EEL324: Physical Electronics

pn Junction Diode: IV Characteristics

Ravi Shankar R. V.
Department of Electrical Engineering
 Current Flow (Qualitative View)
Equilibrium (VA = 0) Forward Bias (VA > 0) Reverse Bias (VA < 0)

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Carrier Action under Forward Bias
• When a forward bias (VA>0) is applied, the potential
barrier to diffusion across the junction is reduced
– Minority carriers are “injected”
into the quasi-neutral regions
=> Dnp > 0, Dpn > 0

• Minority carriers diffuse in the quasi-neutral regions,

recombining with majority carriers

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Ideal Diode Analysis: Assumptions
• Non-degenerately doped step junction
• Steady-state conditions
• Low-level injection conditions in quasi-neutral regions

• Recombination-generation negligible in depletion region

dJ n dJ p
  0, 0
dx dx
i.e. Jn & Jp are constant inside the depletion region
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Components of Current Flow
• Current density J = Jn(x) + Jp(x)
d ( Dn)
J n ( x )  qn n  qDn  qn n  qDn
dn
dx dx
d ( Dp)
J p ( x )  q p p  qDp  q p p  qDp
dp
dx dx
• J is constant throughout the diode, but Jn(x) and Jp(x)
vary with position:
J
Example:
p+n junction under forward bias: JN JP
x
-xp xn
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 “Game Plan” for Obtaining Diode I-V
1. Solve minority-carrier diffusion equations in quasi-neutral
regions to obtain excess carrier distributions Dnp(x,VA),Dpn(x,VA)
– boundary conditions:
• p side: Dnp(-xp), Dnp(-)
• n side: Dpn(xn), Dpn()
2. Find minority-carrier current densities in quasi-neutral regions
d ( Dn p ) d ( Dpn )
J n ( x,VA )  qDn J p ( x,VA )  qD p
dx dx
3. Evaluate Jn at x=-xp & Jp at x=xn to obtain total current density J:
J (VA )  J n ( x p ,VA )  J p ( xn ,VA )
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Carrier Concentrations at –xp, xn
Consider the equilibrium (VA = 0) carrier concentrations:
p side n side

p p 0 ( x p )  N A nn 0 ( xn )  N D
ni2 ni2
n p 0 ( x p )  p n 0 ( xn ) 
NA ND
If low-level injection conditions hold in the quasi-neutral regions
when VA  0, then

p p ( x p )  N A nn ( xn )  N D

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 “Law of the Junction”
The voltage applied to a pn junction falls mostly across the depletion
region (assuming low-level injection in the quasi-neutral regions).
We can draw 2 quasi-Fermi levels in the depletion region:

p  ni e( Ei  FP ) / kT
( FN  Ei ) / kT
n  ni e
2 ( FN  FP ) / kT
pn  n e i

pn  ni2eqVA / kT

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Excess Carrier Concentrations at –xp, xn
p side n side

p p ( x p )  N A nn ( xn )  N D
2 qVA / kT 2 qVA / kT
ne ne
n p ( x p )  i
p n ( xn ) i

NA ND
 n p 0e qVA / kT
 pn 0 e qVA / kT

  
ni2 qVA / kT

2
n Dpn ( xn )  1
Dn p ( x p )  e qVA / kT  1
i e
NA ND

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Carrier Concentration Profiles under Forward Bias

Courtesy: R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Fig. 6.8a

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Example
Consider a pn junction with NA=1018 cm-3 and ND=1016 cm-3,
under a forward bias of 0.6 V.
(a) What are the minority carrier concentrations at the edges
of the depletion region?
n p ( x p ) 
NA

ni2 qV / kT
e 
A
 1012 cm 3

ni2 e qV / kTA

p n ( xn )   1014 cm 3
ND
(b) What are the excess minority carrier concentrations at
the edges of the depletion region?
Dn p ( x p ) 
NA

ni2 qVA / kT
e 
 1  1012 cm 3

Dpn ( xn ) 
ND
e
ni2 qVA / kT

 1  1014 cm 3

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Total Current Density
• From the minority carrier diffusion equation: d 2 Dpn Dpn Dpn
 
dx 2 Dp p Lp 2

• We have the following boundary conditions:

Dpn ( xn )  pno (eqVA / kT  1) Dpn ()  0

• For simplicity, use a new coordinate system:

x’’ 0 0 x’
NEW:

• Then, the solution is of the form:

 x '/ L p
Dpn ( x' )  A1e  A2e
x '/ L p

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Total Current Density
 x ' / Lp
Dpn ( x' )  A1e  A2e
x ' / Lp

From the x =  boundary condition: A2 = 0

From the x = xn boundary condition: A1  pno (e qVA / kT  1)

 x ' / Lp
Therefore Dpn ( x' )  pno (eqVA / kT  1)e , x'  0

Similarly, we can derive

Dn p ( x' ' )  n po (eqVA / kT  1)e x ''/ Ln , x' '  0

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Total Current Density
dDn p ( x' ' ) Dn  x '' Ln
p side: J n  qDn q n p 0 (e qVA kT
 1)e
dx' ' Ln
dDpn ( x' ) Dp  x' Lp
n side: J p  qD p q pn 0 (e qVA kT
 1)e
dx' Lp

J  Jn x x p
 Jp  Jn x  0
 Jp
x  xn x  0

 Dn D p  qVA
J  qn  2
i   (e
kT
 1)
 Ln N A L p N D 

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Ideal Diode Equation
 Dp D 
I  I 0 (e  1) I 0  Aqni   
qVA kT 2 n
L N L N 
 p D n A 

Courtesy: R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Fig. 6.6a

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Diode Saturation Current I0
• I0 can vary by orders of magnitude, depending on the
semiconductor material and dopant concentrations:
 Dp D 
I 0  Aqni   
2 n
L N L N 
 p D n A 
• In an asymmetrically doped (one-sided) pn junction, the term
associated with the more heavily doped side is negligible:
 Dp 
– If the p side is much more heavily doped, I 0  Aqni  2
L N 
 p D
 Dn 
I 0  Aqni  
2
– If the n side is much more heavily doped,
 Ln N A 
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Carrier Concentration Profiles under Reverse Bias

Courtesy: R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Fig. 6.8b

• Depletion of minority carriers at edges of depletion region

• The only current which flows is due to drift of minority carriers
across the junction. This current is fed by diffusion of minority
carriers toward junction (supplied by thermal generation).
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Summary
• Under forward bias (VA > 0), the potential barrier to carrier
diffusion is reduced  minority carriers are “injected” into the
quasi-neutral regions.
– The minority-carrier concentrations at the edges of the depletion region
change with the applied bias VA, by the factor
– The excess carrier concentrations in the quasi-neutral regions decay to
zero away from the depletion region, due to recombination.

 Dn D p  qVA
pn junction diode current I  qAn    (e  1)
2 kT
i
 Ln N A L p N D 
• I0 can be viewed as the drift current due to minority carriers
generated within a diffusion length of the depletion region

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 Typical Diffusion Lengths Ln and Lp

Hole Diffusion Lengths, Ln in Silicon Electron Diffusion Lengths, Ln in Silicon

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 Narrow Base Diode
• The ideal diode equation was derived assuming that the lengths of the
quasi-neutral p-type & n-type regions (WP’ , WN’) are much greater
than the minority-carrier diffusion lengths (Ln , Lp) in these regions.
 Excess carrier concentrations decay exponentially to 0.
 Minority carrier diffusion currents decay exponentially to 0.
• In modern IC devices, however, it is common for one side of a pn
junction to be shorter than the minority-carrier diffusion length, so
that a significant fraction of the “injected” minority carriers reach the
end of the quasi-neutral region, at the metal contact.
Recall that Dp = Dn = 0 at an ohmic contact
 In this lesson we re-derive the diode I-V equation with the boundary
condition that Dp = 0 at a distance xc’ (rather than ) from the edge of
the depletion region.
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Excess Carrier Distribution (n side)
• From the minority carrier diffusion equation: D2pn  Dpn  Dp2n
2
d
dx Dp p Lp

• For convenience, let’s use the coordinate system:

x’’ 0 x’
0

xc'
 x '/ L p
• So the solution is of the form: Dpn ( x' )  A1e  A2e
x '/ L p

• We have the following boundary conditions:

Dpn ( x'  0)  pno (eqVA / kT  1) Dpn ( x'  xc ' )  0
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Excess Carrier Distribution (n side)
• Applying the boundary conditions, we have:
Dpn (0)  A1  A2  pno (e qVA / kT  1)
xc' / L p  xc' / L p
Dpn ( x )  A1e
'
c  A2e 0
• Therefore
 e x  x ' / L  e  x  x ' / L 
' '
c P c P

Dpn ( x' )  pn 0 (e qVA / kT  1)   , 0  x'  xc'

 xc' / LP
e  xc' / LP 
 e 
• Since sinh   e e  
2
this can be rewritten as

Dpn ( x' )  pn 0 (e

 sinh xc'  x' / LP
 1)
 , 0  x'  x
 
qVA / kT '
'  c
 sinh xc / LP 

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 Hole Diffusion Current Density
We need to take the derivative of ∆pn’ to obtain the hole
diffusion current within the quasi-neutral n region:
Dpn ( x)
J P  qD p
x
 1 
 L cosh  x   x   / L 
P 
  
c
J p  qD p pn 0 e qV A / kT
1  P

 sinh  xc / LP  
where cosh   e e  
  

Evaluate Jp at x=xn (x’=0) to find the injected hole current:

D p ni2 qVA coshxc / LP 
Jp q (e kT
 1)
x  0 LP N D sinh xc / LP 
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Total Current: One-sided p+n junction
Thus, for a one-sided p+n junction (in which the current
is dominated by injection of holes into the n-side) with a
short n-side:
I  I 0 (e qVA kT
 1) where I  qA ' 
DP ni 2 cosh xc' / LP 
0 
LP N D sinh xc' / LP 
Therefore if xc’ << LP:
cosh  xc / LP  1   xc / LP 
  2
LP
 
sinh  xc / LP  xc / LP  xc
sinh    as   0 cosh   1   2 as   0
For a one-sided p+n junction, then:
D p ni2  LP  D p ni2
I 0  qA    qA
LP N D  xc  xc N D
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Excess Hole Concentration Profile
If xc’ << LP:
Dpn ( x' )  pn 0 (e

 1)
sinh x 
'
 
c  x ' / LP


 
qVA / kT
'
 sinh xc / LP 

 p n 0 (e qVA / kT 
 1)
 x '

c  x ' / LP

  pn 0 (e qVA / kT  x' 
 1)1  ' 
'
 xc / LP   xc 

Dpn is a linear function: Dpn(x)

pno (e qVA / kT  1) slope is
constant
0 x'
 Jp is constant 0 x'c
(No holes are lost due to recombination as they diffuse to the metal contact.)

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 General Narrow-Base Diode I-V
• Define WP ’and WN’ to be the widths of the quasi-neutral regions.
• If both sides of a pn junction are narrow (i.e. much shorter than
the minority carrier diffusion lengths in the respective regions):

 DP DN  qVA / kT
I  qAni 
2
  e  1  I 
e qVA / kT
1   
WN N D WP N A 
0

e.g. if hole injection J

into the n side is greater JP
than electron injection
into the p side: JN
x
-xp xn

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pn Junction Breakdown

Breakdown
voltage, VBR

A Zener diode is designed

to operate in the
breakdown mode:

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 Review: Peak E-Field in a pn Junction
E(x)

 
 Si
dx
-xp xn
x

2qVbi  VA  N A N D
 (0)  qN A x p
 Si

qN D xn
 Si

 Si N A  ND E(0)

For a one-sided junction,

2qVbi  VA N
 (0)   Si
where N is the dopant concentration on the lightly doped side

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Breakdown Voltage, VBR
• If the reverse bias voltage (-VA) is so large that the peak electric
field exceeds a critical value ECR, then the junction will “break
down” (i.e. large reverse current will flow)

2qN Vbi  VBR 

 CR 
s
• Thus, the reverse bias at which breakdown occurs is

 s CR
2

VBR   Vbi
2qN

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Avalanche Breakdown Mechanism
 s CR
2
High E-field: VBR  if VBR >> Vbi
2qN

ECR increases slightly with N:

Low E-field:
For 1014 cm-3 < N < 1018 cm-3,
105 V/cm < ECR < 106 V/cm

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Tunneling (Zener) Breakdown Mechanism
Dominant breakdown mechanism when both sides of a junction
are very heavily doped.
VA = 0 VA < 0

Ec

Ev
 s CR
2

VBR   Vbi
2qN
 CR  106 V/cm
Typically, VBR < 5 V for Zener breakdown
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Empirical Observations of VBR

• VBR decreases with

increasing N

• VBR decreases with

decreasing EG

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VBR Temperature Dependence
• For the avalanche mechanism:
– VBR increases with increasing T, because the mean free
path decreases

• For the tunneling mechanism:

– VBR decreases with increasing T, because the flux of
valence-band electrons available for tunneling increases

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Deviations from the Ideal I-V
Reverse-Bias Current Forward-Bias Current
(linear scale) (log scale)

Ideally, I   I 0  constant Ideally,


log( I )  log( I 0 )  log e qVA / kT 
 qVA 
 
 qV 
 const.   A  log( e)  const.   kT 
 kT  ln(10)

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Effect of R-G in Depletion Region
• The net generation rate is given by
p n ni  np
2
 
t t τ p (n  n1 )  τ n ( p  p1 )
where n1  ni e ( ET  Ei ) / kT and p1  ni e ( Ei  ET ) / kT
ET  trap - state energy level
• R-G in the depletion region contributes an additional
component of diode current IR-G:

p xn
I R G  qA dx
 x p t
R G

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Net Generation in Reverse Bias
• For reverse bias greater than several kT/q,
qAniW 1  n1 p1 
I R G  where τ 0   τ p  τ n 
2τ 0 2  ni ni 

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Net Recombination in Forward Bias
• For forward bias:
I R G  qAniWeqVA / 2 kT

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High-Level Injection (HLI) Effect
• As VA increases, the side of the junction which is
more lightly doped will eventually reach HLI:
nn > nno for a p+n junction
or
pp > ppo for a pn+ junction

 significant gradient in majority-carrier profile

Majority-carrier diffusion current reduces the diode
current from the ideal case.

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Effect of Series Resistance

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 Summary: Deviations from Ideal I-V
• At large forward biases
(high current densities)
D: high-level injection
 I  eqVA / 2kT
E: series resistance
limit increases in current
with increasing forward
bias voltage.
B: Excess current under reverse bias
is due to net generation in the C: Excess current under small forward
depletion region. bias is due to net recombination in
I R G  W the depletion region.

I RG  WeqVA / 2kT

A: At large reverse biases (high E-field),
large reverse current flows due to
Courtesy: R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Figure E6-9
avalanching and/or tunneling
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