot locations. Figure 5 shows the generalized rainfall

9
pattern for India and the location of PGWM action research sites. (The five PGWM locations based
on classes provided by IMD, on the basis of annual rainfall and number of days of rainfall.)

Figure 5: Location of PGWM action research sites on the isohyet map of India

In the absence of long-term data at the actual site locations, IMD data for the respective districts
was obtained and studied. The 112 year rainfall data is available for Pune, Satara, Kachchh and
Rangareddy district, while 62 year rainfall data is available for Sirmour district. These data were
plotted in the form of „annual totals‟, „ten-year moving averages‟ and „accumulated rainfall anomaly'2.
A few key observations from rainfall analysis are given below:

 It is observed that in the last 112 years there is an increase in the rainfall in all the project
districts except Sirmour.
 In Sirmour district, there is a decrease in the rainfall more so in the last 10 years.
 Pune, Rangareddy and Satara districts also show a decrease in the rainfall during the last
decade.
 Bhuj shows a significant increase in the rainfall during the last decade.
 Accumulated rainfall anomalies for Pune district show a „clustered‟ pattern – dominantly
negative till 1930, dominantly positive between 1930 and 1980 and then an „alternating‟
pattern of roughly 2 – 4 years.

2
Accumulated rainfall anomaly is calculated as the difference between the annual rainfall and the long-term
average value of annual rainfall.

10
  Satara district shows a more systematic alternation between positive and negative
accumulated rainfall anomalies over the 112 – year period.
 Kachchh shows taller - sharper (shorter) positive anomalies and wider, shallower (longer)
negative anomalies pointing to seasons of positive extreme rainfall events.
 Anomalies in Rangareddy district seem to have gained more intensive proportions during
recent periods – after 1990 – as compared to a more regularly alternating, less intensive
pattern prior to that.
 The 60-year data for Sirmour district indicates a dominance of „negative‟ accumulated rainfall
anomalies since the late 1960s.

Figure 6 shows the long term rainfall for the five project districts.

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Figure 6: Long term rainfall pattern for the five PGWM action research districts

12
Chapter 3: Details of Action Research sites

The demographic and hydrogeological conditions are quite diverse in and around the six action
research sites. Demographically, the Kankavati sandstone area in Kachchh district has the highest
population, given the spread of villages under the sandstone area. This is followed by Pargi block
which includes 10 villages. The remaining four sites have population less than 2500, given the
relatively local nature of groundwater dynamics identified during the preliminary stages of this
programme. Table 2 gives the background information of each of the location.

Pilot site District State Population Area Population Sources of water

density (per supply
ha)
Muthalane Pune Maharashtra 900 900 Ha 1 Dug wells and
spring
Randullabad Satara Maharashtra 1900 856 Ha 2.2 Dug wells
Kamaghuna- Kachchh Gujarat 930 7428 Ha 0.13 Dug wells and
Vatachhad bore wells
Kankavati Kachchh Gujarat 70326 129372 Ha 0.54 Dug wells and
bore wells
Thanakasoga Sirmour Himachal 1437 643 Ha 2.23 Spring
Pradesh
Pargi Rangareddy Telangana 8214 9932 Ha 0.83 Bore wells
Table 2: Background information of six pilot locations

Topography

Muthalane, Randullabad and Pargi sites are part of Krishna river basin. Muthlane village is located
in the Western Ghats while Randullabad village is located in the upland portion of the Deccan
plateau, east of the Western Ghats.
Both these villages are part of upper
reaches of Krishna river basin. Pargi
cluster falls in the lower reaches of
Krishna river basin. Pargi streams
contribute to the flow of Pedda vagu,
the tributary of Kasaraveni rivulet, a
sub Basin of Kagna River, which
again is part of the Krishna river
basin. Abdasa taluka is underlain by
the Kankavati sandstone area. The
name Kankavati sandstone is derived
from the river Kankavati which is the
major river in Abdasa. There are a Figure 7: Drainage map of Abdasa taluka, Kachchh
number of small rivers and rivulets like Nayro river flowing from west to east. Figure 7 shows
drainage map of Kankavati sandstone area of Abdasa taluka. Similarly, in Kamaghuna-Vatachhad

13
area there is no major river system. Thanakasoga Panchayat is part of the upper watersheds that
drain into the Giri river basin, a sub-basin of the Yamuna.

Muthalane and Randullabad villages are located at an elevation between 680 m and 1100 m, while
Pargi is located at an elevation between 540 m and 720 m above mean sea level. The Kankavati
drains part of central Kachchh into the Arabian sea, and traverses a topography that gently undulates
within elevations of 0 m to 100 m above mean sea level. Thanakasoga Panchayat is located on a
transitional zone between Siwalik and lesser Himalaya; hence it represents both these regions of the
Himalayas. A sloping undulating topography and barren hills are the common characteristics of
these villages. Average slopes are in the range of 40% - 50%.

Water use

All the project villages are completely dependent on groundwater for drinking, domestic use and
irrigation. Most of the sites also have seasonal stream flows, but almost the entire water use in all the
villages is based on groundwater. Groundwater in these villages is
tapped by dug wells, bore wells or springs (Table 1). When action
research commenced in Muthalane there were only 19 dug wells
which were used by the community mainly for drinking and
domestic use. These were relatively shallow large-diameter (5 to
10 m diameter) dug wells with an average depth of 8 to 10 m. The
deepest well in Muthalane is the public drinking water well having
depth of 15 m (45 feet). In Randullabad, there are more than 167
large-diameter (5 ot 10 m diameter) dug wells which are used for drinking water supply, domestic
use and for irrigation. The average depth of wells in Randullabad is 10 m. Almost 90% wells in
Randullabad are used for irrigation. The deepest well in Randullabad, like in Muthalane, is the public
drinking water well having depth of 18m (55 feet).

Abdasa block of Kachchh is perhaps the largest user of groundwater

among the six locations. There are 2323 dug wells and 3688 bore
wells in the Kankavati sandstone area. The shallow dug wells are 15
m. deep while bore wells are 120 to 140 m deep. Out of these, 1818
wells are defunct today due to drying up of these wells or due to the
ingress of saline water. Only 22% wells are in use. In case of bore
wells 3218 bore wells are in use and some 13% bore wells are not,
primarily due to salinity ingress. The bore wells are mostly
concentrated in the central part of the block around Kothara village.
All these 80 villages are dependent on groundwater for drinking water supply. There are a couple of
irrigation dams in the block which are mainly used for irrigation. In Kamaghuna village, there are 3
dug wells and 1 bore well and Vatachhad there are 3 dug wells, 2 bore wells and 1 dug-cum-bore-
well. These two villages are dependent on groundwater for drinking water. There are some farmers
directly lifting water from the adjacent dam for irrigation, although the percentage of such farmers is
small. There are 31 surface water structures like check dams and ponds which are used as water

14
sources by cattle. Some of these also function as percolation tanks / ponds for groundwater
recharge.

In Pargi cluster, there are 283 bore wells and 148 dug wells
used mainly for drinking water. Out of these wells, 6 bore
wells and 74 dug wells are shared among the community for
meeting drinking water demands. In Pargi, people share their
dug wells but seldom share their bore wells. There are 598
bore wells which are used for irrigation while there are 53 dug
wells and 38 minor irrigation tanks which are also used for
irrigation. In Thanakasoga Panchayat, there are sources like
springs, baoris, nalas and public taps which people use but were not well maintained. In the three
villages of Thanakasoga Panchayat there are 10 baoris (spring-wells) and 2 seasonal springs. Water is
these sources decreases during summer season and the community faces acute water scarcity.

Agriculture pattern

Agriculture in Muthalane village is rain fed. There are only a couple of farmers practicing irrigated
farming. Being a tribal village, farmers in Muthalane are only „second generation farmers‟ following
relatively traditional practices of agriculture with limited inputs in the form of modern practices.
Paddy is the main crop grown during kharif season along with some
pulses. Much of the paddy is grown based on the method of
„transplanted‟ paddy that is practiced on a large scale in the western
ghat highlands in this region. During rabi season, a few farmers
grow gram, pearl millet and sorghum, mainly residual soil moisture
after the monsoon ceases. The overall agriculture yields in
Muthalane during kharif and rabi season were quite low at the
baseline of this project. Randullabad is a village where more than 70% land was under irrigation
when the project began. It is one of the progressive villages in western Maharashtra. In kharif
season, farmers grow potato, peas and beans for which they have assured market linkages. Farmers
in Randullabad grow food grains like sorghum, wheat and pearl millet during the rabi season. Some
farmers also grow vegetables in summer. In Muthalane and Randullabad, many farmers have
invested in horticulture and are getting good returns.

In Abdasa block and Kamaghuna Vatachhad villages of Kachchh

district farmers take both kharif and rabi crops. However, the
percentage of rabi cropping is almost half of the kharif cropping.
cotton, castor, pulses and sunflower are the main kharif crops
while wheat and gram are the main rabi crops. In Pargi cluster,
cotton, maize, paddy, red gram and groundnut are the main
crops. Almost 77% land is rain fed while only 13% land is under
irrigation. Paddy and groundnut are the two main irrigated crops

15
which are grown in both kharif and rabi season. In Thanakasoga area of Himachal Pradesh, maize is
the main crop during kharif and wheat is grown in rabi season.

Demography

Each organization has chosen 1-2 villages to carry out action research. These selected locations, in
most of the cases, are inhabited by poor marginalized communities. The demographic data shows
that ST (Scheduled Tribes), SC (Scheduled caste), BC (Backward caste) and Muslim are the
dominant communities in all locations. In Muthalane 100% population belong to ST and SC
communities, in Kamaghuna and Vatachhad 100% population is Muslim, in Thanakasoga and Pargi,
where there are mixed populations, a majority belongs to ST, SC and BC communities. In
Randullabad, however, the majority population belongs to „General‟ community.

Location Number of Families Population Male Female Communities

Muthalane 152 805 427 378 ST, SC

Randullabad 351 2002 1086 916 ST, SC, General
Kamaghuna- 117 914 448 466 Muslim
Vatachhad
Thanakasoga 217 1437 747 690 ST, SC, General
Pargi cluster 2159 8214 4569 3645 ST, SC, BC,
General
Table 3: Demographic information of six pilot locations

*Pargi is one village of Narayanpur cluster and data given in the table is for the whole cluster

Land use

Land use pattern of an area has a significant bearing on the groundwater condition of that area.
Land use data shows that majority of the agricultural land in the PGWM action research locations is
rain-fed (except for Randullabad). Large amount of the land is fallow in all the locations and forest
common land & pastures also occupy significant part of land in all the locations. In Thanakasoga,
around 50% of the total area is under common land and pastures but in other locations common
lands and pastures account for only 3-5% of the total land-use. In Randullabad 60-70 % of the total
land is under agriculture while in Pargi cluster and Thanakasoga it is as low as 45% and 30%
respectively. Similarly percentage of fallow land is also varying across different locations. All the area
where availability of agricultural land is high their groundwater use at present will be high and there
is a possibility that in future, if farmers make more investments on groundwater structures,
groundwater use will significantly increase. At the same time those locations where percentage of
forest land, fallow land and common land & pastures is high there is a great possibility of doing
groundwater recharge measures.

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Location Cultivated Cultivated Fallow land Forest common Total
Irrigated Land Rain fed Land land & Land
Land pastures

Muthalane 3 567 249 21 - 840

Randullabad 48.1 465.023 147.37 170.86 24.99 856.343

Kamaghuna- 7428.59
Vatachhad
Thanakasoga 27.7 161.39 64.79 75.02 312.52 641.42
Pargi cluster 2049 8850 10385 1050 666 23000
Table 4: Land use information of six pilot locations

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Methodology
The methodology for implementation of PGWM involves scientific understanding of groundwater
and understanding of social structure of the village. Since, this is a Participatory Groundwater
Management programme, hydrogeology or groundwater science and social sciences must go hand in
hand. Hence, the methodology in the action research process involved the following steps.

PROCESSES OUTCOMES

Identification of PGWM sites based on the crisis Aquifer delineation and preparation of aquifer
(resource-based) and need felt (community- maps
interface)

Collection of base line information Development of groundwater balance

(toposheet, cadastral maps, DPR etc.)

Understanding of groundwater problem Development of simple protocols for water

conservation and best methods
Geological mapping & preparation of geological of groundwater use for each village
map

Establishing monitoring network (Weather Preparation of groundwater management plan

station, well inventory, water level data, „V‟ (includes formation of groups,
notch) Water conservation techniques)

Basic orientation and training of the

implementing staff on groundwater Introducing any relevant methods for
And PGWM groundwater development and
Management (for crop water management,
Socio economic survey (related to water and drinking water security)
groundwater problems)

Water quality analysis (Twice a year: in pre Advocating the findings of the study in the
monsoon and post monsoon season) village and at various other platforms

Conducting pumping tests

Analysis of data

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Chapter 4: Hydrogeology- a basis for understanding groundwater

Hydrogeology is the science which mainly deals with groundwater. Hydrogeological investigations
are the primary exercise in understanding groundwater-related problems and tailoring responses
through the process of groundwater management (Badarayani et al, 2009) It includes some reference
to the altitude, slope and the morphology of land; however, its main component is the study of
geology and its influence on the accumulation and movement of groundwater as well as the quality
of groundwater. All PGWM partners have conducted a detailed geological study of the area leading
to geological maps, that form the basis for aquifer delineation in the respective areas.

Geology of Muthalane and Randullabad

Muthalane and Randullabad villages are part of Deccan Volcanic Province. Both these villages are
underlain by Deccan basalts formed from the eruption of basalt lava some 65 million years ago.
These basalt lava „flows‟ vary in thickness from a few meters up to 10s or even 100s of meters.
Each lava flow can further be divided into sub-units. In general, the Deccan basalts can be grouped
into two categories, „simple‟ or „compound‟ depending on the viscosity of the primary lava
(Deshmukh, 1988; Kale and Kulkarni, 1992). The simple flows equate to classic flood basalts formed by
quite effusive eruption of very large quantities of low viscosity lava from open fissures. Hence,
simple flows can be assumed to be formed from lava that can travel great distances. The compound
flows are either the product of explosive activity from more viscous lavas or can be formed at the
distal portion of simple flows where there is an increased viscosity from cooling and degassing.
Compound flows are formed when lava can flow only to limited distances when extruded on the
surface of the earth.

Both types of basalt flows tend to weather variably even across small outcrops. The compound flow
basalts result from lavas, which lose much of their volatile gases prior to extrusion and hence are
more viscous. This greater viscosity causes the remaining volatile gases to be trapped within the
rapidly solidifying lava. The lava is characterized by rubbly upper and lower surfaces. Fragmentation
of the upper surface results from the disruption of the viscous crust by the movement of the flow
beneath it. Some compound flows may be devoid of a compact middle layer. Although distinction is
made between the two flow types, gradations between simple and compound flows are not
uncommon since the effects of the loss of volatiles and cooling will increase the viscosity of the lava
and cause a change in physical characteristics (Macdonald et al, 1995). Randullabad village has simple
flows as against compound flows in Muthalane.

In Muthalane, flows can be broadly categorized as Compound flows, Simple flows and 3Giant
Phenocryst Basaltic flows. Muthalane also has a number of fractures and dykes which control the
movement of water. There are three major fracture zones (showing NE-SW trend and NW-SE
trend) and a couple of dykes which criss-cross each other at the center of village. Two types of
3
Giant Phenocryst Basalt (GPB) – It is type of basalt with some crystals of Feldspar which are larger in size than the
smaller microcrystalline groundmass.

19
basalts are seen in Randullabad, the vesicular amygdaloidal basalts4 and the compact basalts5. These
two types of basalts occur as alternating layers. Eighteen units of simple lava flows are seen in the
village. Figure 7 shows the geological map of Muthalane (A) and Randullabad (B).

(A)

4
Vesicular amygdaloidal basalt – It is a dark-colored, fine-grained extrusive igneous rock with vesicles. These
vesicles are sometimes filled with amygdales.
5
Compact basalt – It is a dark-colored, fine-grained extrusive igneous rock which is hard dense and compact.

20
(B)
Figure 8: Geological map of Randullabad (A) and Muthalane (B) village

Geology of Kamaguna-Vatachhad and Kankavati sandstone area

Kamaguna and Vachhad are located on the Jurassic sandstone while some 80 villages in Abdasa
taluka are underlain by Kanakavati sandstone (Tertiary) which is mainly a sedimantry formation.
The main rocks found here are sandstone, shale and alluvium in layers. Alluvium is the shallow
aquifer in Vatachhad village. Sandstone and shale intercollation is seen in the stream existing in
north direction of vatchhad village. Minor fault is also seen. Sand stone and sand stone+ shale
intercollation are formed nearby. In addition to this, during survey of new construted wells, at
some depth carbonasous shale is also found.

Period Area Type of rocks

Quaternary Kankavati river basin Unconsolidated alluvium

Tertiary Kankavati river basin Miliolietic Limestone, Kankavati
sandstone
Cretaceous Deccan basalt
Jurassic Kamaguna - Vatachhad Sandstone, Sandstone + Shale

Kamaguna – Vatcchad villages are underlain by sandstones / calcareous sandstones with

interbedded shales. The sandstones are relatively thin and weathered sporadically. They tend to form

21
local aquifers. At places, such as east of Kamaguna village, the sandstone is overlain by alluvium
while to the west of the village, a sandstone-shale intercalated sequence. Limestone with higher
permeabilities are also observed to the north of Vatachhad village.

Kankavati river basin is underlain mainly be sandstones, with some horizons of clay and occasional
conglomerates. The sandstone is fine grained and indurated at places but the most significant feature
of the sandstone is its extent and depth along with fracture zones and other such linear features that
accord it regional hydraulic continuity.

Tectonic features like fault, fold and dike are also seen very clearly in all the villages, in Kamaguna,
Vatacchad and the villages lying in the Kankavati river basin. As a result of tectonic activities, there
are numerous open fractures found in rocks in all the three areas.

Folding layer near drinking water pond for animals in Fractures in the stream near village Kamaghuna
village Kamaghuna

Figure 9: Geological map of Kachchh area

22
Geology of Thanakasoga, Sirmour, Himachal Pradesh

Thanakasoga Panchayat is located in the Himalayan region, in the transition zone between Siwalik
and Lesser Himalaya. The Siwalik ranges are composed of the youngest sediments (consolidated and
unconsolidated) and are believed to have formed due to a major episode of upheaval some 25
million years ago. These sediments were deposited by the rivers draining the rising Himalayas. The
Siwalik are composed of dark red, brown to grey coloured sandstones and shale. At many places, the
sandstones are soft and massive interspersed with conglomerate and silt layers. Lesser Himalaya is
extensively covered by sedimentary rocks which have been partly metamorphosed. The dominant
lithology in the lesser Himalaya includes quartzite, carbonate rocks and phyllite. The sequence in the
lesser Himalayas generally starts with quartzite at the base overlain by thinly bedded slate, limestone
and dolomite. However, alternation of such a sequence is not uncommon at local scales. The
younger formations are composed of carbonates and phyllite. Thanakasoga Panchayat is located in
the transitional zone between Siwalik and lesser Himalaya and therefore, the geology dominantly
consists of quartzite, phyllite and sandstone. Figure 10 shows the geological map of Thanakasoga
panchayat.

Figure 10: Geological map of Thanakasoga Panchayat

The hydrogeology of the seven sources (baori and springs) is studied in detail as part of the action
research. The springs of this area are either fracture-controlled or depression springs. The fracture
controlled springs are formed due to the presence of 3-4 major fracture zones observed in the area.
Depression springs are formed when the groundwater table intercects the ground surface. Springs &
baori in Thanakasoga, Luhali and Dhyali show alternating layers of quartzite and phyllite. These
fractures are mainly present in the NE- SW direction, although one fracture zone trends EW while a
fault zone trending NE-SW is also observed. Figure 10 depicts the lithology and structures in the

23
rocks of Thankasoga, Dhyali and Luhali in context to various water sources that were part of the
action research in this panchayat.

Figure 11: Cross section of Thanakasoga, Luhali and Dhyali village

Geology of Pargi area

The geology of Pargi area consists of rocks of Peninsular Gneissic Complex along with enclaves of
schist6, basic dykes, a thin cover of Deccan Traps and Laterite. Bands of migmatites7 resulting from
intermixture of the granitoids and the older metamorphics occur at
several places. Granite is widely distributed throughout the area. It
is grey to pink, medium to coarse-grained, porphyritic and non-
porphyritic and massive. It occupies higher topographic levels
forming denudation hills8, dome-shaped mounds (inselbergs) and
boulder outcrops. The dykes are oriented E-W, NE-SW and N-S,

6
Schist: Schist is a medium-grade metamorphic with medium to large, flat, sheet-like grains in a preferred orientation
(nearby grains are roughly parallel).
7 Migmatites: Migmatites are mixture of igneous and metamorphic rocks. It is created when a metamorphic rock such

as gneiss partially melts, and then that melt recrystallizes into an igneous rock, creating a mixture of the un-melted
metamorphic part with the recrystallized igneous part
8
Denudation: In denudation, the elevation and relief of landforms is reduced by the processes like weathering and
erosion.

24
with widths of 7 to 50m and length up to several kilometers. The basaltic lavas of the Deccan Traps
cover either the Bhima sediments or the granitoids, around Vikarabad, Tandur and Pargi. These
include different flows of basalt and intertrappean9 beds. The thickness of each flow varies from 15
to 20 m. Intertrappean beds, red tuffaceous layers and vesicular tops are some of the characteristic
features in the Deccan Trap area. The Deccan basalts are hard and fine to medium-grained. In situ
weathering of basaltic flows has resulted in the development of laterite. NW-SE and NNE-SSW
trending lineaments and faults are common in the area. A series of WNW-ESE trending faults are
seen in the southeastern part of the area. Figure 11 shows the generalized geology of Pargi area.

Figure 12: Geological map of area around Pargi, district Rangareddy, Andhra Pradesh (After Geological Survey
of India, 1995)

9
Intertrappean bed: The Intertrappean Beds are a Late Cretaceous geologic formation in India

25
Water level
Groundwater level measurement forms the basic building block to understanding groundwater
resources (Brassington, 2007). Sustained measuring and monitoring has been the backbone of the
PGWM action research program. ACWADAM, ACT and WASSAN have collected the well and
bore well water levels while PSI team has collected the spring discharge data over the programme
period of three years.

ACWADAM has monitored the well water levels in

Figure 12
both the villages on a monthly basis. In Muthalane
water level data was collected for 19 wells while in
Randullabad, water level data was collected for 29
wells. This data was used to prepare the
hydrographs for well water levels and also for
preparing groundwater contour maps. Figure 12
shows groundwater contour map for Randullabad.
In Muthalane and Randullabad, there is no
significant difference in the geometry of water table
contours in the pre monsoon and post monsoon
season. However, in both the villages there is rise in water level in the post monsoon season.

Similarly ACT has collected water level data for their three pilot sites. In Kamaghuna - Vatachhad,
ACT has monitored 6 wells and 2 bore wells on monthly basis. ACT has also monitored 38 wells
and 30 bore wells twice a year in the Kankavati basis area - once in pre monsoon season (April-May)
and once in post monsoon season (December-January). There was some pre monsoon water level
data available for Kankavati sandstone area for 2006 as well. ACT has compared the pre monsoon
water level data for 2006 and 2012. There is a significant difference in the geometry of the water
table contours in these two maps.

In 2006, the water levels were pretty shallow (<5 m.) in most part of the coastal alluvial area. In the
western and northern part of Abdasa district, the water levels were at 15 m below the ground level.
The water table was quite deep in the central and eastern part of the taluka at 50 m below ground
level. The water levels were deeper, especially in the area north and north east of Kothara village. In
2012, a significant change in the pre monsoon water levels can be noted. In 6 years, the water levels
have gone down in the southern and eastern part of Kothara village. The water levels which were
quite shallow (<5 m) near the coast in the alluvial area, have gone deeper - from 5 m bgl to almost
50 m bgl in these six years. This decrease can be attributed to the overexploitation of groundwater,
probably as a consequence of new industries that have come up near the coast. The average water
levels in the eastern part of the district are around 30 to 35 m bgl. In the northern part of Abdasa
taluka, there is a rise in the water level, particularly in the Kankavati sandstone aquifer, where the
water levels have come up from 15 m to less than 5 m bgl. This increase in the water level in the
northern part can be attributed to the intensive watershed work undertaken in this part of the taluka.
Figure 13 shows pre monsoon static water level map of two seasons for Abdasa taluka, Kachchh.
26
ACT has done similar observations during the PGWM study where data was collected for 36 dug
wells in pre monsoon and post monsoon season of 2013-14. The groundwater contour map for
Kankavati sandstone area of Abdasa shows that there is an increase in the groundwater table by 5m
in the post monsoon season especially in the northern part of the taluka. Figure 13 shows
groundwater contour map for wells in Kankavati sandstone area, Abdasa in pre monsoon and post
monsoon season of 2013-14.

Figure 13: Groundwater contour map for wells in Kankavati sandstone area in pre monsoon and post monsoon
season 2013-14

Pargi cluster of Telangana

Pargi cluster comes under Narayanpur watershed which includes 11 villages. All these villages are
dependent of groundwater and extracting water from the bore wells. There are more than 1100 bore
wells which irrigate the total area of more than 1200 ha. Naskal and Sultanpoor have more than 240
bore wells each in the village. Out of the 1100 bore wells, only 18 wells are seasonal or defunct. All
the other wells are perennial and are used for agriculture. Farmers have made an individual
investment of around Rs.47000 on each bore well. The average depth of the bore well is around 155
m. A 5 HP motor is installed on each bore well and the bore well is pumped for 6 hours every day.
The average discharge per well is 3 inches (150 lpm). Farmers irrigate their wells through flood
irrigation and only 8% farmers use drip or sprinklers for irrigation. Paddy is the main crop which is
grown in kharif and rabi season. Besides paddy, turmeric, cotton and red gram are grown during
kharif. Groundnut is the main Rabi crop. Farmers in Pargi also grow jowar, maize, pulses, vegetables
and fruits in the form of orchards. In PGWM programme, WASSAN has monitored 19 wells in four
villages. In Rangampally, Roopkhanpet and Chiguralpally five wells were monitored between May
2013 and Jan 2014 while in Sultanpoor four wells were monitored for the same period. The bore
wells no. SUL 1, SUL 3 from Sultanpoor, RKP 1 & RKP 3 from Roopkhanpet, CGP 2 & CGP 4
from Chiguralpally show more or less constant water level while SUL 2, SUL 4 (Sultanpoor) and
CGP3(Chiguralpally) show late recharge. Bore wells in Rangampally show a greater fluctuation
during the rainy season. Figure 14 shows the well hydrograph for selected wells in Pargi cluster.

27
Figure 14: Well hydrograph for selected wells from four villages in Pargi cluster

Spring discharge measured for Thanakasoga Panchayat

In the Himalayan region there are no wells. The entire village is dependent upon spring water and
therefore measurement of spring discharge is very critical. In Thanakasoga Panchayat 12 sources
including 10 baoris – „spring wells‟ and 2 dharas – „springs‟ were monitored. Six of these were in
Thanakasoga and 3 each in Dhyali and Luhali. A significant
increase in the discharge was noticed in the baoris of those areas
where recharge activities were carried out. It is observed that in
baori 5 in Dhyali village (Sitaji-ki-baori), there is a significant
increase in discharge in monsoon season. Out of the three springs
in Dhyali village, this baori is the only perennial source showing a
discharge of 5 lpm even in the lean season. The remaining two
baoris B-6 and B-7 have very low discharge in the summer. In
Thanakasoga, springs are seasonal while the baoris are perennial. The seasonal spring has very good
discharge of 20-45 lpm during monsoon but this spring dries up in the summer. The baoris have less
discharge, but provide water throughout the year. The peak discharge in these baoris is between 15-
18 lpm during monsoon, which falls to as low as 1 lpm during summer. Figure 16 (A and B) shows
the discharge in Dhyali and Thanakasoga village respectively.

28
 (A)

(B)

(C)
Figure 15: Spring discharge hydrographs for Dhyali, Thanakasoga and Luhali springs

29
In Luhali village, the baoris have limited discharge but the three baoris are perennial. Baori 4 has the
highest discharge of 11 lpm during rains which goes down to 1 lpm during summer. Baori 1 has very
low discharge of 2-4 lpm during rains which goes down to 1 lpm during summer. Interestingly, this
baori shows little increase in the discharge even after 890 mm of rainfall in 2012. One of the reasons
for this could be that rainfall may be influencing fluctuations in another source in the same system,
leaving this baori to tap into the basis storage of the aquifer system.

30
Chapter 5: Data

Weather data
Rainfall and evaporation are the two important components of a water balance. In the PGWM
action research, all the four partners have collected rainfall data. ACWADAM and WASSAN had
installed automatic weather stations to collect the weather information. ACT and PSI are collecting
rainfall data using rain gauges. ACWADAM has installed automated weather station at both the pilot
sites. In Muthalane and Randullabad, seven parameters were measured on hourly basis. These
parameters are temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, wind direction, solar radiation, rainfall
and evaporation. The evaporation is directly measured from the pan evaporimeter. The potential
evapotranspiration is calculated using the five above mentioned parameters. This data is used for
calculation of potential evapotranspiration, aridity index and also for crop planning. WASSAN has
installed the automated weather station in 2012 where they are collecting data for seven weather
parameters mentioned above. We are providing rainfall data here because that is the most common
data-set for weather parameters across all the action research sites.

Rainfall

The rainfall was measured for both the pilot locations that ACWADAM was working in. In
Muthalane, the recorded rainfall was 974 mm, 1095 mm and 1364 mm for 2011, 2012 and 2013
respectively. This rainfall was close to the average annual rainfall. In Randullabad, there was low
rainfall in 2011 and 2012. The recorded rainfall for Randullabad in the three years between 2011 and
2013 was 518 mm, 481 mm and 948 mm respectively. Figure 16 shows rainfall for Muthalane and
Randullabad between 2011 and 2013. Clearly, Muthalane is a relatively higher rainfall area, while
Randullabad falls in a near rain-shadow zone. Moreover, while in Muthalane, the peak rainfall month
was July across all three years, the distribution of rainfall across months varied in Randullabad.

Figure 16: Rainfall for three years (2011-2013) for Muthalane and Randullabad

A typical feature of the rainfall in Kachchh is the predominance of rain in the month of September,
implying the possibilities of later recharge to many of the aquifer systems in the region. In Kachchh
district of Gujarat, the rainfall was higher in 2011 (the difference being rainfall in the month of

31
August in 2011 as compared to much lesser amounts in August in 2012 and 2013) but in the
subsequent years, there is a significant decrease in the rainfall. In Bhuj and Abdasa taluka, the rainfall
in 2011 was 524mm and 536mm respectively. In Bhuj, there is a decrease in rainfall by about 40% in
the subsequent years. In 2012 and 2013, the rainfall was 210 mm and 320 mm respectively. In
Abdasa taluka there was a decrease in rainfall by almost 60%. In 2012 and 2013, the total rainfall in
Abdasa was 180 mm and 187 mm respectively. Figure 17 shows the rainfall for three years in Bhuj
and Abdasa taluka of Kachchh, Gujarat.

Figure 17: Rainfall for three years (2011-2013) for Abdasa and Bhuj

In Dhyali village of Sirmour district of Himachal Pradesh, PSI has installed one manual rain gauge in
2012. The total rainfall in 2012 was 895 mm in monsoon season (between June and September). The
rainfall was 206 mm (February 2013) in winter. In one hydrological year of 2012-13, the total rainfall
in Dhyali was 1101 mm. In 2013-14, Dhyali received 1269 mm rainfall in monsoon season and 82
mm rainfall in winter season totaling 1351 mm of total rainfall for the year. Figure 18 shows monthly
rainfall for Dhyali.

Figure 18: Rainfall in Dhyali between June 2012 and March 2014

32
The rainfall data for Pargi was not available for the project period and therefore, rainfall data for
Rangareddy district is given for the five years between 2010 and 2012. The rainfall in 2010 was 1110
mm while 2011 and 2012 was 516 mm and 789 mm respectively.

Figure 19: Rainfall data for Rangareddy district between 2010 and 2012

Potential Evapotranspiration

The combination of two separate processes whereby water is lost from the soil surface by
evaporation and from the vegetation by transpiration is referred to as evapotranspiration (ET).
Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no easy way of distinguishing
between the two processes. It is expressed in millimeters (mm) per unit time. The rate expresses the
amount of water lost from a cropped surface in units of water depth. The principal weather
parameters affecting evapotranspiration are solar radiation, air temperature, humidity and wind
speed. The evaporation power of the atmosphere is expressed by reference crop evapotranspiration
(ETo) which represents the evapotranspiration from a standardized vegetated surface. ETo can be
computed from meteorological data. As a result of an Expert Consultation held in May 1990, the
FAO Penman-Monteith method is recommended as the standard method for the definition and
computation of the reference evapotranspiration. (FAO Irrigation and Drainage paper 56, ISSN 0254-
5284). ACWADAM has calculated reference ET for Randullabad between March 2011 and March
2013. The Penman-Monteith equation is used to compute the ETo for Randullabad using weather
data. It is observed that the ETo varies from 1 mm/day to 9 mm/day. The ETo is minimum during
June-July and is maximum in March. Figure 20 shows the daily Reference ETo for Randullabad from
March 2011 to March 2013.

33
 Daily Reference ETo and rainfall for Randullabad between March 2011
and March 2013
10.00 90

9.00 Rainfall ETo 80

8.00
70
7.00
60
6.00
ETo in mm.

50
5.00
40
4.00
30
3.00
20
2.00

1.00 10

0.00 0
01-03-2011
01-04-2011
01-05-2011
01-06-2011
01-07-2011
01-08-2011
01-09-2011
01-10-2011
01-11-2011
01-12-2011
01-01-2012
01-02-2012
01-03-2012
01-04-2012
01-05-2012
01-06-2012
01-07-2012
01-08-2012
01-09-2012
01-10-2012
01-11-2012
01-12-2012
01-01-2013
01-02-2013
01-03-2013
Figure 20: Daily Reference ETo and rainfall for Randullabad between March 2011 and March 2013

It was felt important to attempt some estimates of crop evapotranspiration, as part of the action
research. Evapotranspiration is a consequence of „water available‟ on the ground surface and to
crops (mainly in the root zone). Such water is available either as a consequence of rainfall (during the
kharif) and from groundwater pumping (during the rabi and summer seasons) in many of PGWM
project sites. The reference potential evapotranspiration data is used for calculating the crop
evapotranspiration in Randullabad. The crop evapotranspiration differs distinctly from the reference
evapotranspiration (ETo) as the ground cover, canopy properties and aerodynamic resistance of the
crop are different from grass. The effects of characteristics that distinguish field crops from grass are
integrated into the crop coefficient (Kc). In the crop coefficient approach, crop evapotranspiration
is calculated by multiplying ETo by Kc. Single (time averaged) crop coefficients, Kc, and mean
maximum plant heights for non-stressed, well managed crops in sub-humid climates (RHmin= 45%,
u2= 2m/s) were used with the FAO Penman-Monteith ETo values to calculate the Crop ETo.

In Randullabad, potato and beans are the main kharif crops while wheat, sorghum, green pea and
chick pea are the main rabi crops. Crop ETo is calculated using the Kc values (Crop
Evapotranspiration, FAO irrigation and drainage paper 56, pages 110-113) for initial, mid and maturity stage
for each crop. The calculated crop evapotranspiration values using formula, ETc = Kc * ETo is
given below.

34
 Crop ETc (initial ETc(mid ETc (maturity Season
stage) stage) stage)
Potato 0 mm/day 3.65 mm/day 2.27 mm/day Kharif
Beans 1.42 mm/day 3.75 mm/day 1.27 mm/day Kharif
Sorghum 0.68 mm/day 4.48 mm/day 3.63 mm/day Rabi
Wheat 1.37 mm/day 4.91 mm/day 2.69 mm/day Rabi
Gram 0 mm/day 4.27 mm/day 2.31 mm/day Rabi
Table 5: Crop evapotranspiration for different crops in Randullabad.

Water quality
Water quality is an important issue as far as groundwater is concerned. As per the study conducted
by the Department of Drinking Water Supply (DDWS) in 2007, 35% districts of the surveyed 593
districts of the country have problems related to excessive amount of Arsenic, Fluoride, Iron and
Nitrate. At present 90% of the rural water supply is from groundwater and therefore, study of
groundwater quality becomes very critical. In the PGWM action research, adequate importance was
given to the water quality issue. This problem is more critical in Kachchh where salinity is a major
issue. In Himalayan area, biological contamination is a major problem with high amount of fecal
coliform found in the spring water. In the hard rock areas like Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh,
water quality issues are not that serious although there is some deterioration in the quality of
groundwater observed, especially when water from progressively deeper aquifers is used.

The overall groundwater quality in Deccan Basalt is good. Typically, in Muthalane and Randullabad,
the pH of groundwater is between 7 and 9 and TDS is between 300 and 600 ppm. The groundwater
is dominantly of Ca-Mg-HCO3 type. In Muthalane the quality of groundwater is very good and there
is very little temporal variation in the water quality observed throughout the year. In Randullabad,
there is a difference between the water quality of dug wells and hand pumps. The hand pumps show
greater degree of mineralization than the shallow dug wells. Water in the shallow aquifers is more of
Ca-HCO3 type while water in deeper aquifer shows Na-Cl-SO4 type water clearly providing
evidence of greater mineralization. Figure 21 shows the difference in the quality of dug well and hand
pump water.

35
 Water quality: dug well (W1) Water quality : GP HP1

Chlorides Sulphates Fluorides Calcium Chlorides Sulphates Fluorides Calcium

Sodium Iron Magnesium Potassium
Sodium Iron Magnesium Potassium
Nitrates Bicarbonates
Nitrates Bicarbonates

Figure21: Pie chart showing water quality for dug well and hand pump

In Muthalane and Randullabad, the proportion of samples showing biological contamination is low
and the overall groundwater quality was found to be suitable for drinking and domestic use.

Water quality is a major problem in Kachchh, Gujarat. Groundwater salinity ingress is one of the
biggest problems along the coastal areas of Kachchh. It has been observed that the area up to 6 km
from sea coast is severely affected by sea water intrusion. Moderate to strong soil salinity has also
been recorded in the coastal tracts. Sea water intrusion and extent of soil salinity are on the increase
every year. (Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM), GoI, 2002) As per the ICMAM
data, 32215 ha area in Abdasa is affected by saline soils. There are 40 medium and large industries
located in the Gulf of Kachchh, half of which are located in Kachchh district, with the potential to
influence the quality of water.

ACT under PGWM programme has collected data for the total dissolved solids for two seasons;
pre- monsoon (April 2013) and post monsoon (January 2014). In the Kankavati sandstone areas,
there is a vast difference in the TDS values ranging from 120 ppm to 4930 ppm in both the seasons.
ACT has collected data for 53 sources which includes samples from 29 dug wells and 24 bore wells.
It is observed that 8 dug wells and 8 bore wells show increase in the TDS in post monsoon. The
remaining 21 dug wells and 16 bore well samples show dilution and decrease in the TDS in the post
monsoon season. The dilution of salts is more prominent in the bore wells than the dug wells. As
seen in figure 22 there is dilution observed in the dug wells in the post monsoon season. There is an
overall decline in the TDS values from 4200 ppm to 3600 ppm. However there is an increase in the
TDS observed around Rampar Gadh and Mokashivandh villages in the post monsoon season
probably indicating different recharge cycles for different aquifers in the Kankavati sandstone
aquifer system (Figure 22).

36
 Figure 22 Showing the change in the TDS in dug wells in the two seasons for Abdasa

In case of bore wells, there is a dissipation of salts in the post monsoon season. In villages like
Bhanada and Shiru Vandh the TDS is above 4000 ppm in the pre monsoon season. However this
TDS gets reduced to 1500 ppm to 2000 ppm in the post monsoon season. In village Nudhatal near
Kanakpar, there is an increase in the TDS indicating late recharge (Figure 23).

Figure 23 Showing the change in the TDS in bore wells in the two seasons for Abdasa

Pargi cluster

WASSAN has analysed 47 samples from the four project villages in the post monsoon season of
2010. In Chiguralpally and Rangampally 6 and 10 samples were analysed respectively while in
Roopkhanpet and Sultanpoor 11 samples were analysed. The pH of these samples was between 7.2
and 8.2 which are within safe limits. The average TDS of these samples was around 920 ppm which
is more than the prescribed limit of 500 ppm or less. A couple of samples from Roopkhanpet and
Chiguralpally have TDS above 2000 ppm. These samples are for post monsoon season where there
is some freshening after the rainfall. Figure 24shows the hydrograph for TDS is four villages of Pargi
cluster.

37
 2500
Total Dissolved Solids in four villages of Pargi cluster

2000 Total Dissolved Solids

1500

1000

500

Figure 24: Total dissolved solids in four villages of Pargi cluster

The concentration of Chlorides was found to be higher than the desired limit of 250 mg/l in
Chiguralpally and Roopkhanpet. In one of the sources in Roopkhanpet, the Fluoride concentration
was also found higher than the desired limit. The overall water quality in Roopkhanpet village is
poor with higher TDS, chlorides and sulphates in groundwater. In the other villages the water
quality is relatively good.

Thanakasoga Panchayat

Pre and post monsoon water quality analysis was conducted for all
the selected baoris in Thanakasoga panchayat. The parameters tested
were pH, electrical conductivity, chloride, nitrate, hardness, iron and
fecal coliform. All the parameters were within the permissible limits,
iron was found to be on a higher side during the post monsoon
period in 3 baoris of Thanakasoga village and fecal coliform bacteria
were detected in all the baoris during the before and after recharge
works but there is a significant decrease in the levels of fecal
coliform.

During rainy season fecal coliform contamination increases in the water sources due to presence of
secondary openings (fractures) in the quartzite and phyllite rocks which carry the bacterial
contaminated water from the surface to groundwater. In order to prevent this PSI team is creating
awareness about this issue through different activities to stop open defecation in the recharge zone
of the water sources. There is also a significant decline in the level of iron after recharge work
because the concentration of iron is reduced after artificial recharge and now the level of iron in all
the sources is within permissible limit.

38
Figure 25 shows the concentration of fecal coliform and iron in five samples of Thanakasoga Panchayat

39
Chapter 6: Aquifers

A groundwater bearing formation sufficiently permeable to transmit and yield water in usable
quantity is called an aquifer (Price, 1996). A geologic formation that forms an aquifer must contain
pores or open spaces though which water may be transmitted towards wells at a useful rate. The
yield of a well depends upon the aquifer properties and availability of water in the aquifer. Wells do
not completely penetrate the aquifer system quite often, which results in limited well-yields.
Moreover, working on the basic concept of participatory groundwater management mandates
perceiving groundwater resources as „common pool‟ resources. Aquifers, therefore, are the obvious
choice of applying the pedagogy of common pool resources to groundwater. Therefore, delineation
of aquifers is important in understanding the extent of the aquifer and its thickness (Kulkarni and
Deolankar, 1990) as well as forming a basis of managing groundwater at the scales of villages or
watersheds. Each of the four partners has delineated the aquifers in their respective action research
site.

In Muthalane, the groundwater system is constituted of two aquifers while in Randullabad there are
three aquifers that make up the groundwater system used by the village. Figure 26 shows the
conceptual model for Muthalane and Randullabad aquifers.

(A)

40
 (B)
Figure 26: Conceptual model for Muthalane (A) and Randullabad (B) aquifers

Thanakasoga panchayat

In Thanakasoga Panchayat, there are two types of sources: baori and dhara (as explained in the
previous chapter). The baoris are connected to the aquifer system through openings that have low to
medium transmission capacity although the aquifer storage that feeds the baoris is quite variable in
different cases. (from low to medium to high storage) while the springs are connected to aquifers
with openings that have high transmission capacity and variable aquifer storages. The categorization
according to transmission aspects of aquifers in each case are characterized in the table below.

S. Location Area Source Type Rock type Transmission Storage

No.

1 Thana-1 2.5 ha Baori + Fracture Highly Baori: Medium Baori:

seasonal controlled weathered Medium
spring depression spring Ferruginous
phyllite and
Spring: High
quartzite
Spring:

Low

2 Thana-2 2 ha Baori + 1 fracture spring weathered Baori: Low Baori: Low

seasonal and 1 depression Ferruginous
spring spring Phyllite
weathered
Spring: High Spring:
Low

3 Dhyali- 3 ha Baori Depression weathered Medium High

1(Sita) spring Phyllite

41
4 Dhyali-2 2 ha Baori Fracture spring Quartzite and Medium Low
phyllite
(Kishan)

5 Luhali 3 ha Baori Fracture spring Quartzite Medium Medium

Table 6: Thana Kasoga Spring characterization

A table is prepared indicating the aquifer characteristics of the six PGWM action research sites.

Parameter ACWADAM ACT PSI WASSAN

Randullabad Muthalane Kamaghuna Kankavati Thanakasoga Pargi

Vatachhad Sandstone

Rainfall (mm) 600-700 1000 180-670 430-780 1200 650-900

Annual 151 14 about 200 mm Could be of Small but Moderate –

aquifer the order of larger than of the order
storage (mm) 200 to 300 Muthalane – of of 150 to 200
mm, given the order of mm
the presence 100 mm
of multiple
aquifers

Annual 53 6 Significantly high Could not be at least of the High, but

aquifer as a proportion of determined due order of 30 to leakage to
recharge rainfall to the scale of 50 mm deeper
(mm) the aquifer systems at
least in parts
– could not be
quantified

Annual 62 5 Nearly 80 to 100 Could not be Natural springs High – more

aquifer mm determined due – 85 mm than 1000
discharge to the scale of mm from at
(mm) the aquifer least two to
three aquifers

Table 7: Aquifer characterization in six PGWM action research location

In Randullabad, the aquifer storage capacity is quite high as compared to Muthalane. However, there
is more discharge from the aquifer than the annual recharge in Randullabad. At present, Randullabad
is still in groundwater safe zone as it is leveraging the aquifer storage against the extra annual
discharge from the aquifer. If the condition prevails for next 10 years, there will be depletion in the
aquifer in Randullabad. As against this, in Muthalane, although the storage capacity of the aquifer is
less, there is a positive balance between the recharge and the discharge of the aquifer which will help
in maintaining the equilibrium.

42
Chapter 7: Groundwater management

Actions on the management front

The purpose of action research in a PGWM is to translate key elements of the research into decision
support for the community, leading to improved actions on groundwater management at the project
sites. Much of the action research at each of the PGWM sites has led to certain activities, which
reflect either in stimulating new or reformed actions on groundwater resource management in the
village or watershed. In some cases, action research has also strengthened village-level decisions that
helped holding key aspects of CPR management as part of the village sustainability plans. The
section below explains how each of the PGWM partners developed the interface of action research
and groundwater management at their respective action research sites.

Advanced Center for Water Resources Development and Management

(ACWADAM)
ACWADAM partnered with BAIF Development Research Foundation in Randullabad and Lupin
Foundation in Muthalane, both of whom were implementing watershed programmes in these two
villages through the Indo-German Watershed Programme (IGWP) funded through National Bank
for Agriculture and Rural Development. ACWADAM‟s action research fed into a number of
activities that these two organisations were implementing in the two villages. These activities are
listed below.

 Hydrogeology based advice on watershed planning, especially in locating or rejuvenating

recharge structures and identifying appropriate locations for water harvesting sites; provided
mainly as advice to implementing partners
 Sensitization and awareness generation activities in the village, mainly through structured
meetings as well as field-level interface with farmers and the community.
 Presentation of findings from action research at regular intervals with the community and
partner organisations with the purpose of instilling the concepts of equitable water
availability, efficient water use and sustainability of aquifers and watersheds
 Farmers sensitization through exposure visits to areas where ACWADAM and other
organisations had tackled groundwater issues, particularly to
introduce demand-side measures
 Promotion of water efficient methods of cropping like
System of Rice Intensification (SRI) for paddy cultivation
 Introduction of the concept of collective farming and
group-wells
 Demonstration plots for agriculture promotion (Muthalane)

43
  Preparation of drinking water security plans, particularly in terms of improve „risk
management‟ of drinking water sources vis-à-vis competition between irrigation and
domestic needs from key aquifers in the two villages

All these activities led to the preparation of groundwater management protocols for the two villages. The
groundwater management was prepared as a consolidated plan for the village, rather than for
individual (highly localized) aquifers in Muthalane, while in Randullabad, the groundwater
management plan was prepared for each of the three aquifers. Table 8 shows the groundwater
management protocols for Muthalane, the extent to which these protocols were applied and future
recommendations provided to Lupin Foundation in order to sustain engagement on PGWM.

Protocols Extent of application Future recommendations

Hydrogeology in  Lupin used ACWADAM‟s  Future watershed development activities –

Watershed suggestions on soil and water structures in recharge and discharge zones to be located
Programmes conservation interventions, appropriately – based on hydrogeological studies
particularly with regard to in the village.
percolation structures in recharge  Since this is a high rainfall area, the structures
areas and water harvesting should be constructed in such a manner that
structures (storage) in groundwater they should be able to last the heavy rainfall
discharge areas spell.
Recharge area  Has been specified but much of  Protection of recharge area
protection these areas are in high-relief  Regulation and control over open defecation,
zones or under submergence open grazing in recharge area.
(seasonally) of percolation
structures
 Some control over open
defecation and grazing can be
observed but needs improvement
Pump capacity   There is no electricity in the village and
regulation therefore farmers are using diesel pumps.
There are very few farmers who are actually
irrigating their land. The lands in Muthalane are
also undulating and one needs higher HP
pump to take water from the source to the
field. Therefore, pump capacity regulation
cannot be generalized in case of Muthalane as
is will be governed by many factors.
Regulation of distance  Group-wells were appropriately  There should not be any irrigation well within a
between wells located at distances greater than vicinity of 75 m from the drinking water in the
(Drinking well 75 m from one another future as well.
protection)

Depth Regulation (wrt  The drinking water well was  This protocol needs to be followed in the
drinking well) deepened to a reduced level that future as well.
was deeper than the base of any
other well in the village; this
ensured improved water
availability

44
Regulation of   At present, only 5% farmers actually irrigate
agricultural water their lands during rabi season. The water
requirement (crop availability in the village is also limited and
water requirement) therefore, the farmers should use water
efficient methods like sprinklers to make the
optimum use of the resource.
Groundwater sharing  Strictly followed on the basis of  This protocol needs to be followed in the
through community group wells, whereby nearly all future as well.
participation the farmers in the village are
networked through the well-user
groups
Drinking water quality  Was monitored continuously  There should be a continuous monitoring of
monitoring during the project phase quality in the future as the entire village is
dependent on this source for drinking water.
Officially ratified  Not applied  Not applicable
regulations to control
groundwater
overexploitation

Groundwater  Monitoring protocols were  Continued monitoring of at least groundwater

Monitoring to followed until the end of the levels, rainfall and basic water quality
understand the GW project in March 2014 parameters.
availability

Community  Was followed as an on-going  Sharing of information and data with

sensitization and process, with a regular frequency community must be ensured by organization
awareness generation working in the area
for groundwater use

Table 8: Groundwater management plan for Muthalane

A similar groundwater management plan was prepared for Randullabad. In Randullabad, 350 ha land
is under agriculture, which is about 41% of the total area of Randullabad village. The percentage of
irrigated land is almost the same as the agricultural land. The sum of kharif, rabi and summer
cropped lands is 710 ha. Of this, only 10-15 Ha land is irrigated in summer. Potato, beans and peas
are the main kharif crops in Randullabad. A variety of crops are grown during the rabi season, with
the main crops being wheat, sorghum (or Jowar), sunflower, gram, peas and beans. Additionally,
farmers grow vegetables like capsicum, onion, tomato, fenugreek and brinjal in the rabi season.
Some farmers continue with this cropping pattern well into the summer season too. Farmers have
begun growing horticulture crops like pomegranate and figs during the last couple of years, as a
consequence of promotion by BAIF Development Research Foundation, ACWADAM‟s inputs on
groundwater availability and development of market linkages for such crops.

ACWADAM conducted a survey of all 167 dug wells in Randullabad and have attempted an aquifer
based analysis of groundwater. There are 55 wells in aquifer I, 69 wells in aquifer II and 41 wells in
aquifer III. Three wells out of 167 wells are not in use. All the remaining wells are used for irrigation.
Farmers in Randullabad pump these wells depending upon the cropping pattern and availability of
water in the wells. In Randullabad, farmers pump their wells for as less as 20 days and as high as 300

45
days. The pumping days also vary in three aquifers. Table 9 show the details of pumping for the
three aquifer systems.

Aquifer No. of wells Pumping days

<50 days 50 to 100 days >100 days
Aquifer I 55 51 % farmers 40% farmers 9% farmers
Aquifer II 69 28% farmers 49% farmers 23% farmers
Aquifer III 41 35% farmers 32% farmers 32% farmers
Table 9: Details of pumping for three aquifer systems in Randullabad

Farmers in aquifer I, are not able to take the summer crops due to limited water availability. In
aquifer II, farmers pump their wells to provide irrigation during kharif and rabi season. There are
some farmers having horticulture plantation. These farmers pump their wells to water these plants.
There are some farmers who grow vegetables on mulching paper and for these vegetables they
pump their wells in summer. In aquifer III, the distribution of farmers is evenly distributed. In
aquifer III, farmers grow vegetables in the summer and there are farmers having horticulture plants.
In the drought of 2012-13, 10 ha land was under summer irrigation in this aquifer. Figure 27shows
distribution of pumping days in the three aquifers of Randullabad.

Figure 27: Distribution of pumping days in Randullabad in three aquifers.

One of the major developments in Randullabad has been the introduction of technologies like drip
and sprinkler irrigation systems for efficient application of water
to crops. This has been a consequence of BAIF Developmet
Research Foundation‟s facilitation as well as the understanding
of groundwater use developed through ACWADAM‟s action
research. At present 43% farmers use drip/sprinklers for
irrigation as against 57% farmers using flood irrigation method.
The aquifer wise analysis shows that in aquifer I and II, 33%
farmers use this efficient water application techniques while in
aquifer III 44% farmers use drip/sprinkler.

Randullabad has a tradition of sharing wells. Sixty one percent wells in Randullabad are shared by
farmers. There are 51 individual wells and 16% of these individual wells are pumped for more than
100 days in a year. Most of these wells have limited use in rabi and kharif season. In aquifer I and II,
55% and 59% wells are shared respectively while in aquifer III, 65% wells are shared. In aquifer III
the use of groundwater is done equitably and efficiently.

46
The action research by ACWADAM, particularly the aquifer-based information, helped strengthen
the concept of „well sharing‟, including promotion of water sharing to ensure „protective irrigation‟
to cover as many farmers as possible.

Groundwater sharing in three aquifers

60

50

40 Aquifer III
30 Aquifer II
Aquifer I
20

10

0
>2 farmers >3 farmers >4 farmers >5 farmers

Figure 28: Groundwater sharing in the three aquifers

ACWADAM has also measured the discharge from each aquifer in 2012-13. This discharge is
measured using the specific yield method. In this method, aquifer area, specific yield of the aquifer
and the water level fluctuations are considered in estimating total discharge. Estimates of discharge
by the specific yield method were then cross checked by measuring the pumping hours and pumping
rates from each well. In 2012-13, the discharge from aquifer I was 54880 m3. The total discharge
from aquifer II and III was 538680 m3 and 40000 m3 respectively. ACWADAM has tried to calculate
the amount of water applied per ha land. In aquifer I, 548m3/ha (i.e. 54.8 mm / year) water was
applied while in aquifer II 1560 m3/ha (i.e. 156 mm / year) water was applied. In aquifer III, 156
m3/ha (i.e. 15.6 mm / year) was applied Table 1 shows the aquifer-wise discharge in Randullabad.

No. of Aquifer Area under Discharge Water

wells storage agriculture from aquifer applied
( m3) (Ha) (m3) per Ha
(m3)/ha
Aquifer I 55 67200 100 54880 548
Aquifer II 69 1179200 345 538680 1560
Aquifer III 43 50000 256 40000 156
Table 10 shows the aquifer wise discharge and per ha water use in Randullabad.

The water application per ha in three aquifers shows that in aquifer III, groundwater is used most
efficiently. In this aquifer maximum yield is obtained using minimum water. Farmers in this part of
the village are sharing groundwater, using efficient water application mechanisms and advance
farming techniques like the use of “mulch”. This is the aquifer where the drinking water wells of

47
Randullabad are located. Therefore, sustainable use of groundwater in this aquifer is critical as
it directly affects the drinking water security of the village.

The recharge measurement in 2012-13 shows that there is a total recharge of 712564 m3 and a total
discharge of 633560 m3 in the three aquifers. Table 11 shows the details of recharge and discharge in
the three aquifers.

Aquifer Recharge Discharge Use of water

Aquifer I 51520 m3 54880 m3 106 %
Aquifer II 611040 m3 538680 m3 80%
Aquifer III 50000 m3 40000 m3 80%
Total (for three 712564 m3 633560 m3 89%
aquifers)
Table 11 shows the details of recharge and discharge in the three aquifers

If in these systems, recharge is compared with the discharge from the aquifer, it appears that in
aquifer II and III the use of water is 80% as against 106% use in aquifer I and therefore, one may
conclude that the aquifer I is on the verge of overexploitation. At present it is in the critical stage but
poor management of groundwater may lead to overexploitation of the aquifer. The three aquifers in
Randullabad are closely linked to each other and therefore, mismanagement in one system may lead
to desolation in the other two systems. To overcome this situation, ACWADAM prepared a set of
protocols for the three systems. Table 11 shows the groundwater use protocols for thee aquifers in
Randullabad.

Protocols Aquifer 1 Aquifer 2 Aquifer 3

Hydrogeology in This protocol is necessary This protocol is necessary This protocol is not
Watershed for this aquifer as large part for this aquifer as some necessary for this
Programmes of recharge area falls on part of recharge area falls aquifer as no part of
this aquifer and exposed on on this aquifer and recharge falls in this
the surface. exposed on the surface. aquifer.

Recharge area This protocol is necessaryThis protocol is necessary This protocol is not
protection (Forest for this aquifer as large part
for this aquifer as some necessary for this
cover & of recharge area falls on part of recharge area falls aquifer as no part of
community lands) this aquifer and if not on this aquifer and if not recharge falls in this
protected it can put protected it can put aquifer.
negative effect on
negative effect on
availability and quality of
availability and quality of
groundwater in the village.
groundwater in the village.
Pump capacity This protocol is very This protocol is very This protocol is very
regulation necessary for this aquifer as
necessary for this aquifer necessary for this
the high pumping rates canas the high pumping rates aquifer as the high
lead to overexploitation. can lead to pumping rates can lead
overexploitation. to overexploitation.
Regulation of This protocol is not This protocol is not This protocol is very
distance between necessary in this aquifer as necessary in this aquifer as necessary for this
wells (Drinking there is no drinking water there is no drinking water aquifer as both the

48
well protection) well in this aquifer. well in this aquifer. drinking water wells are
in this aquifer and need
to be protected against
any interference
because of pumping in
nearby irrigation wells.
Depth Regulation This protocol is not This protocol is very This protocol is very
(wrt drinking well) necessary in this aquifer as necessary for this aquifer necessary for this
there is no drinking water as both the drinking water aquifer as both the
well in this aquifer. wells are tapping this drinking water wells are
aquifer and need to be tapping this aquifer and
protected against any need to be protected
interference due to against any interference
pumping in nearby due to pumping in
irrigation wells. nearby irrigation wells.
Regulation of This protocol is necessary This protocol is very This protocol is
agricultural water for this aquifer as currently necessary for this aquifer necessary for this
requirement (crop annual pumping from this as currently annual aquifer as currently
water aquifer is almost equal to pumping from this aquifer annual pumping from
requirement) annual recharge. It is is exceeding the annual this aquifer is almost
necessary to bring down recharge and utilizing the equal to annual
the water use for long term dead stock of aquifer. It is recharge. It is necessary
sustainability of the aquifer. necessary to bring down to bring down the water
the water use for long use for long term
term sustainability of the sustainability of the
aquifer. aquifer.
Groundwater This protocol is very This protocol is very This protocol is very
sharing through necessary for groundwater necessary for groundwater necessary for
community sustainability and its sustainability and its groundwater
participation equitable access to small equitable access to small sustainability and its
farmers. farmers. equitable access to small
farmers.

Drinking water This protocol is not This protocol is very

This protocol is very
quality monitoring necessary in this aquifer as necessary for this aquifer
necessary for this
there is no drinking water as drinking water sources
aquifer as drinking
well in this aquifer. are tapping this aquifer.
water sources are
tapping this aquifer.
Groundwater This protocol is necessary This protocol is necessary This protocol is
Monitoring to for the groundwater for the groundwater necessary for the
understand the understanding and annual understanding and annual groundwater
GW availability crop planning. crop planning. understanding and
annual crop planning.

Scale of acceptance of interventions by community

Substantial Satisfactory Low

Table 11: Protocols for three aquifers in Randullabad

49
Arid communities and technologies (ACT)
ACT implemented the PGWM programme at two locations. In Kamaghuna-Vatachhad, this
programme was implemented through Kachchh Nave Nirman Bahaman and Kodki Setu and in
Kankavati sandstone area with PARAB. Following activities were undertaken in both these locations

PGWM Pilot Activities Outcome

site
Kamaghuna - Social processes :- Social processes :-
Vatachhad  Preliminary meeting with villagers and  A committee is form for PGWM
feasibility study in Gramsabha
 Formulation of Village Committee for  Active Participation of committee
PGWM study and planning in in participatory R and D activity
Gramsabha  Sharing of Information about
 Regular committee meetings ground water among community
Information collection and study of through committee
area: Information collection and
 Base line data collection study of area:
o Secondary data  Understanding of Area with
o Village maps respect to socio-economic,
o Well inventory technical aspect like geo
o Surface water inventory hydrological aspect and water
o Monthly monitoring and demand –supply scenario and with
water sample collection and respect to specific drinking water
analysis source protection aspect
 Establishment of monitoring network Coordination:
 Coordination: Regular meeting and  Regular coordination and field visit
field visit with Kodki Setu team provide hand holding support to
member partner organization in all
 Planning:- Planning for registration of processes of PGWM
drinking water sources of village in Planning :-
Panchayat record  A file for water resource asset
registration is prepared
o Source Inventory and source  Resolution has passed for village
wise detailed documentation water asset in Gramsabha
has prepared for Panchayat  A proposal for drinking water
Asset registration well repair and renovation is
o Asset registration process in approved by KNNA under village
Gramsabha governance fund.
o Planning of recharge structure  Two check dam estimates
–Prepared estimate of drinking (recharge structures) for irrigation
water well repairing and and to support drinking water
renovation and prepare well recharge for Vatachhad
estimate of two check dams village has been prepared and one
check dam for irrigation purpose
R and D has been constructed with the
 Mapping R & D Activities help of government scheme.
o Base Map and Surface R and D
Geological map have prepared R and D will help in further PGWM
processes like ground water movement,

50
 o Water Resource map have aquifer mapping yield of drinking water
prepared well etc.
o Map verification with
community
 Geophysical survey around drinking
water source for aquifer mapping for
the purpose of drinking water source
protection

 Pump test has done on Vatachhad

drinking water well to test yield of well
for demand of village population.
Kankavati Social processes:-  Producer company and KFFDT is
Sandstone  Contact with villages key leaders to ready aquifer along with PARAB
form a clusters of villages and to share and ACT to participate actively in
concept of PGWM PGWM on Kankavati Sand stone
 Awareness seminar in collaboration  They have finalized three clusters
with PARAB ,Produce Company and (total 26 villages) as first
KFFDT has organize for Key farmers intervention.
and leaders of 82 villages of Abdasa  They have taken decision to
taluka covered in Kankavati Sandstone prepare and execute ground water
Aquifer protection guideline for drinking
 Follow up meeting –workshop after water in 13 villages of three
seminar has organize clusters.
Information collection and study of  Village-wise data collection and
area:- mapping for drinking water source
 Secondary Data Collection protection guideline are ongoing.
 Base map preparation and theme maps  Discussion of DWSP in three
preparation villages Gramsabha and
 Water Sampling and groundwater Gramsabha are ready to execute
quality assessment DWSP guideline and form study
 Groundwater Exploitation zoning committee.
mapping
o Village wise data survey of
groundwater resource has been
completed
 Well Monitoring and water sample
collection and analysis
Table 12: Details of activities and outcomes in ACT’s two pilot locations

51
People’s Science Institute (PSI)
PSI undertook action research in three locations where PSI itself worked as the project
implementing agency. PSI conducted action research, took up awareness generation activities and
implemented a set of activities as part of its direct interventions. Following activities were
undertaken by PSI.

PRA survey: To mobilize the community for participatory groundwater management, PSI‟s project
team held a number of meetings and conducted PRA exercises in Luhali, Dhyali and Thanakasoga
villages. These activities were used to enlist villagers‟ participation in successful implementation of
the PGWM action research project. The main objective behind conduction of PRA exercises in
these villages was to gather information related to water resources directly from the people - for
example their observation regarding discharge rate of baoris, dependency on traditional sources,
water borne diseases etc. and to find out the status of village level institutions. Resource mapping
provided information on resource use, access of different households in the villages to the water
sources, mapping of seasonal and perennial water resources and the livelihood patterns. It emerged
from these meetings that water from the springs and hand pumps is utilized for meeting domestic
requirements while water from the streams is primarily used for irrigation and other purposes.

During the PRA exercises shortage of domestic water supply and limited irrigation facilities were
identified as the major problems. Water sources in the villages are not well-maintained and water
discharge of the springs decreases during the summer. Thus water scarcity in the summer season is a
major problem in the villages. According to the villagers, some perennial sources have become
seasonal now due to loss of vegetation in the recharge area, road construction and fluctuations in the
rainfall. The villagers meet the water shortages by storing the water supplied by IPH. But IPH
supply is very irregular in the villages. It is only twice in a week in the summer season. The villagers
revealed that lack of irrigation has hindered cultivation of more remunerative crops and fodder for
livestock. Dependency on traditional water sources has increased over the years and so have the
number of water borne disease cases due to poor sanitary practices in the villages. Social mapping in
all the selected villages yielded demographic data and valuable information on the existing social
groups and their inter-relations.

Exposure visit: one day exposure visit was organized for the selected water user group members to
Thakurdwara village in Pachhad block of Sirmour district on 18th May, 2013. SATHI organization in
Thakurdwara was PSI‟s partner organization from 2003-2007. PSI had provided technical support
to this organization in groundwater management and this not only reduced the water shortage
problems but also raised the livelihood levels of the villagers. The main objective behind organizing
the exposure tour to this village was to convince the villagers of Thanakasoga about the fact that
ground water management is important and practically possible and it can enhance their livelihood
possibilities.
Formation of Water Management Committee and Water User Group Formation: An
agreement was signed between the land owners, Water Management Committee (WMC) and PSI for

52
the formation of water user groups and village level water management committee. Selection of the
village level water management committee members was done in the aam sabha meeting in Luhali,
Dhyali and Thana Kasoga villages. The main functions decided for the Water Management
Committee (WMC) were:

 Maintenance of baoris.
 Protection of vegetative plantations.
 Establishment of groundwater management regulations.
 Implementation of the groundwater management action plan.
 Establishment of a sanitation protocol

Additionally, 7 Water User Groups were formed in Thanakasoga (2 groups), Dhayali (3 groups) and
Luhali (2 groups). Some rules and regulations were set for smooth functioning of these Water User
Groups (WUG). The following rules were agreed upon:

 The WUGs will work as a nodal agency at the village level for groundwater management.
 All planning, implementation and management activities will be done through the WUGs.
 They will hold a general meeting on a monthly basis.
 They will be responsible for maintenance of traditional water sources, protection of
plantation, sanitation and groundwater recharge work.
 The WUG will prepare a plan for equitable distribution of water.
 They can punish anyone not abiding by the rules.
 All WUGs will work in coordination with Peoples‟ Science Institute for groundwater
management.

Development of Nursery

PSI helped the community in setting up a couple of nurseries in Thanakasoga and Dhayali villages to
grow fodder (Lahsunia, Kachnar, Bamboo) plant saplings. The main objective behind nursery
plantation was to protect groundwater recharge zones by mitigating fodder scarcity problems in the
action research villages. Such zones could then be protected from open grazing by increasing other
areas under fodder plantation. Nursery plantation activities were done in the recharge areas of baori-
2 (Kishan) in Dhayali and baori-1 (Thana Mandir) in Thana kasoga. Sapling varieties were selected as
per the vegetative diversity of the Thana kasoga panchayat area. An
agreement was made with these beneficiaries and the villagers in the
aam sabha. As per the agreement, PSI provided training and support
for raising the nurseries. The nursery beneficiaries take care of the
plants and raise the nursery. The plants are available for sale to the
villagers @ Rs. 5/plant.

53
OVERALL IMPACTS OF PGWM PROGRAMME IN THE PILOT VILLAGES

 Formation and capacity building of 3 water management committee(s) and 7 water user
group(s) in Thanakasoga, Dhyali and Luhali villages given the fact that these three villages
are intricately linked to a common aquifer system with well-defined recharge and discharge
zones – as evident from the hydrogeological mapping.
 Level of bacteriological contamination (fecal coliform) and chemical contamination (iron)
reduced after the implementation of PGWM programme in the selected villages – recharge
measures were implemented in recharge areas, which were also freed up from open
defecation and earmarked as „protected zones‟..
 Hydrogeology proved to be a cost effective science for watershed and spring shed
development desirable results were obtained by identifying the exact recharge area and the
type of interventions to be used. The focus area for recharge interventions was
approximately 2 ha of land area whereas with the traditional technique the area of treatment
would have been around 10 ha. So, hydrogeology enabled cost-effectiveness in
interventions..
 Created a mechanism for equitable distribution of benefits (fruit, fodder and water).
 Introduction of groundwater sharing mechanism in the villages, particularly around sources.
 Drinking water security in all the six locations improved. Moreover, source protection and
cleanliness is in the monthly agenda of WUGs and they are regularly cleaning their water
sources.
 Social protection is one of the major outcomes of this programme as 5 recharge sites have
been protected under social fencing in Thanakasoga Panchayat.

Watershed Support Services And Activities Network (WASSAN)

Formation of user groups and user groups federation at village level

1. Organized a exposure visit to the village community leaders from 12 micro watershed
villages to PHM and water sharing sites (APFAMGS, NAIP and APDAI villages)
2. Organized orientation programs and linkages made on Low carbon farming (SRI practice)
3. Trained 15 para hydrogeologists from action research villages
4. Evolved and integrated Hydrogeological perspective planning process and prepared detailed
project reports in 22 micro watersheds (IWMP plan document) with an effort to integrate
PGWM aspects into these programmes.
5. Set up of Participatory Hydrogeological Monitoring units in 12 micro watershed with
convergence of IWMP
6. Water harvesting structures planned based on the recharge areas and discharge area
delineation in 22 micro watersheds projects.

54
 7. WASSAN has implemented more than 30 Water Harvesting Structures in 12 micro
watersheds as per plan.
8. Allocation for drinking water for animals implemented in 16 micro watersheds
9. Water security plans prepared for 5 villages along with concerned departments, based on the
experiences from the action research projects.

Major outcomes

1. Farmers from 3 villages have come forward to share their water with non bore well
farmers
2. Proposal submitted to Department of Agriculture for water sharing pilot in 500 Ha
(They have already supporting us in Anantapur)
3. State Level Nodal Agency (SLNA) agreed to integrate Hydrogeological planning
processes in 100 IWMP programs in AP
4. Department of Rural Department agreed to adopt and establishment of PHM system in
state wide watershed programs (IWMP) in AP.
5. Already constructed check dams and percolation tanks recharge structure result may be
observed in next season i.e., 2014-15
6. Livestock drinking water problem was solved in 16 villages
7. 4 villages got approvals for water security plans from MGNREGS for total sanitation
8. Mobilized 20% people contribution for equal distribution of drinking water in 5 villages.

Protocols, if any

 Private bore well owners have come forward and sharing water for Livestock drinking water
purpose apart from common water bodies.
 5 Villages agreed for equal drinking water distribution to all
households.
 3 villages agreed for 100% sanitation and no for open
defecation
 Water sharing norms evolved but we have to wait for
budgets for laying of pipe lines from Department of
Agriculture.

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Key actions and impacts of Action Research at various sites under PGWM
Action Key research elements Action Impact
research site leading to PGWM
actions
Muthalane Aquifer mapping leading User groups for shared Moderately improved
to defining limits to wells for protective agriculture water
aquifer storage and irrigation and early rabi security; significantly
variability in transmissivity cropping; farmers improved (perennial)
reserved well water for drinking water security
domestic use in summer
Randullabad Analysed weather station Relative humidity data Improved kharif
data; aquifer delineation; was used to predict pest productities;
groundwater balance attacks on potato crop improvement in
(farmers‟ initiative) + irrigation and water use
maximising protective efficiency; equitability
irrigation application for improved, particularly
kharif; increased for farmers using
coverage under drip and aquifers II and III;
sprinkler irrigation; improved drinking
restating protocols of water security
sharing and control on
bore well drilling;
panchayat invested in an
additional drinking water
source (dug well)
maintaining the protocol
of a protection zone
around drinking water
sources
Kamguna - Geological mapping; well Watershed development, Improved recharge to
Vatachhad yield; groundwater quality recharge and drinking aquifer(s); protocols
water source protection around drinking water
source protection
leading to improved
drinking water security
Dhyali- Geological map; Identification of spring Recharge work in
Luhali- springwater discharge; recharge zones; annual „aquifer recharge zones‟;
Thanakasoga groundwater quality trends of discharge as protected recharge
indicators of impacts; zones and areas around
groundwater quality sources – particularly
profiling from open defecation –
and clear-cut impacts of
interventions in
improved spring
discharge and quality
Pargi cluster Geological mapping; Recharge structures as Improved recharge to

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 water level data; well- part of watershed aquifers; all farms in
usage data; protection development located many villages had
irrigation coverage data based on hydrogeology; access to protective
bore hole pooling for irrigation leading to
provision of protective participatory
irrigation in kharif – groundwater
sharing of groundwater management in kharif;
at least in kharif season improved kharif
productivities
Overall Geology, hydrogeology Recharge and watershed Geohydrological application
(groundwater level and quality development, participatory to watershed programme;
data), aquifer characteristics; use of groundwater resources; groundwater sharing in
socio-economic data protection of recharge zones agriculture – equity;
and sources; aquifer-based improved application
water balances; impact through efficient water
assessment - agriculture & application; protective
drinking water security irrigation; drinking water
security; improved impact
assessment

57
Summary of protocols developed and implemented as part of PGWM
Protocols ACWADAM ACT PSI WASSAN
(Basalt aquifers) (Sedimentary (Himalayan (Crystalline
aquifers) mountain – aquifers)
metasedimentary
aquifers)
Hydrogeology in Implemented across all sites, with indicated success through water level rise, water quality
Watershed Programmes improvement and aquifer storage enhancement
Recharge area Partially implemented at Fully Partially
protection (forest cover both locations implemented with implemented at
& community lands) all the recharge some of the sites
zones identified
Pump capacity Implemented in Not applicable
regulation Muthalne through well-
user groups
Regulation of distance Implemented at both Implemented in all Implemented at Partially
between wells (drinking sites, including future risk villages where all drinking water implemented at
water source protection) mitigation focused work on sources some of the sites
PGWM was
implemented
Depth Regulation (wrt PGWM-based Not applicable
drinking well) intervention of drinking
water sources being
deepest with resolutions
in gram sabha regarding
depth of irrigation wells (
and no bore wells)
Regulation of Communities have idea Limits to Improvements
agricultural water about the limits to groundwater through the use
requirement (crop water groundwater availability availability of drips and
requirement) – so, indirectly available through sprinklers for
implementing protocol; para irrigated lands has
drips and sprinklers in hydrogeologists – ensured
Randullabad plus crop- so, communities regulation
based management aware
(sorghum instead of
wheat in the rabi season
following the low-rainfall
cycle of 2012-13)
Groundwater sharing Developed for Implemented in
through community Muthalane and many of the
participation strengthened for project villages,
Randullabad particularly for
sharing sources
and distributing
protective
irrigation in Kharif
season
Drinking water quality Implemented in both Implemented in Implemented for
monitoring villages, with systems of many villages all sources with
continued monitoring systems of
continued
monitoring

58
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