Geología Estructural 23091 – G2 (2020-1)

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Analysis of Results from Rock Deformation Experiments
Introduction
Experimental rock deformation refers to the laboratory study of the mechanical
characteristics of rocks. These characteristics include rheology (the response of rock to stress),
strength (the maximum stress that can be sustained by a rock before it fails), and friction (the
resistance to sliding on a fracture surface in the rock). In such work, cylinders of rock are
subjected to measured stresses under varying conditions of temperature, confining pressure,
strain rate, pore pressure, and chemical environment. Rock-deformation experiments can be
used to model both brittle and ductile deformation. Brittle deformation refers to deformation that
involves formation of and movement along discrete fractures in a rock, while ductile deformation
refers to deformation that occurs without loss of cohesion across a plane.
Engineers and scientists working with earth materials and processes must be able to read,
interpret, and extract information from rock deformation experiments. These experiments
simulate deformation in the earth, mines, and other situations in which rocks are subjected to
stress. They therefore provide insight into the physical processes by which common structures,
such as faults and folds will develop and the conditions under which rocks will fail (e.g.,
columns in mines etc.).

Pore pressure
fluid access

Confining
pressure
fluid access

S = sample
V = pressure vessel
P = piston

Figure 1. Triaxial load machine. Diagrammatic cross-sectional sketch and photograph of the
machine which compresses cylinders of rock in rock-deformation experiments.
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Rock-deformation experiments are carried out with a machine that compresses a carefully
prepared cylinder rock (Fig. 1). The cylinder is squeezed by a piston in the s1 direction
(direction of maximum principle compressive stress). The direction perpendicular to s1 is the
minimum principle compressive stress direction, s3 (Fig. 2).

Important Terminology You Need to Understand

Strain rate: The rate at which the cylinder is squeezed.

Confining pressure: The pressure exerted on the sides of the cylinder (i.e., s3).
Pore pressure: The pressure of the fluid that fills pores in the rock cylinder.
Temperature: The temperature of the cylinder during an experiment.
Differential stress: The axial stress (s1) minus the confining pressure (s3). [Ds = s1-s3]
Mean stress: The axial stress plus confining pressure both divided by two. [(s1+s3)/2]

Figure 2. A drawing of a cylinder of rock used during an experiment.

Stress-Strain Plots:

Results from rock-deformation experiments are displayed on a stress-strain plot. A stress-strain

plot is simply a graph, which plots Differential Stress vs. Strain. Several regions are notable on
the plots (Fig. 3a). As a rock undergoes deformation, initially the deformation is elastic. This
means that once the stress is removed, the rock will return to its original form. The straight line
of elastic deformation implies that the strain is directly proportional to the differential stress. The
constant of proportionality “E” is known as the Young’s Modulus – it is the slope of the line.
The rock behaves elastically until a certain strain is achieved, where the rock will do one of
several things: A) rock undergoes brittle failure; B) rock yields, deforms plastically, then brittle
failure; C) yields, undergoes strain softening, then undergoes brittle failure; D) undergoes strain
hardening, then strain softening; E) yields, then plastic deformation or; F) yields, then strain
hardening (Fig. 3b).

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 Figure 3. Stress-strain plots. (a) General stress-strain plots for an experiment in
which a sample first deforms elastically, then yields and deforms plastically before
failing. (b) Representative stress-strain plots. A= elastic deformation followed by
brittle failure; note that failure is indicated by a sudden stress drop. B = elastic
deformation followed by yielding, plastic deformation, then brittle failure. C = elastic
deformation followed by yielding, strain softening, then brittle failure. D = strain
hardening followed by strain softening. E = elastic deformation followed by yielding,
then plastic deformation. F = elastic deformation followed by yielding, then strain
hardening.

Important Terminology You Need to Know to Understand Stress-Strain Plots

Yield point: The point of deformation where a rock no longer will return to its original shape.

Brittle failure: The rock fractures and can no longer support the stress.

Plastic deformation: Deformation of the rock that is permanent but before brittle failure.

Strain hardening: The rock becomes resistive to strain requiring more stress for deformation to occur.

Strain softening: The rock becomes weaker requiring less stress for deformation to occur.

Yield strength: The value of stress (Ds) at the onset of permanent plastic strain.

Fracture strength: The value of stress (Ds) at which a rock fails by brittle fracture.

Ultimate strength: The maximum stress (Ds) that a rock sustains during deformation.

Ductility: The total percent permanent strain before failure by fracture (i.e. rocks that are highly
ductile will undergo large amounts of strain before brittle failure and some may not
undergo brittle failure at all.

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Figure 4: Example Mohr circle. The value of the shear stress ss and the value of the normal
stress sn acting on a plane oriented at an angle theta q with respect to the s1 the maximum
principal stress can be read from the diagram. Note that the value of q is plotted as 2q on the
Mohr Circle diagram counterclockwise from s1 for positive values and clockwise for negative
values.

Figure 5 shows a schematic diagram of a

core of the Oil Creek Sandstone (an
important reservoir rock that we see during
the introductory geology field camp). Notice
the fracture that has formed as a result of this
rock be submitted to a stress field that
exceeds the strength of the rock. Such
fractures form at specific angles in relation
to the principal stress directions. The
orientation of the fracture in space is defined
by the dip angle and by the angle theta (here
clockwise and thus a -67o). It is essential for
scientists and engineers to understand and
apply the significance of the spatial
Figure 5:
relationship of the orientation of the
principal stress directions to the fractures
that form.

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Using the Mohr Circle to Understand Rock-deformation Experiments

A Mohr circle is plotted on Cartesian axes; the x-axis represents values of normal stress (sn), and
the y-axis represents values of shear stress (t or ss). Both axes must have the same scale (e.g.,
Pascals, Megapascals). The right-hand intersection of the Mohr circle with the x-axis is s1, and
the left-hand intersection is s3 (Fig. 4). The middle of the circle is the mean stress. The values of
sn and t at a point on the circle represent the normal and shear components of stress acting on
the plane of interest (e.g., a fault plane or joint).

1) The mean stress at a point in a rock is 40 MPa, and the differential stress is 25 MPa.

a) What are the values of s1 and s3 in the rock? s1 =_______ s3 =________

b) Why do these values plot directly on the x-axis?

Step1: Use the coordinate axis below to construct a Mohr circle representing this state of
stress. The diameter of the Mohr circle is the differential stress, and the center of
the Mohr circle is the mean stress. Label an appropriate scale on the axes.
Step2: Read the values s1 and s3 directly from the diagram.

b) If s1 is the vertical stress what are the magnitudes of shear stress (t) and normal stress
(sn) acting on a fracture plane that has a strike of 000 and a dip of 50°?
t = _______ sn = _________

Step1: Find the angle q between the fracture plain and s1 (You will need to draw a
schematic diagram to identify the angle theta the angle q).
Step2: Draw a line from the center of the Mohr circle at an angle 2q. (This line angle
will be measured from s1 in a counter clockwise direction if the angle q is positive and a
clockwise direction the angle q is negative.)
Step3: Read the values t and sn where the line you just drew intersects the circle.

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 Analysis of Rock Strength and Failure Criteria:

2) You are working for “Youbreccia” conducting an experiment to determine the fracture
strength of an important reservoir rock comprised of sandstone. The results will be used in the
design an enhanced oil-recovery program for this field. Several cylinders of the sandstone were
tested using a triaxial compression test. The confining pressure (s3) was set at a specified value,
and the axial stress (s1 simulating the vertical stress) was increased until the specimen failed.
Note that by increasing the (s1) without changing (s3), the differential stress was increased. This
experiment was done three times with three different values of (s3). Each time, the data were
plotted in figure 6 until they reached brittle failure.

a) Using the stress-strain plot (figure 6), determine the magnitude of the differential
stress, the mean stress, and s1 at the point of brittle fracture for each of the three
experimental runs. Brittle failure occurs at the point where the line suddenly drops.
Complete table 1.

Table 1: Results of the Youbreccia Stress Tests.

s3 Differential s1 Mean Stress
Stress (Ds)

Figure 6. Stress-
strain plot

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Note that in Figure 7 the angle 2q is being measured from s1. This is because we have defined
the angle q as the acute angle measured from s1 to the pole to the plane (see Fig. 5). There are
other conventions for defining the angle q.You need to be aware of this and to be sure not to mix
the two conventions together when trying to solve the same problem.

b) Draw the coordinate axes of a Mohr diagram at an appropriate scale (I suggest 1 cm = 100
MPa). Label the axes. On this graph construct three Mohr circles – one representing the state of
stress for each of the three experimental runs using the values in table 1. The circles may
overlap.

c) Draw two straight lines that are tangent to all three circles and intersect the x-axis (see Fig
7a). One line will lie above the x-axis, and the other line will lie below the x-axis. These
straight- lines define the Coulomb-Mohr failure envelope! The y-intercept is the cohesive
strength of the rock “so” and the slope of the line (in degrees) is known as the angle of
internal friction “f” or the coefficient of internal friction “tan f”. The shear stress required to
achieve brittle failure can be expressed mathematically as follows:

ss = so + tanf(sn)

d) Based upon your graph what are the magnitudes (units) of the cohesive strength so and the
coefficient of internal friction f for this sandstone?

so = and f=

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e) From the graph, the magnitude of the dip on the fracture planes that form as a result of brittle
failure can be predicted. To do this for each experiment, construct a straight line from the mean
stress to the point on the circle that is tangent to the failure envelope. Measure the angle 2q from
s1. Use your diagram to compare the angle theta to that of the dip

Confining Angle 2q at failure q Dip

Pressure

How do the results compare?

What type of faults typically exhibit this magnitude of dip and thus form when s1 is vertical?
(Hint: look at figure 5).

f) Based upon the results of this experiment does this sandstone become stronger or weaker
deeper in the crust?

g) The reservoir this sandstone comes for is at 12,000 ft below the surface. Given a crustal
density 0f 2.67 g/cm3 what is the shear stress needed to fracture this rock? (Hint s1 = rgz and be
sure to work in metric units)

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Analysis of Ductile Deformation:

3) In ductile deformation, large strains will develop before brittle failure, if brittle failure even
occurs at all. Rock that fails by brittle fracture when the strain is between 5% and 10% is said to
exhibit semi-brittle behavior. Rock that fails at strains greater than 10% is considered ductile. In
nature, we see the folding of rock without fracturing. However, the conditions must be right for
the ductile deformation to occur without failure. In this problem, we will be looking at the
effects of confining pressure, temperature, and strain rate on the rheological properties of rock.

Each of the experiments below (figure 8) was repeated several times. Each time, a specific
parameter was changed while leaving the others constant.

Figure 8. Effect of environment on

ductile behavior. (a) Differential stress
versus axial strain for triaxial
compression tests on marble under
variable conditions of confining pressure.
(b) differential stress versus axial strain
for triaxial compression tests of
limestone under variable conditions of
temperature. (c) differential stress versus
strain for triaxial extension tests on
marble at constant temperature and
confining pressure.

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Variable Confining Pressure: This experiment was repeated six times, each time with a new
rock cylinder and under a different confining pressure.

a) Describe how the yield strength and ultimate strength varies as a function of the confining
pressure.

Variable Temperature: Six Limestone cylinders were compressed at a strain rate of 2X10-4 s-1
and a confining pressure of 300 MPa.

b) Describe how the yield strength and ultimate strength varies as a function of the temperature.

Variable Strain Rate: Eight Marble cylinders were stretched at a temperature of 500° C.

c) Describe how the yield strength and ultimate strength varies as a function of the strain rate.

d) Considering the results of these experiments, under what conditions would we be most likely
to find ductile deformation in nature?

e) In nature, would we be more likely to find beds folding with no fractures at the surface or deep
within the Earth’s crust? Explain your answer briefly.

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