Dr Somashekhar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai – 600 036
Email:
[email protected]; Phone: 044-2257 4681
Recap Computer Architecture
• TOP LEVEL STRUCTURE of Computer
• Two types of computer architectures Computer
1. John von Neumann architecture and
2. Harvard architecture
Memory
CPU Elements
Interconnections
I/O
Devices
Program Memory
Processor Program Memory Processor Data Memory
&
Data Memory
Harvard Architecture
von Neumann Architecture
Recap John von Neumann Architecture
• Consists of : CPU; Memory and I/O Devices
R/W Memory Memory
Location
CPU
n
(a set of instructions)
Control DATA
STORED PROGRAM
Unit System Bus:
(Address bus; Data Bus and Control Bus)
& 4
PROGRAMME 3
Arithmetic and
Control Unit 2
I/O Devices
• Basic Characteristics of von-Neumann Architecture are
Both Data and Instructions are stored in Read/Write (R/W) Memory
Contents of the R/W memory are accessed by Location (0 to n)
The instructions stored in memory are accessed and executed sequentially
Recap Origin
• Evolution of microprocessors is categorized into FIVE Generations:
1. First Generation (1971-1973)
4 bit and 8 bit processors- 4004 and 8008;
Number of transistors: 2300,
PMOS low cost, slow speed and low output currents ; and
serial processing
2. Second Generation (1974-1978)
8 bit Processors Motorola’s 6800 and 6809, Intel’s 8085 and Zilog’s Z80;
Number of transistors : 6500;
NMOS Technology 5 fold increase in instruction execution speed and higher chip density
than PMOS technology
3. Third Generation (1978-1980)
16 bit processors Intel’s 8086 and Zilog’s Z8000;
Number of transistors: 2,50,000 transistor;
HMOS Technology 4 fold increase in instruction execution speed and 2 fold higher chip
density than NMOS technology
Recap Origin
• Evolution of microprocessors is categorized into FIVE Generations:
4. Fourth Generation (1981 to 1995)
32 bit processors Motorola’s 68020 / 68030 and 6809, Intel’s 80386
No. of transistors: million
HCMOS low cost, slow speed and low output currents ; and
5. Fifth Generation (1995-till date)
64 bit processors Intel’s Pentium, Celeron, dual-core and quad-core, Zilog’s Z8000
No. of transistors: million
HCMOS low cost, slow speed and low output currents ; and
Recap Evolution Tree of Microprocessors
Main Branch in the Tree shows the Development in Computers
General Purpose Processors : Data Length - 4 bit 8 bit 16 bit 32 bit 64 bit
Performance also increased using Pipelining, Superscalar Processors , Cache
Pentium 4F, 4D, Xeon, core i3-7
(Intel 64 bit µP)
Itanium I, II (Intel 64 bit µP)
RISC (Reduced Instruction
Set Computer)
Pentium 4EE, 4E, 4F
Xeon
Pentium Pro, II, III, IV
80486
(i486)
80386
(i386)
80286 (i286)
80286
80186
8088
8086
8085
8080
8008
4004 (1971)
Pipelining technique where multiple instructions are overlapped in execution.
Superscalar Processors more than one instruction at a time to be executed during a single clock cycle.
Cache Special high-speed storage mechanism.
Recap Digital Fundamentals
• A digital circuit operates with binary numbers i.e. only in two states.
• The output of the circuit is either LOW (0) or HIGH (1) in Positive Logic System while it is
reverse in Negative Logic System
• LOW (0) represents 0 volts and HIGH (1) represents 5 Volts
• So in digital systems, the data is usually in binary states ( 0 & 1) and is processed and
stored electronically to prevent errors due to noise and interfering signals
• Digital Circuits find wide applications in
– Computers
– Telephony
– Data Processing
– Radar Navigation
– Military System
– Medical Instruments and
– Many Consumer Products TV, Dish Washers, Washing machine, Air Conditioners etc
Recap Learning Outcomes
• General Properties of
– Number System or Digital Number System (DNS)
– Methods of Conversion from one to another
– Arithmetic and Boolean Operation
– Weighted and Non-weighted Codes
– Error Detecting and Correcting codes
– Logic Gates
– Flip flops
– Registers and counters
are very much essential in Digital Circuits
Number Systems : Radix and their Symbols
Sl. No. Number System Radix or Symbols
Base
1 Binary Number 2 0, 1
2 Octal Number 8 0 to 7 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)
3 Decimal Number 10 0 to 9 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
4 Hexadecimal Number 16 0 to F (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
A, B, C, D, E, F)
A. Conversion : Decimal Number to Binary Number
• Integer Part and Fractional Part
• Let us start with Integer Part
• Convert the Decimal Number 8 into an equivalent Binary Number
• Procedure
– Dividing the given Decimal number by 2 progressively until the quotient is
zero
– The binary number is obtained by taking the remainder after each division in
the “REVERSE ORDER” Reading the remainder from BOTTOM to TOP
– Note: The process is terminated when Most Significant Digit is obtained
– This method is popularly known as the “Double-Dabble Method”
• (8)10 = (1000)2 • (53)10 = (_____)2
• (17)10 = (_________)2 • (53)10 = (110101)2
• (17)10 = (10001)2 • (76)10 = (_____)2 • (76)10 = (1001100)2
A. Conversion : Decimal Number to Binary Number
• Fractional Part
• Convert the Fractional Number 0.625 into an equivalent Binary
Number
• Procedure
– Multiply the Given Fractional Number continuously by 2 and record the carry
in the integer position each time
– The carries in the “FORWARD ORDER” Reading the carries from TOP to
BOTTOM
• (0.625)10 = (0.1010)2
• (0.7)10 = (_________)2
• (0.7)10 = (0.101100110)2
A. Conversion : Decimal Number to Binary Number
• Home Work
• (68)10 = (________)2
• (125)10 = (________)2
• (58.25)10 = (________)2
B. Conversion : Binary Number to Decimal Number
• Procedure
– Integer as well as Fraction A binary number can be converted into a
Decimal Number by Multiplying the Binary Number (1 or 0) by their Weights
and Adding the Products
• Convert the Binary Number (101111) into an equivalent Decimal Number
• (101111)2 = (47)10
• (11010)2 = (____)10
• (11010)2 = (26)10
• (0.1101)2 = (____)10
• (0.1101)2 = (0.8125)10
• (0.10011)2 = (____)10
Octal Number
• Decimal Number to Octal Number
Integer Number Divide by 8 and Note Remainder Bottom to Top
Fraction Number Multiply by 8 and Note Carry Top to Bottom
• Octal Number to Decimal Number
Integer as well as Fraction Number Multiply each significant digit of the
octal number by its weight and add together
• Octal Number to Binary Numbers
Each significant digit in the octal number is replaced by its 3-bit binary
equivalent
• Binary to Octal Numbers
Start from LSD (Least Significant Digit), each group of 3 bits is replaced by
its octal equivalents
C. Conversion : Decimal Number to Octal Number
• Integer Part and Fractional Part
• Let us start with Integer Part
• Convert the Decimal Number 444 into an equivalent Octal Number
• Procedure
– Dividing the given Decimal number by 8 progressively until the quotient is
zero
– The binary number is obtained by taking the remainder after each division in
the “REVERSE ORDER” Reading the remainder from BOTTOM to TOP
– Note: The process is terminated when Most Significant Digit is obtained
• Home Work
• (444)10 = (674)8 • (909)10 = (________)8
• (173)10 = (_____)8
• (2111)10 = (________)8
• (173)10 = (255)8
• (9713)10 = (________)8
C. Conversion : Fractional Decimal Number to Octal Number
• Fractional Part
• Convert the Fractional Number 0.456 into an equivalent Octal
Number
• Procedure
– Multiply the Given Fractional Number continuously by 8 and record the carry
in the integer position each time
– The carries in the “FORWARD ORDER” Reading the carries from TOP to
BOTTOM
• (0.456)10 = (0.35136)8
• (0.758)10 = (_________)8
D. Conversion : Octal Number to Decimal Number
• Procedure
– Multiply each significant digit of the octal number by its respective weights
and adding the product
• Convert the Octal Number (237) into an equivalent Decimal
Number
• (237)8 = (159)10
• (120)8 = (____)10
• (120)8 = (80)10
• (540)8 = (____)10
E. Conversion : Octal Number to Binary Number
• Procedure Decimal Octal 3-bit Binary
No No Equivalent
– Each significant digit in the Octal Number is
replaced by its 3-bit binary equivalent 0 0 000
1 1 001
• Convert the Octal Number (376) into an 2 2 010
equivalent Binary Number 3 3 011
4 4 100
5 5 101
• (376)8 = (011 111 110)2 6 6 110
7 7 111
• (526)8 = (____)2
• (526)8 = (101 010 110)2
• Home Work
• (45.312)8 = (____)2 • (576.135)8 = (____)2
• (45.312)8 = (100 101 . 011 001 010)2 • (76.207)8 = (____)2
F. Conversion : Binary Number to Octal Number
• Procedure Decimal Octal 3-bit Binary
No. No. Equivalent
– Start from LSD, each group of 3 bits is replaced by
its decimal number 0 0 000
1 1 001
• Convert the Binary Number (10011010101) 2 2 010
into an equivalent Octal Number 3 3 011
4 4 100
5 5 101
• (010 011 010 101)2 = (2 3 2 5)8 6 6 110
7 7 111
• (11011000101)2 = (____)8
• (11011000101)2 = (3305)8
• Home Work
• (11011.01)2 = (__)8
• (111001.0101)2 =(_)8
Hexadecimal Number
• Decimal Number to Hexadecimal Number
Integer Number Divide by 16 and Note Remainder Bottom to Top
Fraction Number Multiply by 16 and Note Carry Top to Bottom
• Hexadecimal Number to Decimal Number
Integer as well as Fraction Number Multiply each significant digit of the
hexadecimal number by its respective weights and add together
• Hexadecimal Number to Binary Numbers
Each significant digit in the Hexadecimal number is replaced by its 4-bit
binary equivalent
• Binary to Hexadecimal Numbers
Start from LSD (Least Significant Digit), each group of 4 bits is replaced by
its hexadecimal equivalents
G. Conversion : Decimal Number to Hexadecimal Number
• Integer Part and Fractional Part
• Let us start with Integer Part
• Convert the Decimal Number 115 into an equivalent Hexadecimal
Number
• Procedure
– Dividing the given Decimal number by 16 progressively until the quotient is
zero
– The binary number is obtained by taking the remainder after each division in
the “REVERSE ORDER” Reading the remainder from BOTTOM to TOP
– Note: The process is terminated when Most Significant Digit is obtained
• Home Work
• (115)10 = (73)16 • (909)10 = (________)16
• (235)10 = (_____)16
• (2111)10 = (________)16
• (235)10 = (EB)8
• (9713)10 = (________)16
H. Conversion : Hexadecimal Number to Decimal Number
• Procedure
– Multiply each significant digit of the Hexadecimal number by its respective
weights and adding the product
• Convert the Hexadecimal Number (A3B) into an equivalent Decimal
Number
• (A3B)16 = (2619)10 • Home Work
• (2F3)H = (755)10
• (A9E)H = (____)10
• (120)8 = (80)10
• (59D)H = (____)10
• (CF3D)H = (____)10 • (BEA6)H = (____)10
• (CF3D)H = (53053)10
I. Conversion : Hexadecimal Number to Binary Number
• Procedure
Sl. HDM 4-bit Binary
– Each significant digit in the Hexadecimal Number No Equivalent
is replaced by its 4-bit binary equivalent 0 0 0000
1 1 0001
• Convert the Hexadecimal Number (2D5) 2 2 0010
into an equivalent Binary Number 3 3 0011
4 4 0100
• (2D5)H = (0010 1101 0101)2 5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
• (7DE)H = (____)2 8 8 1000
9 9 1001
• (7DE)H = (0111 1101 1110)2 10 A 1010
11 B 1011
12 C 1100
• (6AE)H = (____)2 13 D 1101
14 E 1110
• (6A.64)H = (0110 1010.0110 0100)2 15 F 1111
J. Conversion : Binary Number to Hexadecimal Number
• Procedure
Sl. HDM 4-bit Binary
Start from LSD (Least Significant Digit), each group No Equivalent
of 4 bits is replaced by its Hexadecimal 0 0 0000
equivalents 1 1 0001
• Convert the Binary Number (11110110101) 2 2 0010
into an equivalent Hexadecimal Number 3 3 0011
4 4 0100
• (0111 1011 0101)2 = (7B5)H 5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
• (11000)2 = (____)H 8 8 1000
9 9 1001
• (0001 1000)2 = (18)H 10 A 1010
11 B 1011
12 C 1100
• (100101.0111110)2 = (____)H 13 D 1101
14 E 1110
• (0010 0101.0111 1100)2 = (25.7C)H 15 F 1111
Next Class :
11th August 2016: Thursday
(10:00 am to 10: 50 am)
