Description of light propagation through

a circular aperture using nonparaxial

vector diffraction theory

Shekhar Guha
Air Force Research Laboratory, Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Wright-Patterson
Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio, 45433, USA
[email protected]

Glen D. Gillen
Air Force Research Laboratory, Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Anteon
Corporation, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio, 45433, USA
[email protected]

Abstract: Using nonparaxial vector diffraction theory derived using the

Hertz vector formalism, integral expressions for the electric and magnetic
field components of light within and beyond an apertured plane are obtained
for an incident plane wave. For linearly polarized light incident on a circular
aperture, the integrals for the field components and for the Poynting vector
are numerically evaluated. By further two-dimensional integration of a
Poynting vector component, the total transmission of a circular aperture is
determined as a function of the aperture radius to wavelength ratio. The
validity of using Kirchhoff boundary conditions in the aperture plane is also
examined in detail.
© 2005 Optical Society of America
OCIS codes: (050.1960) Diffraction theory

References and links

1. G. R. Kirchhoff, “Zur Theorie der Lichtstrahlen,” Ann. Phys. (Leipzig) 18, 663-695 (1883).
2. A. Sommerfeld, “Zur mathematischen Theorie der Beugungsercheinungen,” Nachr. Kgl. Wiss. Göttingen 4, 338-
342 (1894).
3. Lord Rayleigh, “On the passage of waves through apertures in plane screens, and allied problems,” Philos. Mag.
43, 259-272 (1897).
4. O. Mitrofanov, M. Lee, J. W. P. Hsu, L. N. Pfeifer, K. W. West, J. D. Wynn and J. F. Federici, “Terahertz pulse
propagation through small apertures,” App. Phys. Lett. 79, 907–909 (2001).
5. B. Lü and K. Duan, “Nonparaxial propagation of vectorial Gaussian beams diffracted at a circular aperture,” Opt.
Lett 28, 2440–2442 (2003).
6. K. Duan and B. Lü, “Vectorial nonparaxial propagation equation of elliptical Gaussian beams in the presence of
a rectangular aperture,” J. Opt. Sec. Am. A 21, 1613–1620 (2004).
7. G. D. Gillen and S. Guha, “Modeling and propagation of near-field diffraction patterns: A more complete ap-
proach,” Am. J. Phys. 72, 1195–1201 (2004).
8. W. Freude and G. K. Grau, “Rayleigh-Sommerfeld and Helmholtz-Kirchhoff integrals: application to the scalar
and vectorial theory of wave propagation and diffraction,” J. Lightwave Technol. 13, 24–32, (1995).
9. J. A. Stratton and L.J. Chu, “Diffraction theory of electromagnetic waves,” Phys. Rev. 56, 99–107, (1939).
10. H. A. Bethe, “Theory of diffraction by small holes,” Phys. Rev. 66, 163–182 (1944).
11. R. K. Luneberg, Mathematical Theory of Optics (U. California Press, Berkeley, Calif., 1964).
12. G. Bekefi, “Diffraction of electromagnetic waves by an aperture in a large screen,” J. App. Phys. 24, 1123–1130
(1953).

#6195 - $15.00 US Received 5 January 2005; revised 18 February 2005; accepted 18 February 2005
(C) 2005 OSA 7 March 2005 / Vol. 13, No. 5 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1424
 13. C. L. Andrews, “Diffraction pattern in a circular aperture measured in the microwave region,” J. Appl. Phys. 21,
761–767 (1950).
14. M. J. Ehrlich, S. Silver and G. Held,“Studies of the Diffraction of Electromagnetic waves by circular apertures
and complementary obstacles: the near-zone field,” J. Appl. Phys. 26, 336–345 (1955).
15. M. Born and E. Wolf Principles of Optics (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003.)
16. A. Schoch, “Betrachtungen über das Schallfeld einer Kolbenmembran,”Akust. Z. 6, 318–326 (1941).
17. A. H. Carter and A. O. Williams, Jr., “A New Expansion for the velocity potential of a piston source,” J. Accoust.
Soc. Am. 23, 179–184 (1951).
18. M. Mansuripur, A. R. Zakharian and J. V. Moloney, “Interaction of light with subwavelength structures,” Opt.
Photonics News, 56–61 (March 2003).

1. Introduction
Even though the diffraction of light by an aperture is a fundamental phenomenon in optics and
has been studied for a long time [1–3], it continues to be of modern interest [4–8]. It has been
long recognized that ‘vector’ diffraction theory needs to be used to describe propagation of
light in and around structures that are of the same length scale or smaller than the wavelength
of light [9]. Study of diffraction of light through an aperture with a radius (a) comparable to the
wavelength of light (λ ) is a challenging phenomenon to model completely, especially for the
case of a/λ ranging between 0.1 and 10, which falls in between the theory of transmission of
light through very small apertures (a  λ ) [4, 10] and vector diffraction theory using Kirch-
hoff boundary conditions and high-frequency approximations [5, 6, 9, 11]. The high-frequency
approximations and Kirchhoff boundary conditions assume that the light field in the aperture
plane is known and is unperturbed by the presence of the aperture. While mathematically con-
sistent and correctly predicting light distributions beyond the aperture plane, these assumptions
fail to represent physical waves in the vicinity of the aperture plane and violate Maxwell’s
equations.
Paraxial approximations have historically been used to reduce the mathematical complexity
and the computational time required for numerical integration, albeit at the cost of limiting
the regions of their validity. The finite difference time domain (FDTD) method provides an
accurate description of light distributions in the vicinity of the aperture without Kirchhoff or
paraxial approximations, but can become computationally time-intensive at larger distances of
propagation.
In this paper we show that using modern desktop computers, detailed solutions for all the
electric and magnetic field components (as well as the Poynting vector) for all points in space
in the aperture plane and beyond are obtainable for a/λ ≥ 0.1, within a reasonable period
of time (minutes) using vector diffraction theory but without invoking any approximations.
The expressions for the field components are first obtained here as double integrals, which are
valid anywhere in space within and beyond the aperture plane. Then the field components are
expressed as two computationally efficient single integrals for two mutually exclusive and all-
encompassing volumes of space beyond the aperture plane. Detailed two-dimensional beam
profiles of the electric field and light distributions for a variety of aperture sizes and longitu-
dinal distances are presented. The resulting three-dimensional plots provide a unique visual
representation of diffraction phenomena, which had been historically hindered by the excessive
computational time required. Significant differences are shown to exist between the Poynting
vector components and the commonly used modulus square of the electric field. It is shown that
the distribution of the electric field at and near the circular aperture is not circularly symmetric,
in agreement with experimental results [12–14]. However, the field distributions obtained using
the Kirchhoff boundary conditions are circularly symmetric showing that for any range of aper-
ture to wavelength ratios, the Kirchhoff boundary conditions are invalid at and near the aperture
plane. The total power transmitted through a plane parallel to the aperture plane is calculated as

#6195 - $15.00 US Received 5 January 2005; revised 18 February 2005; accepted 18 February 2005
(C) 2005 OSA 7 March 2005 / Vol. 13, No. 5 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1425
a function of the aperture size. For the specific case of points along the optical axis, analytical
forms of the electromagnetic field components are derived.

2. Hertz vector diffraction theory (HVDT)

The electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields of an electromagnetic wave of wavelength λ and
traveling in vacuum can be determined from the polarization potential [15], or Hertz vector
(Π
Π), through the relations
E = k2 Π + ∇ (∇
∇ · Π) , (1)
and
k2
r
εo
H=− ∇ × Π = ik ∇ × Π, (2)
iω µo µo
where the Hertz vector is a smooth and continuous function everywhere and satisfies Maxwell’s
wave equation, k = 2πλ is the wave number, and εo and µo denote the vacuum permeability and
permittivity constants. For the case of a plane wave which is linearly polarized (say along the
x-direction) and propagating in the +z direction, all of the E and H field components can be
calculated from Πx , the x-component of the Hertz vector [12], and have the following forms:

∂ 2 Πx
Ex = k2 Πx + ,
∂ x2
∂ 2 Πx
Ey = ,
∂ y∂ x
∂ 2 Πx
Ez = , (3)
∂ z∂ x
and

Hx = 0,
k 2 ∂ Πx
r
εo ∂ Πx
Hy = − = ik ,
iω µo ∂ z µo ∂ z
k2 ∂ Πx
r
εo ∂ Πx
Hz = = −ik . (4)
iω µo ∂ y µo ∂ y

From the fields given in Eqs. (3) and (4) it is straight-forward to obtain the Poynting vector, S,
where

S = Re (E × H∗ )
= Re Ey Hz∗ − Ez Hy∗ î + Re −Ex Hz∗ jˆ + Re Ex Hy∗ k̂,




(5)

and î, jˆ, k̂ denote the unit vectors in the x, y and z directions.

2.1. Double integral forms for the field components

We assume the plane wave described above is incident on an aperture which is perfectly con-
ducting, of negligible thickness, and located in the x-y plane at z = 0. Because the aperture is
assumed to be conducting, it is required that the tangential components of the electric field and
the normal components of the magnetic field vanish in the plane of the aperture. Applying these
boundary conditions on the electromagnetic fields and requiring that the Hertz vector and the

#6195 - $15.00 US Received 5 January 2005; revised 18 February 2005; accepted 18 February 2005
(C) 2005 OSA 7 March 2005 / Vol. 13, No. 5 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1426
electromagnetic fields satisfy Maxwell’s equations for all space, the Hertz vector component at
the point of interest, (x, y, z), is given by Bekefi [12] to be
iEo e−ikρ
Z Z
Πx (x, y, z) = dxo dy0 , (6)
2πk ρ
where Eo is the electric field amplitude of the incident plane wave and ρ is the distance from a
point in the aperture plane, (xo , yo , 0), to the point of interest, or
q
ρ = (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 + z2 , (7)
and the integration is performed over the two-dimensional open aperture area.
To express the results in dimensionless parametric forms, a length scale a is first chosen, and
a quantity z0 ≡ ka2 and a dimensionless parameter p1 ≡ 2πa/λ are defined, along with the
dimensionless coordinates r1 (x1 , y1 ,z1 ), r01 (x01 , y01 ,0), and a dimensionless variable ρ1 :
x y z x0 y0
x1 ≡ , y1 ≡ , z1 ≡ , x01 ≡ , y01 ≡ , (8)
a a z0 a a
q
ρ1 ≡ (x1 − x01 )2 + (y1 − y01 )2 + p1 2 z1 2 . (9)
Expressing Eq. (6) in the dimensionless form and substituting into Eqs. (3) and (4), we obtain
1 ∂ 2 A1 (x1 , y1 , z1 )
 
iEo
Ex (r1 ) = p1 A1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + ,
2π p1 ∂ x12
iEo ∂ 2 A1 (x1 , y1 , z1 )
Ey (r1 ) = ,
2π p1 ∂ y1 ∂ x1
iEo ∂ 2 A1 (x1 , y1 , z1 )
Ez (r1 ) = , (10)
2π p21 ∂ z1 ∂ x1
and
Hx (r1 ) = 0,
Ho ∂ A1 (x1 , y1 , z1 )
Hy (r1 ) = − ,
2π p1 ∂ z1
Ho ∂ A1 (x1 , y1 , z1 )
Hz (r1 ) = , (11)
2π ∂ y1
where
e−ip1 ρ1
Z Z
A1 (r1 ) ≡ dx01 dy01 (12)
ρ1
q
and Ho ≡ Eo µεoo .
Carrying out the differentiations of A1 in Eqs. (10) and (11) inside the integrals in Eq. (12),
the electric and magnetic field components are obtained as:
" #
iEo p1 (x1 − x01 )2
Z Z
Ex (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = f1 (1 + s1 ) − (1 + 3s1 ) dx01 dy01 , (13)
2π ρ12
iEo p1 (x1 − x01 ) (y1 − y01 )
Z Z
Ey (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = − f1 (1 + 3s1 ) dx01 dy01 , (14)
2π ρ12
iEo p21 z1 (x1 − x01 )
Z Z
Ez (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = − f1 (1 + 3s1 ) dx01 dy01 , (15)
2π ρ12

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(C) 2005 OSA 7 March 2005 / Vol. 13, No. 5 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1427
 Hx (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = 0, (16)
Ho p31 z1
Z Z
Hy (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = − f1 s1 dx01 dy01 , (17)
2π
Ho p21
Z Z
Hz (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = f1 s1 (y1 − y01 ) dx01 dy01 , (18)
2π
where
e−ip1 ρ1
f1 ≡ (19)
ρ1
and  
1 1
s1 ≡ 1+ . (20)
ip1 ρ1 ip1 ρ1
For a circular aperture of radius a, the limits of the integrals in Eqs. (13)–(18) are:
Z Z √ 2 1 1−y01
√ dx01 dy01 . (21)
−1 − 1−y201

2.2. Single integral forms for the field components

2.2.1. Within the geometrically illuminated region (r1 < 1)
Although the double integral forms for the electric and magnetic fields presented in the previ-
ous section give the complete solution to the Hertz vector diffraction theory for any point in
space with z1 ≥ 0, and can be numerically evaluated in minutes on currently available desktop
computers, to obtain a detailed description of the light diffracted by the aperture over a large
number of points in space, it is desirable to reduce the computation time further. Schoch [16]
demonstrated that the surface integral of the Hertz vector in Eq. (6) can be expressed as a line
integral around the edge of the aperture for field points within the geometrically illuminated
region, or r1 < 1 where r1 is defined below in Eq. (25). Expressing Schoch’s line integral form
in terms of the dimensionless parameters of Eqs. (8) and (9), the Hertz vector component for a
circular aperture of radius a becomes
Eo a2 −ip2 z1 1 2π e−ip1 q
 Z 
Πx (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = 2 e 1 − (1 − r1 cos φ ) dφ , (22)
p1 2π 0 L2
where
q2 (x1 , y1 , z1 , φ ) = L2 + p21 z21 , (23)

L2 (x1 , y1 , φ ) = 1 + r12 − 2r1 cos φ (24)

and q
r1 (x1 , y1 ) = x12 + y21 . (25)
Substituting Eq. (22) into Eqs. (3) and (4) the electric and magnetic field components can be
expressed as
1 2π
 Z 
2
Ex (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = Eo e−ip1 z1 − f2a dφ ,
2π 0
Z 2π
Eo
Ey (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = − f2b dφ ,
2π p21 0
Z 2π
Eo
Ez (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = − f2c dφ , (26)
2π p31 0

#6195 - $15.00 US Received 5 January 2005; revised 18 February 2005; accepted 18 February 2005
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and

Hx (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = 0,
 Z 2π 
2 i
Hy (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = Ho e−ip1 z1 − f2d dφ ,
2π p21 0
Z 2π
iHo
Hz (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = − f2e dφ , (27)
2π p1 0

where
1 2
f2a ≡ αβ γ + 2
(α11 β γ + β11 αγ + γ11 αβ ) + 2 (α1 β1 γ + β1 γ1 α + γ1 α1 β ) ,
p1 p1
f2b ≡ α12 β γ + β12 αγ + γ12 αβ
+α (β1 γ2 + γ1 β2 ) + β (α1 γ2 + γ1 α2 ) + γ (α1 β2 + β1 α2 ) ,
f2c ≡ α13 β γ + α3 (β γ1 + γβ1 ) ,
f2d ≡ α3 β γ,
f2e ≡ α2 β γ + β2 αγ + γ2 αβ . (28)

The variables α, β and γ are defined as

α ≡ e−ip1 q ,
1
β ≡ ,
L2
γ ≡ 1 − r1 cos φ . (29)

The subscripts of α, β and γ in Eq. (28) correspond to partial derivatives; for example,

∂α ∂α ∂α
α1 = , α2 = , α3 = ,
∂ x1 ∂ y1 ∂ z1
∂ 2α ∂ 2α
α11 = 2
, α12 = , etc. (30)
∂ x1 ∂ y1 ∂ x1

The partial derivative terms of α are

α1 ≡ −ip1 αq1 , α2 ≡ −ip1 αq2 , α3 ≡ −ip1 αq3 , (31)

α11 ≡ −ip1 (α1 q1 + αq11 ) , α12 ≡ −ip1 (α2 q1 + αq12 ) , α13 ≡ −ip1 (α3 q1 + αq13 ) , (32)

where
x1 δ y1 δ p21 z1
q1 ≡ , q2 ≡ , q3 ≡ , (33)
q q q

δ x2 cos φ δ 2
 
q11 ≡ + 1 − 2 , (34)
q q r13 q

cos φ δ 2
 
x1 y1 δ
q12 ≡ − 2 , q13 ≡ −p21 x1 z1 (35)
q r13 q q3

#6195 - $15.00 US Received 5 January 2005; revised 18 February 2005; accepted 18 February 2005
(C) 2005 OSA 7 March 2005 / Vol. 13, No. 5 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1429
and
r1 − cos φ
δ≡ . (36)
r1
The partial derivative terms of β are
2L1 2L2
β1 ≡ − , β2 ≡ − , (37)
L3 L3

6L12 2L11 6L1 L2 2L12

β11 ≡ − 3 , β12 ≡ − 3 , (38)
L4 L L4 L
where
x1 δ y1 δ
L1 ≡ , L2 ≡ , (39)
L L

δ x2 cos φ δ 2 cos φ δ 2
   
x1 y1
L11 ≡ + 1 − 2 , L12 ≡ − 2 . (40)
L L r13 L L r13 L
The partial derivative terms of γ are
x1 cos φ y1 cos φ
γ1 ≡ − , γ2 ≡ − , (41)
r1 r1

x12
 
cos φ x1 y1 cos φ
γ11 ≡ − 1− 2 , γ12 ≡ . (42)
r1 r1 r13

2.2.2. Within the geometrical shadow region (r1 > 1)

For points of interest in the geometrical shadow region, or where z1 ≥ 0 and r1 > 1, Carter and
Williams [17] demonstrated that the double integral of the Hertz vector component in Eq. (6)
can also be expressed as a single integral. Using the Carter and Williams’ integral form (Eq. 12
of Ref. [17]) for the double integral in Eq. (6), the Hertz vector component can be expressed as
a2 Eo u
Z π/2
Πx (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = cos ψdψ, (43)
π p21 0 v
where
q
u ≡ e−ip1 g − e−ip1 h , v ≡ r12 − sin2 ψ, (44)

and
q q
g≡ p21 z21 + (v + cos ψ)2 , h≡ p21 z21 + (v − cos ψ)2 . (45)

Substituting Eq. (43) into Eqs. (3) and (4) the electric and magnetic field components become
Eo π/2
Z
Ex (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = f3a dψ,
π 0
Eo π/2
Z
Ey (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = f3b dψ,
π p21 0
Eo
Z π/2
Ez (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = f3c dψ, (46)
π p31 0

#6195 - $15.00 US Received 5 January 2005; revised 18 February 2005; accepted 18 February 2005
(C) 2005 OSA 7 March 2005 / Vol. 13, No. 5 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1430
and
Hx (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = 0,
iHo π/2
Z
Hy (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = f3d dψ,
π p21 0
iHo
Z π/2
Hz (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = − f3e dψ, (47)
π p1 0
where
2x1 u1 3ux12
  
cos ψ 1 u
f3a ≡ u + 2 u11 − 2 + 4 − 2 ,
v p1 v v v
 
cos ψ y1 u1 3x1 y1 u x1 u2
f3b ≡ u12 − 2 + − 2 ,
v v v4 v
cos ψ  x1 u3 
f3c ≡ u13 − 2 ,
v v
cos ψ
f3d ≡ u3 ,
v 
cos ψ y1 u 
f3e ≡ u2 − 2 . (48)
v v
The subscripts of u correspond to partial derivatives (as in Eq. (30)):
   
u1 ≡ −ip1 g1 e−ip1 g − h1 e−ip1 h , u2 ≡ −ip1 g2 e−ip1 g − h2 e−ip1 h , (49)
 −ip g
e−ip1 h

3 e 1
u3 ≡ −ip1 z1 − , (50)
g h
   
u11 ≡ −ip1 g11 e−ip1 g − h11 e−ip1 h − p21 g21 e−ip1 g − h21 e−ip1 h ,
   
u12 ≡ −ip1 g12 e−ip1 g − h12 e−ip1 h − p21 g1 g2 e−ip1 g − h1 h2 e−ip1 h ,
   
u13 ≡ −ip1 g13 e−ip1 g − h13 e−ip1 h − p21 g1 g3 e−ip1 g − h1 h3 e−ip1 h , (51)
where
z1 p21
g1 ≡ x1 ga , g2 ≡ y1 ga , g3 ≡ , (52)
g

x12  2 cos ψ  x1 y1  2 cos ψ  x1 z1 p2

g11 ≡ ga − ga + 3 , g12 ≡ − ga + 3 , g13 ≡ − 2 1 ga , (53)
g v g v g

z1 p21
h1 ≡ x1 ha , h2 ≡ y1 ha , h3 ≡ , (54)
h

x12  2 cos ψ  x1 y1  2 cos ψ  x1 z1 p21 ha

h11 ≡ ha − ha − 3 , h12 ≡ − ha − 3 , h13 ≡ − , (55)
h v h v g2
and
v + cos ψ v − cos ψ
ga ≡ , ha ≡ . (56)
vg vh
Even though the single integral expressions for E and H (Eqs. (26), (27), (46) and (47))
involve a large number of terms, they can be evaluated significantly (10 to 15 times) faster than
the double integral expressions (Eqs. (13)–(18)).

#6195 - $15.00 US Received 5 January 2005; revised 18 February 2005; accepted 18 February 2005
(C) 2005 OSA 7 March 2005 / Vol. 13, No. 5 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1431
3. Vector diffraction theory using Kirchhoff boundary conditions (KVDT)
The Hertz vector diffraction theory (HVDT) described above provides the values of the elec-
tromagnetic fields in the aperture plane and beyond. The Kirchhoff boundary conditions, on the
other hand, specify the values of the fields in the aperture plane. Starting from these specified
values at z = 0 the fields for z > 0 can be obtained using the Green’s function method of solution
of the wave equation. Luneberg [11] has shown how the Green’s function method can be used
to derive the longitudinal component (Ez ) of the fields from the known transverse components
in the aperture plane.
Luneberg’s method has recently been used by Lü and Duan [5, 6] to derive analytical ex-
pressions for the electric field components of diffracted waves beyond the aperture. However,
despite the claim in Refs. [5, 6] that the treatment of the problem is nonparaxial, the analytical
expressions derived there are based upon the assumption that the on-axis distance to the point
of interest is large compared to the radial distance (Eq. 6 in Lü and Duan [5] and Eq. 7 in Duan
and Lü [6]). Here we derive the vector components of the electric and magnetic fields in terms
of double integrals in dimensionless parameters for incident planar beam distributions of arbi-
trary shape, using the Kirchhoff boundary conditions, with the aim of determining the region
of their validity. Neither the paraxial (Fresnel) approximation nor the approximations used by
Lü and Duan [5, 6] are invoked here.
Given a beam of light whose electric field distribution in the plane z = 0 is known in terms
of the coordinates x0 and y0 in the plane as E = Ex (r0 )î + Ey (r0 ) jˆ, the field at a point r =
xî + y jˆ + zk̂ is given by [11]
1 ∂ G(r, r0 )
Z Z ∞
Ex (r) = − Ex (r0 ) dx0 dy0 , (57)
2π −∞ ∂z
1 ∂ G(r, r0 )
Z Z ∞
Ey (r) = − Ey (r0 ) dx0 dy0 , (58)
2π −∞ ∂z
where r0 = x0 î + y0 jˆ. The Green’s function G used in Eqs. (57) and (58) is given by
e−ikρ
G(r, r0 ) = , (59)
ρ
and the distance ρ is defined in Eq. (7).
Using Eqs. (57) and (58) in the Maxwell equation ∇ · E = 0 in charge-free space, i.e.,
 
∂ Ez ∂ Ex ∂ Ey
=− + , (60)
∂z ∂x ∂y
and interchanging the orders of the partial derivatives of G, we obtain
∂ 2G ∂ 2G
Z Z ∞ 
∂ Ez
2π = Ex (r0 ) + Ey (r0 ) dx0 dy0
∂z −∞ ∂ x∂ z ∂ y∂ z
Z Z ∞   
∂ ∂G ∂G
= Ex (r0 ) + Ey (r0 ) dx0 dy0 . (61)
∂z −∞ ∂x ∂y
From Eq. (61), Ez is obtained as
Z Z ∞ 
1 ∂G ∂G
Ez (r) = Ex (r0 ) + Ey (r0 ) dx0 dy0 + F1 (x, y), (62)
2π −∞ ∂x ∂y
where F1 (x, y) is a function to be determined from the boundary conditions. The term F1 (x, y),
was ignored in previous treatments [5, 6, 11], and is necessary for Ez to approach the imposed
boundary condition as z approaches 0.

#6195 - $15.00 US Received 5 January 2005; revised 18 February 2005; accepted 18 February 2005
(C) 2005 OSA 7 March 2005 / Vol. 13, No. 5 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1432
 Using the length scale a, the quantity z0 ≡ ka2 , the dimensionless parameter p1 ≡ 2πa/λ , and
the normalized units of Eqs. (8) and (9) as before, and the expression for the Green’s function
from Eq. (59), the three components of the electric field vector can now be rewritten as
p31 z1 ∞
Z Z
Ex (r1 ) = − Ex (r01 ) f1 s1 dx01 dy01 ,
2π −∞
p3 z1
Z Z ∞
Ey (r1 ) = − 1 Ey (r01 ) f1 s1 dx01 dy01 ,
2π −∞
p21
 Z Z ∞
Ez (r1 ) = Ex (r01 )(x1 − x01 )
2π −∞
 i
+Ey (r01 )(y1 − y01 ) f1 s1 dx01 dy01 + F1 (x1 , y1 ), (63)

where f1 and s1 are defined in Eqs. (19) and (20).

The magnetic field components can be derived similarly to the derivation of the electric field
components using Green’s theorem in Eqs. (57) - (62), yielding
p31 z1 ∞
Z Z
Hx (r1 ) = − Hx (r01 ) f1 s1 dx01 dy01 ,
2π −∞
p3 z1
Z Z ∞
Hy (r1 ) = − 1 Hy (r01 ) f1 s1 dx01 dy01 ,
2π −∞
p21
 Z Z ∞
Hz (r1 ) = Hx (r01 )(x1 − x01 )
2π −∞
 i
+ Hy (r01 )(y1 − y01 ) f1 s1 dx01 dy01 + F2 (x1 , y1 ), (64)

where F2 (x1 , y1 ) is a function to be determined from the boundary conditions. Using Eqs. (63)
and (64) the Poynting vector components can be calculated from Eq. (5).
In the Kirchhoff formalism [9] the field components on the dark side of the screen are as-
sumed to be zero except at the opening, where they have their undisturbed values that they
would have had in the absence of the screen. For a linearly polarized plane wave light beam
(say with E in the x-direction, and H in the y-direction) incident on a circular aperture of radius
a in an opaque screen, the electric field components just at the exit of the aperture (at the z = 0
plane) are then
2 + y2 < 1

E0 if x01 01
Ex (x01 , y01 , 0) =
0 otherwise
Ey (x01 , y01 , 0) = 0
Ez (x01 , y01 , 0) = 0, (65)
and the magnetic field components are
Hx (x01 , y01 , 0) = 0
2 + y2 < 1

H0 if x01 01
Hy (x01 , y01 , 0) =
0 otherwise
Hz (x01 , y01 , 0) = 0. (66)
Inserting Eqs. (65) and (66) in Eqs. (63) and (64), the expressions for the electric and mag-
netic fields are obtained:
p31 z1
Ex (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = −E0 B1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ), (67)
2π

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 Ey (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = 0, (68)
p21
Ez (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = E0 [B2 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) − B2 (x1 , y1 , 0)] , (69)
2π
and

Hx (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = 0, (70)
p3 z1
Hy (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = −H0 1 B1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ), (71)
2π
p21
Hz (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = H0 [B3 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) − B3 (x1 , y1 , 0)] , (72)
2π
where
Z 1 Z √1−y2
01
B1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = √ 2 f1 s1 dx01 dy01 , (73)
−1 − 1−y01
Z 1 Z √1−y2
01
B2 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = √ f1 s1 (x1 − x01 )dx01 dy01 , (74)
−1 − 1−y201
Z 1 Z √1−y2
01
B3 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = √ f1 s1 (y1 − y01 )dx01 dy01 . (75)
−1 − 1−y201

The terms B2 (x1 , y1 , 0) and B3 (x1 , y1 , 0) in Eqs. (69) and (72) arise from the presence of the
terms F1 (x1 , y1 ) and F2 (x1 , y1 ) in Eqs. (62)–(64). They ensure that the boundary conditions Ez =
Hz = 0 at z1 = 0 (Eqs. (65) and (66)) are valid. As mentioned earlier, they have been ignored
in Refs.[5, 6, 11], so that the calculated longitudinal field components Ez and Hz obtained there
do not vanish at z1 = 0, contradicting the boundary condition.
It should be noted that both the Ex and Hy KVDT integrals (Eqs. (67), (71) and (73)) have
the same form as the Hy HVDT double integral (Eq. (17)) and one of the four integral terms
of the HVDT Ex component (Eq. (13)), and are radially symmetric with respect to x1 and y1 .
Therefore the calculated fields of Ex and Hy using KVDT will always have radial symmetry and
are independent of the orientation of the polarization for normally incident light. In contrast,
the HVDT method shows (Eqs. (13)–(18)) that the components of all the electromagnetic fields
except Hx and Hy are dependent on the direction of the incident polarization.

4. Analytical on-axis expressions and calculations

4.1. Analytical on-axis expressions using HVDT
Starting with the Hertz vector diffraction theory, analytical expressions for the components of
E and H for on-axis positions and z1 ≥ 0 can be obtained by direct integration. Using Eqs. (3)
and (6) the on-axis integral expression for Ex can be found to be

e−ip1 r2 e−ip1 r2 e−ip1 r2 −ip1 r2

Z Z 
i 2 e
Ex (0, 0, z1 ) = Eo p1 −i 2 − 3
− p1 x01
2π r2 r2 p1 r2 r22
−ip1 r2 −ip1 r2
 
2 e 2 e
+3ix01 + 3x01 dx01 dy01 , (76)
r24 p1 r25

where q
r2 = 2 + y2 + p2 z2 .
x01 (77)
01 1 1

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After converting to polar coordinates and integrating the angular terms, the radial integral is
integrated by parts where the definite integral from each term in Eq. (76) cancels with that of
another term’s definite integral. The resulting analytical expression for the on-axis x-component
of the electric field becomes
  
i 1 e1 e2
Ex (0, 0, z1 ) = Eo i (e1 − e2 ) − −
2 p1 d1 d2
   
e 1 e 2 2 e1 e2
+ip21 z21 − + p 1 z1 − , (78)
d12 d22 d13 d23
where
√
1+p21 z21
e1 = e−ip1 ,
−ip21 z1
e2 = e ,
q
d1 = 1 + p21 z21 ,
d2 = p1 z1 . (79)
Similarly, for on-axis points the double integral expression for the y-component of the mag-
netic field becomes
e−ip1 r2 e−ip1 r2
Z Z  
p1 z1
Hy (0, 0, z1 ) = Ho ip1 + dx01 dy01 , (80)
2π r22 r23
which can be integrated to
 √ 2 2
−ip21 z1 e−ip1 1+p1 z1 
Hy (0, 0, z1 ) = Ho e − p1 z1 q . (81)
1 + p21 z21

Using Eqs. (78) and (81) the z-component of the Poynting vector can be evaluated for on-axis
points.
At the center of the circular aperture the real and imaginary components of Ex reduce to
  
1 sin p1
Real [Ex (0, 0, 0)] = Eo 1 − cos p1 + (82)
2 p1
and  
Eo cos p1
Imaginary [Ex (0, 0, 0)] = − − sin p1 , (83)
2 p1
while Hy /Ho approaches unity for all values of p1 .

4.2. Analytical on-axis expressions using KVDT

For on-axis points (x1 = y1 = 0) the non-zero components of the fields evaluated from the
KVDT integral term B1 (Eq. (73)) also reduce to the analytical forms:
 √ 
−ip1 1+p21 z21
2 e
Ex (0, 0, z1 ) = Eo e−ip1 z1 − p1 z1 q , (84)
1 + p21 z21

and  √ 2 2
−ip21 z1 e−ip1 1+p1 z1 
Hy (0, 0, z1 ) = Ho e − p1 z1 q . (85)
1 + p21 z21

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 As z1 approaches the aperture plane, both Ex /Eo and Hy /Ho approach unity and are indepen-
dent of the value of p1 and the orientation of the incident polarization.
The KVDT integrals B2 and B3 are identically equal to zero for x1 = y1 = 0, so that the
longitudinal components Ez and Hz vanish for on-axis points, and the Poynting vector only has
a z-component, or
 " s !#
1 + 2p 2 z2 2p z 1
1 1
S (0, 0, z1 ) = S0  1 1
−q cos p21 z1 1 + 2 2 − 1  k̂, (86)
1 + p21 z21 1+ p z 2 2 p1 z1
1 1

where r
εo
So ≡ Eo Ho∗ = |Eo |2 (87)
µo
denotes the intensity of the incident undisturbed beam.
Due to the cosine term in Eq. (86), the on-axis value of the Poynting vector oscillates with z1
for p1 > π, with locations of the maxima and the minima given by

p21 − m2 π 2
z1m = , (88)
2mπ p21

where m has integer values from 1 to p1 /π. Odd values of m correspond to maxima and even
values correspond to minima. The value of m = 1 gives the location of the on-axis maximum
farthest from the aperture, and is roughly 1/(2π) for large values of p1 .

5. Power transmission function

The radiative power transmitted through a surface normal to the z-axis is given by
Z ∞Z ∞
Pz (z1 ) = Sz (x1 , y1 , z1 ) dx1 dy1 . (89)
−∞ −∞

Defining Po ≡ πa2 So as the amount of unperturbed incident power that would be intercepted by
the aperture, the power transmission function of the aperture, T , is given by
Pz 1
Z ∞Z ∞
T≡ = Sz (x1 , y1 , z1 ) dx1 dy1 , (90)
Po Po −∞ −∞

where Sz is determined from the calculated values of E and H for a given value of a/λ .

6. Calculation of electromagnetic fields and Poynting vectors

In this section the results of the calculations of the electromagnetic field integrals are presented.
The expressions derived in sections 2–5 were calculated on commonly available desktop com-
puters (2.4 GHz Pentium processor) using the commercial software Mathcad. The tolerance of
integration in Mathcad was typically set between 10−3 and 10−5 . The calculation time required
to run the single integral expressions was found to be approximately 10 to 15 times faster than
that required for a calculation using the double integral expressions.

6.1. Beam distributions in the aperture plane

Figures 1–9 show the distributions of the normalized fields and normalized axial Poynting
vector component, Sz /So , in the aperture plane. These results were obtained from the previously
derived integral expressions by setting z1 = 10−5 and making sure that the values of the integrals

#6195 - $15.00 US Received 5 January 2005; revised 18 February 2005; accepted 18 February 2005
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were unchanged when a smaller value of z1 was chosen. A convention adopted in the following
figures is that in each graph, solid lines denote the real components and the dotted lines denote
the imaginary components of the fields.
Figure 1 shows the calculation of the x-component of the electric field in the aperture plane
as a function of x1 and y1 , for a/λ = 5. The calculated Ex field is seen to exhibit radial asym-
metry in agreement with experimental measurements by Andrews [13] and Ehrlich et al. [14]
in the aperture plane for diffraction of microwave radiation. The number of oscillations of Ex
along the y-axis from the center of the aperture to the edge is equal to the aperture to wave-
length ratio, a/λ . Along with the strong asymmetry in the x and y-directions, it is seen that
the value of the real part of Ex at the center of the aperture is Eo /2, whereas according to
Kirchhoff approximations, Ex should be equal to Eo everywhere in the aperture. The real and
imaginary parts of Ex (0, 0, 0) obtained from Eqs. (82) and (83), are plotted as a function of
a/λ in Figs. 2(a) and (b), respectively. Figure 2 shows that at the aperture plane, the Kirchhoff
approximation is not valid even for large values of a/λ , with the real part of Ex oscillating
between 0.5 and 1.5, for all a/λ > 0.5. The oscillations of Fig. 2, which continue indefinitely
as p1 increases, with values of 1.5 occurring for a/λ values having half-integer values, and
0.5 for integer values, have previously been experimentally demonstrated [14]. Eq. (83) also
shows that as p1 , i.e. a/λ , goes to zero, the value of the imaginary part of Ex (0, 0, 0) diverges
as 1/p1 , thereby implying that the HVDT theory described here is invalid for small p1 (< 0.1.)
The results presented here match the experimental measurements for a/λ ≥ 0.5 shown in Ref.
[12–14]. The present HVDT results may therefore be considered to be valid for a/λ ≥ 0.5.
Figure 1 also shows that near the rim of the aperture the imaginary component of Ex increases
rapidly in magnitude, causing the modulus square of the electric field to diverge as x1 → ±1. At
the same positions in space however, Hy rapidly approaches zero. The resulting z-component of
the Poynting vector, Sz , has a smooth and continuous transition across the rim of the aperture,
unlike |Ex |2 , as illustrated in Fig. 3(a). There are also significant differences between |Ex |2
and Sz in the aperture plane along the y-axis, as shown in Fig. 3(b). The values of Ex and Hy
displayed in Fig. 3 were calculated using Eqs. (26) and (27) for r1 < 1 and Eqs. (46) and (47)
for r1 > 1. Other electromagnetic field components (Ey , Ez and Hz ) also possess some structure
in the aperture plane, but with negligible (< 10−3 ) magnitudes.
The expression of the Hertz vector integrals in the single integral forms allow detailed cal-
culations of the light intensity distribution in the aperture plane (as well as beyond it) as shown
in Figs. 4–9. To obtain adequate resolution in these two-dimensional plots, 200 by 200 single
integrals were calculated for each quadrant which took approximately four hours to run. Cal-
culation of the intensity values over an array of the same size using the double integrals took
approximately 60 hours.
To emphasize the difference between the squared modulus of the electric field, |Ex |2 , and
the Poynting vector component, Sz , the two-dimensional distribution of |Ex /Eo |2 and Sz /So
are plotted in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively, both for a/λ = 5. As mentioned before, even in the
aperture plane, the transition of the Poynting vector component Sz between the illuminated and
the dark region is smooth, whereas according to the Kirchhoff boundary conditions, there is a
sharp discontinuity of the electric field (as well as Sz ) at the boundary.
In Figs. 6–9, the x-y distribution of Sz in the aperture plane is plotted for a/λ = 2.5, 2,
1, and 0.5, respectively. From the center of the aperture out to the rim along the y-axis, the
number of oscillations of Sz equals the value of a/λ . Figure 9 illustrates that for a/λ < 1 the
oscillatory behavior of Ex , and subsequently Sz , in the aperture plane have been eliminated, and
an ellipticity in the beam profile has become the dominant characteristic.

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 Fig. 1. The real (solid lines) and the imaginary (dashed lines) x-components of the nor-
malized electric field versus (a) the x-position and (b) the y-position in the aperture plane,
calculated using the single integral HVDT for a/λ = 5.

Fig. 2. The real component, part (a), and the imaginary component, part (b), of the nor-
malized electric field at the center of the aperture plane, (0,0,0), versus the aperture to
wavelength ratio, a/λ .

Fig. 3. The modulus square of the x-component of the electric field (red lines) and the
z-component of the Poynting vector (black lines) versus (a) the x-position and (b) the y-
position in the aperture plane, calculated using the single integral HVDT for a/λ = 5.

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(C) 2005 OSA 7 March 2005 / Vol. 13, No. 5 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1438
 electric field (|Ex /Eo |2 ) versus
Fig. 4. Calculated modulus square of the x-component of thep
x and y in the aperture plane using single integral HVDT, (x/a)2 + (y/a)2 < 1 and for
a/λ = 5.

6.2. Beam distributions beyond the aperture plane

6.2.1. On-axis calculations
The analytical expressions obtained for the fields for on-axis points, (x = y = 0), in
Eqs. (78), (81), (84) and (85) provide an understanding of the behavior of the beam away from
the aperture plane. In Fig. 10 the on-axis values of Sz /So calculated using HVDT (Eqs. (78)
and (81)) and KVDT (Eqs. (84) and (85)) are plotted along with the on-axis value of |Ex /Eo |2
(from Eq. (78)) for a/λ = 0.5, 1, 2.5 and 5. As discussed before, for a/λ > 1 the on-axis in-
tensity values go through a number of minima and maxima, with the total number of minima or
maxima roughly equal to the value of a/λ and the positions of the maxima or minima given by
z1 ≈ 1/(2mπ) where the maxima occur for odd integer values of m and the minima occur for
even integer values of m. The last maximum (farthest from the aperture) occurs at z1 ≈ 1/(2π),
and for z1 ≥ 1/(2π) the intensity drops off as 1/z21 , corresponding to the spreading of a spherical
wave.
For small z1 , i.e., in and near the aperture plane, the HVDT and KVDT results are different
from each other and from |Ex /Eo |2 for all the cases of a/λ , as shown in Fig. 10. However,
the HVDT and KVDT results and |Ex /Eo |2 come close to each other, even for a/λ = 0.5, for
z1 > 0.2. This implies that even for a/λ ≈ 0.5, KVDT can be used to predict beam shapes at
planes sufficiently far away from the aperture.

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 p Poynting vector (Sz /So ) versus x and y in the aperture
Fig. 5. Calculated z-component of the
plane using single integral HVDT, (x/a)2 + (y/a)2 < 1 and for a/λ = 5.

p Poynting vector (Sz /So ) versus x and y in the aperture

Fig. 6. Calculated z-component of the
plane using single integral HVDT, (x/a)2 + (y/a)2 < 1 and for a/λ = 2.5.

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(C) 2005 OSA 7 March 2005 / Vol. 13, No. 5 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1440
 p Poynting vector (Sz /So ) versus x and y in the aperture
Fig. 7. Calculated z-component of the
plane using single integral HVDT, (x/a)2 + (y/a)2 < 1 and for a/λ = 2.

p Poynting vector (Sz /So ) versus x and y in the aperture

Fig. 8. Calculated z-component of the
plane using single integral HVDT, (x/a)2 + (y/a)2 < 1 and for a/λ = 1.

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(C) 2005 OSA 7 March 2005 / Vol. 13, No. 5 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1441
 p Poynting vector (Sz /So ) versus x and y in the aperture
Fig. 9. Calculated z-component of the
plane using single integral HVDT, (x/a)2 + (y/a)2 < 1 and for a/λ = 0.5.

6.2.2. Diffracted beam shapes

To determine if the radial asymmetry observed for a/λ = 0.5 in Fig. 9 persists as the beam
propagates away from the aperture, the dependence of Sz /So on the radial coordinate r1 is
plotted along the x and y axes in Figs. 11(a)–(c) for a/λ = 0.5 and in Figs. 11(d)–(f) for a/λ = 5
for three different values of z1 (10−4 , 0.1 and 1). Figure 11(a)–(c) shows that for a/λ = 0.5,
at the aperture plane (z1 = 10−4 ) the beam is elliptically shaped with the major axis in the x-
direction. Results of calculation using the FDTD method (for a/λ = 0.308, at z1 = 0.052) are
shown in Ref. [18]. The plot of transmitted intensity “corresponding to Ex ” in Fig. 10 of [18]
also shows the radial asymmetry and the elongation of the beam along the x-axis. As the beam
propagates, the ellipticity decreases and beyond z1 > 0.1 the beam becomes elongated along
the y-axis. The plots in Figs. 11(d)–(f) show that for larger a/λ values, although the beam is
strongly asymmetric near the aperture plane, as it propagates away from the aperture plane it
becomes radially symmetric more quickly than for the smaller a/λ case. Figures 12 and 13
show the detailed two-dimensional distribution of Sz /So at the positions of an axial maximum
(z1 = 1/(6π)) and an axial minimum (z1 = 1/(4π)), for a/λ = 5.

6.3. The longitudinal component of the electric field: Ez

Along with the transverse field components, the Hertz vector theory allows the calculation of
the longitudinal fields Ez and Hz as well. Since the incident unperturbed light beam is assumed
to be a plane wave, it has no longitudinal field components. According to Eqs. 6c and 8 in
Ref. [12], Ez vanishes within the aperture at the aperture plane. Evaluation of the integral in
Eq. (15) at various x1 , y1 points within the aperture shows that the integral is independent of
z1 as z1 approaches 0, so that Ez is proportional to z1 . This verifies that (consistent with the

#6195 - $15.00 US Received 5 January 2005; revised 18 February 2005; accepted 18 February 2005
(C) 2005 OSA 7 March 2005 / Vol. 13, No. 5 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1442
 Fig. 10. Calculated on-axis values for the modulus square of the x-component of the electric
field (red line) using HVDT, the z-component of the Poynting vector (black line) using
HVDT, and the z-component of the Poynting vector (blue line) using KVDT for: (a) a/λ =
0.5, (b) a/λ = 1, (c) a/λ = 2.5 and (d) a/λ = 5.

Fig. 11. Calculated Sz /So for a/λ = 0.5 with (a) z1 = 10−4 , (b) z1 = 0.1, (c) z1 = 1, and for
a/λ = 5 with (d) z1 = 10−4 , (e) z1 = 0.1, and (f) z1 = 1, using the single integral HVDT.
The distance r1 is either x or y normalized to the aperture radius, a.

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 pPoynting vector (Sz /So ) versus x and y for z1 =
Fig. 12. Calculated z-component of the
1/6π using the single integral HVDT, (x/a)2 + (y/a)2 < 1 and a/λ = 5.

Fig. 13. Calculated z-component of the Poynting vector (Sz /So ) versus x and y for z1 =
1/4π using the single integral HVDT for a/λ = 5.

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 Fig. 14. Calculated real, (a), and imaginary, (b), components of Ez /Eo for θ = 0◦ (x-axis),
22.5◦ , 45◦ , 67.5◦ and 90◦ (y-axis), for a/λ = 0.5 and z1 = 0.05.

Fig. 15. Calculated real, (a), and imaginary, (b), components of Ez /Eo for θ = 0◦ (x-axis),
22.5◦ , 45◦ , 67.5◦ and 90◦ (y-axis), for a/λ = 5 and z1 = 0.05.

requirement of Maxwell’s equations) Ez vanishes in the aperture plane, i.e., when z1 → 0. Here
we present the results of some calculations showing distribution of Ez /Eo at various distances
near the aperture. Figures 14 and 15 show the dependence of Ez /Eo on the radial coordinate r1
for various values of the angular coordinate θ , for a/λ = 0.5 and 5 respectively, at a distance of
z1 = 0.05. It is seen that the maximum value of both the real and the imaginary parts of Ez /Eo
(for both values of a/λ ) are obtained for θ1 = 0, i.e., along the x-axis. Figures 16 and 17 show
the dependence of Ez /Eo on x1 (for y1 = 0) at various distances from the aperture (z1 = 0.05,
0.1, 0.5, and 1) for a/λ = 0.5 and 5, respectively. It is seen that even for a/λ = 5, the Ez can
be a substantial fraction (20 percent) of the incident field amplitude at certain positions in front
of the aperture.

6.4. Power transmission function calculations

Evaluating T using Eq. (90) for different z1 values shows that for fields calculated using HVDT,
T is independent of z1 . In contrast, if the fields calculated using KVDT are used to calculate Pz ,
the value of T depends upon z1 , thus showing that the Kirchhoff assumption is in violation of
the conservation of energy principle as well as of the Maxwell’s equations.

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(C) 2005 OSA 7 March 2005 / Vol. 13, No. 5 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1445
 Fig. 16. Calculated real, (a), and imaginary, (b), components of Ez /Eo along the x-axis for
z1 = 0.05, 0.1, 0.5 and 1, for a/λ = 0.5.

Fig. 17. Calculated real, (a), and imaginary, (b), components of Ez /Eo along the x-axis for
z1 = 0.05, 0.1, 0.5 and 1, for a/λ = 5.

Figure 18 shows a plot of Pz /Po calculated using Eq. (90) as a function of a/λ . For a/λ <
0.5 the power transmitted by the aperture decreases monotonically with decreasing a/λ . For
a/λ > 0.5, the transmitted power oscillates weakly and in general increases with increasing
a/λ and asymptotically approaches unity. However, as shown in the insert of Fig. 18, even for
a/λ = 10, the value of T is less than 1 (in fact is equal to 99.2%).

7. Conclusions
Expressions for the electric and magnetic fields of a plane wave incident on a circular aper-
ture have been presented here in the form of double integrals as well as single integrals using
the Hertz vector diffraction theory. The expressions for the fields obtained using the Kirchhoff
boundary conditions are also presented. Detailed numerical calculations for the field and in-
tensity distributions at the aperture plane and away from the aperture plane are presented. The
range of validity of the theory presented here is for an aperture to wavelength ratio of ≈ 0.5 and
higher. It is shown that at and very near the aperture plane, the Kirchhoff boundary conditions
are never valid, even for arbitrarily large values of the aperture to wavelength ratio. However,
at a certain distance from the aperture, the results obtained from the Kirchhoff approximation
and that obtained using the more detailed Hertz vector formalism, which intrinsically obeys

#6195 - $15.00 US Received 5 January 2005; revised 18 February 2005; accepted 18 February 2005
(C) 2005 OSA 7 March 2005 / Vol. 13, No. 5 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1446
 Fig. 18. Calculated transmission function as a function of the aperture radius to wavelength
of light ratio, calculated using HVDT.

Maxwell’s equations, are about identical, even for aperture to wavelength ratios as small as
0.5. Radial asymmetry of the electric field distribution for small circular apertures have been
experimentally demonstrated before. Here we have presented, for the first time to our knowl-
edge, calculations of the detailed two-dimensional field and intensity distributions, along with
the calculation of the longitudinal component (Ez ) of the electric field using the Hertz vector
diffraction theory.
Schoch [16] has shown that the double integral of Πx in Eq. (6) over a surface can be trans-
formed into a line integral along the aperture edge for an aperture of arbitrary shape. The
method described here for a circular aperture can therefore be extended to elliptical or rec-
tangular apertures.

Acknowledgment
The authors thank Prof. Wolfgang Freude of Universität Karlsruhe for pointing out to them the
limitations of the Kirchhoff boundary conditions at the Annual Meeting of the Optical Society
of America, Rochester, New York, October 2004.

#6195 - $15.00 US Received 5 January 2005; revised 18 February 2005; accepted 18 February 2005
(C) 2005 OSA 7 March 2005 / Vol. 13, No. 5 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1447