sensors

Article
Precise Loran-C Signal Acquisition Based on
Envelope Delay Correlation Method
Wenhe Yan 1,2,3, *, Kunjuan Zhao 1,2,3 , Shifeng Li 1,2,3 , Xinghui Wang 1,3 and Yu Hua 1,2,3
1 National Time Service Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi’an 710600, China
2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
3 Key Laboratory of Precise Positioning and Timing Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Xi’an 710600, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-29-8389-0360; Fax: +86-29-8389-0326




Received: 23 March 2020; Accepted: 16 April 2020; Published: 19 April 2020


Abstract: The Loran-C system is an internationally standardized positioning, navigation, and

timing service system. It is the most important backup and supplement for the global navigation
satellite system (GNSS). However, the existing Loran-C signal acquisition methods are easily
affected by noise and cross-rate interference (CRI). Therefore, this article proposes an envelope delay
correlation acquisition method that, when combined with linear digital averaging (LDA) technology,
can effectively suppress noise and CRI. The selection of key parameters and the performance of
the acquisition method are analyzed through a simulation. When the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
is −16 dB, the acquisition probability is more than 90% and the acquisition error is less than 1 µs.
When the signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) of the CRI is −5 dB, the CRI can also be suppressed and
the acquisition error is less than 5 µs. These results show that our acquisition method is accurate.
The performance of the method is also verified by actual signals emitted by a Loran-C system. These
test results show that our method can reliably detect Loran-C pulse group signals over distances
up to 1500 km, even at low SNR. This will enable the modern Loran-C system to be a more reliable
backup for the GNSS system.

Keywords: Loran-C; signal acquisition; envelope delay correlation; cross-rate interference

1. Introduction
The Loran-C system is an internationally standardized radio positioning, navigation, and timing
(PNT) service system. It has the advantages of high transmission power, long propagation distance,
and good phase stability [1–3]. It can provide a time service better than 100 ns and a position service of
20 m after differential correction. The signal can be transmitted up to a distance of 1500 km [4,5]. When a
signal from the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is rejected or interfered with, Loran-C can be
used as an important backup system of GNSS navigation and timing [2,6]. Loran-C can also be effective
for “timing warfare” and “navigation warfare” in modern war [7]. Therefore, many countries are
developing and upgrading their Loran-C systems to improve their accuracy, availability, and integrity.
In June 2017, the U.S. Congress passed the Frank LoBiondo Coast Guard Authorization Act of 2018.
The bill formally restarted the Loran-C system to improve the security and reliability of position and
timing systems. The goal is to achieve accurate and reliable Loran-C navigation and timing services in
50 states by building or rebuilding Loran-C time service stations [8–10]. China also plans to build three
Loran-C stations in Western China in 2018 to provide national signal coverage with the existing Loran-C
system. In 2013, South Korea completed preparations for the construction of its Loran system with
the aim of upgrading its Loran-C stations to an autonomous Loran-C system, hoping to achieve full
coverage of the country in the future [11,12]. In summary, the Loran-C system will develop vigorously

Sensors 2020, 20, 2329; doi:10.3390/s20082329 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2020, 20, 2329 2 of 15

in the future. The Loran-C signal processing technology also needs further development; improving
the accuracy and coverage of system applications will serve to meet the application needs of modern
PNT services.
The Loran-C signal acquisition involves finding the first pulse position of the master and
secondary stations without manual intervention. This is a key step in signal processing performed
by navigation and timing receivers [13]. With the increase in the number of Loran-C stations,
the cross-rate interference between the stations will become increasingly pronounced. At the same
time, the electromagnetic environment is becoming increasingly complex. Noise and interference,
whether intentional or unintentional, also affect the detection of Loran-C signals. Owing to the
limitations of digital signal processing technology (DSP), the traditional receiving system generally
adopts hard-limiting technology [14,15]. This results in quantization of the received Loran-C signal
into a one bit digital signal, and acquisition is realized by determining the strict group repetition
interval (GRI) and pulse phase codes characteristics of the Loran-C signal. The accuracy of phase code
detection and recognition is the key to signal acquisition. Accurate detection of phase codes needs
a sufficient signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). In the case of strong noise and interference, the probability
of signal acquisition is low, which reduces the effective range of Loran-C receivers [16,17]. With the
development of DSP, several acquisition methods have been recently developed. In [13], an acquisition
method based on the matched filter method is proposed. This method uses the local standard Loran
pulse signal and the received pulse signal to achieve acquisition by matching correlation. However,
this method does not consider the influence of noise and cross-rate interference (CRI) on the Loran-C
pulse signal. When the Loran-C signal is influenced by CRI and noise, the received signal is not a
standard Loran-C signal. The influence of matched filtering of this method becomes worse, which
leads to the decrease of acquisition accuracy and probability. In [16], the delay correlation acquisition
method based on the Loran-C pulse signal is used. In this method, the received Loran-C pulse signal is
delayed by one GRI and then correlated with the next group of pulse signals to realize the acquisition
of the pulse group. This method can suppress the effect of CRI interference. In the case of a high SNR,
this method can effectively detect the pulse group signal. In the case of a low SNR, this method results
in a decrease in the correlation, and the signal acquisition is difficult. Moreover, the signal of the master
and secondary stations cannot be simultaneously detected.
Therefore, this article proposes an envelope delay correlation (EDC) acquisition method, combined
with linear digital averaging (LDA) and adaptive threshold techniques, which can effectively reduce
the effect of noise and CRI on the signal acquisition process. Furthermore, the correlation peaks can
also be repaired by this method, so that the acquisition results have higher accuracy. The method in
this article can accurately and simultaneously detect the signals of the master and secondary stations,
thus improving the sensitivity and effective range of Loran-C receivers.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Loran-C Signal Format

The Loran-C signal is formally defined by the United States Coast Guard (USCG) as a sequence of
pulses of radio frequency (RF) energy at a central frequency of 100 kHz [18]. A single Loran-C pulse is
defined by
f or t < τ


 0
E(t) sin(ω0 t + Pc ) f or τ ≤ t ≤ 65 + τ ,

S(t) =  (1)


f or t > 65 + τ

 unde f ined
 
−2(t−τ)
where E(t) = A(t − τ)2 exp 65 is the Loran-C pulse envelope, A is a normalization constant
related to the peak amplitude, t is the time in µs, τ is the envelope-to-cycle difference (ECD) in µs,
ω0 = 2π f0 , f0 = 100 kHz, and Pc is the phase code parameter (in radians), which is 0 for positive
phase-coded pulses and π for negative phase-coded pulses. The vast majority (90%) of the energy of
Sensors 2020, 20, 2329 3 of 15

Loran-C
Sensors signals
2020, is concentrated
20, x FOR PEER REVIEW in
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the frequency band of 90–110 kHz. This frequency band is reserved
3 of 15
3 of 15
for Loran-C and it should be free from any intentional interference. The characteristics of a single
reserved
Loran-C for Loran-C and itinshould
Figure be free from any intentional interference. The characteristics of a
reservedsignal are shown
for Loran-C and it should 1.
be free from any intentional interference. The characteristics of a
single Loran-C signal are shown in Figure 1.
single Loran-C signal are shown in Figure 1.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 1. The characteristics of a single Loran-C signal for a positive phase-coded
phase-coded pulse: (a) Loran-C
Figure 1. The
Figure 1. The characteristics
characteristics of
of aa single
single Loran-C
Loran-C signal
signal for
for aapositive
positive phase-codedpulse:
pulse: (a)
(a) Loran-C
Loran-C
pulse
pulse waveform; (b) Loran-C pulse
pulse spectrum.
pulse waveform;
waveform;(b)(b)Loran-C
Loran-C pulsespectrum.
spectrum.

The Loran-C navigation

navigation chain chain is
is composed
composed of of one
one master
master station
station and
and two
two to five secondary
secondary
The Loran-C navigation chain is composed of one master station and two to five secondary
stations. The pulse
pulsegroups
groupssignal
signalofof
thethe master
master andand secondary
secondary stations
stations are shown
are shown in Figure
in Figure 2. The2.pulse
The
stations. The pulse groups signal of the master and secondary stations are shown in Figure 2. The
pulse
groupgroup signals
signals of theof the master
master stationstation transmits
transmits nine nine Loran-C
Loran-C pulsepulse signals.
signals. The The interval
interval between
between the
pulse group signals of the master station transmits nine Loran-C pulse signals. The interval between
the
firstfirst
eighteight pulses
pulses is 1and
is 1 ms, ms,theand the interval
interval betweenbetween theand
the eighth eighth
ninth and ninth
pulses is 2pulses
ms. Theis 2secondary
ms. The
the first eight pulses is 1 ms, and the interval between the eighth and ninth pulses is 2 ms. The
secondary
station onlystation onlythe
transmits transmits thepulses,
first eight first eight
and pulses, and the
the Loran-C Loran-C
timing systemtiming
only system
transmitsonly
thetransmits
signal of
secondary station only transmits the first eight pulses, and the Loran-C timing system only transmits
the signal
masterofstation
the master
[1,19].station [1,19].code
The phase The phase
cyclescode cycles of
of Loran-C Loran-C
pulse group pulse group
signals aresignals
shownare shown
in Table 1.
the signal of the master station [1,19]. The phase code cycles of Loran-C pulse group signals are shown
in
TheTable
two 1. Thecycles
code two code cycles are modulated
are alternately alternately with
modulated with“+”
the signal: the indicates
signal: “+” indicates
a phase codea of
phase code
0 radians
in Table 1. The two code cycles are alternately modulated with the signal: “+” indicates a phase code
of
and0 radians and “−”
“−” indicates indicates
a phase codea of π radians.
phase code of π radians.
of 0 radians and “−” indicates a phase code of π radians.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 2. The characteristics of a Loran-C pulse group signal: (a) master station; (b) secondary station.
Figure 2.
Figure 2. The
The characteristics
characteristicsofofaaLoran-C
Loran-Cpulse
pulsegroup
groupsignal: (a)(a)
signal: master station;
master (b) (b)
station; secondary station.
secondary station.
Table 1. Phase codes of Loran-C signals.
Table1.1. Phase
Table Phase codes
codes of
of Loran-C
Loran-C signals.
signals.
Ground
Ground Master
Master Secondary
Secondary
Ground Master Secondary
A ++−−+−+− + +++++−−+
A A ++++ −− −
−++ −− ++−− +
+ + ++ + ++ ++ −+−−+− +
B BB +−
+ − − + ++++++++
+ − −− +
+++++
−− + −+ +−−++−++−+−− −
− +−+−++−−

The interval between the Loran-C pulse groups is called the group repetition interval (GRI) [20].
The interval between the Loran-C pulse groups is called the group repetition interval (GRI) [20].
The GRI cycle range is defined as 40,000–99,990 μs with a resolution of 10 μs. The Loran-C system
The GRI cycle range is defined as 40,000–99,990 μs with a resolution of 10 μs. The Loran-C system
continuously emits the pulse group signals according to its own GRI. The signal transmission format
continuously emits the pulse group signals according to its own GRI. The signal transmission format
of Loran-C navigation chains is shown in Figure 3. The master station transmits the pulse group
of Loran-C navigation chains is shown in Figure 3. The master station transmits the pulse group
signal first. After the specified time delay (denoted by TDX), the first secondary station transmits the
signal first. After the specified time delay (denoted by TDX), the first secondary station transmits the
Sensors 2020, 20, 2329 4 of 15

The interval between the Loran-C pulse groups is called the group repetition interval (GRI) [20].
The GRI cycle range is defined as 40,000–99,990 µs with a resolution of 10 µs. The Loran-C system
continuously emits the pulse group signals according to its own GRI. The signal transmission format
of Loran-C navigation chains is shown in Figure 3. The master station transmits the pulse group signal
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 15
first. After the specified time delay (denoted by TDX), the first secondary station transmits the pulse
signal. After the time delay TDY, the second secondary station transmits the pulse signal. Finally,
secondary station transmits the pulse signal. After the time delay TDY, the second secondary
after a time delay equal to the GRI, the master station retransmits the pulse group signal, and the
station transmits the pulse signal. Finally, after a time delay equal to the GRI, the master station
cycle repeats.
retransmits the pulse group signal, and the cycle repeats.

GRI
TDY
TDX

Master Secondary X Secondary Y Master Secondary X Secondary Y

Figure 3. The signal transmission format of Loran-C navigation chains. Abbreviations: group repetition
Figure
interval 3. The
(GRI); timesignal
delaytransmission format of
for first secondary Loran-C
station navigation
(TDX); chains.
time delay Abbreviations:
for second secondarygroup
repetition
station (TDY). interval (GRI); time delay for first secondary station (TDX); time delay for second
secondary station (TDY).
2.2. Loran-C Interference Sources
2.2. Loran-C Interference Sources
The inherent interference in Loran-C signals is mainly from noise and cross-rate interference [21,22].
They have The inherent
different interference
effects in Loran-C
on the amplitude andsignals is mainly
acquisition accuracyfromofnoise
Loran-C and pulse
cross-rate
groupinterference
signals.
[21,22]. They have different
These effects are described in this subsection.effects on the amplitude and acquisition accuracy of Loran-C pulse
group
Noisesignals. These effects
is an integral part of areanydescribed in this subsection.
radio system, and it can originate from sources external to
Noisesystem
the receiving is an integral
or frompart of any
within the radio system,
receiving systemanditself.
it can External
originatesources
from sources
includeexternal
lightning to the
receiving
discharges, system or electronics
precipitation, from within andthe receiving
power systemThe
transmission. itself.
main External
internalsources include
noise source lightning
is thermal
discharges,
noise generatedprecipitation,
in the receiverelectronics
antenna and and power
front transmission.
end [21,23]. The SNR The main
of the internal
received noise signal
Loran-C source is
thermal
is one of the noise generated
key factors in the receiver
in determining antenna and
the usefulness front end
of Loran-C [21,23].
signals The SNR of
for navigation and thetiming.
received
Loran-C
Noise exists atsignal is one
all times and of canthehavekey factors in effect
a significant determining
on the SNR the ofusefulness of Loran-C
Loran-C signals. As thesignals
signal for
navigation
propagation and timing.
distance increases,Noisethe exists
signal at all decreases
level times andand canthe have
SNRa alsosignificant
decreases, effect on makes
which the SNR it of
difficult to detect the signal. At the same time, it also causes the signal waveform to change, which the
Loran-C signals. As the signal propagation distance increases, the signal level decreases and
SNR the
reduces alsosignal
decreases, which
detection makes itTherefore,
accuracy. difficult to detect
it is the signal.
necessary At the
to ensure same
that the time,
pulseitgroup
also causes
signal the
can signal waveform
be detected at lowtoSNR.
change, which reduces the signal detection accuracy. Therefore, it is necessary
toAlthough
ensure that each the pulse group
Loran-C stationsignal
has acan be detected
different GRI, allatLoran-C
low SNR. transmitters transmit their signals
with theAlthough
same frequency each Loran-C
and format.station has a different
Therefore, the signal GRI, all Loran-C
is often interfered transmitters transmit
with by signals from their
signals
other with
stations in the
the same frequency
navigation chain.and format.
This Therefore,
is called cross-rate theinterference
signal is often (CRI)interfered
[21,24]. Awith by signals
schematic
from of
diagram other
CRIstations
is shown in in the navigation
Figure 4. CRIchain.
signalsThis
willisoccur
called cross-rate interference
periodically, (CRI) [21,24].
causing distortion of the A
schematic
received signals. diagram of CRI to
CRI is inherent is the
shown in Figure
Loran-C system4.and CRI signals
cannot will occurNevertheless,
be prevented. periodically, ifcausing
the
distortion of the received signals. CRI is inherent to the Loran-C system
CRI signal is not suppressed, the acquisition result will be incorrect (especially when the CRI is intense), and cannot be prevented.
andNevertheless,
the receiver will if the
notCRI signal
receive theisrequired
not suppressed, the acquisition
signal [25,26]. With the result
increasingwill be incorrect
number (especially
of Loran-C
whenbeing
stations the CRIbuilt,isthe
intense),
amount and the receiver
of CRI will not receive
is also increasing. Therefore, the it required signal
is essential for [25,26].
the CRIWith to be the
increasing number of Loran-C stations
suppressed during the process of pulse group detection. being built, the amount of CRI is also increasing. Therefore, it
is essential for the CRI to be suppressed during the process of pulse group detection.
Amplitude
schematic diagram of CRI is shown in Figure 4. CRI signals will occur periodically, causing
distortion of the received signals. CRI is inherent to the Loran-C system and cannot be prevented.
Nevertheless, if the CRI signal is not suppressed, the acquisition result will be incorrect (especially
when the CRI is intense), and the receiver will not receive the required signal [25,26]. With the
Sensors 2020, 20,
increasing 2329 of Loran-C stations being built, the amount of CRI is also increasing. Therefore,
number 5 of 15
it
is essential for the CRI to be suppressed during the process of pulse group detection.

Amplitude

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of cross-rate interference (CRI).

Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEERFigure
REVIEW4. Schematic diagram of cross-rate interference (CRI). 5 of 15

2.3. Loran-C Acquisition Method

2.3. Loran-C Acquisition Method
2.3.1. Process of the Acquisition Method
2.3.1. Process of the Acquisition Method
The first step in the signal detection process is the acquisition of Loran-C signals, which enables the
Theposition
starting first step in master
of the the signal detection process
and secondary pulse groupis the acquisition
signals of Loran-C
to be found. signals,Loran-C
In this article, which
enables the starting position of the master and secondary pulse group signals to be found.
pulse group signals are detected using the envelope delay correlation (EDC) method. This acquisition In this
article, Loran-C pulse group signals are
method is shown in Figure 5 and outlined below. detected using the envelope delay correlation (EDC)
method. This acquisition method is shown in Figure 5 and outlined below.
Delay a Threshold
GRI Calculation
envelope

signal Band-pass Detection result

Quadrature Sliding correlation Linear Digital
and
Filter Demodulation Correlator Result Average (LDA)
Judgment

Figure
Figure 5. Flow diagram
5. Flow diagram of
of the
the signal
signal acquisition
acquisition method
method used
used in
in this
this article.
article.

Step 1: The received signal passes through a band-pass filter (BPF) to remove interference and
Step 1: The received signal passes through a band-pass filter (BPF) to remove interference and
noise outside the band. Its bandwidth is 30 kHz.
noise outside the band. Its bandwidth is 30 kHz.
Step 2: The signal envelope is obtained through quadrature demodulation. The signal envelope
Step 2: The signal envelope is obtained through quadrature demodulation. The signal
is delayed
envelope is bydelayed
a GRI, and
by athe correlation
GRI, and thepeak is obtained
correlation peakusing the EDCusing
is obtained method,
the which can reduce
EDC method, the
which
influence
can reduce ofthe
CRI.
influence of CRI.
Step 3: The
Step 3: Thecorrelation
correlationpeak
peak is accumulated
is accumulated andandaveraged
averaged according to the
according toGRI
the period by using
GRI period by
linear digital averaging (LDA) technology, which can restore the Loran-C correlation
using linear digital averaging (LDA) technology, which can restore the Loran-C correlation peak peak and reduce
the
andinfluence
reduce theof influence
interference on the delayon
of interference correlation
the delaypeak amplitude.
correlation peak amplitude.
Step 4: The detection threshold is calculated according
Step 4: The detection threshold is calculated according to the
to statistical characteristics
the statistical of theof
characteristics noise
the
in the correlation results. Based on the characteristics of the Loran-C pulse group signal,
noise in the correlation results. Based on the characteristics of the Loran-C pulse group signal, the the correlation
peak amplitude
correlation peakisamplitude
compared is with the detection
compared with threshold.
the detectionWith this, the acquisition
threshold. of the
With this, the master and
acquisition of
secondary pulse group signal is achieved.
the master and secondary pulse group signal is achieved.
2.3.2. Envelope Delay Correlation (EDC)
2.3.2. Envelope Delay Correlation (EDC)
We assume that the digital Loran-C signal, after passing through the band-pass filter, is
We assume that the digital Loran-C signal, after passing through the band-pass filter, is
(𝑛)
S𝑆i (n ) ==±A𝐴r ((𝑛𝑇
nTs ))sin 𝑛𝑇s ))+
(2π f0 nT
sin(2𝜋𝑓 +N𝑁i ((𝑛𝑇
nTs )),, (2)
(2)

where T𝑇s =
where = f1s isisthe thesample period, 𝑓fs isis the
sampleperiod, the sample frequency, 𝐴
sample frequency, Ar(𝑛𝑇
(nTs)) is
is the
the signal envelope,
signal envelope,
sin(2𝜋𝑓
sin 𝑛𝑇s)) is
(2π f0 nT the signal carrier, 𝑓f0 is the signal frequency of
is the of 100 kHz, ± is
100 kHz, is the
the pulse
pulse phase code,
and N 𝑁i ((𝑛𝑇
nTs )) isis the
the noise.
noise. The
The received
receivedsignal
signalisisthen
thenmixed
mixedwith
withthe
theorthogonal
orthogonal carrier according
carrier to
according
[27,28]:
to [27,28]:
𝑆 (𝑛) = 𝑆 (𝑛𝑇 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓 𝑛𝑇 + 𝛥∅ )
(3)
= ∓ 𝐴 (𝑛𝑇 )[𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛥∅ ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓 𝑛𝑇 + 𝛥∅ )] + 𝑁 (𝑛𝑇 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓 𝑛𝑇 + 𝛥∅ )

𝑆 (𝑛) = 𝑆 (𝑛𝑇 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓 𝑛𝑇 + 𝛥∅ )

(4)
= 𝐴 (𝑛𝑇 )[𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛥∅ ) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓 𝑛𝑇 + 𝛥∅ )] + 𝑁 (𝑛𝑇 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓 𝑛𝑇 + 𝛥∅ ),
Sensors 2020, 20, 2329 6 of 15

SI (n) = Si (nTs ) cos(2π f0 nTs + ∆∅n )

(3)
= ∓ 12 Ar (nTs )[sin(∆∅n ) − sin(2π f0 nTs + ∆∅n )] + Ni (nTs ) cos(2π f0 nTs + ∆∅n )

SQ (n) = Si (nTs ) sin(2π f0 nTs + ∆∅n )

(4)
= ± 12 Ar (nTs )[cos(∆∅n ) − cos(2π f0 nTs + ∆∅n )] + Ni (nTs ) sin(2π f0 nTs + ∆∅n ),
where SI (n) and SQ (n) are the result of mixing. ∆∅n is the phase difference between the received
signal and the orthogonal carrier signal. The above results were filtered with a low-pass filter to obtain
two orthogonal signals [29,30]:

1
I (n) = ∓ Ar (nTs ) sin(∆∅n ) + NI (nTs ), (5)
2
1
Q(n) = ± Ar (nTs ) cos(∆∅n ) + NQ (nTs ), (6)
2
where I (n) and Q(n) are the results of low-pass filtering. The high frequency components in Equation (3)
and Equation (4) can be filtered using a low-pass filter. The signal envelope can be obtained with
q
Er (n) = I2 (nTs ) + Q2 (nTs ) + N0 (nTs ), (7)

where N0 (nTs ) is the noise that exists after processing. The above equation gives a positive pulse
envelope. This not only eliminates the phase difference θ between the received signal and the orthogonal
carrier, but also eliminates the impact of the Loran-C pulse phase code. The Loran-C signal envelope is
delayed by one GRI, and sliding correlation is performed with the next set of signal envelopes [31].
The correlation results are
1 Xn 
D

R(n) = Er (kTs )Er kTs − TGRI , (8)
L k=n−L+1

D is the GRI of the receiving station and L is the sliding correlation time (in µs). Because
where TGRI
the correlation peak has the same GRI repetition characteristic of the Loran-C signal, there is a strong
correlation between the signal envelopes. The signal envelope of the Loran-C signal is weakly correlated
with the noise. In addition, the noise is weakly correlated with itself, and therefore it can be ignored
here. R(n) can be alternatively expressed as

1 Xn 
D
 1 Xn
R(n) = Ar (kTs )Ar kTs − TGRI + No (nTs ) = A2 (kTs ) + No (nTs ), (9)
4L k=n−L+1 4L k=n−L+1 r

where No (nTs ) is the noise after the sliding correlation is performed. In Equation (9), the selection of the
correlation length L is critical because it can be used to obtain an ideal correlation peak. We obtained
correlation peaks in seven cases with L values of 32, 64, 96, 128, 160, 192, and 224 µs. The correlation
result is shown in the Figure 6.
As can be seen from Figure 6, when L < 64 µs, the correlation peak is very small. As L increases,
the amplitude of correlation peak also increases. However, when L > 128 µs, the correlation peaks
are wider and the detection results are multivalued. Therefore, we use a value of L = 96 µs, which
maximizes the correlation peak amplitude while also ensuring the sharpness of the peak. This is
beneficial for signal sensitivity and detection accuracy.
 1 1
R(𝑛) = ∑𝑛𝑘=𝑛−𝐿+1 𝐴𝑟 (𝑘𝑇𝑠 )𝐴𝑟 (𝑘𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝐺𝑅𝐼
𝐷 )
+ 𝑁𝑜 (𝑛𝑇𝑠 ) = ∑𝑛𝑘=𝑛−𝐿+1 𝐴2𝑟 (𝑘
4𝐿 4𝐿 (9)
𝑇𝑠 ) + 𝑁𝑜 (𝑛𝑇𝑠 ),
where 𝑁𝑜 (𝑛𝑇𝑠 ) is the noise after the sliding correlation is performed. In Equation (9), the selection of
the correlation length 𝐿 is critical because it can be used to obtain an ideal correlation peak. We
Sensors 2020, 20, 2329 7 of 15
obtained correlation peaks in seven cases with L values of 32, 64, 96, 128, 160, 192, and 224 μs. The
correlation result is shown in the Figure 6.

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Correlation
Correlation peaks
peaks at
at different
different correlation lengths.

2.3.3. Linear Digital Averaging (LDA)

As can be seen from Figure 6, when L < 64 μs, the correlation peak is very small. As L increases,
the amplitude
The Loran-C of correlation
signal is easilypeakaffected
also increases.
by noiseHowever,
during signal L > 128 μs, and
whenpropagation the correlation peaks
reception, which
are wider
causes theand the detection
envelope results
correlation are to
peak multivalued.
be distorted. Therefore,
Therefore, we use
we ause
value
theofLDA
L = 96 μs, which
technique to
maximizes
accumulatethe andcorrelation
average the peak amplitude
correlation peakswhile also ensuring
according to the GRI the of
sharpness of the
the Loran-C peak.LDA
signal. Thisnot
is
beneficial
only restoresfor signal sensitivity
the signal envelope,and but
detection accuracy.the SNR, which stabilizes the changes in the
also improves
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15
correlation peak. We define the vector representation of the envelope correlation to be
2.3.3. Linear Digital Averaging (LDA)
where 𝐻𝑖 is the vector form of the correlation result and r(j) is the quantized value of the correlation
Hi = [r(1), r(2), r(3), . . . , r(j)], (10)
TheAssuming
results. Loran-C signal is easily affected by noise during signal propagation and reception,
which causes the envelope correlation peak to be distorted. Therefore, we use the LDA technique to
where Hi is the vector form of the correlation 𝑆𝑁𝑅 result
= 20logand r((𝐴ji)),is the quantized value of the correlation
(11)
accumulate and average the correlation peaks according to 𝑖𝑛 10 𝜎i the GRI of the Loran-C signal. LDA not
results. Assuming
only restores the signal envelope, but also improves theASNR, which stabilizes the changes in the
!
i
where 𝐴i ispeak.
correlation the amplitude
We define the of the signal,
vector in = 𝜎20
SNRand
representationi is
logstandard
of
10 the , deviation of noise. The linear digi (11)
σi envelope correlation to be
tal average is expressed as
where Ai is the amplitude of the signal, 𝐻𝑖 and
= [r(1),
σi is r(2), r(3), deviation
standard (10)
… , r(j)], of noise. The linear digital average
is expressed as 1
Y = [b(1), b(2), b(3) … , b(j)] = (H1 + H2 + H3 … . +H𝑀 ), (12)
1𝑀
Y = [b(1), b(2), b(3) . . . , b(j)] = (H1 + H2 + H3 . . . . + HM ), (12)
M
where M is the number of accumulations. From [32], the standard deviation of the noise after linear
where M is the number of accumulations. From [32], the standard deviation of the noise after linear
σ
digital averaging
digital averaging is is σσ00 = 𝜎√𝑖i . Therefore,
. Therefore,the
theoutput
outputSNR SNRis:is:
√𝑀M
!
AAi𝑖
𝑆𝑁𝑅out
SNR = 20
𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 20log 10 (𝜎 ) = 10 log10
log10 (𝑀) + 𝑆𝑁𝑅 in..
10 (M) + SNR𝑖𝑛 (13)
(13)
σ00
The above equation indicates that the SNR can be increased by 10log10 (M) through the linear
The above equation indicates that the SNR can be increased by 10 log (M) through the linear digital
digital averaging method. Figure 7 shows the relationship between10the SNR gain and M. After
averaging method. Figure 7 shows the relationship between the SNR gain and M. After accumulating
accumulating 50 times, the SNR is increased by 16 dB. Considering the acquisition time and the
50 times, the SNR is increased by 16 dB. Considering the acquisition time and the resources of the
resources of the receiver, we chose a value of 30 accumulations so that the SNR can be increased by
receiver, we chose a value of 30 accumulations so that the SNR can be increased by more than 10 dB.
more than 10 dB.

Figure 7. Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) gain as a function of the number of accumulations.

a

2.3.4. Threshold and Detection

In order to effectively detect the position of the pulse group signals, the detection threshold
needs to be adjusted as the noise amplitude changes. Thus, the threshold needs to be assigned based
Sensors 2020, 20, 2329 8 of 15

2.3.4. Threshold and Detection

In order to effectively detect the position of the pulse group signals, the detection threshold needs
to be adjusted as the noise amplitude changes. Thus, the threshold needs to be assigned based on the
noise amplitude in the LDA results. We calculate the maximum value X(i) of the correlation peak
every 1 ms in the correlation accumulation results. This generates 1GRI ms values, which are sorted from
largest to smallest. The Loran-C navigation chain is composed of one master station and two to five
secondary stations. We assume that there are N secondary stations. When signals are received at each
station, 9 + 8N peaks are generated, and the values after the (9 + 8N)th peak are all noise. Therefore,
we use noise values to calculate the threshold. The mean and standard variance of the noise are
Pk2
k1
X (i)
X= (14)
k2 − k1 + 1
v
u
tP 
k
2
2
k1
X (i) − X
σn = , (15)
k2 − k1 + 1
GRI
respectively, where k1 = 9 + 8N + 1 and k2 = 1 ms . The detection threshold, then, is defined as

Vt = X + ασ2n , (16)

where α is the threshold coefficient, which can vary from 2 to 10 according to the situation [33]. In this
article, the threshold is set according to the statistical value of the noise correlation value. The purpose
is to allow the threshold value to be independent of changes in the amplitudes of the signals from the
master and secondary stations. There are two conditions to detect the pulse group signals successfully:
the correlation peak must be greater than the threshold and the characteristics of the master and
secondary pulse signals must be present.

3. Results

3.1. Validation Method

To verify the effectiveness of the proposed method, we performed a simulation, the parameters of
which were set as follows. The GRI of the received signals, including the signal of one master and
two secondary stations, is 67.8 ms. The CRI, including that of one master station and two secondary
stations, is 74.3 ms. The signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) defined as [21]

As
 
SIR = 20log10 , (17)
Ac

where As is the amplitude of the received signal and Ac is the amplitude of the CRI. The SIR is set to
0 dB. The continuous wave interference frequency is 95 kHz, and its SIR is 3 dB. The noise is assumed
to have the characteristics of white gaussian noise (WGN), and its SNR is 0 dB. The waveform and
spectrum are shown in Figure 8.
The waveform of the simulated signal (Figure 8a) shows that the signal has been completely
submerged in noise and interference. The spectrum (Figure 8b) clearly indicates that the power of the
interference at 95 kHz is very strong and that the signal at 100 kHz is undetectable. Next, we filter and
extract the envelope of the signal.
stations, is 74.3 ms. The signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) defined as [21]
𝐴
SIR= 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝑠 ), (17)
𝐴 𝑐

where 𝐴𝑠 is the amplitude of the received signal and 𝐴𝑐 is the amplitude of the CRI. The SIR is set
to 0 dB. The continuous wave interference frequency is 95 kHz, and its SIR is 3 dB. The noise
Sensors 2020, 20, 2329
is
9 of 15
assumed to have the characteristics of white gaussian noise (WGN), and its SNR is 0 dB. The
waveform and spectrum are shown in Figure 8.

(a) (b)
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Characteristics
Characteristics of
of simulated
simulated signals:
signals: (a) signal waveform; (b) signal spectrum.
spectrum.

Figure 9 shows the

The waveform waveform
of the of the
simulated simulated
signal (Figuresignal after band-pass
8a) shows filtering
that the signal (top
has panel)
been and the
completely
signal envelope
submerged that and
in noise is obtained through
interference. Thequadrature
spectrum demodulation (bottom
(Figure 8b) clearly panel).
indicates The
that thesignal
power andof the
the
envelope can at
interference be95distinguished,
kHz is very but there
strong andis severe CRI.
that the The at
signal noise
100iskHz
stillisstrong, which causes
undetectable. Next,thewesignal
filter
amplitude
and extracttothe change rapidly.
envelope We
of the now use the acquisition method presented in this article to process
signal.
Sensors
the 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW
signal. 9 of 15
Figure 9 shows the waveform of the simulated signal after band-pass filtering (top panel) and
the signal envelope that is obtained through quadrature demodulation (bottom panel). The signal
and the1 envelope can be distinguished, but there is severe CRI. The noise is still strong, which causes
BPF Result
the signal amplitude to change rapidly. We now use the acquisition method presented in this article
to process the signal.
0

-1
1
Signal Envolope

0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (ms)

Figure 9. Band-pass filter (BPF) result and signal envelope.

Figure 9. Band-pass filter (BPF) result and signal envelope.
Figure 10 shows the results after the envelope delay correlation (top panel) and linear digital
Figure 10 shows the results after the envelope delay correlation (top panel) and linear digital
averaging of the signal (bottom panel). The delayed correlation results show that the CRI signal
averaging of the signal (bottom panel). The delayed correlation results show that the CRI signal is
is significantly suppressed. However, there is pulse interference, which significantly modifies the
significantly suppressed. However, there is pulse interference, which significantly modifies the
correlation peak amplitude and noise floor. After LDA, the correlation peak is obvious and the noise
correlation peak amplitude and noise floor. After LDA, the correlation peak is obvious and the noise
floor is uniformly distributed. By comparing the correlation result with the threshold, the master
floor is uniformly distributed. By comparing the correlation result with the threshold, the master
and secondary pulse groups can be accurately detected at the same time. This demonstrates the
and secondary pulse groups can be accurately detected at the same time. This demonstrates the
effectiveness of our method.
effectiveness of our method.
3.2. Anti-noise Performance
Noise is the most basic source of interference in the received signal, and it is also inevitable.
Generally, the receiving system works normally when the SNR is greater than −10 dB [34]. Therefore,
in order to verify the anti-noise performance and the acquisition probability and accuracy of our
method, pulse group signals with −20 dB < SNR < −5 dB were generated using a simulation.
 Figure 10 shows the results after the envelope delay correlation (top panel) and linear digital
averaging of the signal (bottom panel). The delayed correlation results show that the CRI signal is
significantly suppressed. However, there is pulse interference, which significantly modifies the
correlation peak amplitude and noise floor. After LDA, the correlation peak is obvious and the noise
floor is uniformly distributed. By comparing the correlation result with the threshold, the master
Sensors 2020, 20, 2329 10 of 15
and secondary pulse groups can be accurately detected at the same time. This demonstrates the
effectiveness of our method.

Figure 10.Correlation
Figure10. Correlationresult
resultand
and linear
linear digital
digital averaging (LDA)
(LDA) result.
result.

3.2.Figure 11 shows
Anti-noise the simulation results for the acquisition probability (Figure 11a) and acquisition
Performance
error (Figure 11b). When the SNR is less than −16 dB, the acquisition performance drops rapidly.
Noise is the most basic source of interference in the received signal, and it is also inevitable.
However, when the SNR is greater than −16 dB, the acquisition probability of our method reaches
Generally, the receiving system works normally when the SNR is greater than −10 dB [34]. Therefore,
more than 90%, and the acquisition error remains within 1 µs. Therefore, our method has excellent
in order to verify the anti-noise performance and the acquisition probability and accuracy of our
anti-noise
Sensors 2020, performance
20, x FOR PEER and can meet the minimum requirements of Loran-C receivers.
REVIEW 10 of 15
method, pulse group signals with −20 dB < SNR < −5 dB were generated using a simulation.
Figure 11 shows the simulation results for the acquisition probability (Figure 11a) and
acquisition error (Figure 11b). When the SNR is less than −16 dB, the acquisition performance drops
rapidly. However, when the SNR is greater than −16 dB, the acquisition probability of our method
reaches more than 90%, and the acquisition error remains within 1 μs. Therefore, our method has
excellent anti-noise performance and can meet the minimum requirements of Loran-C receivers.

(a) (b)
Figure 11. The Theacquisition performance
acquisition as as
performance a function of SNR:
a function (a) (a)
of SNR: acquisition probability;
acquisition (b)
probability;
acquisition
(b) error.
acquisition error.

3.3. Cross-rate
3.3. Cross-rate Interference
InterferenceEffect
Effect
CRI isiscaused
CRI causedbybyoverlapping
overlapping signals from
signals different
from Loran-C
different chains.
Loran-C This will
chains. Thisbecome more severe
will become more
as the number of stations increases. When the interference signal overlaps
severe as the number of stations increases. When the interference signal overlaps with the with the expected signal,
the waveform
expected signal,ofthe
thewaveform
expected signal
of the is affected.signal
expected The receiving
is affected.system is required
The receiving to work
system normally
is required to
when the intensity
work normally whenof the
theCRI signalofis the
intensity lower
CRIthan theisintensity
signal of the
lower than theexpected
intensitysignal
of the[34]. This section
expected signal
analyzes
[34]. Thisthe influence
section of CRI
analyzes theoninfluence
the correlation
of CRIpeakon theand acquisition
correlation accuracy,
peak and evaluates
and acquisition the ability
accuracy, and
of the acquisition
evaluates the abilityalgorithm to suppress
of the acquisition CRI. ThetoGRI
algorithm of the CRI.
suppress interference
The GRIsignal
of the is set to 40–100
interference ms,
signal
the GRI of the expected signal is 70 ms, and the SIR is assigned a range from
is set to 40–100 ms, the GRI of the expected signal is 70 ms, and the SIR is assigned a range from −10 −10 dB to 10 dB.
The simulation results are shown below.
dB to 10 dB. The simulation results are shown below.
Figure 12a
Figure 12a demonstrates
demonstrates that that for
for the
the same
same SIR,
SIR, the
the influence
influence of of CRI
CRI on on the
the expected
expected signal
signal
amplitude is the same. As the SIR decreases, the signal amplitude decreases
amplitude is the same. As the SIR decreases, the signal amplitude decreases significantly. This significantly. This indicates
that the influence
indicates that the of CRI on of
influence theCRI
amplitude is related to
on the amplitude is the SIR. to
related Figure 12b Figure
the SIR. shows that the acquisition
12b shows that the
error is within
acquisition 5 µsiswhen
error withinthe5SIR μs iswhen
greater SIR−5
thethan is dB, but when
greater than the
−5 GRI
dB, ofbutthewhen
interference
the GRIsignal
of theis
interference signal is close to the GRI of the expected signal, the acquisition error increases
significantly due to the increase in the interference rate. Therefore, the simulation results demonstrate
that the method in this article can effectively suppress the influence of CRI on the acquisition of pulse
groups and that it can meet the requirements of the Loran-C receiving system.
 Figure 11. The acquisition performance as a function of SNR: (a) acquisition probability; (b)
acquisition error.

3.3. Cross-rate Interference Effect

CRI
Sensors 2020, 20, is caused by overlapping signals from different Loran-C chains. This will become more11 of 15
2329
severe as the number of stations increases. When the interference signal overlaps with the
expected signal, the waveform of the expected signal is affected. The receiving system is required to
closework
to the normally
GRI of when the intensity
the expected of the
signal, theCRI signal is lower
acquisition error than the intensity
increases of the expected
significantly due to thesignal
increase
[34].
in the This sectionrate.
interference analyzes the influence
Therefore, of CRI on the
the simulation correlation
results peak andthat
demonstrate acquisition accuracy,
the method andarticle
in this
evaluates the
can effectively ability of
suppress thethe acquisition
influence algorithm
of CRI on thetoacquisition
suppress CRI. The GRI
of pulse of theand
groups interference signal
that it can meet the
is set to 40–100 ms, the GRI of the expected signal is 70 ms, and the SIR is assigned a range from −10
requirements of the Loran-C receiving system.
dB to 10 dB. The simulation results are shown below.
Figure 12a
3.4. Experimental demonstrates that for the same SIR, the influence of CRI on the expected signal
Verification
amplitude is the same. As the SIR decreases, the signal amplitude decreases significantly. This
We test the
indicates thatacquisition
the influence method
of CRIwith
on thesignals actually
amplitude transmitted
is related by aFigure
to the SIR. real Loran-C
12b showssystem. The test
that the
scheme is shown
acquisition in Figure
error is within13. 5The
μs Loran-C
when thereceiver obtainsthan
SIR is greater the Loran-C
−5 dB, butsignals
when through
the GRI an of antenna,
the
interference
and after signal
processing theissignals,
close tothethereceiver
GRI of outputs
the expected signal,We
RF signals. theuse
acquisition error data
a high-speed increases
collection
significantly due to the increase in the interference rate. Therefore, the simulation
board to collect and save RF signals. The data was processed using the acquisition method presented results demonstrate
that
in this the method in this article can effectively suppress the influence of CRI on the acquisition of pulse
article.
groups and that it can meet the requirements of the Loran-C receiving system.

Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15

3.4. Experimental Verification

We test the acquisition method with signals actually transmitted by a real Loran-C system. The
test scheme is shown in Figure 13. The Loran-C receiver obtains the Loran-C signals through an
(a) (b)
antenna, and after processing the signals, the receiver outputs RF signals. We use a high-speed data
Figure
collection
Figure 12. Effect
12.board
Effect of CRI
toofcollect
CRI on
and
on correlation peak amplitude
save RF signals.
correlation peak amplitude
The data and
andacquisition
was processed
acquisitionaccuracy:
using the(a) amplitude
acquisition
accuracy: of
method
(a) amplitude of
correlation
presented in peak;
this (b)
article.acquisition
correlation peak; (b) acquisition error.error.

Loran-C station

AD data results
Loran-C RF signal High-speed Data Signal
antenna Receiver Collection Board Acquisition

Figure 13. Test scheme of acquisition method.

Figure 13. Test scheme of acquisition method.

The actual collected

The actual signal
collected is theissignal
signal emitted
the signal by theby
emitted BPLthetiming systemsystem
BPL timing in China. The coordinates
in China. The
of the BPL timing system are ( 034 ◦ 570 N, 109◦ 33 ∘ 0 E). Its∘ GRI is 60 ms and its transmission power is
coordinates of the BPL timing system are (034 57 N, 109 33′E). Its GRI is 60 ms and its transmission
2 MW. Six test
power sites Six
is 2 MW. within 1500within
test sites km of1500the system
kilometers were selected
of the systemfor data
were collection.
selected for dataThe coordinates,
collection.
greatThe
circle distance,great
coordinates, and circle
electric field strength
distance, of the
and electric fieldtest sites are
strength shown
of the in Table
test sites 2. Test
are shown sites 1–5
in Table 2. are
usedTest sites 1–5
to collect are used
signals to collect
in an signals
open area, in an
and open
test sitearea, and test
6 is used to site 6 is used
collect data to collect data indoors.
indoors.

Table2.2.Data
Table Data for
for the
thesix
sixtest
testsites.
sites.
Great Circle distance Electric Field strength
Test Coordinate Electric Field Strength
Test Coordinate Great(km)
Circle Distance (km) (dBμV/m)
(dBµV/m)
1 (35o 59 ′20.89′′N ,106o11′ 53.43′′E) 325.4 62.9
1 (35◦ 590 20.8900 N, 106◦ 110 53.4300 E) 325.4 62.9
2 (37 o 55′57.85′′N ,102o 43′49.96′′E) 695.1 59.5
2 (37◦ 550 57.8500 N, 102◦ 430 49.9600 E) 695.1 59.5
3 (38o 52 ′44.07 ′′N ,100o 30′36.67 ′′E) 915.5 51.9
3 (38◦ 520 44.0700 N, 100◦ 300 36.6700 E) 915.5 51.9
4 (40o17 ′48.09′′N ,097 o 05′39.18′′E) 1248.0 48.1
4 (40◦ 170 48.0900 N, 097◦ 050 39.1800 E) 1248.0 48.1
5 (41o 31 ′14.78′′N ,095o 39′02.21′′E) 1441.3 41.5
5 (41◦ 310 14.7800 N, 095◦ 390 02.2100 E) 1441.3 41.5
6 (034 o 22 ′6.84′′N ,109 o13′18.32′′E) 71.2 60.4
6 (034◦ 220 6.8400 N, 109◦ 130 18.3200 E) 71.2 60.4

Figure 14a shows the signal waveforms at all six test sites. Figure 14b shows the correlation
peaks of the signals processed by the method in this article. As can be seen from the figures, the
Loran-C signal amplitude gradually decreases as the distance increases. Within 1000 kilometers, the
signal waveform is detectable and the Loran-C pulse group can be clearly seen, making the
correlation peak of the pulse sharp and obvious. In test site 1, the CRI signal is visible, and the
Sensors 2020, 20, 2329 12 of 15

Figure 14a shows the signal waveforms at all six test sites. Figure 14b shows the correlation peaks
of the signals processed by the method in this article. As can be seen from the figures, the Loran-C
signal amplitude gradually decreases as the distance increases. Within 1000 kilometers, the signal
waveform is detectable and the Loran-C pulse group can be clearly seen, making the correlation peak
of the pulse sharp and obvious. In test site 1, the CRI signal is visible, and the waveform of the
correlation peak is not affected. For great circle distances greater than 1000 kilometers, the amplitude
of the signal is significantly reduced, and even submerged in noise. However, the pulse group signal
can still be easily detected using the acquisition method in this article. The test results show that the
method proposed in this article can detect the Loran-C pulse group signals reliably, even at low SNR.
The method has engineering application value due to its ability to perform well over distances up to
1500
Sensorskm.
2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15

(a) (b)
Figure 14. Actual
Figure 14. Actual signal
signal and
and acquisition
acquisition results of the
results of the method
method in
in this
this paper
paper at
at test
test sites
sites 1–6:
1–6: (a)
(a) signal
signal
waveform; (b)
waveform; (b) correlation
correlation peak.
peak.

In order to compare the method in this article with the existing method, we use the existing
method to process the collected data. Figure 15 shows the results of testing the existing method with
respect totoactual
actualdata.
data.Figure
Figure15a15a shows
shows thethe matched
matched filtering
filtering method
method basedbased on Loran-C
on Loran-C pulsespulses
signal
signal
in [13]. in
As[13].
shown As inshown in theinresults,
the results, in CRI
test 1, the test cannot
1, the CRI cannot be
be effectively effectivelybysuppressed
suppressed this method. byIfthis
the
method.
amplitudeIfofthe theamplitude
received CRIof the received
signal CRI signal
is relatively is relatively
large, the large, the
signal acquisition signal
was acquisition
impacted. was
Moreover,
impacted.
when Moreover,
the SNR was low, when
owingthetoSNR was low, of
the distortion owing to the distortion
the received of the received
Loran-C signal, Loran-C
the correlation signal,
peak after
the matched
correlation peak after
filtering the sufficiently
was not matched filtering wasthere
large, and not sufficiently large,variations
were significant and thereinwere significant
the correlation
variations
peak in the Figure
amplitude. correlation peak amplitude.
15b shows Figure 15bacquisition
the delay correlation shows themethod
delay correlation
based on theacquisition
Loran-C
methodsignal
pulses basedinon[16].
the Loran-C
As shown pulses
in thesignal inthis
figure, [16].method
As shown caninsuppress
the figure,
thethis
CRI,method can suppress
and when the SNR
the CRI,the
is high, andmethod
when the SNR is high,
demonstrated anthe methodperformance.
excellent demonstratedHowever,
an excellent
withperformance.
a decrease inHowever,
the SNR,
with a decrease decreased
the performance in the SNR, the performance
rapidly, and the pulsedecreased
group signal rapidly, and the pulse
was undetectable. group signal
Therefore, was
compared
undetectable.
with these twoTherefore,
methods, compared
the proposed withmethod
these two methods, the
demonstrates proposed method
a remarkable demonstrates
performance under the a
remarkable
conditions ofperformance
a high CRI andunder
lowthe conditions of a high CRI and low SNR.
SNR.
the correlation peak after the matched filtering was not sufficiently large, and there were significant
variations in the correlation peak amplitude. Figure 15b shows the delay correlation acquisition
method based on the Loran-C pulses signal in [16]. As shown in the figure, this method can suppress
the CRI, and when the SNR is high, the method demonstrated an excellent performance. However,
with a decrease in the SNR, the performance decreased rapidly, and the pulse group signal was
Sensors 2020, 20, 2329 13 of 15
undetectable. Therefore, compared with these two methods, the proposed method demonstrates a
remarkable performance under the conditions of a high CRI and low SNR.

(a) (b)
Figure 15.
Figure 15. Test
Test results
results of
ofexisting
existing methods
methods with
with respect
respectto
toactual
actualdata:
data: (a)
(a) the
the matched
matched filter
filter method
method
based on
based on Loran-C
Loran-C pulses
pulses signal
signal [13];
[13]; (b)
(b)the
thedelay
delaycorrelation
correlationacquisition
acquisition method
method based
based on
onLoran-C
Loran-C
pulsessignal
pulses signal[16].
[16].

4. Discussion
The Loran-C system is a remote land-based radio system that can provide high-precision PNT
services. However, the traditional Loran-C acquisition method is unable to effectively suppress noise
and CRI. Therefore, with the development of modern Loran-C systems, more advanced Loran-C signal
processing capacity is required. In this article, we proposed a Loran-C acquisition method based on the
EDC method and analyzed the selection of key parameters in the method. In addition, LDA technology
was used to restore the correlation peaks and improve the SNR. This article also described the method
of calculating the adaptive detection threshold. We demonstrated that our acquisition method can
detect the pulse group signals of the master and secondary Loran-C stations at the same time.
In addition, a simulation was used to verify the effectiveness of the acquisition method and
analyze its anti-noise and anti-interference performance. The simulation results show that this method
can quickly acquire the master and secondary station signals. When the SNR > −16 dB, the acquisition
probability reaches more than 90% and the acquisition error is less than 1 µs. When the SIR of the CRI
is −5 dB, the method can still detect the pulse group signal effectively because of its ability to suppress
interference. Finally, we used our acquisition method to process actual received signals. Those results
proved that our method can reliably detect Loran-C pulse group signals over distances up to 1500 km,
even at low SNR. Thus, the method has high engineering application value and it is optimized for the
design of the new Loran-C navigation and timing receivers. This will improve the performance of the
modern Loran-C system, making it a more reliable backup for the GNSS system.

Author Contributions: W.Y. designed the mathematical model of the proposed algorithm, simulated the system,
and wrote the paper; K.Z. performed the experiments and completed the data preprocessing; S.L. review and
editing; X.W. analyzed the test data; Y.H. helped to frame the idea. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was mainly supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
No. 11803040) and CAS “Youth Innovative Talent Project”—“Research on GNSS/Loran-C fusion technology”
(Grant No. Y917SC1).
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank their colleagues for testing of the data provided in this
manuscript. We are also very grateful to our reviewers who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted
the research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Sensors 2020, 20, 2329 14 of 15

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