Hrana u zdravlju i bolesti, znanstveno-stručni časopis za nutricionizam i dijetetiku (2014) 3 (1) 13-21

Brain food: how nutrition alters our mood and behaviour

Ines Banjari*, Ivana Vukoje, Milena L. Mandić

Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Department of Food and Nutrition
Research, Franje Kuhača 20, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia

review

Summary

Studies have been showing the food we eat affects chemical composition of our brain and alters our mood. Nutrition affects
cognitive possibilities, including alertness and the production or release of neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers that
carry information from one nerve cell to another. Foods are made up of more than one nutrient, and their interaction is going to
affect the production and release of neurotransmitters. Neural impulses are largely resulting from sodium-potassium exchange,
but numerous others such as complex carbohydrates, amino acids (tryptophan and tyrosine), fatty acids, particularly omega-3
fatty acids, affect permeability of cell membrane, neurotransmitter metabolism and glial cells. The delicate brain chemical
balance is somewhat controlled by the blood – brain barrier. Still, brain remains highly susceptible to changes in body
chemistry resulting from nutrient intake and deficiency. The direct connection between nutrition, brain function and behaviour
exists, without any doubt. It can be seen through brain’s capability of receiving, storing and integrating sensory information,
while initiating and controlling motor responses. These functions correspond to mental activities and form the basis for our
behaviour. Constant rise in number of evidence from epigenetic studies confirms that specific nutrients alter our brain
development and susceptibility to diseases. Still, specific combination of foods can be extrapolated to a dietary regime, like the
Mediterranean diet which has shown its positive impact on maintaining brain function and lower incidence of
neurodegenerative diseases. This is of special importance since elderly population (people of 65 years and older) is on the rise
all over the world, and the quality of life becomes a priority.

Keywords: nutrition, food composition, neurotransmitters, mood, behaviour

Nutrition and cognitive performance basal ganglia (Fig. 1). Nutrition in the first years of
life can have a significant impact on development;
All that we experience affects synapses (junctions the ability to learn, communication, analytical
of neurons), and these changes are responsible for thinking, successful socialization and adaptation to
memory and other mental abilities. According to new situations (Isaacs and Oates, 2008; Budson
Thurston primary mental abilities are (set in 1938): and Price, 2005).
verbal fluency (eloquence), verbal comprehension, Proper nutrition and health are closely interrelated
visual and spatial (physical) abilities, memory, throughout life, but probably the highest importance
numerical ability, perceptual speed spotting, is expressed in the first years of life. Inadequate
inductive reasoning (from individual to general) nutrition causes lower cognitive development,
and deductive reasoning (from general to specific). reduced attention and concentration and reduces
Practically, when something that we are going to performance in later life. Also, foetal programming in
remember happens electric signal occurs, causing utero should not be neglected, for its proven
chemical and structural changes in the neurons. influence on the later development of a child
These changes are possible due to a series of (Langley-Evans, 2008). As nicely illustrated by
reactions involving various molecules, including Vanhees et al. (2014) we are what we eat, and so are
calcium, some enzymes and neurotrophins, aiming our children. Their extensive review on epigenetic
for synapses activation. Healthier brain produces studies clearly illustrates the importance of balanced
more neurotrophins, which reinforce links between diet of both, mother and father. Besides
neurons in the part of the brain responsible for macronutrient composition of the diet (high-fat diets,
learning and memory. Parts of the brain where protein restricted diet, diet high in carbohydrates),
specific memory is stored have been discovered. intake of specific micronutrients, especially those
For semantic memory, which concerns facts are involved in one-carbon metabolism (folic acid,
responsible multiple cortical areas, while vitamin B2, B6 and B12) day by day shows more
procedural memory involved in motor learning potential in programming offspring’s epigenome
depends on the other parts of the brain, including (Vanhees et al., 2014).

*
Corresponding author: [email protected]
 Ines Banjari / Brain food: how nutrition ... / (2014) 3 (1) 13-21

At birth, the brain reaches 70 % size and 25 % weight from deterioration. For example, one study showed
of an adult brain. In the subsequent period, are that high-dose supplementation with folic acid during
created new nerve cells (neurons) that travel to their early pregnancy shows association with increased
final destination. Brain changes throughout life. It neurodevelopment, resulting in enhanced vocabulary
normally makes fiftieth part of human body weight development, communicational skills and verbal
(average weighs between 1000-1500 grams), in comprehension at 18 months of age (Chatzi et al.,
adolescence reaches its definite size (Benton, 2008). 2012). Similar findings have been shown for boosting
Brain is a very dynamic organ, showing high cognitive performance and intake of iron (after
plasticity. Due to this characteristic, altering our diet correcting iron deficiency anaemia) (McCann and
in terms of having a balanced nutrition without any Ames, 2007; Black et al., 2011; Goergieff, 2011).
deficiency or over-nutrition can preserve our brain

Fig. 1. Memory systems and parts of the brain (Budson and Price, 2005)

sodium, move into the downstream neuron to induce

Food and neurotransmitters secondary biochemical processes (7), which may
have long-term consequences on the neuron’s
Neurotransmitters are produced in our brain from behaviour. Meanwhile, after interacting with the
numerous nutrients originating from our diet by receptor, neurotransmitter’s actions must be
means of a many-step process. First, nutrients terminated by reabsorption (8) back into the neuron
(marked as 1 in Fig. 2), such as amino acids, that originally released it, which is called reuptake. A
carbohydrates, fats, and peptides, are extracted and secondary method of neurotransmitter inactivation is
absorbed from the food we eat and transported out of by enzymatic conversion (9) into a chemical that can
the arterial blood supply to the brain. They are no longer interact with brain. Once inactivated by
actively carried through the blood-brain barrier and enzyme, neurotransmitter is removed from the brain
transported into neurons. Enzymes (2) convert these into the bloodstream (10). Such byproducts can be
nutrients into different neurotransmitters. easily monitored in body fluids, and used to
Neurotransmitter molecules are actively transported determine whether our brain functions normally.
into synaptic vesicles (3). The arrival of an action Nutritional composition of our diet can interact with
potential (4) at an end of the axon induces entry of any of these previously described processes and
calcium ions, which initiate release of impair, or even enhance, the production of
neurotransmitters (5) into synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters, as well as impair their storage into
neurotransmitter molecule briefly interacts or binds synaptic vesicles, alter their release from neurons,
with a protein, i.e. receptor (6), on the neuron surface modify their interaction with receptor proteins (11),
on the other side of the synapse. Consequence of this slow their reuptake, and possibly even stop their
binding action is that some ions, such as calcium or enzymatic inactivation (Wenk, 2010).

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Fig. 2. The absorption of nutrients and their effect on neurotransmitters (Wenk, 2010)

Carbohydrates and the brain from white flour and white sugar should be limited
for the above reasons. Potatoes also have a high GI
Brain needs two times more energy than other cells in value (Ek et al., 2012). The best choices are fibre-rich
our body, and glucose is the only fuel that can be foods. Complex carbohydrates take longer to digest,
used directly by the brain (Coimbra, 2014). Neurons causing a slower and more gradual release of glucose
are always in a state of metabolic activity and have into bloodstream, leading to a feeling of fullness for
constant demand for energy, even during sleep. Most longer period of time. A fibre-rich diet, besides its
of the neuron's energy demand goes on bioelectric proven effect in the prevention of type 2 diabetes and
signals responsible for communication of neurons; cardiovascular diseases, probably helps improving
they consume one-half of the brain's energy which is memory and cognition (Kendall et al., 2010;
nearly 10 % of total human energy requirements Kaczmarczyk et al., 2012). The glycemic response
(Coimbra, 2014). Because neurons cannot store depends on the combination of consumed food.
glucose, they depend on the bloodstream to deliver a Complex, varied meal that contains complex
constant supply of this primary fuel. Different sugars carbohydrates, proteins and adequate types of fats,
have different effects on the brain. While glucose has rich on dietary fibers will provide a moderate GI and
an impact on regions like insula and ventral striatum, supply the brain for a long time with glucose.
controlling appetite, motivation and reward Combining foods with high GI and those with a low
processing, fructose does not (Page, 2013; Purnell GI balances the response of the organism (Jenkins et
and Fair, 2013). al., 2013).
Therefore, it is important to control the amount of
carbohydrate in our diet, as well as the type of food Fats and the brain
we combine. This is where we get to the glycaemic
index (GI) concept. GI is a ranking system Fatty acids are present in membranes of every cell of
categorizing the food according to its impact on our body and make 60 % of the brain’s dry weight,
blood glucose levels, so GI indicates whether certain half of which are omega-6 fatty acids, while the other
foods raise blood sugar levels dramatically, half consists of omega-3 fatty acids. Dietary fats alter
moderately or slightly. The intake of foods made the composition of nerve cell membrane and myelin

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sheath, and that, in turn, influences neuronal function. growth and functional neurodevelopment of
Fatty acids are involved in the development and newborns, and required to maintain a normal function
growth of the brain, they affect cognitive abilities of adult brain. Intake of DHA during pregnancy and
(attention, reasoning, memory, and learning), lactation of at least 200 mg per day, contributes to the
vocabulary and intelligence (Gogus and Smith, normal brain development of foetus and infant
2010). Humans cannot synthesize essential fatty acids (EFSA, 2009). Low brain DHA is associated with
from simple carbon precursors so they must be age-related cognitive decline, as well as the early
acquired through diet. There are two essential fatty development of Alzheimer's disease. On the other
acids, both polyunsaturated fatty acids, linoleic acid hand, increased dietary intake of DHA can result in
(LA) which is a precursor of omega-6 fatty acids and improved cognitive abilities due to the fact that a lack
alpha-linolenic (ALA), which is a precursor of of essential fatty acids has been linked to deficits in
omega-3 fatty acids. Arachidonic acid (AA) is learning and memory (Cunnane et al., 2009; Yurko-
synthesized from LA, while from ALA Mauro et al., 2010; Cunnane et al., 2013).
eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) Interesting results shows a study by Conklin et al.
acids are synthesized (Davis and Kris-Etherton, 2003; (2007). The study involved fifty-five healthy adults
Vannice and Rasmussen, 2014). Long-chain omega-3 who completed two 24 h dietary recall interviews.
and omega-6 fatty acids compete for the same Based on an intake of EPA and DHA, the
enzymes cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase and respondents were divided into three groups: low
therefore a diet is considered to be the best way to intake (0-20 mg/day, 16 respondents), medium intake
maintain balance between omega-3 and omega-6 (25-70 mg/day; 21 respondents) and high intake of
fatty acids. It is believed that this ratio should not be EPA and DHA (80-1600 mg/day, 18 respondents).
greater than 5:1 in favour of omega-6, and it is Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans of
known that the Western diet has a ratio of 12:1, or respondent's brains revealed a positive correlation
even worse. The importance of this ratio is supported between increased intake of these two fatty acids and
by the fact that inflammatory eicosanoids are formed the volume of gray matter in the anterior cingulate
by the metabolism of omega-6 fatty acids, while EPA cortex, the right hippocampus and the right
and DHA products are thought to be relatively anti- amygdala. Since mentioned areas are responsible for
inflammatory (Gogus and Smith, 2010; Vannice and mood, scientists believe that increased intake of EPA
Rasmussen, 2014; Kidd, 2007; Shaikh and Brown, and DHA has a positive effect on mood, but also on
2013). memory functions (Conklin et al., 2007).
Omega-3 fatty acids are critical for foetal and The best dietary sources of omega-3 fatty acids are
newborn neurodevelopment. During the third oily fish (sardines, mackerel, tuna, anchovies), cold
trimester of pregnancy, approximately 50-70 mg of water fish (herring, salmon), algae, zooplankton and
DHA per day is delivered to foetus via placental seafood as well as seeds and nuts. Nutritional
transfer. DHA is accumulated in the central nervous supplements containing purified and concentrated
system (CNS) before birth, and therefore considered fish oil are also a valuable source of omega-3 fatty
to play a critical role in the development of cognitive acids in the diet of a modern man (Shaikh and
functions (Langley-Evans, 2008; Greenberg et al., Brown, 2013; Bradbury, 2011). The amount of EPA
2008; Montgomery et al., 2013). Nutrient and DHA in fresh fish varies depending on a species.
deficiencies during development may have long- Oily fish is particularly useful for pregnant women,
lasting consequences on neurone outgrowth and it is recommended to be consumed once a week.
(Greenberg et al., 2008; Montgomery et al., 2013). A But the special attention is needed with canned tuna
positive correlation has been observed between DHA for possible intoxication with mercury. Species of
in red blood cells and visual acuity, as well as other fish that are long-lived and high on the food chain
indexes of brain development in newborns (Jensen et tend to have higher levels of methylmercury which
al., 2005). Nutritional guidelines during pregnancy has negative impact on the nervous system of a
recommend an additional intake of omega-3 fatty foetus. A total amount of methylmercury in fish
acids, i.e. 250 mg/day EPA and DHA (Vannice and remains relatively unchanged after cooking (WHO,
Rasmussen, 2014; WHO, 2008; EFSA, 2010; FAO, 2007; WHO, 2010; Brown, 2010).
2010). Essential fatty acids are necessary for the
child’s normal growth and development, which is an Amino acids and neurotransmitters
approved health claim by the European Food Safety
Authority. Beneficial effect has been proven by The most common neurotransmitters are:
taking 1 % of the total energy of LA and 0.2 % ALA acetylcholine, glutamate, gamma-aminobutyric acid
per day (EFSA, 2008). DHA is essential for the (GABA), glycine, serotonin, dopamine,

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norepinephrine, epinephrine and histamine produced specific combination of foods make it so simple and
by our brain directly from nutritional components of yet so complicated at the same time (Banjari et al.,
our diet. Activity and levels of these 2013). Yet this is exactly the perfect combination of
neurotransmitters depend on food intake and change macro and micronutrients, making it a number one
in nutrient intake can significantly affect behaviour, choice for health and longevity. Health benefits of the
sleep and energy levels (Sommer, 1995; Gustafson, MD go well beyond preventing cardiovascular
2008). diseases, lover mortality and morbidity (Banjari et
Serotonin is produced from the amino acid al., 2013), as shown by the Lion Diet Heart Study
tryptophan, which is found in protein-rich food, such (De Lorgeril, 2013), study by Trichopoulou et al.
as chicken, dairy products, eggs and legumes. (2003) in Greece, or the PREDIMED study
Ironically, consumption of high-protein foods conducted in Spain (Estruch et al., 2013). Protective
decreases levels of tryptophan and serotonin in the effect of the MD has been determined for number of
brain, while the consumption of carbohydrate-rich degenerative diseases, like cancers dementia, and the
foods has the opposite effect. After consumption of risk of Alzheimer’s disease (Shah, 2013; Lourida et
high-protein foods, tryptophan competes with other al., 2013; Sofi et al., 2013). Furthermore, Skarupski
amino acids in order to pass the blood-brain barrier, et al. (2013) showed its potential in reducing
which results in a lower increase in brain serotonin. depression among people of 65 years and older. Also,
When large amounts of carbohydrates are eaten, rising interest of the non-Mediterranean countries,
insulin is released, causing the absorption of the firstly Scandinavian countries, resulted in vast
majority of amino acids into the bloodstream while number of evidence showing the MD potential in
giving advantage to tryptophan for brain access, protecting from premature death (Hodge et al., 2011;
leading to increased level of brain serotonin. The Gardener et al., 2011; Hoevenaar-Blom et al., 2012;
resulting increase in brain serotonin promotes the Martínez-González et al., 2012; Hoffman and Gerber,
feeling of calmness, improves sleep, increases pain 2013; Tognon et al., 2013), and cerebrovascular
tolerance and reduces food cravings (Sommer, 1995; diseases (Misirli et al., 2012).
Fernstrom, 2013; Parker and Brotchie, 2011).
Dopamine and norepinephrine are synthesized from Food and mood
the amino acid called tyrosine, with the assistance of
folic acid, magnesium and vitamin B12. Unlike We can boost our mood by retaining available
tryptophan, tyrosine level raises after consuming a neurotransmitters in the gap between nerve cells as
protein-rich foods which leads to increased levels of long as possible and it seems possible, but yet-to-be-
dopamine and norepinephrine, both affecting tested, that expressions of foods in art can also serve
alertness and mental energy (Sommer, 1995; to improve mood. Regulation of three key
Fernstrom, 2013; Parker and Brotchie, 2011; neurotransmitters responsible for mood (dopamine,
Daubner et al., 2011). Acetylcholine is synthesized noradrenaline and serotonin) by modulating food
from choline and unlike other amino acids that have intake impacts durability of their stimulation of nerve
to compete for brain access, choline does not need to. cells, thus impacts mood and behaviour (Privitera et
The best source of choline is egg yolk. Acetylcholine al., 2013; Hamburg et al., 2014).
is important for memory and general mental ability.
Reduced levels of acetylcholine are associated with Chocolate and caffeine
memory loss, decreased cognitive function and
Alzheimer's disease at old age. Choline deficiency A study of 8000 people has shown that people who
induces neuronal death and mental fatigue, a person consume chocolate live longer compared to those
cannot think clearly, is depressed and forgetful who never eat chocolate. Positive effect of a
(Sommer, 1995; Holmes et al., 2002; McCann et al., chocolate lies in its flavonoid content. Chocolate
2006). flavonoids reduce the amount of low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and reduce blood
Mediterranean diet pressure. They also show the potential to slowdown
growth of cancer cells (Engler and Engler, 2004;
When speaking about brain food we must not forget Paoletti et al., 2012). Due to chocolate production
about one specific dietary regime which shows processes, it is believed that only dark chocolate
immense potential in maintaining and boosting brain products with a cocoa content of approximately 70 %
functioning. This is the Mediterranean diet (MD). or higher truly offer a significant benefit of
Despite several differences between Mediterranean flavonoids (Goldoni, 2004; Rawel and Kulling,
regions, they all have something in common. The 2007). Cocoa beans contain 61 % of cocoa butter,

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tannin, catechin and alkaloids theobromine and product of increased metabolism and signals fatigue
caffeine, which have different effects on our brain and the need for rest (Higgins et al., 2010). Caffeine
and emotions. Cocoa beans are also rich in hydrolysis therefore acts as a psychostimulant in the brain:
products of polyhydric phenols such as quercetin, enhances attention, causes alertness, improves
caffeic and p-hydroxycinnamic acid (Jalil and Ismail, memory and increases the ability to process degraded
2008; Smit et al., 2004; Parker et al., 2006). It is stimuli. At the same time also raises heart rate,
known that chocolate contains over 300 substances, increases force of myocardial contraction, secretion
but the key ingredient is phenylethylamine. Most of urine and secretion of gastric juice. The most
phenylethylamine is metabolized in the body, but notable behavioural effects of caffeine occur 15
some reaches the brain where it leads to dopamine minutes after drinking caffeinated beverage (Persad,
increase. After consumption of chocolate, 2011).
phenylethylamine is released into the human system Due to caffeine effects, including increased alertness,
producing the arousing effects of an intense energy, ability to concentrate and wakefulness, it is
emotional stimulus leading to euphoria. Some primarily used as a stimulant in fatigue and
antidepressants have a similar effect, because they somnolence. Consumption of caffeinated coffee in a
inhibit monoamine oxidase (MAO inhibitors) and dose-dependent was found to reduce the incidence of
prevent the degradation of phenylethylamine. dementia, particularly Parkinson's disease (Fredholm,
Therefore, chocolate can have antidepressant effect. 2011).
Chocolate contains anandamide, a substance that is Scientists believe that caffeine consumption is safe
an endogenous cannabinoid and occurs naturally in up to 200 mg per day and has beneficial effects on
the brain where stimulates positive feelings. the body even in people with hypertension (Cano-
Anandamide targets the same brain structure as Marquinaa et al., 2013).
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the active ingredient in Ingestion higher than 400 mg of caffeine, especially
cannabis. Chocolate also contains tryptophan. The in caffeine-sensitive individuals, pregnant women
release of endorphins is stimulated with chocolate and children, may have adverse effects like insomnia,
generating feeling of pleasure and promoting a sense excessive excitement, nervousness, increased heart
of well-being. Alkaloids in chocolate, as well as in rate and increased gastric acid secretion (Persad,
wine and beer improve mood (Smit et al., 2004; 2011; Higgins et al., 2010; Nehlig et al., 1992; Snel
Parker et al., 2006). and Lorist, 2011).
Some researchers believe that women crave
chocolate prior to menstruation because it contains Conclusions
high levels of magnesium. Magnesium deficiency
increases the intensity of premenstrual syndrome. Studies have shown that food can promote proper
Even 91 % of women have cravings for chocolate in functioning of the brain. In order to improve our
the second half of their menstrual cycle, with greater mental abilities, concentration, memory and
desire in the afternoon and early evening, and vigilance, proper nutrition is of great importance. By
magnesium intake could significantly improve affecting neurotransmitters, substances that activate
premenstrual mood changes (Ghalwa et al., 2014). different regions of the brain, actively participate in
Another CNS stimulant is caffeine, which shows the creation of nerve impulses and thereby regulate
positive and adverse effects depending on a dose and our mental abilities, emotions and mood. Cognitive
frequency of administration. Caffeine is a chemical performance and maintenance of mental health,
methylxanthine, first isolated from coffee beans, especially among elderly may be improved with
which is the major source of caffeine, but is also proper diet consisting of complex carbohydrates,
found in other drinks such as green and black tea, polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially omega-3 fatty
Guaraní, cocoa and soft drinks, especially Cola and acids, proteins and specific foods containing specific
energy drinks (Persad, 2011). The amount of caffeine nutrients, like flavonoids. In addition, mood and
present in products depends on the type of a product, concentration as well as alertness can be affected by
serving size and preparation method. Chocolate also moderate consumption of chocolate and caffeinated
contains small amounts of caffeine, but for the sake beverages. Keeping in mind the risk factors for loss
of comparison it can be said that a cup of cocoa of mental abilities, by proper nutrition we can
contains 20 mg of caffeine, while a cup of tea potentially prevent or delay neurodegenerative
contains 40 mg on average, and a cup of coffee changes in the brain including Parkinson's and
contains 155 mg of caffeine (Heckman et al., 2010). Alzheimer's disease. The conclusion arising from the
Caffeine acts as an antagonist to adenosine receptors. compiling evidence elaborated in the text says that in
Adenosine is a substance produced in the body as a order to improve cognitive performance and maintain

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brain vitality the Mediterranean diet should be Current Knowledge and Practical Implications, Am. J.
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