Exhibition script:

Arts of the Ancient Americas

Permanent collection galleries
Open 2009

Memorial Art Gallery of the University of Rochester, NY

Curator: Jessica Marten, Assistant Curator
Educator: Marlene Hamann-Whitmore, Curator of Education
 
The reinstallation of the Ancient Americas galleries was made possible thanks to the following
contributors:

UNDERWRITERS
This installation is underwritten by donors to the Gallery’s Tribute Fund.

SCHOLARS AND LENDERS

Janet Berlo, PhD., Professor of Art History/Visual and Cultural Studies, University of Rochester;
Ellen R. Kintz, PhD., Professor Emerita of Anthropology, State University of New York at
Geneseo; Rebecca Stone, PhD., Associate Professor of Art History, Emory University and
Curator of Ancient American Art, Michael C. Carlos Museum; Susan Schilling, Curator Emerita
of Education, Memorial Art Gallery

CONSULTANTS
Barbara Moore, conservator; Kathy D’Amanda, designer
What do “BCE” and “CE” mean?

BCE (Before the Common Era) and CE (Common Era) refer to the same time
periods as the more traditional BC (Before Christ) and AD (“Anno Domini,” which
means “The Year of our Lord”).

In today’s global society, constant interaction between people of all religious

beliefs requires a shared, or common, way of reckoning time. Although the terms
BCE and CE have their origins in the Christian calendar, they are now widely used
by people of all faiths and cultures.

For this reason, the Memorial Art Gallery has adopted BCE and CE for use in its
galleries.
MESOAMERICA: MEXICO – INSET CASE 1a 
Colima Culture, West Mexico
ca. 200 BCE – 500 CE

Horned Hunchback Figure Vessel

Clay

By exchange from Stendahl Galleries, 42.24

Many ceramic hunchback figures with single horns strapped to

their heads have been found in the tombs of the Colima culture.
The frequency with which hunchbacks and dwarfs appear in the art
of the Ancient Americas may indicate their significant status as
shamans or spiritual advisors. The horns strapped to the Colima
figures are thought to represent powerful caps characteristically
worn by shamans across many cultures.

Shamanism is a religious system in which the shaman is a spiritual

mediator between the physical and spiritual worlds. A shaman
figure buried in a tomb may have served to guide the deceased’s
transition from the living to the realm of the dead.

Colima Culture, West Mexico

ca. 200 BCE – 500 CE

Hunchback Dwarf Figure Vessel

Clay

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 71.59

Some figural art created by Ancient American cultures may not

depict actual humans, but may use the human form as a symbol.
The lives of the people of ancient Mesoamerica depended upon
their ability to grow and produce food. The cultivation of maize
(corn) was central to their world view. The human figure could
capture aspects of a belief system that intertwined the cycles of life
with the cycles of agriculture. For example, a hunchback
(“fatback”) might symbolize abundance, and a dwarf might
represent the stunted ears of corn a typical maize plant produces
with the healthy ear. Mother and child figures might symbolize
lineage or the way corn starts as a kernel, grows into a stalk of
corn, and is harvested for consumption.

Colima Culture, West Mexico

ca. 200 BCE – 500 CE

Seated Dog Vessel

Clay

R.T. Miller, Jr. Fund #2, 42.14

The rounded, hollow Colima vessels were made with reddish clay.
The black spattering was not intentional, it is the result of the
oxidation of the chemical element, manganese, present in the clay.
This occurred when the manganese was leached out, over time, by
contact with water in the tombs. The vessels’ smooth, lustrous
surfaces were attained through burnishing – a process of rubbing
the surface with a smooth rock to make it shiny.

In addition to ceramics, valuable goods obtained through trade,

such as shell, green stone and obsidian were buried in the shaft-
and-chamber tombs of the Colima people.

Colima Culture, West Mexico

ca. 200 BCE – 500 CE

Standing Dog Vessel

Clay

Gift of Canon and Mrs. Nathaniel T. Whitcomb, 78.138

In nearly every world culture, dogs were the first domesticated

animals. A large proportion of Colima tombs had actual dogs or
dog-shaped vessels interred with the deceased. The frequently
plump bodies of the dog vessels and their ubiquity in Colima
tombs support different theories. Some scholars believe they
represent a hairless breed of dog that was fattened and eaten at
feasts. Others think the primary role of the dog was as spiritual
guide to the Underworld. Those well-treated in life (and thus well-
fed) would act as a guide for the owner’s safe passage to the
Underworld in death.

Colima Culture, West Mexico

ca. 200 BCE – 500 CE

Jar with Relief Figures

Clay

Gift of Lili Wildenhain, 94.59

Generous offerings of real food and ceramics representing foods

were placed in tombs for the deceased’s consumption in the
afterlife. Other similar jars from the Colima culture represent
regional foods such as fruits, vegetables and seafood. It is
possible that the small, unidentified creatures on this jar were a
food source.
Jalisco Culture, West Mexico
ca. 200 BCE – 500 CE

Cylinder Vessel
Clay, pigment

Given in memory of Ruth D. Maurer by James W. Maurer, 96.15

The wavy lines on this vessel represent water. The other design in
repeated medallions has not yet been identified.

Mezcala Culture, Guerrero, West Mexico

ca. 300 BCE – 300 CE

Ceremonial Celt Figure

Serpentine

Gift of Ronni Solbert, 73.21

These two green stone figures are anthropomorphized celts, or

axe-heads. The frequency with which the Mezcala people made
celt figures with human characteristics can perhaps be explained
by the animistic belief that animals, plants, rocks and objects have
spirits. The celt was a multi-use working tool that was passed
down through generations. Because of its highly-valued role and
ancestral connotations, the celt form took on symbolic value in
ritual objects, some of which were worn by individuals.

Mezcala Culture, Guerrero, West Mexico

ca. 300 BCE – 300 CE

Ceremonial Celt Figure

Metadiorite

Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Arthur L. Stern, 58.12

In Ancient America, a variety of green stones – sometimes called

jadeite or jade – were highly-prized, valuable materials. While the
types of stones and the actual greenness vary, a symbolic
association linked them to water and plant growth. The hard stone
was sculpted by abrading it with other stones, which was a slow
and arduous process. The durability and strength as well as the
attractive, shiny surfaces would have contributed to the overall
value of green stone and these celt figures.

Colima Culture, West Mexico

ca. 200 BCE – 500 CE

Male and Female Figures

Clay
R.T. Miller Fund, 54.40.2 & .1

The ancient people of West Mexico focused upon the powerful

bonds of familial relationships in their ceramics. Treating death
not as an end of existence, but as a next stage in a larger journey,
these transitional objects were made in the physical world for
travel with the dead to the Underworld. Perhaps such figural
ceramic groups were made to accompany the deceased into the
afterlife as an extension of earthly comforts. Another, more
symbolic and less personal approach interprets the ceramic groups
as embodiments of agriculture, abundance or lineage.

Chupicuaro Culture, West Mexico

ca. 300 BC - 200 CE

Mother and Child Figures

Clay, pigment

General Acquisitions Fund, 82.50

This mother and child may symbolize continuity and legitimacy of

the family line. Women were identified with and valued for their
role as progenitor; hence this figure’s suitability for reproduction
is emphasized in a generous belly and bulbous hips. Reinforcing
powerful associations between women, fertility, food and the
earth, Chupicuaro burials contained many ceramic food vessels
and female figures.

MESOAMERICA: MEXICO – INSET CASE 1b 

Jalisco Culture, West Mexico
ca. 200 BCE – 500 CE

Mother and Child Figures

Clay, pigment

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 71.60

This depiction of a mother nursing her child embodies fertility and

abundance. As humans gain sustenance and food from the earth, so the
child receives life-sustaining nutrition from the mother.

Modification and adornment of the body were practiced by ancient West

Mexico cultures. This figure shows skull shaping, scarification (on the
shoulders), teeth filing, and adornment with elaborate ear pendants and
arm bands. Skull shaping was accomplished by applying pressure to
boards strapped to an infant’s head, resulting in the elongation visible in
these two figures. Such modifications manifest a culture’s world view
and ideas concerning beauty, status and social identification.
Nayarit Culture, West Mexico
ca. 200 BCE – 500 CE

Seated Musician Figure with Drum

Clay, pigment

Given in memory of Ruth D. Maurer by James W. Maurer, 96.16

The drum depicted in the arms of this musician figure was made from the
shell of a turtle. The nose ring, ear ornaments and cross-legged posture
are all common characteristics of clay figurines across ancient Mexico.

Nayarit Culture, West Mexico

ca. 200 BCE – 600 CE

Standing Female Figure

Clay, pigment

R.T. Miller Fund, 54.41

Beads, armbands, pendants, and ear and nose ornaments have been found
on skeletal remains in Ancient American tombs. This Nayarit woman is
depicted with nose, neck and ear ornaments and scarification (cutting or
branding designs into the skin) on her shoulders and arms. The
specificity of adornment would have associated this figure with a
particular culture and class. These details contrast with an abstracted
body that minimizes certain physical features while emphasizing others.
The small, truncated arms are likely a stylistic convention; the wide,
heavy hips and legs emphasize the woman’s connection with the earth
and reproduction.

Zapotec Culture, Monte Alban, Oaxaca, Central Mexico

ca. 200 – 100 BCE

Pipe or Incense Burner in the Shape of a Small Child or Acrobat

Clay (blackware)

Gift of Susan and Bernard Schilling, 93.26

This object has been described as a pipe or an incense burner in the shape
of a child or an acrobat. The bowl opens up on the figure’s back and a
spout or mouthpiece emerges from the forehead. The material likely
burned in the bowl while smoke exited through the forehead spout; the
smoke of copal incense was believed to be the brains of the gods.
With eyes closed, hands held to the mouth, and cheeks and lips distended,
the figure appears to be blowing or holding breath as if underwater. The
unusual shape and orientation of flipper-like feet add to the impression
that this figure is swimming.
Casas Grandes Culture, North Mexico
ca. 1060 – 1340 CE

Human Figure Vessel

Clay, pigment

Ruby Miller Memorial Fund, 77.101

This vessel likely held water, porridge or an alcoholic beverage. Casas

Grandes was a trade emporium in the northernmost part of Mexico,
where its sharing of influences with Southwest Native Americans is
visible in the ceramics traditions of both cultures.

Mixtec Culture, Teotitlan del Camino, Oaxaca, Central Mexico

ca. 1300 – 1500 CE

Incense Burner: Figure of Macuilxochitl

Clay, pigment

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 69.22

Macuilxochitl, whose name means “Five Flower,” was the charming

Mixtec patron god of dance, feasting, love, sexuality, and summer.
Representations of Macuilxochitl were favored by women for their
domestic shrines. Despite the seemingly fierce appearance of this figure,
Macuilxochitl is identifiable by the flowers on his headband, the white
butterfly wings around his mouth, and the vertical element of his helmet
representing the crest of a bird.

This object would have been placed over burning incense that produced a
great deal of smoke. The thick, white smoke that exited through the
holes in the figure’s chest may have represented mother’s milk. The
smoke that exited through the figure’s mouth may have been a form of
communication with the gods. This complex object was a manifestation
of life and agricultural cycles, transformation and renewal.

Teotihuacan, Central Mexico

ca. 100 BCE – 600 CE

Amulet Figure
Green stone

Gift of the Intermercado Limitado, 71.16

Teotihuacan was the largest and most powerful city to rise in the Ancient
Americas. This small amulet figure was likely worn on an individual’s
body to provide power, protection or status.
Zapotec Culture, Oaxaca, South Central Mexico
ca. 400 – 800 CE

Funerary Double Urn with Warrior Figure

Clay, pigment  

R.T. Miller Fund, 48.8

This warrior figure wears an elaborate headdress, large ear ornaments, a

necklace with pectoral pendant and a loincloth. Although the two
cylindrical vessels are now empty, they may have held funerary offerings
believed essential to the deceased’s survival and comfort in the afterlife.

Aztec Culture, Central Mexico

ca. 1200 – 1500 CE

Figure of Quetzalcoatl
Volcanic stone

R.T. Miller Fund, 44.64

Aztec deity sculptures exist in the thousands, despite a campaign of

destruction by the conquering Spanish who believed they were heathen
idols. This sculpture represents the Aztec creator god, Quetzalcoatl. His
name combines the words for “precious green feather” (quetzalli) and
“serpent” (coatl), thus combining the two religious/cosmological realms,
the sky realm and earth.

Representations of their gods were made recognizable to the Aztec

people by their individual attributes. Here Quetzalcoatl wears his
characteristic curved shell ear ornaments and conical headpiece.
 
The Mesoamerican ballgame was both ritual and brutal team
competition. Played widely throughout Mesoamerica, it symbolized the
cycles of life and agriculture and the struggle between the forces of good
and evil. In ceremonies following the game, ritual sacrifice of ballplayers
was believed to help maintain an orderly universe and agricultural
abundance. The game, which is the root of many of our ball games
today, was played on a man-made court with a hard rubber ball. Its
specific rules and meanings differed depending on the time and the place
but the most common form involved players using the ball to score
without use of their hands, somewhat similar to soccer.

Three kinds of stone objects relating to the game have been recovered in
great abundance: yokes, palmas and hachas. These stone objects were
ceremonial versions of the wood, leather or cotton pieces of protective
gear worn during play. Such stone sculptures may have been prized as
trophies or worn before or after the game during sacrificial rituals. The
ancient city of El Tajin in Veracruz had at least seventeen ballcourts.
This line drawing of a relief on the south ballcourt at El Tajin shows
ballplayers in their equipment. The scene appears to take place after the
game, as the figure on the right holds a knife used in the sacrificial killing
of losing players.

Caption: South ballcourt, El Tajin, Mexico

Caption: Line drawing of South ballcourt relief, El Tajin, Mexico

Veracruz Culture, El Tajin, Central Mexico

ca. 600 – 900 CE

Palma
Stone

Gift of Susan and Bernard Schilling, 93.25

Palmas are pieces of equipment associated with the Mesoamerican

ballgame. They have been named by modern-day archaeologists for their
palm frond shape. Palmas worn during the game would have been made
of materials lighter than the heavy stone of this ceremonial version. They
were inserted into a ballplayer’s yoke (protective belt) and projected up
the chest to protect vital organs from the fast-moving, hard rubber ball.

Veracruz Culture, Central Mexico

ca. 600 – 900 CE

Hacha
Stone

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 71.14

The so-called hachas of the Mesoamerican ballgame were not axes as the
Spanish name implies, but were named for their sharp, thin shape.
Scholars debate over whether or not stone hachas functioned as markers
on the ballcourt or representations of protective gear worn by the players.
Hachas are frequently heads, which when worn on a player’s yoke might
have alluded to a “trophy head” of the player’s previously defeated
opponents.

Veracruz Culture, Central Mexico

ca. 300 – 900 CE

Fragment of a Yoke
Green stone

Gift of Dr. Victor Logan, 71.34

This is a fragment of a ceremonial stone yoke. The complete yoke was

modeled after the much lighter protective belts worn sideways around
players’ waists in the Mesoamerican ballgame. Much of the imagery
associated with the ballgame involves blood and death, as the brutal game
often ended in the sacrifice of the defeated team to nourish the earth and
promote fertility. Many yokes were adorned with frog-like earth monsters
believed to exist at the entrance to the Underworld.

Photo included on label rail

Caption: Frog Yoke from Veracruz, Mexico

Veracruz Culture, Central Mexico

ca. 300 – 900 CE

Palma: Eagle Attacking a Skull

Stone

R.T. Miller Fund, 44.66

In the Mesoamerican ballgame, players on the losing team were

sometimes sacrificed by decapitation in rituals following the game. Skull
racks displaying decapitated heads were often located adjacent to ball
courts. This ceremonial stone palma (a stone version of a piece of the
ballplayer’s equipment) depicts an eagle attacking a human skull. This is
a common motif in ballgame imagery and may reference the flesh-eating
birds that gorged themselves on the bodies of the sacrificed victims.

Remojadas Culture, Veracruz, Central Mexico

ca. 300 – 900 CE

Warrior Figure
Clay, pigment

General Acquisitions Fund, 79.16

This large ceramic figure’s intact survival for over a thousand years was
likely due to its burial in a tomb. The figure wields a vicious-looking
mace and wears black body paint common among warriors in ancient
Veracruz. The appearance of its back suggests it wasn’t made to be seen
from all sides, yet its size and complexity indicate it was an important
object. As with many of the objects on view in this gallery, it remains
unknown whether the figure served a purpose among the living prior to
burial, and what exactly its expected role was once placed in the tomb.

Remojadas Culture, Veracruz, Central Mexico

ca. 300 – 900 CE

Warrior Head
Clay, pigment

R.T. Miller Fund, 44.61

Veracruz, the Gulf Coast region of Mexico, is rich in archaeological sites

with great quantities of ceramic and stone sculptures. This head is a
fragment of a larger figure, now missing. The influence from the Maya
civilization to the south is visible in the face’s crossed eyes. The Maya
believed that since humans had to squint their eyes to look at the sun, the
Sun God squinted back. Thus, crossed eyes became a standard of beauty,
and parents would hang beads between their children’s eyes so they
became permanently crossed.

Remojadas Culture, Veracruz, Central Mexico

ca. 300 – 900 CE

“Smiling” Figure
Clay

R.T. Miller Fund, 54.39

Smiling figures have been found in abundance in the Remojadas region

of Veracruz, Mexico. A flattened head, filed teeth and raised hands are
their common features. Many more heads than bodies have been found,
possibly as a result of ceremonial decapitations.

These unique figures may represent laughing, happy people associated

with a god of dance or music, or perhaps their smiles show the effects of
intoxicants fed to victims before they were sacrificed to the gods.
 

 
 
MESOAMERICA: MAYA CIVILIZATION – INSET CASE 1c
Rio Blanco Culture, Veracruz, Central Mexico
ca. 700 CE

Molded Bowl
Clay, pigment

R.T. Miller Fund, 45.65

Molded items are a sign of a prosperous economy because they could be

churned out in quantity for trade or disseminated to the lower classes.
This small bowl, made with two half-bowl molds, was made in south
central Veracruz and shows Maya influence in both form and imagery.

Maya Culture, Campeche, Mexico

ca. 600 – 900 CE

Cylindrical Vase
Clay

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 68.44

Around the lip of this Maya cylindrical vase is hieroglyphic writing in

what has come to be called the “primary standard sequence.” Such
standardized sequences of glyphs are commonly found around the top of
Maya vases from this period. These sequences have been interpreted as
descriptions of the function or contents of the vessels and might even
include the name of the owner or the scribe. The sequence on this pot
has not yet been translated.

The depiction of the seated individual includes a plumed headdress, ear

ornaments, necklace and loincloth.

Maya Culture, Chama, Guatemala

Vase, ca. 800 CE

Clay, pigment

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 72.9

This vase from Chama, Guatemala has the characteristic black and white
chevron bands found along the tops and bottoms of vases from this area.
The painted figure sits cross-legged on the floor and gestures outward
with his right hand. From this profile view, it is easy to see the graceful
slope of his head resulting from cranial modification, the shaping of the
human skull during infancy (while still soft and growing). The Maya
based their standard of beauty on the figure of their Corn God. They
believed a long, tapered head was most beautiful as it mimicked the
shape of an ear of corn.
 Photo included on label rail
Caption: Maya skull with cranial modification

Maya Culture, Uxmal, Yucatan, Mexico

ca. 600 – 900 CE

Warrior Head
Clay, pigment

R.T. Miller Fund, 48.9

This head fragment wears an elaborate headdress and large ear

ornaments. The blue pigment found on the accessories is now called
Maya Blue. This color is a unique combination of indigo and a special
clay that was frequently used by the Maya in their art.

Maya Culture, Jaina, Campeche, Mexico

ca. 600 – 900 CE

Seated Female Figurine Whistle

Clay, pigment

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 71.15

The Maya are noted for the realistic, lively human figures they depicted
in their murals and ceramics. The many portrait-like ceramic figurine
whistles found on the island of Jaina provide the modern viewer with an
astounding amount of detail about the way the ancient Maya lived. The
seated female figure was a popular form. Two molds were used: one
for the head and one for the body. The rest of the details—elaborate
beaded jewelry, loose cape, ankle-length skirt—were created by hand.
The whistle is formed with a hole in the figure’s back left shoulder that
leads down into its hollow body cavity. It remains a mystery why the
whistle form was so common in Jaina graves.

The Maya practiced body modification and adornment that reflected

their standards of beauty and reinforced class lines. The elaborate
jewelry was likely made of precious metals and green stone. This
figure’s nose replicates the prolonged nose bridge that was produced in
real life with an artificial nose piece. Between the ears and mouth are
lines of scarification created by cutting or branding permanent designs
into the skin.
Maya Culture, Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico
ca. 700 – 800 CE

Fragment of a Head
Stucco, pigment

Gift of Isabel C. Herdle in memory of Gertrude Herdle Moore, 93.20

 
Palenque was a medium-sized Maya city that focused much of its
artistic output on impressive temples and pyramids adorned with stucco
sculptures. This fragment of a head, which shows traces of reddish
pigment, was likely once a part of the city’s architectural adornment.

 Photo included on label rail 

Caption: Ruins of Palenque, Mexico
Credit: Photo by Peter Andersen , 2005
Better quality image at http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Palenque_8.jpg 

Maya Culture, Campeche, Mexico

ca. 700 – 800 CE

Tripod Plate with God N (Pauahtun)

Clay, pigment

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 71.78

Many Maya ceramics depict deities connected with death and the
Underworld. This is no surprise as such ceramics were destined as
offerings to accompany the ancient Maya elite to their tombs.

The theme of this tripod plate is God N or Pauahtun, one of the principal
gods of the Underworld. God N is represented as an old man with
toothless gums and a large, Roman nose. A common attribute is his
enormous snail shell from which he crawls. A long necklace, likely
made of valuable green stone hangs from his neck. The power of this
Underworld lord is revealed by the “rulership” glyph (Maya writing)
attached to the top of the shell. Stylized smoke is emitted by both this
glyph and the shell’s spire. Not much is known about the language of
Maya hand gestures, but the position of God N’s hands suggest that he is
receiving homage in his palace.

A representation of God N can also be found on the large stone stela in

this gallery, directly to your right.
Maya Culture, Chiapas, Mexico or Peten, Guatemala
ca. 300 – 600 CE

Grasshopper/Jaguar God Pectoral

Green stone

R.T. Miller Fund, 46.13

A pectoral is worn on an individual’s chest. The creature that adorns this

pectoral has been identified as a grasshopper, a man, a jaguar god, or
perhaps a combination of all three. Composite images that defy modern
understanding are quite common in Ancient American art as
embodiments of change or transformation. Rather than representing an
actual animal, the composite creature was a representation or symbol of
the wearer, or the characteristics the wearer wanted to possess.

It is unclear exactly what the wearer of this pectoral intended, but the
characteristics of both animals hold potential for great power.
Swarming grasshoppers (locusts) are incredibly destructive. To this
day, they arrive on the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico every four years
and devour all the crops in the area. Jaguars are night hunters
comfortable on land, in trees and in the water. Powerful shamans and
kings throughout Mesoamerica chose the jaguar as their alter ego
because of their size, strength and versatility.

MESOAMERICA: MAYA CIVILIZATION - STELA 

Maya Culture, Oxkintok, Yucatan, Mexico

Stela No. 9: Two Dancing Figures, ca. 859 CE

Stone

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 67.30

A stela is a sculpted stone monument with carved figures and

inscriptions. The Maya often placed stela before temple or palace
entrances. The one on view here was found at the portal of the main
group of buildings in the Maya site of Oxkintok, Mexico by
archaeologists from the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1940.

Photo included on label rail

Caption: MAG stela as found in Oxkintok, 1940
images\Mexico

This 1940 excavation photograph shows the Gallery’s largely intact

stela in the location where it was unearthed. This photo also shows that
since its excavation in 1940 and before it was purchased by the museum
in 1967, the stela suffered damage by unknown hands. The fragment of
the upper panel visible in this photo was broken off and is now missing.
Also damaged were the glyphs (Maya writing) between the knees of the
figures, which lost some of their surface carving.

What remains of the stela shows two elaborately dressed dancing figures
who face each other. Three bands of glyphs are visible: the long
horizontal band along the top, a vertical row between their faces and one
horizontal row between their knees. The horizontal row of glyphs
across the top contains the date of October 9, 859 CE. Both smaller
rows are now badly abraded and difficult to identify, but the first two
glyphs in the short vertical row between the figures may identify the
name of the individual standing on the left as “White Jaguar.” This
figure is a youthful ruler or noble, possibly in the guise of one of the
legendary “Hero-Twins” who in Maya mythology traveled to the
Underworld to overcome its lords. The figure on the right has been
identified as God N (Pauahtun), one of the principal Maya lords of the
Underworld or region of the dead. He wears feathers on his arms and
carries a codex, or folding-screen book, of bark paper with a jaguar-pelt
cover. Below Pauahtun is a bowl or basket containing unidentifiable
objects.

The upper panel that was attached to the stela in the 1940 excavation
photo may have depicted an elaborately dressed dancing ruler in the
world of the living as a counterpoint to the Underworld scene visible
here.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

CENTRAL AMERICA: COSTA RICA AND PANAMA –

FREE-STANDING CASE 
Central Highlands or Atlantic Watershed Culture Zone, Costa Rica
ca. 1200 – 1550 CE

Ceremonial Grinding Stone (Flying-Panel Metate)

Stone

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 72.10

A metate is a tool for grinding and preparing food. Because of its

crucial role in ancient people’s everyday existence (see photo to the
right) over time the metate evolved into a ritual object. Carved from a
single piece of stone, the delicate open work on this flying-panel metate
was accomplished by skilled artists using only tools made from stone or
wood.

Both real and supernatural creatures decorate the base. The central
figure is a shaman in the form of a crocodile. Respected for its power
and swiftness on land and in the water, the crocodile is a fitting
representation for a shaman.

Metates were also employed as funeral biers in the most prestigious

tombs; the body was laid out on two or three metates placed side by
side. The more elaborate "flying-panel" examples may have been
manufactured especially for high-rank burials.

Photo included on label rail

Caption: A utilitarian metate (grinding platform) with a mano (hand-
held stone grinder).

CENTRAL AMERICA: COSTA RICA AND PANAMA –

INSET CASE 2 
Greater Nicoya Culture Zone, Costa Rica
ca. 1000 – 1350 CE

Jaguar Vessel
Clay, pigment

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 69.90

This vessel has all the features of a jaguar: ferocious snarling
face, sharp teeth, long tail and golden black-spotted coat. The
hollow legs and the mouth contain small clay balls that rattle
when the jar is shaken, in imitation of the jaguar’s growl.
Admired for their strength and agility, jaguars were a powerful
and ubiquitous symbol frequently adopted by shamans as an
alter-ego. Here the jaguar is depicted in a human-like crouch
with the “hands” placed on the knees – a position not possible for
this animal. In fact, what we’re witnessing is a typical
meditation pose of a shaman and the transformation into his/her
animal form.

Greater Nicoya Culture Zone, Costa Rica

ca. 500 – 800 CE

Seated Hunchback Female Figure

Clay, pigment

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 69.99

Made in great multitudes and providing a wealth of detail, small

ceramic figures like this one illustrate the prevailing hair,
clothing, body piercing and tattooing styles of the day. This
female figure, with her hands placed on either side of her belly,
draws attention to her ability to bear children. Figures with
hunchbacks are common subjects in many Ancient American
societies and are often depict individuals with shamanic powers.

Atlantic Watershed Culture Zone, Costa Rica

ca. 800 – 1525 CE

Shaman Figure (Sukia)

Stone

Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Henry Buxbaum, 69.56

This seated shaman figure is a standard type that was produced

in great quantities in central Costa Rica. Carved from volcanic
stone these figures were included in burials, and perhaps made
initially for domestic use.

Hallucinogenic drugs, derived from native plants and animals,

played a large role in this culture. Shown deep in a trance, the
shaman here is most likely either inhaling or expelling a narcotic.
He wears no earthly clothing or jewelry and there is no visible
body modification, as he is both of this world and the world
beyond.
Veraguas-Gran Chiriqui Culture, Panama
ca. 1000 – 1530 CE

Vulture Pendant
Gold-copper alloy

R.T. Miller Fund, 54.38

This vulture pendant displays the bird in standard attack mode:

outstretched wings, fanned tail and sharp and deadly talons at the
ready. Located under the large horned tufts atop the head are ear
ornaments, jewelry usually reserved for nobility and shamans.
Combining human with animal characteristics indicates this
piece may represent a shaman in his vulture form. The shaman-
vulture incarnation is made even more powerful by the
diminutive jaguar shown clenched in the beak. The wearer would
assert his dominance by wearing this pendant on his chest.

Veraguas-Gran Chiriqui Culture, Panama

ca. 1000 – 1530 CE

Pendant in the Form of a Lizard or Jaguar

Gold-copper alloy

R.T. Miller Fund, 54.36

Objects made from gold played a special role in Ancient

American cultures and were worn by chiefs and other members
of the elite as a mark of rank and status. The gold pendants
produced in this region depict a vast array of human and
animal forms, as well as human-animal combinations. Chosen
for its particular characteristics, the animal represented here
should not be considered merely ornamental jewelry, but may
instead reference a specific species of poisonous lizard.

Greater Nicoya or Diquis Culture Zone, Costa Rica

ca. 700 – 1550 CE

Figure Pendant
Gold-copper alloy

R.T. Miller Fund, 54.37

Gold was associated with immortality in the Ancient Americas.

Its unchanging nature made it a symbol of continuity,
permanence and power, and it was prized for its ability to shine
like and reflect the sun. Southern Central America is one of the
world’s largest gold sources, and the gold found there was highly
prized by the Spanish explorers. Much of the goldwork
produced by Ancient Americans was melted down and taken
back to Spain as currency.
Greater Nicoya Culture Zone, Costa Rica
ca. 800 – 1200 CE

Incense Burner
Clay

Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Henry Buxbaum, 69.62

Incense burners are found throughout the Ancient Americas, and

this example is similar in purpose to the incense burner in the
figure of Macuilxochitl in the case across the room. The smoke
that emanated from an incense burner during a ritual could
magically shroud the physical world before it dissipated into the
mysterious world of the cosmos. The form itself is firmly rooted
in the natural world: echoing the shape of an active volcano, the
rough-textured bands of appliquéd pellets are symbolic of the
scutes on an alligator’s hide.

Greater Nicoya Culture Zone, Costa Rica

ca. 300 BCE – 500 CE

Ceremonial Half-Celt Pendant

Green stone

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 73.142

This form traces its lineage from actual working hand-axes

whose blades, or celts, were used for farming and felling trees
for land use. In this incarnation, the celt has become strictly
ceremonial, yet it maintains its ties to the power and prestige that
accompanies land ownership. The half-celt form is one
subdivision of a whole celt, carefully split length-wise to produce
two pieces, each with a flat back and curved and carveable front.
Depicting a crouching figure, this image may represent the
human-animal combination of a shaman.

Greater Nicoya Culture Zone, Costa Rica

ca. 500 – 1000 CE

Ceremonial Horned Owl Mace Head

Stone

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 71.17

Once mounted on a staff, this ceremonial mace head descended

from a similar form originally used for war clubs. These
symbolic weapons were usually found in high-status graves and
identified the deceased as warriors capable of self-defense, or the
defense of their clan. Mace heads were made by the thousands
yet found to represent a finite number of species or types, the
actual animal depicted may have been a distinguishing marker of
a particular clan.

Greater Nicoya Culture Zone, Costa Rica

ca. 800 – 1200 CE

Puma Vessel
Clay, pigment

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 69.101

The puma is found throughout Central and South America. It is

slightly smaller than the jaguar and its tawny coat is unspotted. Both
animals are excellent hunters, being especially active at dawn and
dusk. Their ability to move through the darkness, coupled with their
strength and stealth, make them excellent alter-egos for the shaman.
The cup on the back of this puma vessel is decorated with a depiction
of another puma.

Atlantic Watershed Culture Zone, Costa Rica

ca. 500 – 800 CE

Pot with Double-Headed Lizard

Clay (blackware)

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 72.8

This pot originates from the mountainous region of central Costa

Rica. Painted with black-slip, the vessel was then decorated with
incised marks made after firing.

The two lizard heads serve both as handles and as a visual

metaphor for the concept of dualism. This deeply-rooted artistic
convention often depicts objects in pairs to represent the
fundamental complexities of life and death. A central
component of many societies in the Ancient Americas, symbolic
dualism seeks to balance the opposing manifestations of male
and female, left and right, light and dark, and night and day.

Greater Nicoya Culture Zone, Costa Rica

ca. 800 – 1200 CE

Vessel with Bird Head

Clay, pigment

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 69.92

Greater Nicoya Culture Zone, Costa Rica

ca. 500 – 800 CE

Human Head Effigy Bowl

Clay, pigment

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 69.89

The effigy vessel seen here takes the form of a human head and
may refer to the practice of ritual decapitation. This bowl was
made by the coil method and represents an early example of tri-
color, highly polished vessels that flourished in the region of
Costa Rica for over one thousand years. The painted decoration
shares similarities with both the Maya ceramic tradition to the
north and the Nasca effigy bowls to the south. The similarity in
aesthetic approaches across cultures is the result of an active
trading network which ran throughout the Americas.

 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 

SOUTH AMERICA: PERU, ECUADOR, COLOMBIA –

WALL CASE 
Chimú Culture, Chicama Valley, North Coast, Peru
ca. 1100 – 1470 CE

Burial Mask
Gold, silver and copper alloy

R.T. Miller Fund, 47.9

Ruling from their capital city of Chan Chan, the Chimú state controlled
a vast empire in the north and central coasts of Peru. They employed
tens of thousands of artists, including skilled metalworkers that
produced objects of precious metal for the nobility.

Masks such as this would never have been worn by the living. They
played an essential role in death and burial and were placed on the
funerary bundle. These decorative masks helped indicate the rank of the
deceased.

The ornate, circular ear ornaments may have held actual feathers. The
upper portion of the mask is decorated with puma heads and bent,
stylized figures of warriors wearing elaborate feathered headdresses.
Separate ornaments may have been attached to the mask near the eyes,
around the nose and along the side of the face. The nose, which was
raised in relief, has been lost.

Photo included on label 

Caption: This is a complete Chimú mask comprised of thirty-five
separate pieces.
 
SOUTH AMERICA: PERU, ECUADOR, COLOMBIA –
INSET CASE 3 
La Tolita Culture, Esmeraldas, Ecuador
ca. 400 BCE – 500 CE

Standing Figure
Clay (earthenware)

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 77.194

This unusual figure simultaneously incorporates the physical qualities of

both a grown man and a very young child. Depicting a warrior or a
hunter, his right arm is drawn back and appears ready to release a
weapon.

The figure was mold-made and probably produced for ritual purposes or
burial. It would have been embellished with jewelry in the holes in his
ears and nose. Quite often figures such as these would have been
adorned with clothing and headdresses befitting the rank of a particular
individual.

Moche Culture, North Coast, Peru

ca. 450 – 600 CE

Stirrup Spout Vessel with Warriors

Clay, pigment

Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Bernard N. Schilling in memory of Lucy Eisenhart,

82.17

The arts of the Moche, who flourished on the northern desert coast of
Peru, evolved from earlier styles in the region. Known to have been
weavers, metalworkers, mural painters and builders of large-scale
monuments, only their ceramics remain as a testament to their
achievements. Stirrup spout vessels – so named because the shape of
the spout recalls the stirrup on a horseman's saddle - were designed for
the storage and libation of liquids. The unique handle design inhibited
both evaporation and spillage as it allowed the vessel to be carried on a
belt or sash. This vessel depicts two animated warriors in full regalia;
each wears a half-moon nose ornament as a sign of rank and power.

Moche Culture, North Coast, Peru

ca. 450 – 600 CE

Stirrup Spout Vessel: Seated Woman and Child

Clay (blackware)

R.T. Miller Fund, 45.29

Moche Culture, North Coast, Peru

ca. 300 – 450 CE

Stirrup Spout Vessel: Frog

Clay, pigment

R.T. Miller Fund, 45.30

Moche Culture, North Coast, Peru
ca. 450 – 600 CE

Stirrup Spout Vessel: Seated Blind Man

Clay, pigment

R.T. Miller Fund, 44.65

The Moche were keen observers of humanity as evidenced by the wide

variety of subjects treated in their ceramics. Although they often based
their designs on realistic images and scenes from daily life, these vessels
probably had religious and symbolic significance. Here, a portrait of a
blind man may allude to both a specific individual and the shamanic
practice of using senses beyond sight to determine meaning. This figure
is seated and wears a sash that passes through the stirrup spout of
another vessel.

Nasca Culture, South Coast, Peru

ca. 200 BCE – 100 CE

Double-Spout and Bridge Vessel with Flying Shaman

Clay, pigment

R.T. Miller Fund, 47.23

The Nasca inhabited the southern coastal valleys of Peru. They

produced distinctive ceramics decorated with images of shamans,
ritually severed heads, supernatural beings and a variety of animal and
plant forms. Frequently using hallucinogenic drugs to induce visions,
shamans were often depicted in a transitive state of being, possessing
both human and animal characteristics. This vessel portrays a wide-eyed
shaman in the midst of an ecstatic flight. The shaman is shown with the
upswept whiskers of an otter and the body of an ocelot, both of which
live near water and were considered to be agricultural guardians.

Nasca Culture, South Coast, Peru

ca. 200 BCE – 100 CE

Bowl with Flying Shaman and Trophy Heads

Clay, pigment

R.T. Miller Fund, 45.43

Nasca Culture, South Coast, Peru

ca. 400 – 600 CE

Beaker with Flying Supernaturals

Clay, pigment

R.T. Miller Fund, 47.20

Nasca Culture, South Coast, Peru
ca. 200 BCE – 100 CE

Bowl with San Pedro Cactus

Clay, pigment

R.T. Miller Fund, 47.18

Nasca Culture, South Coast, Peru

ca. 200 BCE – 100 CE

Spout and Bridge Vessel: Bird

Clay, pigment

R.T. Miller Fund, 47.21

Nasca Culture, South Coast, Peru

ca. 200 BCE – 100 CE

Human Head Effigy Bowl

Clay, pigment

R.T. Miller Fund, 47.22

Nasca ceramics were hand-built without the use of the potter’s wheel,
employing both coil and mold-making techniques. Simple forms with
extremely thin, even walls were preferred over the sculptural modeling
favored in the ceramics of Costa Rica. Before firing, these vessels were
painted with colored slips, fine clay pastes tinted with natural materials.

Chimú-Inca Culture, North Coast, Peru

ca. 1470 – 1535 CE

Pepino Vessel with Small Lizard Handle

Clay (blackware)

Joseph T. Simon Fund, 43.8

The Chimú culture valued individually woven and embroidered textiles

and fancy metalwork, but most of their pottery was mass produced
mold-made blackware. Many copies of each design were created and
disseminated and have been found in graves throughout the region.

Chimú Culture, North Coast, Peru

ca. 1350 – 1470 CE

Double-Chambered Spout and Bridge Vessel with Llama or Alpaca

Head
Clay (blackware)
R.T. Miller Fund, 46.24

Double vessels are typical of Chimú ceramics and were valued for their
musical component: blowing into the spout produces a whistling sound.
When filled with liquid the vessel can be made to whistle by itself by
tipping it back and forth, thus forcing air from one chamber to the other,
causing the whistle to sound. Here the whistle is incorporated into the
head of a llama or an alpaca. Prized as a source of food, fiber and
transport, they were valuable and essential animals and frequently
depicted in the art of the Andean region.

Capuli Culture, Highland Narino Region, Colombia

ca. 850 – 1500 CE

Human Figure Vessel

Clay (earthenware)

Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Charles F. Hutchinson, 51.49

This vessel is in the form of a stylized human holding a bowl, perhaps

making a coca offering. Death, marriage, and almost any other social or
religious ritual once included an offering of coca. Possessing
ceremonial significance, the leaves of the coca plant have also been used
in the Andean region for hundreds of years to treat ailments ranging
from dysentery to altitude sickness.

There is a small opening in the top of the vessel suggesting it may have
been used to hold cremated human remains. The slit eyes may indicate
death or a trance state.

Inca Culture, North Coast, Peru

ca. 1470 – 1530 CE

Lime Dipper with Hummingbird

Copper, bronze and silver alloy

Gift of Mrs. Edward K. Brown, 60.23

These tiny lime scoops were used in the preparation of a drug called
coca. Lime from powdered seashells was scooped onto a coca leaf,
made into a ball and chewed. In ancient times coca was restricted for
the use of the nobility. It is used today to calm the stomach, combat the
effects of hunger and thirst, and relieve fatigue induced by exertion in
the high Andes mountains.

A small hole in the neck of the bird allows for a thin cord to pass
through, thus permitting the owner to wear this small, functional work
of art.
Chimú Culture, North Coast, Peru
ca. 1100 – 1470 CE

Decorative Plaque with Geometric Repoussé Motifs

Silver and copper alloy

Gift of Mrs. Edward K. Brown, 60.26.6

Chimú Culture, North Coast, Peru

ca. 1000 – 1470 CE

Pair of Earspools
Silver

Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 75.146a-b

Although body piercing and tattooing may seem like a novel concept, it
was a common practice and a sign of beauty and status in many cultures
throughout the Ancient Americas. This matched pair of earspools once
adorned the earlobes of a nobleman from the Chimú Empire. By
wearing ever-larger ear plugs, ear lobes can be stretched out to
accommodate such thick posts. These imposing earspools may have
been secured with ties affixed either to a headdress or around the neck.