The BRAIN THE BRAIN SERIES

IS BROUGHT TO YOU
BY THE QUEENSLAND
BRAIN INSTITUTE

Issue Two
LEARNING
& MEMORY
FROM RESEARCH
TO PRACTICE

How memories are made

Top science-based
study tips

Do smart drugs work?

Why good teachers matter

The Brain Memory and learning Ipad Layout.indd 1 27/06/2017 11:24 PM

 SPECIAL REPORT
Learning and memory

DOWNLOAD, READ & SHARE

this special report on learning and memory
on your computer or iPhone.
Go to www.qbi.uq.edu.au/learning

FA C E B O O K
facebook.com/QldBrainInstitute

TWITTER
twitter.com/QldBrainInst

I N S TA G R A M
instagram.com/QldBrainInstitute

Join the conversation #learning

JOIN THE COMMUNITY

The npj Science of Learning Community is an interactive online space for educators, policymakers and researchers to share
knowledge, start or join conversations, and read about the latest research into learning.

Accompanying the open access journal npj Science of Learning, the Community brings together the findings of neuroscientists,
psychologists and education researchers to understand how the brain learns and progresses the aim of the journal to host
cross-disciplinary discussions that will help revolutionize learning, memory and education.

Join the education conversation on the npj Science of Learning Community – connecting teachers and researchers to
understand learning.

Published in partnership with Part of the Nature Partner Journals series

npjscilearncommunity.nature.com
 A M E S S AG E F R O M

Professor Pankaj Sah

D I R EC TO R O F T H E Q U E E N S L A N D B R A I N
I N ST I T U T E AT T H E U N I V E R S I T Y O F
QUEENSLAND

MAKING AND RETAINING MEMORIES / Issues of health and education

T
he human brain is a learning machine. Thanks the Science of Learning Research Centre (SLRC) – a national,
to a phenomenon called neuroplasticity, the interdisciplinary research centre based at The University of
brain learns in a range of ways and in many Queensland – has successfully connected with teachers, students
different circumstances, including in the and the community to share our knowledge of learning.
classroom. Because of the importance of classroom Secondly, we at the Queensland Brain Institute (QBI) recently
learning, educational performance is watched closely by launched an online, open-access journal dedicated to learning –
parents, teachers and governments alike. Unfortunately, npj Science of Learning, which is helping to bring together the
recent results in Australia suggest that the performance findings of neuroscience, psychology and education researchers.
of our students is declining, or has at best plateaued. Importantly, we also want to engage those outside
Neuroscience and experimental psychology have made academia – teachers, students, policymakers and the
great strides in understanding how learning occurs and the general public. For this reason, the journal has an online npj
factors that influence it, but translating this to education Science of Learning Community site, where news, opinion
is not straightforward. Part of the problem is an issue of and updates on the latest learning research can be found.
communication: psychologists, teachers and neuroscientists To these initiatives we now add this publication, which I
don’t always speak the same language. Two recent initiatives hope sheds light on the fascinating way our brains learn
aim to bridge the divide between these disciplines. Firstly, and remember, and how we can improve these processes.
P H OTO G R A P H Y PAT R I C K H A M I LTO N
The BRAIN series Q B I .U Q. E D U. AU / L E A R N I N G
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3

MEMORIES ARE MADE OF THIS HOW WE LEARN FACTORS

What is memory and are Accessing memories The myths about learning AFFECTING
there different types of styles, and why good LEARNING
memory? The power of positive: teachers matter
Is technology good or bad
Dr Chris Sarra (pictured for learning?
Where are memories above) shows how shifting The power of speech
formed and stored? expectations around
children in schools across Cramming: is it worth it?
Boost your learning with
How are memories formed Australia has changed lives these science-based
and what makes some last ways to improve the The truth about
while others are fleeting? power of your brain smart drugs
 CONTENTS
Publisher
Professor Pankaj Sah
Editor
Karen McGhee
Writers
Donna Lu
Dr Alan Woodruff
Online Editor
Carolyn Barry
Editorial Support
Professor Annemaree Carroll
Professor Ross Cunnington
Professor Jason Mattingley
Dr Kim Peatey
CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5
Designer
Ivan Chow

DISORDERS OF AGEING & LEARNING Photography and Illustrations

Dr Levent Efe
LEARNING How memory changes with Dr Sallyanne Atkinson AO
Patrick Hamilton
Dr Nick Valmas
iStock
What does it mean when age and how exercise may on staying sharp and Marketing and Communications
your child is diagnosed slow the decline learning at any age Mikaeli Costello
Donna Lu
with dyslexia, dyscalculia, Andrea Markey

dysgraphia, ADHD or Meet QBI Professor Perry The Science of Learning For further information
please contact
another condition affecting Bartlett (picured above): his Research Centre brings [email protected].
learning and memory? ground-breaking research together researchers from The Queensland Brain Institute
showed the world that our neuroscience, cognitive is located at
The University of Queensland,
Jackie French (pictured brains keep changing psychology and education St Lucia, QLD, 4072.
The Brain Series:
above) hasn’t let dyslexia Learning and Memory
stop her from becoming a Does 'brain training' was produced by the
Queensland Brain Institute
best-selling author really work? in partnership with the
Science of Learning Research Centre.

J OI N THE COM M U N I TY
Connecting researchers with teachers and parents to understand and improve how the brain learns.
Post, share, discuss: join the education conversation at bit.ly/npjslc.
 Chapter 1. MEMORIES ARE MADE OF THIS
DEFINING MEMORY
MEMORY IS THE PROCESS
OF ENCODING, STORING, AND MEMORY ‹‹ HOW
RETRIEVING EXPERIENCES THE BRAIN
AND KNOWLEDGE, AND STORES
ITS MANY GUISES ARE EVEN
MORE IMPORTANT THAN Short-term Long-term YOUR
YOU THINK. memory memory MEMORIES

I
t is hard to overstate the
Explicit Implicit
importance of memory. (conscious) (unconscious)
It is what makes us who
we are. Some memories are
the ones we are aware of –
Episodic Semantic Priming Procedural
the coffee you enjoyed with (events that (general (e.g. motor)
a friend, that time as a child happened to knowledge
when the neighbour’s dog you) of the world)
scared you, knowing that
spiders have eight legs, and
the indisputable fact that the
brain is amazing! These are to move your lips and tongue to communicate or identify
known as explicit memories – in a way that reproduces danger and – much like a
ones we can consciously recall. sounds you’ve learnt. When newborn baby – oblivious to
But there are also implicit you walk, you’re using motor how to survive in the world
memories, which may be even memories to coordinate your around us.
more important (see below). gait. In short, memory is crucial in
For example, when you talk, If we didn’t have memories transforming us from helpless
you’re using motor memories we’d just be a body, unable newborns into capable adults.
CHAPTER 1. MEMORIES ARE MADE OF THIS

SO MANY MEMORIES

T
here are several different types of memories,
some of which are fleeting, and others that last
a lifetime.
The shortest type of memory is known as working
memory, which can last just seconds. This is what
we use to hold information in our head while we
engage in other cognitive processes. An example is
remembering the numbers a new friend recites as you
navigate your phone’s menu system to add a contact.
A person’s working memory capability is one of the
best predictors of general intelligence, as measured
by standard psychological tests.

While working memory is short-term,

MOST other categories of memory
are LONG-TERM.
What we typically think of as memory is explicit
memory. This can be divided into episodic memories,
which are events that have happened in your life,
and semantic memories, which are retained facts or
general knowledge.
The other type of long-term memory is
unconscious, or implicit. These are memories you
can’t consciously bring to mind, but which shape your
behaviour. The most common type of implicit memory
is procedural: this is concerned with how actions are
performed, like how to ride a bike or play guitar.
 CHAPTER 1. MEMORIES ARE MADE OF THIS

WHERE ARE
MEMORIES
FORMED AND THE NEED FOR SLEEP
STORED? WHILE WE SLEEP, the hippocampus and neocortex take part in a carefully
choreographed interaction during which the hippocampus replays recent events.

M
emories aren’t stored The same neurons active in the hippocampus during an experience become
in just one part of the activated again during slow-wave sleep, also known as deep sleep. This occurs
brain. Different types repeatedly, helping to update the neocortex about what needs to be stored.
are stored across different, Replay occurs during sleep, so if you aren’t getting enough sleep, you aren’t
interconnected brain regions. letting your brain consolidate memories.
For explicit memories –
which are about events that
happened to you (episodic),
as well as general facts and
information (semantic) – there
are three important areas of
the brain: the hippocampus, the
neocortex and the amygdala.
Implicit memories, such as
motor memories, rely on the
basal ganglia and cerebellum.
Short-term working memory
relies most heavily on the
prefrontal cortex.

DID YOU SLEEP HELPS RETAIN MEMORIES. “...so if you aren’t getting enough sleep,
KNOW?
you aren’t letting your brain consolidate memories.”
CHAPTER 1. MEMORIES ARE MADE OF THIS

THE BRAIN
OUR MEMORY BANK
EXPLICIT MEMORY neocortex are crucial in determining
Hippocampus the ‘stability’ of a memory – that is,
The hippocampus is where episodic how effectively it is retained
memories are formed and indexed over time.
for later access. Episodic memories
are autobiographical memories IMPLICIT MEMORY
from specific events in our lives, like Basal ganglia and cerebellum
the coffee we had with a friend last The basal ganglia are structures
week. lying deep within the brain and are
involved in a wide range of processes
Neocortex such as emotion, reward processing,
The neocortex is a sheet of tissue habit formation, movement and
that forms the outer surface of learning. They are particularly
the brain. Over time, information involved in co-ordinating sequences
from certain memories that of motor activity, as would be
are temporarily stored in the needed when playing a musical
hippocampus can be transferred to instrument, dancing or playing
the neocortex as general knowledge basketball. The basal ganglia are the
– things like knowing that coffee regions most affected by Parkinson’s
provides a pick-me-up. Researchers disease. This is evident in the
think this transfer from hippocampus impaired movements of Parkinson’s
to neocortex happens as we sleep. patients. WORKING MEMORY requiring them to hold information
The cerebellum, a separate Prefrontal cortex in their short-term memory, such
Amygdala structure located at the rear base of The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is as the location of a flash of light,
The amygdala attaches emotional the brain, is most important in fine the part of the neocortex that the PFC becomes active. There
significance to memories. This is motor control, the type that allows sits at the very front of the brain. also seems to be a functional
particularly important because us to use chopsticks or press that It is the most recent addition separation between left and right
strong emotional memories (e.g. piano key a fraction more softly. A to the mammalian brain, and is sides of the PFC: the left is more
those associated with shame, joy, well-studied example of cerebellar involved in many complex cognitive involved in verbal working memory
love or grief) are difficult to forget. motor learning is the vestibulo- functions. Human neuroimaging while the right is more active in
The permanence of these memories ocular reflex, which lets us maintain studies (using magnetic resonance spatial working memory, such as
suggests that interactions between our gaze on a location as we rotate imaging - MRI – machines) show remembering where the flash of
the amygdala, hippocampus and our heads. that when people perform tasks light occurred.
M E D I C A L I L L U ST R AT I O N : L E V E N T E F E
 CHAPTER 1. MEMORIES ARE MADE OF THIS

LIVING LESSON
I
n 1953, Henry Molaison on various motor tasks, even
had his hippocampus though he had no memory of
surgically removed during ever encountering or practising
an operation in the United them. This indicated that
States to treat his epilepsy. although the hippocampus
His epilepsy was cured, is crucial for laying
and Molaison lived a down memories, it
further 55 healthy is not the site of
years. However, after permanent memory
the surgery he was storage and isn’t
only able to form needed for motor Fear Factor
episodic memories memories.
that lasted a matter The study of THERE'S AN additional aspect to the amygdala’s
of minutes; he was Henry Molaison involvement in memory. The amygdala doesn't
completely unable was revolutionary just modify the strength and emotional content
to permanently store because it showed of memories; it also plays a key role in forming
new information. As a that multiple types of new memories specifically related to fear. Fearful
result, Molaison’s memory memory existed. We now memories are able to be formed after only a
became mostly limited to events know that rather than relying on few repetitions. This makes ‘fear learning’ a
that occurred years before his the hippocampus, implicit motor popular way to investigate the mechanisms of
surgery, in the distant past. learning occurs in other brain memory formation, consolidation and recall.
He was, however, still able areas – the basal ganglia and Understanding how the amygdala processes
to improve his performance cerebellum. fear is important because of its relevance to
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which
affects many of our veterans as well as police,
Henry Molaison is one of the most famous patients in neuroscience. paramedics and others exposed to trauma.
DID YOU After surviving experimental neurosurgery for seizures, he was Anxiety in learning situations is also likely to
KNOW? left with severely impaired memory and went on to became a involve the amygdala, and may lead to avoidance
living test subject for five decades, until his death in 2008 of particularly challenging or stressful tasks.
 CHAPTER 1. MEMORIES ARE MADE OF THIS

HOW MEMORIES ARE FORMED

THE BRAIN CONSTANTLY SIMMERS WITH ACTIVITY AS
DIFFERENT GROUPS OF NEURONS, DRIVING OUR DIFFERENT
THOUGHTS OR PERCEPTIONS, DRIFT IN AND OUT
OF ACTION LIKE FIREFLIES IN A FOREST.

A
memory is the reactivation Changing the strength of existing
of a specific group of synapses, or even adding new ones or
neurons. But what allows removing old ones, is critical to memory
a specific combination of neurons formation. But there is also evidence
to be reactivated over any other that another type of plasticity, not
combination of neurons? directly involving synapses, could
The answer is synaptic be important for memory
plasticity. This term formation. In some parts of Memory Pathways
describes the persistent the adult brain, such as A GOOD ANALOGY for memory formation
changes in the strength the important memory is the way foot traffic creates a path along a
of connections – called structure known as the stretch of grass. The more a patch of grass
synapses – between brain hippocampus, brand is trampled as people pass along it, the
cells. These connections new neurons can be clearer the path becomes and the easier
can be made stronger created in a process it is to follow – it’s as if a ‘memory’ of all
or weaker depending on called neurogenesis. the walking has been created. The same
when and how often they Studies in older mice thing happens in the brain. The more a
have been activated in the have shown that by neural pathway is activated, the stronger
past. Active connections tend to increasing neurogenesis in the synaptic connections along the way
get stronger, whereas those that aren’t the hippocampus, memory can be become. Then, when a thought enters our
used get weaker and can eventually improved. In humans, exercise has been head – say, a tropical beach – we recall
disappear entirely. This gives added shown to increase the volume of the related experiences or knowledge, such as
meaning to the term use it or lose it! hippocampus – suggesting new neurons putting on sunscreen and the feel of sand, as
Not many features of the brain are more are being created – and at the same time our minds funnel our thoughts along well-
important than synaptic plasticity. improve performance in memory tasks. established neural pathways.
 CHAPTER 1. MEMORIES ARE MADE OF THIS

HOW MEMORIES
ARE ACCESSED
YOUR EXPERIENCES IN THE WORLD
ARE BASED ON INFORMATION
RECEIVED THROUGH A COMBINATION
OF SENSES: SIGHT, TOUCH, HEARING,
TASTE AND SMELL.

A
memory of the coffee you had with
a friend last week, for example,
could include the taste and smell
of the coffee, the café’s interior design,
the sound of an ambulance’s siren as it
drove past, and the topics of conversation
you discussed. These components of
your experience would have activated
various parts of your neocortex. But the a digital database or an old-school- strengthened connections (see previous
episode itself would initially be stored style office filing cabinet: something page), this visual seed is enough to
in the hippocampus. Over time this triggers a search of the database, and access the ‘café with friend’ scene in
memory is consolidated, with its long- we retrieve and recall the memory. the hippocampus’s index. To actually
term storage thought to be distributed Returning to our café story, when your recall the memory, the hippocampus
in different parts of the neocortex. friend mentions how much she liked the then directs neuronal traffic back to the
café’s stylish interior, you picture the appropriate circuits of the neocortex,
Once A memory has been stored, inside of the café, making your visual reactivating the sound of the ambulance
how is it accessed? cortex – the part of the brain that receives siren, the taste of the coffee, the topics of
According to one popular theory, the and processes sensory nerve impulses conversation and any other components
hippocampus is critical, serving as from the eyes – become active in a similar of the ‘café with friend’ memory.
a memory index. To use an analogy: pattern to when you saw the café first- This idea of memory indexing and
when functioning well, memory is like hand. Because of synaptic plasticity and recollection is still only a theory.
 PROFILE: DR CHRIS SARRA

PROFILE 10, Chris had first-hand experience of the many negative issues
THE POWER OF POSITIVE faced by Indigenous students during schooling, including racism
and low expectations. “Sometimes I would sell myself short,” he
THIS ACCLAIMED EDUCATOR IS PROVING THAT OPTIMISM admits. “But I grew up with a very strong and proud mum, who, in
AND AFFIRMATION BRING FAR GREATER RESULTS IN THE many ways, created a force-field around our family, always giving
CLASSROOM THAN NEGATIVE FEEDBACK. us a strong and positive sense of what it meant to be Aboriginal.
Her constant message was never become a victim of racism.”

D
r Chris Sarra is an educator who has dedicated his career This drove Chris to teachers' college and the first steps in
to shifting expectations around children in schools across the career in education that is now his passion. “My college
Australia. His focus has been Indigenous children and lecturer, Dr Gary MacLennan, mentored me and at one point
he’s managed to break through entrenched misunderstandings grabbed me by the ‘intellectual scruff of my neck’, calling upon
and use education to make a real difference to their lives. my sense of outrage and determination to not defer to what
“The key has been getting educators to embrace Aboriginal people expected of me,” he says, recalling that this gave
kids beyond the stereotypes that dominate the landscape, him the self-confidence to believe he could succeed.
while also allowing the kids themselves to see outside After qualifying as a teacher, in 1998 Chris
these labels,” says Chris, Founding Chairman and CEO became the first Aboriginal principal at Cherbourg
of the Stronger Smarter Institute, which has been State School in South East Queensland. There he
operating for a decade now to improve educational developed the ‘Stronger Smarter’ philosophy,
outcomes for Indigenous Australian schoolchildren. which encouraged Indigenous students to be both
Chris believes that constant criticism and strong in their cultural identity and smart about
negativity may have a fundamental impact on the making the most of educational opportunities.
way children learn. “From a neuroscience perspective, “Throughout my education, I developed
I am particularly interested in the impact on the a sense of understanding that if I changed my
wiring of the brain when it is constantly bombarded expectation of who I am, I could transcend the
with negative messages,” he explains. “The essence of being stifled beliefs of where I could go,” Chris says. “We
stronger and smarter is to have a positive impact on a child’s achieved success at Cherbourg through flushing out the
psyche and provide an authentic reason to be more optimistic. negative stereotypes and replacing them with a positive
“Advances in research relating to the neuroplasticity cultural identity while also challenging the whole school
of the brain take this thinking from a ‘romantic’ notion community to have high expectations of Indigenous students.”
to a clinical level, which is a great advancement.” More at strongersmarter.com.au. Chris’s book, Good Morning,
Growing up in Bundaberg in the 1970s as the youngest of Mr Sarra, is available at uqp.com.au or at all good bookshops.
P H OTO G R A P H E R I K A F I S H
P H OTO G R A P H Y BY E R I K A F I S H
 Chapter 2. HOW WE LEARN

LEARNING STYLES: Why

exposing the myths good
ARE THERE SUCH THINGS AS ‘VISUAL LEARNERS’ OR ‘AUDITORY teachers
LEARNERS’? WHAT DOES THE SCIENCE SAY? matter

T
he idea that different people WHEN IT COMES to learning, the importance of great
have different learning styles teachers can’t be underestimated, not least because
teachers have a significant influence on student
is actually a misconception achievement. Almost everyone can name a teacher
that has become widespread. A who stands out in their memory because they were
2012 survey of teachers from the particularly engaging, encouraging or inspiring.
Netherlands and the United Kingdom, Using data from more than 500,000 studies,
for example, found that more than 90% Professor John Hattie, Director of the Melbourne
Education Research Institute at the University of
believed in different learning styles. Melbourne and a lead investigator in the Science of
In fact, although people may have Learning Research Centre, conducted a meta-analysis
personal preferences as to how they and ranked various influences on student learning
take in information, it’s untrue that an “is based on a valid research finding, and achievement. He found that the impact teachers
have on student learning is greater than other factors
individual learns better through any namely that visual, auditory, and that often dominate public debate, such as class size,
one particular set of sensory cues. kinaesthetic information is processed in technology, individualised instruction, streaming by
In 2008, an extensive review by different parts of the brain,” explained ability and changing school calendars or timetables.
cognitive psychologist Dr Harold the authors of the UK–Netherlands The influences with the most effect, by far, were
teacher-related: both teachers’ expectations for their
Pashler and colleagues from the study. During learning, as in many other students and their level of expertise topped the list.
University of California, San Diego brain activities, these brain areas work For teachers to inspire students, they need to make
assessed decades of research and found with each other rather than in isolation. the effort to understand their own impact and what
no evidence to support the idea that an There is no evidence, however, that methods work best in the classroom. In contrast, Prof
Hattie found that repeating students, and teachers
individual learns more effectively when these areas work ‘better’ in some who have low expectations or label their students
teaching is tailored to a particular style. people than others to determine overall according to ability, have low or even negative
The misconception that they do how each person learns best. impacts on learning achievement.
CHAPTER 2 . HOW WE LEARN

NI ̌ HǍ O.
BONJOUR.
THE POWER OF SPEECH
Hola. A RARE GROUP OF PEOPLE KNOWN AS POLYGLOTS
ARE ABLE TO USE MULTIPLE LANGUAGES.
HELLO.

W
hat’s their secret? Is their that brain anatomy does contribute
ability with languages in some way to language learning. A
simply due to persistence, study by Northwestern University
or do their brains work differently to researchers found that having a larger
give them an advantage in this area? left Heschl’s gyrus – a brain region
Emil Krebs, a 19th century German known to be involved in processing
polyglot, was reportedly able to speak pitch – was associated with more
and write 68 different languages. A success in learning foreign pitch
post-mortem study of his brain found patterns. But Heschl’s gyrus is just
anatomical differences in Broca’s part of the story. Speech relies on
region, an area of the frontal lobe connectivity between many regions
important for speech production. of the brain, and success at learning a
Researchers were unable to determine, language depends on multiple factors
however, whether the structure of including literacy in your native
his brain was unique from birth, or language, general verbal intelligence
resulted from his language learning. and the age at which you first learn the
Other research supports the idea foreign language.

IT COULD BE worth dusting off those old French textbooks from high
school! Research suggests bilingualism contributes generally to the
DID YOU maintenance of a healthy brain. Neuroplastic brain changes, including
KNOW? increased grey matter density, have been found in people with skills in
more than one language, from children and young adults through to
the elderly. Such changes even occur with short-term learning. And at
least one review has found that lifelong bilingualism is associated with
an average delay in the onset of dementia by four years.
 CHAPTER 2 . HOW WE LEARN

BOOST YOUR LEARNING

USE THESE SIX TIPS TO HELP IMPROVE THE POWER OF YOUR BRAIN.

1. MINIMISE DISTRACTIONS 2. USE ACTIVE TESTING 3. SPREAD LEARNING OUT

OR RECALL
“The easiest and most obvious way we can The benefits of spacing out learning have
help to focus our attention is by reducing the Doing quizzes or forcing yourself to actively been observed in students from pre-school
amount of distractions in our environment.” recall information is linked to deeper memory to university. For long-term retention,
That’s the advice of QBI cognitive formation than when you passively review spacing study sessions apart is far more
neuroscientist Professor Jason notes. US research involving a foreign language effective than when information is learned en
Mattingley. Distractions include mobile learning task, for example, found that university masse in one long session. Revise regularly,
phones, social media and television. students were better able to retain word whether it is done weekly or each day.
Multitasking should also be avoided, where meanings if they were actively tested on them,
possible. Although some people are convinced suggesting long-term learning occurs during EDUCATORS
they can do two or more mental tasks equally forced-recall testing. Periodically review topics
effectively at the same time, research shows this throughout a term.
isn’t the case. Multitasking activates inhibitory EDUCATORS
networks in the brain, which suggests the brain Make quizzes or assessment tools
is rapidly switching between tasks rather than available to students.
doing them simultaneously. Other research has
found that chronic multitasking impairs both
long-term and working (short-term) memory.

EDUCATORS
Set rules about the use of technology
in the classroom; encourage students to
focus on one task at a time.
 CHAPTER 2 . HOW WE LEARN

BOOST YOUR LEARNING

USE THESE SIX TIPS TO HELP IMPROVE THE POWER OF YOUR BRAIN.

4. MIX THINGS UP 5. COMBINE SPOKEN 6. USE STORIES

WORD WITH IMAGES
In a traditional and widely applied approach How well you remember an abstract concept can
to learning known as ‘blocking’, skills are The brain’s visual and auditory processing be improved by concrete examples or stories.
taught sequentially and you don’t move centres are located in distinct regions and After forming a memory, we need to consolidate
onto a new one until you’ve mastered the activated separately when we see images it to make it last longer. This is easier when
previous one. But it’s now known that mixing and hear words. While multitasking is there’s context to the information being learned.
up the practice of several interrelated detrimental to learning, research has found This is why memory aids – mnemonics – are
skills can boost performance in the long that processing images and spoken words useful when studying.
run. Known as ‘interleaving’, it’s long been simultaneously has no negative effect on how Mnemonics and stories help you form
established that it can improve motor well we remember them. The same, however, associations between the content you want
learning, such as for tennis or piano players. is not the case for images and visual text: to remember, and the story you recite. These
A growing body of research is showing that when you try to listen to a speaker while associations are strengthened neural pathways,
it also has applications in the classroom. reading something unrelated at the same formed by synaptic plasticity, so that when you
time, neither is well understood. think of one (the story or mnemonic), you more
EDUCATORS easily recall the content you actually care about.
Intermix step-by-step worked solutions with EDUCATORS The mnemonic Every Good Boy Deserves Fruit,
problem-solving exercises, or provide students Use relevant non-text images as teaching aids, for example, gives the five musical notes on the
with revision material that combines practice in the form of large presentation visuals or lines in the treble clef, EGBDF. If you’re studying
questions about multiple topics. image-based handouts. medicine or nursing, you’re likely to remember the
cause of a disease that has affected someone
you care about – a personal story contextualises
the memory and enhances its meaning.

EDUCATORS
Provide context, real-world examples,
or stories for concepts being taught.
Chapter 3. FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING

TECHNOLOGY:
W
ith the rise of digital Wall or a video of Martin Luther
alternatives, the use of King’s I Have a Dream speech just
good or bad for paper textbooks has a few keyboard strokes away.
learning? all but disappeared. So, is reading
electronically different to reading
Interactive game-based learning
programs have been found to be
SMARTPHONES, TABLETS, HIGH-SPEED print? Some experiments have found effective for teaching. “The gaming
INTERNET AND SOCIAL MEDIA HAVE no difference in comprehension. But in approach was both more effective in
CHANGED THE WAY WE LEARN. one study, when reading time was self- promoting students’ knowledge of
regulated rather than fixed, participants computer memory concepts and more
performed better after reading motivational than the non-gaming
print. A 2013 US study of university approach,” wrote the author of one
students also found that reading on University of Thessaly study of high-
paper was less likely to encourage school computer science students.
multitasking, and that has already Assistive technologies have also
been established as a clear advantage improved education for students
when it comes to learning (see p12). with learning disorders or sensory
But digital technology has also impairments such as deafness or
revolutionised education in positive blindness. Many visual and audio aids,
ways. The internet has brought free such as speech recognition and text-
access to virtually unlimited troves to-speech software, now exist to help
of information. With the rise of video students with specific impairments.
tutorials and free massive online open
courses (MOOCs), education barriers The bottom line is that TECHNOLOGY IN
are lower than ever. Multimedia
in the form of images, videos and THE CLASSROOM IS HERE TO STAY,
audio resources enrich and reinforce and when distractions are minimised,
learning. They make experiences
such as a virtual tour of China’s Great IT CAN IMPROVE AND ENRICH LEARNING.
 C H A P T E R 3 . FA C TO R S A F F E C T I N G L E A R N I N G

THE UPSIDE OF STRESS

AND CONFUSION
YOU’RE MORE LIKELY to remember something
Is cramming you’ve learned if you have an emotional attachment
to it. This happens because the amygdala boosts
worth it? memory by enhancing attention and perception. It

O
can also help memory retention by triggering the
verstretched students often release of stress hormones. QBI researchers have
rely on the time-saving discovered that bad experiences automatically
enhance memory formation about places and
strategy of cramming for may serve as a cue to avoiding potential threats.
exams, but the science says this Conversely, too much stress can overwhelm, cause
study technique is highly flawed. anxiety and impair memory – but research has found
that the right amount can optimise alertness and
Many experiments have shown that studied material is preferable to cognitive performance.
‘spacing’, which involves spreading learning it for the first time en Surprisingly, even confusion can be beneficial to
study sessions apart, leads to far masse before an exam. learning. Research has shown that being confused
about new ideas or a situation can spur us to work
superior results when it comes to Last-minute cramming usually harder to understand, leading to a deeper grasp and
long-term retention. In fact, one goes hand-in-hand with stress better retention of what we have learned.
2009 study found that spaced and a lack of sleep, both of which
learning was more effective than can hinder learning retention.
cramming for 90% of participants. Sleep is thought to be involved
Memories fluctuate according in creating long-term memories
to changes in the strength by consolidation; deprivation HOW DEVICES AFFECT SLEEP
of connections – synapses – leads to decreased activity in the A large body of evidence now shows that the blue
light emitted by smartphones, tablets and computers
between neurons. These can hippocampus and poorer recall of suppresses melatonin production, meaning that using
be made stronger or weaker ‘declarative’ memories, which are these devices at night can interfere with the body’s
depending on when and how often about facts and events. In a study natural sleep cycles. Sleep is known to be important
for learning – it’s crucial for consolidating long-
they are activated, meaning that of high-school students, UCLA term memories. Missing out on sleep can also impair
a memory can be reinforced or researchers found that sacrificing attention and short-term memory.
forgotten. The more these synapses sleep for extra study time was The teenage brain is particularly sensitive to
are activated, the more likely the counterproductive and resulted in the effects of blue light. That’s why experts now
recommend that teenagers should avoid late-night
information will be retained, which increased academic problems the use of devices that emit blue light if they want to get
explains why revision of previously following day. enough sleep.
 C H A P T E R 3 . FA C TO R S A F F E C T I N G L E A R N I N G

healthy individuals, although research

indicates that their effects are modest.
However, there are serious concerns
relating to the safety and effectiveness of
these drugs with both short- and long-
term use. Misuse of these amphetamine-
based drugs increases the risk of sudden
death and heart attack, and there are legal
restrictions on their supply and importation.
So far, these so-called 'smart drugs' are
approved only at specific doses for specific

SMART DRUGS
conditions, such as narcolepsy and ADHD.
There are significant concerns
about what their impacts may
PHARMACEUTICAL WAYS TO IMPROVE Should universities be when used by healthy people,
LEARNING MAY BE RISKY. potentially at levels outside
consider DOPE prescription doses. Because

E TESTING to check
ver thought about taking a drug to These are among a suite of these drugs modulate important
improve your ability to learn? Chances pharmaceuticals now being used neurotransmitter systems such
are, you already do: caffeine. by healthy people, particularly that students as dopamine and noradrenaline,
By blocking the action of adenosine, a university students, to enhance their aren’t gaining an users take significant risks with
natural brain chemical that promotes capabilities for learning or working. unregulated use. There has not
sleep, caffeine – the world’s most So, do they actually work? One unfair advantage yet been any definitive research
popular psychoactive drug – prevents of the most studied is modafinil, through drug use? into modafinil's addictive
drowsiness. It’s one example of a group a wakefulness drug approved by potential, how its effects might
of compounds known as cognitive the Australian Therapeutic Goods change with prolonged sleep
enhancers, nootropics or smart drugs, Administration to treat the sleep disorder deprivation, or what side effects are likely
which enhance cognitive functions narcolepsy. Modafinil’s beneficial effects at doses outside the prescribed range.
including memory, motivation or creativity. in sleep-deprived people are well-known. Ethical issues also arise with the use of
Some of the newest substances being A 2015 research review by University drugs to boost brain power. Their use
used as ‘smart drugs’ are medically of Oxford neuroscientists noted that as cognitive enhancers isn’t currently
prescribed for other conditions. For modafinil’s neuroenhancing effects regulated. But should it be, just as the use
example, methylphenidate, commonly varied: the longer and more complex of certain performance-enhancing drugs
known as Ritalin, is used to treat attention a task was, the more consistently the is regulated for professional athletes?
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). drug improved cognitive function. Should universities consider dope testing
So is Adderall, a combination drug Ritalin and Adderall have also been to check that students aren’t gaining an
containing two forms of amphetamine. reported to enhance performance in unfair advantage through drug use?

Until appropriate research has been done, the medical consensus is that you’d be smart to avoid smart drugs.
 P RO F I L E : J U L I E-A N N L A M B O U R N E

PROFILE “My path to higher education didn’t

start until 17 years ago, when I was doing
A SECOND CHANCE social services work,” Julie-ann explains.
AT LEARNING At the time, she was working with
homeless and at-risk youth.
DISTRACTED BY A DIFFICULT HOME LIFE, JULIE-ANN LAMBOURNE “I knew I needed to do
NEVER GOT THE CHANCE TO LEARN MUCH AT SCHOOL. . . extra study to upskill and
BUT SHE CERTAINLY MADE UP FOR THAT LATER. change my brain’s ways
of thinking. Many of their

A
s the CEO of enVizion Group Inc, going to leave, he said, ‘Yeah, stories were so similar
an organisation dedicated to I’m not surprised. You’re to my own, which I had
improving access to education not cut out for learning’,” great empathy for, but
and employment, Julie-ann Lambourne she remembers. “When your would personalise in my
knows a thing or two about teaching and home life isn’t great, school own mind, at times causing
training. She’s now had a successful is low on your priorities.” me to regress. Studying
career with more than two Julie-ann’s mother helped me to differentiate
decades of State and Federal was a chronic alcoholic, and between self and client.”
government experience – but
“Regardless of despite having a strong extended Julie-ann strongly believes that
she herself had far from a where people come family network, had no close “regardless of where people come from or
straightforward education. from or what their role models to look up to. “We what their circumstances are, everyone
A Torres Strait Islander circumstances are, practically grew ourselves has the ability to learn.” And that’s the
woman hailing from Mabuiag up,” she says. After leaving philosophy that drives her work at
and Darnley Islands, Julie-ann
everyone has the school, Julie-ann did a few odd enVizion. The group provides training
grew up in Cairns in a family ability to learn.” jobs. But it wasn’t long before and education to people of all ages and
experiencing intense social and she’d enrolled in TAFE to do backgrounds. “We structure support
financial stress. She doesn’t recall much an associate diploma of early childhood around differing abilities so that all people
of her schooling experience other than education and surprised even herself have an opportunity to gain an education,”
“really struggling with the learning process” when she began excelling in study. By the Julie-ann says. “To help our students
and left school before completing year 10. age of 18 she’d begun a traineeship in the succeed, we let them know they have
“When I told my maths teacher that I was public service and hasn’t looked back. people they can rely on and look up to.”
 PROFILE: YEAR 12 STUDENT JEREMY MARKEY

PROFILE

GRADE 12 AND MAKING

THE BIG DECISION
THE FINAL YEAR OF HIGH SCHOOL BRINGS ITS CHALLENGES,
BUT FOR STUDENT JEREMY MARKEY THE KEY TO SUCCESS IS
BALANCE AND ORGANISATION.

A
s a year 12 student, Jeremy of boys who willingly support and help
Markey is close to finishing his each other so we can achieve the best we
educational journey at school. can academically.”
Despite juggling the responsibilities of How does he cope with the academic
being prefect at Anglican Church pressures of his final year of high
Grammar School (Churchie) with aiming school? “I think it’s important to have a
to achieve a good OP, he is finding that his good balance between study and other
last year as a school student is activities including sport which
living up to his expectations. helps you maintain focus,
“I probably experienced “I think the key to especially in grade 12,” he says.
anxiety around exams in minimising stress is “Early in Grade 11, I found the
younger years but cope a lot being organised, and distraction of having my iPhone
better with the pressure in where I studied meant I wasn’t
Senior,” says Jeremy. “I think the
good planning.” studying effectively. I decided to the future holds, Jeremy is still weighing
key to minimising stress is being leave my phone in the kitchen up his options. Some potential interests
organised, and good planning.” when I studied and allow myself regular include town planning and physiotherapy.
“The teachers at Churchie have helped breaks when I can check social media or “I’m still undecided on what direction I’ll
us to transition well from grade 11 to 12. messages from friends. This has worked head in but I’m narrowing down areas
It’s all about knowing what’s ahead each really well in keeping me on track without that I’m interested in and talking to family
term and asking for help if you need it.” losing touch.” friends who are working in those fields to
“I’m lucky that we have a great cohort As for the big decision around what get a real-world insight.”
 Chapter 4. DISORDERS OF LEARNING

L
earning new or in learning that arise from DYSLEXIA Common symptoms include
complex concepts can visual, auditory or motor This is a lifelong disorder that’s trouble comparing numbers,
be difficult enough for impairments. Although signs estimated to occur in 5–10% of recognising symbols or telling
anyone. But when you have a of these disorders are most the population. A person with the time from an analogue clock.
learning disability, it can be recognisable during schooling, dyslexia has trouble decoding Dyscalculia, unlike dyslexia, is
slow, demoralising or even learning disorders can go words quickly and accurately not lifelong. One US study of
impossible. unrecognised in individuals and may find comprehension students with dyscalculia found
These learning disorders as they continue learning and and spelling difficult. Some that the disorder persisted for
are not related to a person’s reach adulthood. report that the words seem to longer than one school year
intelligence or lack of ‘jump around’ on the page as in only 11% of participants.
education. They result from they read. Many have difficulty
specific problems in processing learning and recognising DYSGRAPHIA
information. Learning the sounds of letters. Dysgraphia is a problem with
disorders are neurologically Dyslexia tends to run in families, written expression leading to
based, and can cause trouble with research finding that the illegible handwriting, trouble
with reading (dyslexia), writing disorder has a strong genetic spelling and spacing words, and
(dysgraphia) or mathematics basis. Some studies have found difficulties putting thoughts on
(dyscalculia). These disorders that training in phonological paper. People with the condition
are distinct from problems awareness skills – recognising may write words incorrectly
sounds and what they look like, or in the wrong order.
rather than individual letters
– can help dyslexic children ATTENTION DEFICIT
improve their reading abilities. HYPERACTIVITY
DISORDER (ADHD)
DYSCALCULIA ADHD is the most common
Those with dyscalculia have neurodevelopmental
difficulty learning maths and disorder affecting children
understanding numbers. and teenagers. As of 2013,
 CHAPTER 4. DISORDERS OF LEARNING

it was estimated to affect 39 with ADHD. These include the

million people worldwide, frontal lobe, which is important
three-quarters of whom are for executive functions such
male. ADHD is not strictly as planning and controlling
considered a learning disorder. attention, as well as regions
However, research shows involved in motor activity.
that 20–25% of children with ADHD appears to run in
the condition have coexisting families. Close, or first-degree,
learning disabilities in relatives of people with ADHD
reading, spelling or maths. are far more likely to also
Young children or teenagers have the disorder, with the
with ADHD typically are risk for siblings being two-to-
hyperactive and have trouble three times as great as those
paying attention and controlling of siblings without ADHD.
their impulses. Researchers The condition is treated with
believe the condition results either, or both, behavioural
from a mix of genetic, therapy or specific drugs. There
environmental and neurological remains significant debate
factors. Studies using magnetic and controversy over both the
resonance imaging (MRI) diagnosis and management of DID YOU As of 2013, ADHD was estimated to affect 39 million
have identified several brain ADHD, complicating studies KNOW? people worldwide, three-quarters of whom are male.
regions that differ in people on its effect on learning.

OTHER Many medical conditions affect the health of the brain and therefore its ability to learn. This includes conditions
CONDITIONS present before birth, genetic disorders, or diseases or injuries acquired throughout life. The effects can be
temporary: concussion, for example, results when the brain knocks against the inside of the skull, causing short-
AFFECTING term symptoms including memory loss and difficulty concentrating. Hearing or speech language impairments,
LEARNING particularly if unrecognised, may affect communication in the classroom. Other conditions, including Alzheimer’s
AND MEMORY disease, affect the brain areas crucial to learning and cause irreversible damage.
 CHAPTER 4. DISORDERS OF LEARNING

PROFILE solving have been key to Jackie’s success.

“Talent is two a dollar,” she says. “Genius
CAN’T SPELL . . . BUT SHE needs persistence. Dyslexics either become
SURE CAN WRITE! cowed by those who don’t understand the
way they need to see or learn, or become
SHE IS ONE OF AUSTRALIA’S MOST PROLIFIC AND HIGHLY AWARDED determined and creative problem-solvers.
CHILDREN’S AUTHORS AND YET JACKIE FRENCH SUFFERS FROM A I love the music of words. I love collecting
LEARNING DISORDER THAT MADE READING AND WRITING AN ORDEAL the data, analysing, substantiating and
FOR HER WHEN SHE WAS GROWING UP. correlating until the data becomes a
theory, theme or a story.

Y
es, the much-loved Australian was due to Jackie’s dyslexia. “What we need to teach
author Jackie French suffers from She recalls that her first kids, at a young age, is do
the learning disorder dyslexia. And memory of school was of whatever helps you get
yet she’s written more than 200 books, sheer terror at having to to where to want to go.
including best-sellers such as Diary of a read one word aloud at Don’t follow your dream
Wombat and Hitler’s Daughter. Her books the request of her teacher. – grab it and pull it along
have won more than 60 awards in Australia “To this day, I still find with you. Be realistic, be
and internationally and sold millions of reading single words, and stubborn, be flexible, have
copies worldwide. handwriting difficult, but the courage to find what you
Jackie wrote her first children’s I’ve learnt to adapt,” she love doing, and then do it.”
book, Rain Stones, at the age of 30, more says. Fortunately her grade one Jackie is now a patron for
than 30 years ago, while living in a shed teacher, Miss Davies, recognised literacy programs across Australia
with Fred the wallaby, Gladys the black Jackie’s difficulties and, despite having and spends a lot of time with children
snake and Smudge the wombat. It’s now 42 children in her class, taught every who struggle with reading. “The first thing
part of Australian literary folklore that the one, including Jackie, how to write… I tell them is: ‘of course you can do it’. I have
manuscript for Rain Stones was described although Jackie acknowledges that her never known anyone who cannot read –
by editors at publisher HarperCollins writing never became entirely legible. Miss even if it takes far longer or even complex
as one the messiest and worst-spelled Davies, Jackie recalls, recognised children’s technology to make it possible. Show kids
they’d ever received. Smudge, who left strengths instead of their challenges. As how to find ‘the magic book’– the one they
his droppings on the typewriter, was a result, rather than holding her back, love so much they will go to extraordinary
responsible for the mess. But the spelling dyslexia and a passion for problem- lengths to find out what comes next.”
P H OTO G R A P H K E L LY ST U R G I S S
 Chapter 5. AGEING AND LEARNING

AGE PATTERNS Exercise and ageing

A
s we age, our ability to learn and remember changes. THERE’S NO escaping it: cognitive recently identified that exercise is
Due, for example, to ‘infantile amnesia’, most of us can’t function declines with age. But it’s able to increase production of new
not all bad news. An important key to brain cells and improve learning and
remember anything about being a toddler. We don’t know slowing decline may lie in exercising memory. They are now heading up
why. The memories might still be there but not easily accessible. not only the brain, but also a clinical trial monitoring
Or it could be that the circuits holding those earliest memories are the body.
A key to SLOWING 300 people aged 65 and
overwritten when new brain cells are produced and integrated. QBI’s Professor Perry older to identify the right
Around adolescence, our prefrontal cortex – which controls Bartlett was one of the DECLINE may lie amount, intensity and type
first people to discover of exercise that leads to
planning, decision-making and working memory – develops that the adult brain in exercising not cognitive improvement in
significantly. Our ability to plan for the future improves and contains stem cells only the brain, the ageing brain. “This will
we can process more information when deciding between capable of making new be the most comprehensive
different options. neurons. As the brain ages, but also the analysis yet of why
these stem cells lose their exercise is beneficial,”
Our ability to remember new information peaks in our ability to produce new
body. Prof Bartlett explains.
20s, and then starts to decline noticeably from our 50s or 60s. neurons, causing cognitive “Ultimately, we would hope
Because the hippocampus is one brain region that continues function to decline. to have clear public health guidelines
producing new neurons into adulthood, it plays an important Ground-breaking research by Prof as to how exercise can both prevent
Bartlett and Dr Daniel Blackmore and reverse dementia.”
role in memory and learning. The section called the dentate
gyrus is where the new neurons are created. Many are
produced during childhood, but activity in the dentate gyrus
slows down as we age. The reason for memory decline isn’t
known but may involve this decreased rate of neurogenesis.
Dementia, which is experienced by 10% of people
older than 65, occurs when abnormal proteins accumulate
inside and around neurons. These proteins are thought
to affect our memories by killing the synapses and
ultimately the neurons that hold memories together.
 CHAPTER 5. AGEING AND LEARNING

PROFILE exercise to improve cognition

A LEARNING BREAKTHROUGH in older mice. He is now
leading a human clinical
IT USED TO BE THOUGHT THAT THE ADULT BRAIN WAS HARDWIRED: trial to determine the
WHAT WE HAD BY A CERTAIN AGE WAS AS GOOD AS IT GOT. amount, intensity, and
BUT QBI’S PROFESSOR PERRY BARTLETT TURNED THAT type of exercise that leads
THINKING ON ITS HEAD. to cognitive improvement
in the brains of elderly
people (see p20). “The effect

“W
hen I started researching he found them first in the brains of dementia on hundreds
the brain in the late of mouse embryos and then adult of thousands of Australians is
1970s, the general dogma mice. In 2001 he became the first person debilitating and devastating,” he says. “If we
was that the adult brain was fixed and to isolate these cells in adult mice. can show that exercise can actually slow
unable to change,” Professor Perry Bartlett His research progressed to focus on stem down or reverse the onset of dementia,
explains. “It was very exciting when I was cells in the hippocampus. “We know the then we can potentially make a positive
able to prove that there were actually stem hippocampus is vital for the formation of difference to a lot of people’s lives.
cells in the adult brain, which means that spatial navigation and remembering when “Our first thought back at the beginning
the adult brain has the capacity to repair and where activities occur,” Prof Bartlett was, ‘Wow, now we will be able to repair
itself.” The discovery clearly has significant says. “Our latest work suggests that many the brain’, and, while it’s still a long road,
implications for treating people with brain different groups of stem cells are at work in researchers are now well on the way to
injuries and diseases. the hippocampus, regenerating new neural doing that. What excites me is that our
In 1982, Prof Bartlett first predicted connections. We now understand that the initial discoveries nearly 25 years ago are
the presence of stem cells in the brain. A brain is very plastic, changing all the time.” now leading to potential treatments for
decade later, he proved the theory when Recently, Prof Bartlett successfully used dementia, and maybe for depression too.”

›› ››
Prof Bartlett was In 2015, he became just the ninth recipient of the CSL Florey In 2017, in recognition of his
founding director Medal for his breakthrough discoveries in neuroscience. This career, Prof Bartlett was
DID YOU of QBI, which he medal is one of Australia’s most prestigious scientific awards named a Queensland Great,
KNOW?
established in 2003, and recognises a recipient’s significant achievements in and the Queensland Senior
with 10 researchers. biomedical science and/or human health advancement. Australian of the Year.
P H OTO G R A P H R I C H A R D S B R I G G S / FA I R FA X SY N D I CAT I O N
 CHAPTER 5. AGEING AND LEARNING

DID YOU

BRAIN TRAINING
KNOW?

P H OTO G R A P H PAT R I C K H A M I LTO N

THERE ARE NOW COUNTLESS ONLINE APPS AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMS
THAT ENCOURAGE PEOPLE TO EXERCISE THEIR BRAIN TO BOOST COGNITIVE Professor
FUNCTION. DOES ‘BRAIN TRAINING’ REALLY WORK? Jason Mattingley
COGNITIVE

“T
NEUROSCIENTIST AT UQ’S
here’s no doubt that repeatedly mathematical modelling to quantify any QBI AND SCHOOL OF
PSYCHOLOGY.
doing certain tasks improves improved performance. Participants
performance on those tasks,” were later re-tested, on both the trained Prof Mattingley’s research also investigates
says Professor Jason Mattingley, a cognitive task as well as a visual search task for selective attention, the process by which
neuroscientist at UQ’s QBI and School of which they’d received no training. we filter out information to focus on certain
objects – a topic that fascinates him. “Most of
Psychology. “It’s been much more The researchers found that us regulate our attention effortlessly, and for
difficult to prove any broader after four sessions of training, the most part we’re not even aware of what
benefits for brain function, or combined with tDCS designed we’re doing,” he says. “But attention is a multi-
faceted and complex brain function that is
help with untrained tasks.” to increase activity in the only beginning to be understood. It’s important
Prof Mattingley and his brain's left prefrontal we do so, because many developmental and
team have now shown that cortex, participants’ acquired brain disorders cause impairments of
brain training for specific performance in both attention, and these can be very debilitating
for sufferers.”
tasks can also improve the decision-making
broader brain performance, task and the untrained
when combined with visual task improved. training. “Our findings could help in efforts
brain stimulation. They “This study is the to stop cognitive decline associated with
recently studied the benefits first to show transfer of healthy ageing, or improve cognition in
of brain stimulation devices performance benefits to people with brain disease or injury,” Prof
that deliver transcranial direct untrained cognitive operations with Mattingley says. He cautions, however,
current stimulation (tDCS) via electrodes these types of tasks,” Prof Mattingley says. about the use of DIY brain stimulation.
on the scalp (see image above). In the “What’s more, these generalised benefits “There are still many unknowns with these
study, participants were trained in a were still evident a fortnight later.” technologies. Although brain stimulation
simple decision-making task while they He believes the study’s outcomes devices are now available commercially, we
received either active or sham (placebo) support an important new research would not recommend people embark on
brain stimulation. The team then used direction into the neural basis of cognitive do-it-yourself brain stimulation at home.”
 CHAPTER 5. AGEING AND LEARNING

PROFILE people who never went to university,

but have been readers their whole lives,
USING AND KEEPING studying English literature,” Sallyanne
A HEALTHY MIND explains. She recalls one woman aged in
her 90s who was teaching Latin: “She
DR SALLYANNE ATKINSON AO IS CONVINCED THAT STAYING was so good at it that her classes
PHYSICALLY AND MENTALLY ACTIVE IS KEEPING HER CAREER were always booked out.”
SHINING, WELL INTO HER EIGHTH DECADE. Sallyanne says she
has a “low threshold for

A
t the height of Dr Sallyanne and business leader, and boredom” and enjoys
Atkinson’s political career, working mother. Now variety, which is reflected
she became renowned for her as the current Chair of in the breadth of her
quick wit and astute intellect. Now, the Queensland Brain professional interests.
as she approaches 75, she believes Institute’s advisory board, In addition to her QBI
it’s more than just good luck and Sallyanne is committed to commitments, she is Chair
fortunate genes that continue to keep the exploration of the science of the Museum of Brisbane
her mind as sharp as ever. that underpins learning. and President of Women’s
She strongly believes “How people “Once the research community College within The University of
there’s truth to the adage use understands how people learn, Queensland, among many other high-
it or lose it and continues to learn is more or how people don’t learn, that level professional engagements.
remain both mentally and significant has huge implications not just for Sallyanne believes that different
physically active as she forges the education of children, but for pursuits stimulate the brain in different
than what ways, and that understanding the
through her 70s. Sallyanne people in the workplace,” she says.
walks every day, plays tennis they learn” As a strong advocate for underlying mechanisms is enormously
weekly and remains passionate lifelong learning, Sallyanne is important. “How people learn is more
about the arts in various forms. also a patron of the University significant than what they learn,”
She has long been interested in how of the Third Age, an international body she says. “I think QBI research is
the brain works and learns. Throughout that promotes learning for personal about [understanding] the how.”
her high-profile career, the former ― and enjoyment and satisfaction, particularly Read more about Sallyanne in her
still only ― female Lord Mayor of Brisbane in people beyond retirement age. “You’ve memoir, No Job For A Woman, available
has blazed a trail as a journalist, political got doctors doing ancient history and at uqp.com.au or at all good bookshops.
P H OTO G R A P H J U ST I N E WA L P O L E
 A U S T R A L I A' S S C I E N C E O F L E A R N I N G R E S E A R C H C E N T R E

THE SCIENCE OF
interact with each other, perceive our
environment, and react to certain
LEARNING stimuli. “And education researchers
and teachers,” he adds, “are of
course interested in the practical
A need for evidence processes of learning and teaching.”
The SLRC has experimental
classrooms in Brisbane and Melbourne

I
t’s now widely accepted that to University of Queensland, the SLRC aims in which new learning principles are
improve learning outcomes, teachers to bring together researchers from the tested. Findings from these are now
need solid evidence to support what disciplines of neuroscience, cognitive guiding how teachers focus student
they put in place in the classroom. This psychology and education to develop attention to optimise learning.
need for accessible research into what scientifically validated strategies. Several science of learning centres
really works in schools and classrooms Incorporating the three disciplines are conducting similar research in
is known as the ‘science of learning’: a is a complementary approach, explains other countries and the Australian
relatively new field that brings together Professor Pankaj Sah, Director of both SLRC is partnering with organisations
researchers from disparate areas. the SLRC and QBI. “Neuroscientists and collaborators internationally.
In Australia, the field is led by the have long been interested in This includes the Neuro-Education
Science of Learning Research Centre learning and memory formation. Initiative at the Johns Hopkins School
(SLRC), a national collaboration How is it that the brain learns? How of Education in Maryland, in the US.
between nine research organisations do you lay down memories?”
and the State Education departments Likewise, Prof Sah says, psychology
of Queensland, Victoria and South researchers are interested in the
Australia. Headquartered at The behavioural side of learning: how we

NAPLAN IMPROVEMENT
The SLRC has trained more than 1200 teachers, including in a numeracy intervention
program in the Port Augusta–Quorn region of South Australia. In collaboration with the
South Australian Department of Education and Child Development, researchers worked
closely with teachers to reduce student anxiety about maths, leading to improved
NAPLAN scores in the region.
 QBI: Helping people live
world-leading brain longer, healthier and
research institute smarter lives
by understanding
the brain.
Help us improve
learning in
classrooms and in
the workplace.

TO FIND OUT MORE VISIT:

qbi.uq.edu.au/learning