Solar Cells, 31 (1991) 505-511 505

Load prioritization and shedding in photovoltaic power

systems

Kamel Khouzam* and Lucy Khouzam**

Department of Electrical Engineering, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH 44115
(U.S.A.)

(Received August 7, 1990)

Abstract
A mathematical approach to the power management problem in photovoltaic power
systems is developed. Loads are classified into four general categories and to a number
of priorities. The problem is formulated as a one-resource allocation problem and solved
using dynamic programming techniques. Illustrative examples demonstrate the applicability
of the new approach.

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n

Despite the d e m o n s t r a t e d versatility o f p h o t o v o l t a i c p o w e r s y s t e m s

(PVPS), the high cost o f P V - g e n e r a t e d p o w e r still p r e v e n t s t h e i r w i d e s p r e a d
use. This p r o b l e m dictates that the available e n e r g y b e u s e d in the m o s t
efficient m a n n e r possible. This r e q u i r e s careful a t t e n t i o n to the o p e r a t i n g
decisions o f the c o n t r o l system.
T h e r e have b e e n a n u m b e r o f studies and a p p r o a c h e s to the p o w e r
m a n a g e m e n t in PV s y s t e m s [ 1 - 9 ]. R e f e r e n c e s 1 a n d 2 r e p o r t the p e r f o r m a n c e
i m p r o v e m e n t a n d t h u s t h e c o s t r e d u c t i o n w h e n load o p e r a t i o n is m a t c h e d
t o the insolation profile and load p r o d u c t s t o r a g e is s u b s t i t u t e d f o r electrical
storage.
The c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y in this s t u d y was to s u p p l y the l o a d with the
m a x i m u m efficiency at the highest p o w e r level b e f o r e c o n s i d e r i n g the n e x t
load. A variable c o m p l e m e n t a r y load is p r o p o s e d in ref. 3 to a b s o r b the
e x c e s s e n e r g y p r o d u c e d at n o o n .
In 1 9 7 8 the first village stand-alone PV p o w e r s y s t e m was d e s i g n e d at
the P a p a g o Indian village o f S c h u c h u l i in Arizona [4, 5]. The c o n t r o n e r f o r
the p o w e r m a n a g e m e n t u s e d mainly the b a t t e r y state o f c h a r g e (SOC) t o
t r i g g e r sequential load shedding. In t h e s e studies sequential c o n n e c t i n g a n d
d i s c o n n e c t i n g o n e a r r a y string was u s e d for the p r o p e r v o l t a g e r e g u l a t i o n
o f the PV p o w e r system. H o w e v e r , the c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y was n o t optimized.
An o p t i m u m l o a d m a n a g e m e n t s t r a t e g y was p r o p o s e d [6] w h e r e l o a d s
w e r e classified into f o u r priorities with a s t r a t e g y to serve the highest priority

*Currently with Queensland University of Technology, Qld., Australia.

**Currently with SUNRISE Associates, Brisbane, Qld., Australia.

Elsevier Sequoia, Lausanne

506

load at the expense of the "less critical" loads. Here, a minimum total life-
cycle cost was sought. More recently [7], it was p r o p o s e d to address the
load power management by connecting and disconnecting a num ber of array
strings for power and voltage regulation.
A new mathematical approach to the energy load m anagem ent is presented
in ref. 8. The problem was formulated as a one-resource allocation problem
and solved using dynamic programming techniques. Reference 9 presents
the load matching problem in the design stage of direct-coupled systems.
In this paper, a battery storage subsystem is included to extend the approach
of ref. 8 and the problem is reformulated. Loads are classified and weighted
according to the priority of their demand. The objective is to determine in
an optimal way the energy to be supplied to each connect ed load (and/or
the battery) in the next period of time.

2. P r o b l e m f o r m u l a t i o n

The basic direct-coupled (DC) PV power system is shown in Fig. 1. In

a DC system the electrical power generated passes directly to the loads. An
auxiliary battery is used to boost the power when the radiation of the sun
is low. Loads are classified into four categories according to their priorities:
convenient (CON), essential (ESS), critical (CRI) and em ergency (EME). The
loads in each level are further sorted according to their subpriorities. Returns
per unit energy demand are assigned to each load with the highest value
for the highest priority load. All loads are assumed to be controllable. The
role of the battery in the PV system can be seen from Fig. 1. The battery
is considered as a load of varying priority and also as a source of varying
supply depending on its SOC. For example if the SOC of the battery is close
to the full state of charge, then it becom e s a convenient load. However, ff
the battery reaches the minimum allowable SOC, let us say 0.25, t hen the
battery b eco mes a critical load. Table 1 gives the p r o p o s e d load classifications

Sun's Rays
, HM__
i

i
1

I
J
LOADS I BATTERY
OSSeS

Output
Fig. 1. The basic direct-coupled PV power system.
 507

TABLE 1
Load classifications and priorities

Load type Priority

Convenient (CON) 1
Essential (ESS) 2
Critical (CRI) 3
Emergency (EME) 4
Battery Variable

and their priorities.

The solution of the problem addressed is based on the maximization
of a weighted objective function that depends on the load priorities and is
subject to the availability of energy supply. This can be expressed mathe-
matically by
~ mi B
Maximize ~ RijXij + E RbX~ (1)
i= lj~l b=l

Subject to
n mi B B

E E P,jXij+ ~, P ~ b < E a + E Eb*/b(SOCb-SOCb.mi,) (2)

i=lj=l b=l b=l

O<Xij<NT, for all i , j (3)

0 <~Xb<~NT, for b = 1 to B (4)
where i = priority index; n = 4 since four priorities are defined; j = load index
(1 to m~); m ~ = n u m b e r of loads of priority i; b = b a t t e r y index (1 to B);
B = n u m b e r of independent batteries; riy = unit return value (per unit energy)
associated with l o a d j of priority i; R~j = return value associated with operating
load j of priority i; Rb = r e t u r n value associated with operating battery b;
X~j = n u m b e r o f units of time to operate load j of priority i; Xb = maximum
n u m b e r of units of time to operate battery b; P~j-= average pow er required
by load j of priority i in a specific period of time, T; Pb -- average pow er
required by battery b in the period T; T= total time of the Energy and Load
Management Control Strategy (ELM); A T = t h e time increment for the ELM
control strategy; NT=total n u m b e r of time intervals; Eij= energy required
by load j o f priority i in the period T; Ea = array output energy; E~ = capacity
of battery b; ~?b=efficiency of battery b; SOCb=SOC of battery b;
S O C b , m i n = minimum state of charge of battery b; rr.a~ = the unit return of the
highest priority load, where
R~2=r~jE~j (5)
Rb = rbEb(1 -- SOCb) (6)
rb = rm~(1 - SOCD (7)
 508

Pi3 = E i j / N T (8)
Po =E~(1 - SOC~)/NT (9)
The o p t i m u m solution d e t e r m i n e s the n u m b e r of time units from N T
to o p e r a t e the loads (Xij). The load (i, 3") actual supply f a c t o r (SFi4) is defined
by
SF~j = X i j / N T (10)
This f a c t o r is a m e a s u r e of h o w m u c h o f the e n e r g y r e q u i r e d will actually
be supplied by b o t h the array and the battery. This formulation allows one
to keep track of the supply f a c t o r of the loads within each category. F o r
simplicity we a s s u m e that the batteries will be c h a r g e d (or discharged) in
p r o p o r t i o n to their capacities. The SOC o f battery b at time t can be f o u n d
by solving the e n e r g y balance e q u a t i o n (Fig. 1). It can b e s h o w n that

SOC~,~ - (11)
EBAT
w h e r e Eij,t is the actual e n e r g y as given by solving the optimization problem,
rlc is the b a t t e r y stray-loss efficiency and EBAr is the total b a t t e r y capacity
of the system. It should be n o t e d that in this s y s t e m it is a s s u m e d that a
relatively small b a t t e r y can be included to supply the e m e r g e n c y load in
case of failure. This b a t t e r y should b e sized a c c o r d i n g to the e m e r g e n c y
load capacity, the loss-of-energy probability, and the average state of c h a r g e
o f the main battery.

3. P r o b l e m solution

F o r simplicity of n o t a t i o n let us a s s u m e that the total n u m b e r of loads

including the b a t t e r y (or batteries) is M w h e r e m = 1, 2 , . . . M . The a b o v e
m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o b l e m c a n be f o r m u l a t e d as a o n e - r e s o u r c e allocation p r o b l e m
using dynamic p r o g r a m m i n g (DP) as
f ( 1 ,y) = m a x [R~XI] (12)
f ( z , y ) = m a x [R~X~, f ( z - 1, y - PzX~) ] (13)
for z = 2 , 3..... M
O<~Xz <~NT (14)
O<.<y<Et (15)
w h e r e f ( z , y ) is the m a x i m u m total r e t u r n that can be obtained by allocating
y units o f the available e n e r g y E t to loads 1 t h r o u g h z, and E t is the total
available e n e r g y f r o m the array and the battery. By definition, t h e r e f o r e , y
 509

is a p a r a m e t e r i z e d i n t e g e r of Et a n d z is the s t a g e n u m b e r in t h e f o r w a r d
d y n a m i c f o r m u l a t i o n . T h e s e t o f r e c u r s i v e e q u a t i o n s yields the final solution:
M
f(M, E t ) = m a x ~ RmX,,~ (16)
mffil

A BASIC c o m p u t e r c o d e h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d [10] to solve t h e a b o v e

r e c u r s i v e e q u a t i o n s using t h e D e n a r d o a c c e l e r a t e d r e a c h i n g p r o c e d u r e .

4. Simulation study

T w o e x a m p l e s a r e p r o v i d e d h e r e to d e m o n s t r a t e the applicability of the

n e w a p p r o a c h . W e a s s u m e a s y s t e m o f f o u r l o a d s with k n o w n c o n s t a n t
e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t in t h e n e x t s e v e n hours. A s s u m e t h a t the available e n e r g y
o f the a r r a y is g i v e n b y the c l e a r s k y m o d e l :
E a - - 240[ 1 + s i n ( 3 0 t ) ] (kWh) (17)
w h e r e t = 0 - 6 . A s s u m e t h a t t h e b a t t e r y c a p a c i t y is 2 4 0 kWh, its p e r c e n t
m i n i m u m a l l o w a b l e SOC is 25%, a n d t h a t the b a t t e r y efficiency is 8 5 % a n d
s t r a y l o s s e s c a n b e i g n o r e d (~?c= 100%). W e a s s u m e in the first e x a m p l e
t h a t t h e l o a d priorities a n d unit r e t u r n v a l u e s r e m a i n c o n s t a n t d u r i n g the
simulation. T a b l e 2 gives t h e t y p e s o f loads, t h e i r e n e r g y d e m a n d s a n d the
actual e n e r g y t h a t w o u l d b e s u p p l i e d to e a c h l o a d u s i n g this a p p r o a c h .
T h e a d v a n t a g e s o f this a p p r o a c h c a n b e c o n c l u d e d f r o m T a b l e 2. T h e
l o a d s s h o u l d r e c e i v e t h e e n e r g y a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r priority level. T h e b a t t e r y
will d i s c h a r g e in the first t w o h o u r s to a l m o s t its S O C m i n to s u p p l y the m o s t
critical loads. T h e b a t t e r y will t h e n b e c h a r g e d in t h e n e x t p e r i o d t o 8 9 . 2 %
SOC ( b e i n g a critical load). Notice t h a t the critical l o a d will n o t o p e r a t e at
100%0 S F d u r i n g t h e s e v e n hours; h o w e v e r , its a v e r a g e S F is 75.7%. With
t h e i n c r e a s e o f Ea in the following p e r i o d all t h e l o a d s are s u p p l i e d b y b o t h
t h e a r r a y a n d t h e battery. T h e less critical l o a d s (No. 1 a n d No. 2) c a n n o t

TABLE 2
Results of example 1 with constant load priorities

Priority Load type Period (array, kWh)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(240) (360) (448) (480) (448) (360) (240)

1 CON 60 6 0 0 60 0 6 0
2 ESS 120 12 12 0 120 0 0 0
3 CRI 240 192 192 120 240 240 216 72
4 EME 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180

Battery SOCt_ j 1 0.375 0.275 0.892 0.392 0.51 0.333

SOCt 0.375 0.275 0.892 0.392 0.51 0.333 0.28
510

TABLE 3
Results of example 2 with variable load priorities

Priority Load type Period (array, kWh)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(240) (360) (448) (480) (448) (360) (240)

1 ESS 60 6 6 60 6 60 0 0
2 ESS 120 12 108 48 120 108 0 0
3 ESS 240 192 0 240 24 240 48 192
4 EME 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180

Battery SOCt_~ 1 0.375 0.65 0.316 0.942 0.358 0.91

SOCt 0.375 0.65 0.316 0.942 0.358 0.91 0.358

be s u p p l i e d until e n o u g h e n e r g y is available. T h e a v e r a g e S F of loads 1 and

2 is 17.1%. T h e a v e r a g e state o f c h a r g e of the b a t t e r y is 50%. (Accordingly,
the c a p a c i t y of a s t a n d - b y b a t t e r y n e e d n o t e x c e e d 160 k W h if its SOCmin
is 25%).
An alternative to this criterion, which allows the l o w e r priority l o a d s to
r e c e i v e p a r t of their e n e r g y d e m a n d , is n o w p r e s e n t e d in e x a m p l e 2. In this
e x a m p l e , we a s s u m e t h a t the four l o a d s are c a t e g o r i z e d in t w o priority levels.
T h e first t h r e e l o a d s are c o n s i d e r e d essential with different s u b p r i o r i t i e s a n d
load No. 4 is c o n s i d e r e d a n e m e r g e n c y load. All o t h e r a s s u m p t i o n s r e m a i n
the s a m e as in e x a m p l e 1. A s s u m e t h a t the unit r e t u r n values of the loads
are allowed to c h a n g e a c c o r d i n g to:
r i j , t + 1 = r i j ( c -- S F i j , t ) (18)

s u b j e c t to
ri <Rij,t+ 1 4ri+ i (19)
for
i=l to 4, a n d j = l tomi
w h e r e c is a p e n a l t y f a c t o r which is a s s u m e d c o n s t a n t at 1.75. T h e solution
to the s e c o n d e x a m p l e is g i v e n in T a b l e 3. The r e s u l t s o f T a b l e 3 s h o w t h a t
the loads with h i g h e r p r i o r i t y s h o u l d b e s u p p l i e d b e f o r e c o n s i d e r i n g the
l o w e r priority loads. T h e a d v a n t a g e o f i n t r o d u c i n g a p e n a l t y f a c t o r to t h o s e
loads w h i c h r e c e i v e 75% o r m o r e of t h e i r e n e r g y d e m a n d is o b v i o u s in this
e x a m p l e since t h r e e l o a d s s h a r e t h e s a m e priority level. L o a d No. 4 is
c o m p l e t e l y s e r v e d w h e r e a s the a v e r a g e S F f o r l o a d s 1, 2, a n d 3 is 33%,
47%, a n d 56%, r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e a v e r a g e s t a t e o f c h a r g e o f the b a t t e r y is
55%. This s t r a t e g y allows s a t i s f a c t o r y e n e r g y s h a r i n g a m o n g the loads
c o n n e c t e d to t h e PV s y s t e m including t h e battery.
 511

5. C o n c l u s i o n

P r o p e r l o a d m a n a g e m e n t t e c h n i q u e s s h o u l d l e a d to a b e t t e r u t i l i z a t i o n
o f t h e PV e n e r g y . T h i s p a p e r p r e s e n t s a n o p t i m i z e d a p p r o a c h t o t h e e n e r g y
m a n a g e m e n t p r o b l e m . Loads are classified into four general categories (con-
venient, essential, critical a n d e m e r g e n c y ) , and subpriorities are further
a s s i g n e d t o all l o a d s . T h e p o w e r o r e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t s a l o n g w i t h t h e d u t y
c y c l e s o f e a c h l o a d m u s t b e k n o w n . T h e a v a i l a b l e e n e r g y is a s s u m e d k n o w n
for at least o n e period of t i m e before the simulation. A w e i g h t e d objective
f u n c t i o n t h a t d e p e n d s o n t h e l o a d p r i o r i t i e s a n d s u b p r i o r i t i e s is p r o p o s e d .
A d y n a m i c p r o g r a m m i n g a p p r o a c h is u s e d t o s o l v e t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n p r o b l e m
s u b j e c t to the availability of supply. E x a m p l e s are p r e s e n t e d to illustrate the
applicability of this a p p r o a c h . In spite of the large d i m e n s i o n a l i t y of s o m e
p r o b l e m s t h i s m e t h o d s h o u l d l e a d t o a n efficient o n - l i n e l o a d m a n a g e m e n t
and shedding control. Future research work should study the load management
i n a s y s t e m w h e r e a s t o r a g e b a t t e r y is e m p l o y e d f o r n i g h t - t i m e o p e r a t i o n .

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