ST.

LOUIS REVIEW CENTER

LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET)
Refresher Course for Year 2005

WHAT TO EXPECT

MAJORSHIP

Area: ENGLISH

Focus: Afro-Asian Literature

Competencies:

1. identify outstanding writers and their major works in Afro-Asian literature

2. be familiar with the literary history, philosophy, religious beliefs, and culture of the Afro-Asian
nations
3. interpret the significance and meaning of selected literary pieces
4. point out the universal themes, issues, and subject matter that dominate Afro-Asian literature

Prepared by: Ruth A. Alido

PART 1: CONTENT UPDATE

A. INDIA

1. Literary Periods. The Indus Valley civilization flourished in northern India between 2500 and 1500 B.C. The Aryans, a group of
nomadic warriors and herders, were the earliest known migrants into India. They brought with them a well-developed language
and literature and a set of religious beliefs.
a) Vedic Period (1500 B.C. –500 B.C.). This period is named for the Vedas, a set of hymns that formed the cornerstone of
Aryan culture. Hindus consider the Vedas, which were transmitted orally by priests, to be the most sacred of all literature
for they believe these to have been revealed to humans directly by the gods.
b) Epic and Buddhist Age (500 B.C. – A.D.). The period of composition of the two great epics, Mahabharata and the
Ramayana. This time was also the growth of later Vedic literature, new Sanskrit literature, and Buddhist literature in Pali.
The Dhammapada was also probably composed during this period. The Maurya Empire (322-230 B.C.) ruled by Ashoka
promoted Buddhism and preached goodness, nonviolence, and ‘righteousness’ although this period was known for
warfare and iron-fisted rule. The Gupta Dynasty (320-467 B.C.) was the next great political power. During this time,
Hinduism reached a full flowering and was evident in culture and the arts.
c) Classical Period (A.D. – 1000 A.D.). The main literary language of northern India during this period was Sanskrit, in
contrast with the Dravidian languages of southern India. Sanskrit, which means ‘perfect speech’ is considered a sacred
language, the language spoken by the gods and goddesses. As such, Sanskrit was seen as the only appropriate
language for the noblest literary works. Poetry and drama peaked during this period. Beast fables such as the
Panchatantra were popular and often used by religious teachers to illustrate moral points.
d) Medieval and Modern Age (A.D. 1000 – present). Persian influence on literature was considerable during this period.
Persian was the court language of the Moslem rulers. In the 18th century India was directly under the British Crown and
remained so until its Independence in 1947. British influence was strong and modern-day Indians are primarily educated
in English. Many have been brought into the world of Western learning at the expense of learning about their own culture.

2. Religions. Indian creativity is evident in religion as the country is the birthplace of two important faiths: Hinduism, the dominant
religion, and Buddhism, which ironically became extinct in India but spread throughout Asia.
a) Hinduism, literally “the belief of the people of India,” is the predominant faith of India and of no other nation. The Hindus
are deeply absorbed with God and the creation of the universe.
 The Purusarthas are the three ends of man: dharma – virtue, duty, righteousness, moral law; artha – wealth; and
kama – love or pleasure. A fourth end is moksha – the renunciation of duty, wealth and love in order to seek spiritual
perfection. It is achieved after the release from samsara, the cycle of births and deaths.

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  The Hindus believe that all reality is one and spiritual, and that each individual soul is identical with this reality and
shares its characteristics: pure being, intelligence, and bliss. Everything that seems to divide the soul from this reality
is maya or illusion.
 Life is viewed as an upward development through four stages of effort called the four asramas: a) the student stage –
applies to the rite of initiation into the study of the Vedas; b) the householder stage – marries and fulfills the duties as
head of the family where he begets sons and earns a living; c) the stage of the forest dweller – departs from home
and renounces the social world; and d) ascetic – stops performing any of the rituals or social duties of life in the world
and devotes time for reflection and meditation.
 Kama refers to one of the proper pursuits of man in his role as householder, that of pleasure and love. The Kama-
sutra is a classic textbook on erotics and other forms of pleasure and love, which is attributed to the sage Vatsyayana.
 The Hindus regard Purusha, the Universal Spirit, as the soul and original source of the universe. As the universal
soul, Purusha is the life-giving principle in all animated beings. As a personified human being, Purusha's body is the
source of all creation. The four Varnas serve as the theoretical basis for the organization of the Hindu society. These
were thought to have been created from Purusha’s body:
- The Brahman (priest) was Purusha’s mouth. Their duty is to perform sacrifices, to study and to teach the Vedas,
and to guard the rules of dharma. Because of their sacred work, they are supreme in purity and rank.
- The Ksatriyas (warriors) are the arms. From this class arose the kings who are the protectors of society.
- The Vaisyas (peasants) are the thighs. They live by trading, herding, and farming.
- The Sudras (serfs) are the feet. They engage in handicrafts and manual occupation and they are to serve meekly
the three classes above them. They are strictly forbidden to mate with persons of a higher varna.
b) Buddhism originated in India in the 6th century B.C. This religion is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama,
called Buddha, or the ‘Enlightened One.’ Much of Buddha’s teaching is focused on self-awareness and self-
development in order to attain nirvana or enlightenment.
 According to Buddhist beliefs, human beings are bound to the wheel of life which is a continual cycle of birth, death,
and suffering. This cycle is an effect of karma in which a person’s present life and experiences are the result of past
thoughts and actions, and these present thoughts and actions likewise create those of the future.
 The Buddhist scriptures uphold the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. The Four Noble Truths are: 1)
life is suffering; 2) the cause of suffering is desire; 3) the removal of desire is the removal of suffering; and 4) the
Noble Eightfold Path leads to the end of suffering.
 The Noble Eightfold Path consists of: 1) right understanding; 2) right thought; 3) right speech; 4) right action; 5) right
means of livelihood; 6) right effort; 7) right concentration; and 8) right meditation.

3. Religious and Philosophical Works.

a) The Vedas form a collection of sacred hymn or verse composed in archaic Sanskrit among the Indo-European speaking
peoples who entered India from the Iranian regions. Most scholars believe it to have occurred in the period of about
1500-1200 BC.
 The hymns form a liturgical body that in part grew up around the cult of the soma ritual (the extraction and ingestion
of the juice of the plant) and the sacrifice.
 They extol the hereditary deities, who for the most part personified various natural and cosmic phenomena, such as
fire (Agni), the Sun (Surya and Savitr), dawn (Usas), storms (the Rudras), war and rain (Indra), honor (Mitra), divine
authority (Varuna), and creation (Indra, with some aid of Vishnu).
 Rigveda is the foremost collection or Samhita made up of 1,028 hymns. The oldest of the Vedas, it contains strong,
energetic, non-speculative hymns, often comparable to the psalms in the Old Testament. These hymns seem to
represent the Aryan religious spirit.
b) The Dhammapada (Way of Truth) is an anthology of basic Buddhist teaching in a simple aphoristic style. One of the best
known books of the Pali Buddhist canon it contains 423 stanzas arranged in 26 chapters.
c) The Upanishads form a highly sophisticated commentary on the religious thought suggested by the poetic hymns of the
Rigveda. The name implies, according to some traditions, ‘sitting at the feet of the teacher.’
 The most important philosophical doctrine is the concept of a single supreme being, the Brahman, and knowledge is
directed toward reunion with it by the human soul, the Atman or Self.
 The nature of eternal life is discussed and such themes as the transmigration of souls and causality in creation.

4. Epics. The two major Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, are the literary embodiments of Hinduism. The
Mahabharata is longer and more important, but the Ramayana seems to be more interesting for the modern audience.
a) The Mahabharata consists of a mass of legendary and didactic material that tells of the struggle for supremacy between
two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas. The traditional date for the war is 3102 BC.
 The poem is made up of almost 100,000 couplets divided into 18 parvans or sections.
 Authorship is traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyasa, although it is more likely that he compiled existing material.
 It is an exposition on dharma (codes of conduct), including the proper conduct of a king, of a warrior, of a man living
in times of calamity, and of a person seeking to attain emancipation from rebirth.
 The Bhagavad Gita (The Blessed Lord’s Song) is one of the greatest and most beautiful of the Hindu scriptures. It is
regarded by the Hindus in somewhat the same way as the Gospels are by Christians. It forms part of Book IV and is
written in the form of a dialogue between the warrior Prince Arjuna and his friend and charioteer, Krishna, who is also
an earthly incarnation of the god Vishnu.
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 b) The Ramayana was composed in Sanskrit, probably not before 300 BC, by the poet Valmiki , and consists of some
24,000 couplets divided into seven books. It reflects the Hindu values and forms of social organization, the theory of
karma, the ideas of wifehood, and feelings about caste, honor and promises.
The poem describes the royal birth of Rama, his tutelage under the sage Visvamitra, and his success in bending
Siva’s mighty bow, thus winning Sita, the daughter of King Janaka, for his wife. After Rama is banished from his position
as heir by an intrigue, he retreats to the forest with his wife and his half brother, Laksmana. There Ravana, the demon-
king of Lanka, carries off Sita, who resolutely rejects his attentions. After numerous adventures Rama slays Ravana and
rescues Sita. When they return to his kingdom, however, Rama learns that the people question the queen’s chastity, and
he banishes her to the forest where she gives birth to Rama’s two sons. The family is reunited when the sons come of
age, but Sita, after again protesting her innocence, asks to be received by the earth, which swallows her up.

5. Literary Selections.
a) The Panchatantra is a collection of Indian beast fables originally written in Sanskrit. In Europe the work was known under
the title The Fables of Bidpai after the narrator, and Indian sage named Bidpai, (called Vidyapati in Sanskrit).
 In theory, the Panchatantra is intended as a textbook of artha (worldly wisdom); the aphorisms tend to glorify
shrewdness and cleverness more that the helping of others.
 The original text is a mixture of Sanskrit prose and stanzas of verse, with the stories contained within one of five of
frame stories.
 The introduction, which acts as an enclosing frame for the entire work, attributes the stories to a learned Brahman
named Vishnusarman, who used the form of animal fables to instruct the three dull-witted sons of a king.
b) Sakuntala is a Sanskrit drama by Kalidasa. Love is the central emotion that binds the characters Sakuntala and King
Dushyanta. What begins as a physical attraction for both of them becomes spiritual in the end as their love endures and
surpasses all difficulties. King Dushyanta is a noble and pious king who upholds his duties above personal desire.
Sakuntala, on the other hand, is a young girl who matures beautifully because of her kindness, courage, and strength of
will. After a period of suffering, the two are eventually reunited.
 Emotion or rasa dominates every scene in Sanskrit drama. These emotions vary from love to anger, heroism to
cowardice, joy to terror and allows the audience to take part in the play and be one with the characters.
c) The Little Clay Cart (Mrcchakatika) is attributed to Shudraka, a king. The characters in this play include a Brahman
merchant who has lost his money through liberality, a rich courtesan in love with a poor young man, much description of
resplendent palaces, and both comic and tragic or near-tragic emotional situations
d) Gitanjali: Song Offerings was originally published in India in 1910 and it s translation followed in 1912. In these prose
translations, Rabindranath Tagore uses imagery from nature to express the themes of love and the internal conflict
between spiritual longings and earthly desires.

e) The Taj Mahal a poem by Sahir Ludhianvi is about the mausoleum in North India built by the Mogul emperor Shah Jahan
for his wife Mumtaz-i-Mahal. The façade of this grandiose structure is made of white marble and is surrounded by water
gardens, gateways, and walks. The tomb at the center of the dome stands on a square block with towers at each corner.
The construction of the building took twenty years to complete involving some 20, 000 workers.
f) On Learning to be an Indian an essay by Santha Rama Rau illustrates the telling effects of colonization on the lives of the
people particularly the younger generation. The writer humorously narrates the conflicts that arise between her
grandmother's traditional Indian values and her own British upbringing

6. Major Writers.
a) Kalidasa a Sanskrit poet and dramatist is probably the greatest Indian writer of all time. As with most classical Indian
authors, little is known about Kalidasa’s person or his historical relationships. His poems suggest that he was a Brahman
(priest). Many works are traditionally ascribed to the poet, but scholars have identified only six as genuine.
b) Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941). The son of a Great Sage, Tagore is a Bengali poet and mystic who won the Nobel
Prize for Literature in 1913. Tagore managed his father's estates and lived in close contact with the villagers. His
sympathy for their poverty and backwardness was later reflected in his works. The death of his wife and two children
brought him years of sadness but this also inspired some of his best poety. Tagore is also a gifted composer and a
painter.
c) Prem Chand pseudonym of Dhanpat Rai Srivastava (1880-1936). Indian author of numerous novels and short stories in
Hindi and Urdu who pioneered in adapting Indian themes to Western literary styles. He worked as a teacher before
joining Mahatma Gandhi’s anticolonial Noncooperation Movement.
 Sevasadana (House of Service). His first major novel deals with the problems of prostitution and moral corruption
among the Indian middle class.
 Manasarovar (The Holy Lake). A collection of 250 or so short stories which contains most of Prem Chand’s best
works.
 Godan (The Gift of a Cow). This last novel was Prem Chand’s masterpiece and it deals with his favorite theme – the
hard and unrewarding life of the village peasant.
d) Kamala Markandaya (1924). Her works concern the struggles of contemporary Indians with conflicting Eastern and
Western values. A Brahman, she studied at Madras University then settled in England and married an Englishman. In
her fiction, Western values typically are viewed as modern and materialistic, and Indian values as spiritual and traditional.
 Nectar in a Sieve. Her first novel and most popular work is about an Indian peasant’s narrative of her difficult life.

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 e) R. K. Narayan (1906). One of the finest Indian authors of his generation writing in English. He briefly worked as a
teacher before deciding to devote himself full-time to writing. All of Narayan’s works are set in the fictitious South Indian
town of Malgudi. They typically portray the peculiarities of human relationships and the ironies of Indian daily life, in which
modern urban existence clashes with ancient tradition. His style is graceful, marked by genial humor, elegance, and
simplicity.
 Swami and Friends. His first novel is an episodic narrative recounting the adventures of a group of schoolboys.
 Novels: The English Teacher (1945), Waiting for the Mahatma (1955), The Guide (1958), The Man-Eater of Malgudi
(1961), The Vendor of Sweets (1967), A Tiger for Malgudi (1983), and The World of Nagaraj (1990).
 Collection of Short Stories: Lawley Road (1956), A Horse and Two Goats and Other Stories (1970), Under the
Banyan Tree and Other Stories (1985), and Grandmother’s Tale (1992).

f) Anita Desai (1937). An English-language Indian novelist and author of children’s books, she is considered India’s premier
imagist writer. She excelled in evoking character and mood through visual images. Most of her works reflect Desei’s
tragic view of life.
 Cry, the Peacock. Her first novel addresses the theme of the suppression and oppression of Indian women.
 Clear Light of Day. Considered the author’s most successful work, this is a highly evocative portrait of two sisters
caught in the lassitude of Indian life. This was shortlisted for the 1980 Booker Prize.
 Fire on the Mountain. This work was criticized as relying too heavily on imagery at the expense of plot and
characterization, but it was praised for its poetic symbolism and use of sounds. This won for her the Royal Society of
Literature’s Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize.
g) Vir Singh (1872-1957). A Sikh writer and theologian, he wrote at a time when Sikh religion and politics and the Punjabi
language were under heavy attack by the English and Hindus. He extolled Sikh courage, philosophy, and ideals, earning
respect for the Punjabi language as a literary vehicle.
 Kalghi Dhar Chamatkar. This novel is about the life of the 17th century guru Gobind Singh.
 Other novels on Sikh philosophy and martial excellence include Sundri (1898) and Bijai Singh (1899).
h) Arundhati Roy. A young female writer whose first book The God of Small Things won for her a Booker Prize.

B. CHINA

1. Historical Background. Chinese literature reflects the political and social history of China and the impact of powerful religions
that came from within and outside the country. Its tradition goes back thousand of years and has often been inspired by
philosophical questions about the meaning of life, how to live ethically in society, and how to live in spiritual harmony with the
natural order of the universe.
a) Shang Dynasty (1600 B.C.). During this time, the people practiced a religion based on the belief that nature was
inhabited by many powerful gods and spirits. Among the significant advances of this period were bronze working,
decimal system, a twelve-month calendar and a system of writing consisting of 3,000 characters.
b) Chou Dynasty (1100 B.C. – 221 B.C.). This was the longest of all the dynasties and throughout most of this period China
suffered from severe political disunity and upheaval. This era was also known as the Hundred Schools period because of
the many competing philosophers and teachers who emerged the most influential among them being Lao Tzu, the
proponent of Taoism, and Confucius, the founder of Confucianism. Lao Tzu stressed freedom, simplicity, and the
mystical contemplation of nature whereas Confucius emphasized a code of social conduct and stressed the importance of
discipline, morality, and knowledge.
c) Ch’in Dynasty (221 B.C. – 207 B.C.). This period saw the unification of China and the strengthening of central
government. Roads connecting all parts of the empire were built and the existing walls on the northern borders were
connected to form the Great Wall of China.
d) Han Dynasty (207 B.C. – A.D. 220). This period was one of the most glorious eras of Chinese history and was marked
by the introduction of Buddhism from India.
e) T’ang Dynasty (A.D. 618-960). Fine arts and literature flourished during this era which is viewed as the Golden Age of
Chinese civilization. Among the technological advances of this time were the invention of gunpowder and the block
printing.
f) Sung Dynasty (A.D. 960 – 1279). This period was characterized by delicacy and refinement although inferior in terms of
literary arts but great in learning. Professional poets were replaced by amateur writers. The practice of Neo-
Confucianism grew
g) Later Dynasties (A.D. 1260-1912). During the late 12th and early 13th centuries, northern China was overrun by Mongol
invaders led by Genghis Khan whose grandson Kublai Khan completed the Mongol conquest of China and established
the Yuan dynasty, the first foreign dynasty in China’s history. It was during this time that Marco Polo visited China.
Chinese rule was reestablished after the Mongols were driven out of China and the Ming dynasty was established. There
was a growth of drama in colloquial language and a decline of the language of learning. A second foreign dynasty, the
Ch’ing was established and China prospered as its population rapidly increased causing major problems for its
government.
h) Traditional Chinese Government. The imperial rule lasted in China for over 2,000 years leading to a pyramid-shaped
hierarchy in the government. The emperor, known as the Son of Heaven, was a hereditary ruler and beneath him were
bureaucratic officials. An official government career was considered prestigious and the selection was by means of
government examinations. The civil service examinations tested on the major Chinese works of philosophy and poetry
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 requiring the composition for verse. Most government officials were well-versed in literature and philosophy and many
famous Chinese poets also served in the government.

2. Philosophy and Religion. Chinese literature and all of Chinese culture has been profoundly influenced by three great schools
of thought: Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Unlike Western religions, Chinese religions are based on the perception of
life as a process of continual change in which opposing forces, such as heaven and earth or light and dark, balance one
another. These opposites are symbolized by the Yin and Yang. Yin, the passive and feminine force, counterbalances yang,
the active and masculine force, each contains a ‘seed’ of the other, as represented in the traditional yin-yang symbol.
a) Confucianism provides the Chinese with both a moral order and an order for the universe. It is not a religion but it makes
individuals aware of their place in the world and the behavior appropriate to it. It also provides a political and social
philosophy.
 Confucius was China’s most famous teacher, philosopher, and political theorist, whose ideas have influenced all
civilizations of East Asia. According to tradition, Confucius came from an impoverished family of the lower nobility.
He became a minor government bureaucrat but was never give a position of high office. He criticized government
policies and spent the greater part of his life educating a group of disciples. Confucius was not a religious leader in
the ordinary sense, for his teaching was essentially a social ethic.
 Confucian politics is hierarchical but not absolute and the political system is described by analogy with the family.
There are five key Confucian relationships: emperor and subject, father and son, husband and wife, older brother and
younger brother, friend and friend.
 Confucian ethics is humanist. The following are Confucian tenets:
a) jen or human heartedness are qualities or forms of behavior that set men above the rest of the life on earth. It
is the unique goodness of man which animals cannot aspire to. Also known as ren, it is the measure of
individual character and such, is the goal of self-cultivation. The ideal individual results from acting according to
li.
b) li refers to ritual, custom, propriety, and manner. Li is thought to be the means by which life should be
regulated. A person of li is a good person and a state ordered by li is a harmonious and peaceful state. Li or de
as a virtue is best understood as a sacred power inherent in the very presence of the sage. The sage was the
inspiration for proper conduct and the model of behavior.
b) Taoism, was expounded by Lao Tzu during the Chou Dynasty. Taoist beliefs and influences are an important part of
classical Chinese culture.
 “The Tao” or “The Way” means the natural course that the world follows. To follow the tao of to “go with the flow” is
both wisdom and happiness. For the Taoist, unhappiness comes from parting from the tao or from trying to flout it.
 The Taoist political ideas are very passive: the good king does nothing, and by this everything is done naturally. This
idea presents an interesting foil to Confucian theories of state, although the Taoists never represented any political
threat to the Confucianists. Whereas Confucianism stressed conformity and reason in solving human problems,
Taoism stressed the individual and the need for human beings to conform to nature rather than to society.
 Lao-tzu. Known as the “old philosopher”, Lao-zi is credited as the founder of Taoism and an elder contemporary of
Confucius who once consulted with him. He was more pessimistic than Confucius was about what can be
accomplished in the world by human action. He counseled a far more passive approach to the world and one’s
fellows: one must be cautious and let things speak for themselves. He favored a more direct relationship between the
individual self and the dao.
c) Buddhism was imported from India during the Han dynasty. Buddhist thought stresses the importance of ridding oneself
of earthly desires and of seeking ultimate peace and enlightenment through detachment. With its stress on living ethically
and its de-emphasis on material concerns, Buddhism appealed to both Confucians and Taoists.

3. Philosophical Works.
a) The Analects (Lun Yu) is one of the four Confucian texts. The sayings range from brief statements to more extended
dialogues between Confucius and his students. Confucius believes that people should cultivate the inherent goodness
within themselves –unselfishness, courage, and honor – as an ideal of universal moral and social harmony. Thus, the
Analects instructs on moderation in all things through moral education, the building of a harmonious family life, and the
development of virtues such as loyalty, obedience, and a sense of justice. It also emphasizes filial piety and concern with
social and religious rituals. To Confucius, a person’s inner virtues can be fully realized only through concrete acts of
‘ritual propriety’ or proper behavior toward other human beings.
b) The Tao-Te Ching (Classic of the Way of Power) is believed to have been written between the 8th and 3rd centuries B.C.
It presents a way of life intended to restore harmony and tranquility to a kingdom racked by widespread disorders. It is
critical of the capriciousness of self-seeking rulers and is disdainful of social activism based on the type of abstract
moralism and mechanical propriety characteristic of Confucian ethics.
 wu-wei or “non-action” is a basic concept of the dao. It means no unnatural action, rather than complete passivity. It
implies spontaneity, non-interference, letting things take their natural course. “Do nothing and everything else is
done.” Chaos ceases, quarrels end, and self-righteous feuding disappears because the dao is allowed to flow
unchallenged and unchallenging.
c) Chuang Tzu is the philosophical work of Lao Tzu’s most important disciple, Chuan Tzu. Written in a witty, imaginative
style, this book consists of fables and anecdotes that teach the Taoist philosophy and question the principles of
Confucianism.

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4. Poetry has always been highly valued in Chinese culture and was considered superior to prose. Chief among its
characteristics are lucidity, brevity, subtlety, suggestiveness or understatement, and its three-fold appeal to intellect, emotion,
and calligraphy. There are five principle genres in Chinese poetry:
a) shih was the dominant Chinese poetic form from the 2nd through the 12th century characterized by: i) an even number of
lines; ii) the same number of words in each line, in most cases five or seven; and iii) the occurrence of rhymes at the end
s of the even-numbered lines. Shih poems often involve the use of parallelism, or couplets that are similar in structure or
meaning.
b) sao was inspired by li sao or ‘encountering sorrow’, a poem of lamentation and protest authored by China’s first known
great poet, Chu Yuan (332-295 B.C.). It was an unusually long poem consisting of two parts: i) an autobiographical
account that is Confucian in overtones; and ii) a narration of an imaginary journey undertaken by the persona. The sao
enables the poets to display their creativity of describing China’s flora and fauna, both real and imaginary. It is also filled
with melancholia for unrewarded virtue
c) fu was a poem partially expository and partly descriptive involving a single thought or sentiment usually expressed in a
reflective manner. Language ranges from the simple to the rhetorical.
d) lu-shih or ‘regulation poetry’ was developed during the Tang dynasty but has remained popular even in the present times.
It is an octave consisting of five or seven syllabic verses with a definite rhyming scheme with all even lines rhyming
together and the presence of the caesura in every line. The first four lines of this poem is the ching (scene) while the
remaining four lines describe the ch’ing (emotion). Thus, emotion evolves from the setting or atmosphere and the two
becomes fused resulting in a highly focused reflection of the persona’s loneliness but with determination to struggle.
e) chueh-chu or truncated poetry is a shorter version of the lu-shih and was also popular during the Tang dynasty. It
contains only four lines but within its twenty or twenty-eight syllables or characters were vivid pictures of natural beauty.
f) tzu was identified with the Sung dynasty. It is not governed by a fixed number of verses nor a fixed number of characters
per verse. The tzu lyrics were sung to the tunes of popular melodies.

5. Conventions of Chinese Theater. Chinese drama may be traced to the song and dances of the chi (wizards) and the wu
(witches) whom the people consulted to exercise evil spirits, to bring rain, to insure bountiful harvest, etc., an origin in worship
or in some sacred ritual.
a) There are four principal roles: sheng, tau, ching, and chao.
 The sheng is the prerogative of the leading actor, usually a male character, a scholar, a statesman, a warrior patriot
and the like.
 The tau plays all the women’s roles. At least six principal characters are played by the female impersonator who has
taken over the role after women were banned from the Chinese stage as they were looked down upon as courtesen.
 The ching roles usually assigned the roles of brave warriors, bandits, crafty and evil ministers, upright judges, loyal
statesmen, at times god-like and supernatural beings. Conventionally, the ching must have broad faces and forehead
suitable for the make-up patters suggestive of his behavior.
 The chau is the clown or jester who is not necessarily a fool and may also do serious or evil character. He is easily
recognized for the white patch around his eyes and nose, his use of colloquial language and adeptness in combining
mimicry and acrobatics.
b) Unlike Greek plays, classical Chinese plays do not follow the unities of time, place, and action. The plot may be set in
two or more places, the time element sometimes taking years to develop or end, and action containing many other sub-
plots.
 Chinese drama conveys an ethical lesson in the guise of art in order to impress a moral truth or a Confucian tenet.
Dramas uphold virtue, condemn vice, praise fidelity, and filial piety. Vice is represented on the stage not for its own
sake but as contrast to virtue.
 There are two types of speeches – the dialogue, usually in prose, and the monologues. While the dialogue carries
forward the action of the day, the monologue is the means for each character to introduce him/herself at the beginning
of the first scene of every scene as well as to outline the plot.
 Chinese plays are long – six or seven hours if performed completely. The average length is about four acts with a
prologue and an epilogue.
c) The Chinese play is a total theater. There is singing, recitation of verses, acrobats, dancing, and playing of traditional
musical instruments.
 Music is an integral part of the classical drama. It has recitatives, arias, and musical accompaniment. Chinese
music is based on movement and rhythm that harmonized perfectly with the sentiments being conveyed by a
character.
 The poetic dialogue, hsieh tzu (wedge), is placed at the beginning or in between acts and is an integral part of the
play
 The stage is bare of props except a table and a pair of chairs may be converted to a battlefield or a court scene, a
bedroom, even a prison through vivid acting and poetry.
d) Dramatic conventions that serve to identify the nature and function of each character.
 Make-up identifies the characters and personalities.
 Costumes help reveal types and different colors signify ranks and status.
 Property conventions are rich in symbolism. A table with a chair at the side, both placed at the side of the stage,
represents a hill or a high wall.

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  Action reflects highly stylized movements. Hand movements may indicate embarrassment or helplessness or
anguish or anger.

6. Literary Selections.
a) The Book of Songs (Shih Ching), compiled around the 6th century B.C. is the oldest collection of Chinese poetry. This
collection consists of 305 poems many of which were originally folk songs, focusing on such themes as farming, love, and
war.
b) The Book of Changes (I Ching) is one of the Five Classics of Confucian philosophy and has been primarily used for
divination. This book is based on the concept of change – the one constant of the universe. Although change is never-
ending, it too proceeds according to certain universal and observable patterns.
c) Nineteen Poems were anonymous poems composed in the Han dynasty. They provide a commentary on the
development of Chinese lyrical feeling, written and sung probably a thousand years later, but continuing and deepening
the tradition.
d) Record of a Journey to the West is the foremost Chinese comic novel, written about 1500-82 by the long-anonymous Wu
Chengen. The novel is based on the actual 7th-century pilgrimage of the Buddhist monk Xuanzang (602-664) to India in
search of sacred texts. The novel can be divided into three major sections. The first seven chapters deal with the birth of
monkey from a stone egg and his acquisition of magic powers. Five chapters relate the story of Xuanzang, known as
Tripitaka, and the origin of his mission to the Western Paradise. The bulk of the novel recounts the 81 adventures that
befalls Tripitaka and his entourage of three animal spirits – the magically gifted Monkey, the slow-witted and clumsy
Pigsy, and the fish spirit Sandy – on their journey to India to attain the sacred scrolls. The novel is also a satire of society
and Chinese bureaucracy and for its allegorical presentation of humanity’s striving and perseverance.
e) Dream of the Red Chamber is a novel by Cao Zhan thought to be semiautobiographical and generally considered to be
the greatest of all Chinese novels. It details the decline of the Jia family, including 30 main characters and more than 400
minor ones. The major focus, however, is on young Baoyu, the gifted but obstinate heir of the clan. Spoiled by his
mother and grandmother, Bayou is continually reprimanded by his strict Confucian father who abhors his son’s
relationships with Daiyu, his ill-fated love, and Baochai, his wife. The novel portrays the extended family and upper-class
life in the early Ching dynasty while the variety of individual character portraits reveals psychological depth.
f) The Injustice Done to Tou Ngo a play by Guan Han-Cheng, a Yuan dramatist, tells the story of the poisoning of Old
Chang by his own son but the conviction of Tou Ngo for the crime. The element of the fantastic is employed in the
appearance of Tou Ngo as a ghost defending herself in the trial and the falling of snow in midsummer which were the
curse that Tou Ngo cast upon her death. The truth is revealed in the end and the tragic heroine is vindicated.
g) Romance of the Three Kingdoms is a classic historical novel about ancient China during the fall of the Han dynasty and
the era of the Three Kingdoms (A.D. 220 – 280). The story’s principal characters, all based on historical figures, became
archetypes in popular Chinese fiction and theater. They include General Cao Cao, founder of Wei, portrayed as one of
the most cunning and dastardly villains; his heroic opponents, the loyal Brothers of Peach Orchard; the benevolent leader
Liu Bei, founder of Shu Han; the huge, great-hearted, fearless Guan Yu, who was deified as Guan Di; and the younger,
courageous Zhang Fei. The wise scholar and military strategist Zhege Liang plays a crucial role in the novel’s battles.

7. Major Writers.
a) Taoist Writers
 Chuang Tzu (4th century B.C.) was the most important early interpreter of the philosophy of Taoism. Very little is
known about his life except that he served as a minor court official. In his stories, he appears as a quirky character
who cares little for either public approval or material possessions.
 Lieh Tzu (4th century B.C.) was a Taoist teacher who had many philosophical differences with his forebears Lao-Tzu
and Chuan Tzu. He argued that a sequence of causes predetermines everything that happens, including one’s
choice of action.
 Lui An (172 – 122 B.C.) was not only a Taoist scholar but the grandson of the founder of the founder of the Han
dynasty. His royal title was the Prince of Haui-nan. Together with philosophers and under his patronage, he
produced a collection of essays on metaphysics, cosmology, politics, and conduct.
b) Ssu-ma Ch’ien (145 – 90 B.C.) was the greatest of China’s ‘Grand Historians’ who dedicated himself to completing the
first history of China the Records of the Historian. His work covers almost three thousand years of Chinese history in
more than half a million written characters etched onto bamboo tablets.
c) The T’ang Poets
 Wang Wei (796? – 761?) was an 8th century government official who spent the later years of his life in the country,
reading and discussing Buddhism with scholars and monks. He is known for the pictorial quality of his poetry and for
its economy. His word-pictures parallel Chinese brush artistry in which a few strokes are all suggestive
 Li Po (701 –762) was Wang Wei’s contemporary and he spent a short time in courts, but seems to have bee too
much of a romantic and too give to drink to carry out responsibilities. He was a Taoist, drawing sustenance from
nature and his poetry was often other-wordly and ecstatic. He had no great regard for his poems himself. He is said
to have mad thousands of them into paper boats which he sailed along streams.
 Tu Fu (712 –770) is the Confucian moralist, realist, and humanitarian. He was public-spirited, and his poetry helped
chronicle the history of the age: the deterioration of authority, the disasters of war, and official extravagance.
d) Po Chu-I (772 – 846) was born two years after Tu Fu died, at a time when China was still in turmoil from foreign invasion
and internal strife. He wrote many poems speaking bitterly against the social and economic problems that were plaguing
China.
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 e) Li Ch’ing-chao (A.D. 1084 – 1151) is regarded as China’s greatest woman poet and was also one of the most liberated
women of her day. She was brought up in court society and was trained in the arts and classical literature quite an
unusual upbringing for a woman of the Sung dynasty. Many of her poems composed iin the tz’u form celebrate her happy
marriage or express her loneliness when her husband was away.
f) Chou-Shu-jen (1881 – 1936) has been called the ‘father of the modern Chinese short story’ because of his introduction
of Western techniques. He is also known as Lu Hsun whose stories deal with themes of social concern, the problems of
the poor, women, and intellectuals.
g) Mao Tun is the pen name of Shen Yen-ping who is an exponent of revolutionary realism. He is the author of a half-dozen
novels, of which Midnight (1933) is considered to be his masterpiece.

C. JAPAN

1. Historical Background. Early Japan borrowed much from Chinese culture but evolved its own character over time.
a) Early Japan’s political structure was based on clan, or family. Each clan developed a hierarchy of classes with
aristocrats, warriors, and priests at the top and peasants and workers at the bottom. During the 4th century A.D. the
Yamato grew to be most powerful and imposed the Chinese imperial system on Japan creating an emperor, an imperial
bureaucracy, and a grand capital city.
b) The Heian Age was the period of peace and prosperity, of aesthetic refinement and artificial manners. The emperor
began to diminish in power but continued to be a respected figure. Since the Japanese court had few official
responsibilities, they were able to turn their attention to art, music, and literature.
c) The Feudal Era was dominated by the samurai class which included the militaristic lords, the daimyo and the band of
warriors, the samurai who adhered to a strict code of conduct the emphasized bravery, loyalty, and honor. In 1192
Yorimoto became the shogun or chief general one of a series of shoguns who ruled Japan for over 500 years.
d) The Tokugawa Shogonate in the late 1500s crushed the warring feudal lords and controlled all of Japan from a new
capital at Edo, now Tokyo. By 1630 and for two centuries, Japan was a closed society: all foreigners were expelled,
Japanese Christians were persecuted, and foreign travel was forbidden under penalty of death. The shogonate was
ended in 1868 when Japan began to trade with the Western powers. Under a more powerful emperor, Japan rapidly
acquired the latest technological knowledge, introduced universal education, and created an impressive industrial
economy.

2. Religious Traditions. Two major faiths were essential elements in the cultural foundations of Japanese society.
a) Shintoism or ‘ the way of the gods,’ is the ancient religion that reveres in dwelling divine spirits called kami, found in
natural places and objects. For this reason natural scenes, such as waterfall, a gnarled tree, or a full moon, inspired
reverence in the Japanese people.
b) Zen Buddhism emphasized the importance of meditation, concentration, and self-discipline as the way to enlightenment.
Zen rejects the notion that salvation is attained outside of this life and this world. Instead, Zen disciples believe that one
can attain personal tranquility and insights into the true meaning of life through rigorous phusical and mental discipline.
3. Socio-political concepts. Japan has integrated Confucian ethics and Buddhist morality which India implanted in China. The
concepts of giri and on explain why the average Japanese is patriotic, sometimes ultra-nationalistic, law-abiding. Even
seppuku or ritual disembowelment exemplify to what extent these two socio-political concepts could be morally followed.
a) Giri connotes duty, justice, honor, face, decency, respectability, courtesy, charity, humanity, love, gratitude, claim. Its
sanctions are found in mores, customs, folkways. For example, in feudal Japan ‘loss of face’ is saved by suicide or
vendetta, if not renouncing the world in the monastery.
b) On suggests a sense of obligation or indebtedness which propels a Japanese to act, as it binds the person perpetually to
other individuals to the group, to parents, teachers, superiors, and the emperor.

4. Poetry is one of the oldest and most popular means of expression and communication in the Japanese culture. It was an
integral part of daily life in ancient Japanese society, serving as a means through which anyone could chronicle experiences
and express emotions
a) The Manyoshu or ‘Book of Ten Thousand Leaves is an anthology by poets from a wide range of social classes, including
the peasantry, the clergy, and the ruling class.
b) There are different poems according to set forms or structures:
 choka are poems that consist of alternate lines of five and seven syllables with an additional seven-syllable line at
the end. There is no limit to the number of lines which end with envoys, or pithy summations. These envoys consist
of 5-7-5-7-7 syllables that elaborate on or summarize the theme or central idea of the main poem.
 tanka is the most prevalent verse form in traditional Japanese literature. It consists of five lines of 5-7-5-7-7 syllables
including at least one caesura, or pause. Used as a means of communication in ancient Japanese society, the tanka
often tell a brief story or express a single thought or insight and the common subjects are love and nature.
 renga is a chain of interlocking tanka. Each tanka within a renga was divided into verses of 17 and 14 syllables
composed by different poets as it was fashionable for groups of poets to work together during the age of Japanese
feudalism.
 hokku was the opening verse of a renga which developed into a distinct literary form known as the haiku. The haiku
consist of 3 lines of 5-7-5 syllable characterized by precision, simplicity, and suggestiveness. Almost all haiku include
a kigo or seasonal words such as snow or cherry blossoms that indicates the time of year being described.
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 c) Prose appeared in the early part of the 8th century focusing on Japanese history. During the Heian Age, the members of
the Imperial court, having few administrative or political duties, kept lengthy diaries and experimented with writing fiction.
 The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki Shikibu, a work of tremendous length and complexity, is considered to be the
world’s first true novel. It traces the life of a gifted and charming prince. Lady Murasaki was an extraordinary woman
far more educated than most upper-class men of her generation. She was appointed to serve in the royal court of the
emperor.
 The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon, represents a unique form of the diary genre. It contains of vivid sketches of
people and place, shy anecdotes and witticisms, snatches of poetry, and 164 lists on court life during the Heian
period. Primarily intended to be a private journal, it was discovered and eventually printed. Shōnagon served as a
lady-in-waiting to the Empress Sadako in the late 10th century.
 The Tale of Haike written by an anonymous author during the 13th century was the most famous early Japanese
novel. It presents a striking portrait of war-torn Japan during the early stages of the age of feudalism.
 Essays in Idleness by Yoshida Kenko was written during the age of feudalism. It is a loosely organized collection of
insights, reflections, and observations, written during the 14th century. Kenko was born into a high-ranking Shinto
family and became a Buddhist priest.

5. Drama.
a) Types of play
 Nō plays emerged during the 14th century as the earliest form of Japanese drama. The plays are performed on an
almost bare stage by a small but elaborately costumed cast of actors wearing masks. The actors are accompanied by
a chorus and the plays are written either in verse or in highly poetic prose. The dramas reflect many Shinto and
Buddhist beliefs, along with a number of dominant Japanese artistic preferences. The Nō performers’ subtle
expressions of inner strength, along with the beauty of the costumes, the eloquence of the dancing, the mesmerizing
quality of the singing, and the mystical, almost supernatural, atmosphere of the performances, has enabled the Nō
theater to retain its popularity.
 Kabuki involves lively, melodramatic acting and is staged using elaborate and colorful costumes and sets. It is
performed with the accompaniment of an orchestra and generally focus on the lives of common people rather than
aristocrats.
 Jorori (now called Bunraku) is staged using puppets and was a great influence on the development of the Kabuki.
 Kyogen is a farce traditionally performed between the Nō tragedies.
b) Atsumori by Seami Motokiyo is drawn from an episode of The Tale of the Heike, a medieval Japanese epic based on
historical fact that tells the story of the rise and fall of the Taira family, otherwise known as the Heike. The play takes
place by the sea of Ichi no tani. A priest named Rensei, who was once a warrior with the Genji clan, has decided to
return to the scene of the battle to pray for a sixteen-year-old named Atsumori, whom he killed on the beach during the
battle. Rensei had taken pity on Atsumori and had almost refrained from killing him. He realized though that if he did not
kill the boy, his fellow warriors would. He explained to Atsumori that he must kill him, and promised to pray for his soul.
On his return, he meets two peasants who are returning home from their fields and Rensai makes an astonishing
discovery about one of them.

6. Novels and Short Stories.

a) Snow Country by Kawabata tells of love denied by a Tokyo dilettante, Shimamura, to Komako, a geisha who feels ‘used’
much as she wants to think and feel that she is drawn sincerely, purely to a man of the world. She has befriended Yoko
to whom Shimamura is equally and passionately drawn because of her virginity, her naivete, as he is to Komako who
loses it, after her affair with him earlier. In the end, Yoko dies in the cocoon-warehouse in a fire notwithstanding
Komako’s attempt to rescue her. Komako embraces the virgin Yoko in her arms while Shimamura senses the Milky Way
‘flowing down inside him with a roar.’ Kawabata makes use of contrasting thematic symbols in the title: death and
purification amidst physical decay and corruption.
b) The House of Sleeping Beauties by Kawabata tells of the escapades of a dirty old man, Eguchi, to a resort near the sea
where young women are given drugs before they are made to sleep sky-clad. Decorum rules it that these sleeping
beauties should not be touched, lest the customers be driven away by the management. The book lets the reader bare
the deeper recesses of the septuagenarian’s mind. Ironically, this old man who senses beauty and youth is incapable of
expressing, much less having it. Thus, the themes of old age and loneliness and coping become inseparable.
c) The Makioka Sisters by Tanizaki is the story of four sisters whose chief concern is finding a suitable husband for the third
sister, Yukiko, a woman of traditional beliefs who has rejected several suitors. Until Yukiko marries, Taeko, the youngest,
most independent, and most Westernized of the sisters, must remain unmarried. More important than the plot, the novel
tells of middle-class daily life in prewar Osaka. It also delves into such topics as the intrusion of modernity and its effect
on the psyche of the contemporary Japanese, the place of kinship in the daily life of the people, and the passage of the
old order and the coming of the new.
d) The Sea of Fertility by Mishima is the four-part epic including Spring Snow, Runaway Horses, The Temple of Dawn, and
The Decay of the Angel. The novels are set in Japan from about 1912 to the 1960s. Each of them depicts a different
reincarnation of the same being: as a young aristocrat in 1912, as a political fanatic in the 1930s, as a Thai princess
before the end of WWII, and as an evil young orphan in the 1960s. Taken together the novels are a clear indication of
Mishima’s increasing obsession with blood, death, and suicide, his interest in self-destructive personalities, and his
rejection of the sterility of modern life.
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 e) The Setting Sun by Ozamu is a tragic, vividly painted story of life in postwar Japan. The narrator is Kazuko, a young
woman born to gentility but now impoverished. Though she wears Western clothes, her outlook is Japanese; her life is
static, and she recognizes that she is spiritually empty. In the course of the novel, she survives the deaths of her
aristocratic mother and her sensitive, drug-addicted brother Naoji, an intellectual ravage by his own and society’s spiritual
failures. She also spends a sad, sordid night with the writer Uehara, and she conceives a child in the hope that it will be
the first step in a moral revolution
f) In the Grove by Akutagawa is the author’s most famous story made into the film Rashomon. The story asks these
questions: What is the truth? Who tells the truth? How is the truth falsified? Six narrators tell their own testimonies about
the death of a husband and the violation of his wife in the woods. The narrators include a woodcutter, a monk, an old
woman, the mother-in-law of the slain man, the wife, and finally, the dead man whose story is spoken through the mouth
of a shamaness. Akutagawa’s ability to blend a feudal setting with deep psychological insights gives this story an ageless
quality.
g) The Wild Geese by Oagi is a melodramatic novel set in Tokyo at the threshold of the 20th century. The novel explores
the blighted life of Otama, daughter of a cake vendor. Because of extreme poverty, she becomes the mistress of a
policeman, and later on of a money-lender, Shazo. In her desire to rise from the pitfall of shame and deprivation, she
tries to befriend Okada, a medical student who she greets every day by the window as he passes by on his way to the
campus. She is disillusioned however, as Okada, in the end, prepares for further medical studies in Germany. Ogai’s
novel follows the traditio of the watakushi-shosetsu or the confessional I- novel where the storyteller is the main character.
h) The Buddha Tree by Fumio alludes to the awakening of Buddha under the bo tree when he gets enlightened after fasting
40 days and nights. Similarly, the hero of the novel, Soshu, attains self-illumination after freeing himself from the way of
all flesh. The author was inspired by personal tragedies that befell their family and this novel makes him transcend his
personal agony into artistic achievement.

7. Major Writers.
a) Seami Motokiyo had acting in his blood for his father Kanami, a priest, was one of the finest performers of his day. At age
20 not long after his father’s death, he took over his father’s acting school and began to write plays. Some say he
became a Zen priest late in life; others say he had two sons, both of them actors. According to legend, he died alone at
the age of 81 in a Buddhist temple near Kyoto.
b) The Haiku Poets
 Matsuo Bashō (1644 – 1694) is regarded as the greatest haiku poet. He was born into a samurai family and began
writing poetry at an early age. After becoming a Zen Buddhist, he moved into an isolated hut on the outskirts of Edo
(Tokyo) where he lived the life of a hermit, supporting himself by teaching and judging poetry. Bashō means ‘banana
plant,’ a gift given him to which he became deeply attached. Over time his hut became known as the Bashō Hut until
he assumed the name.
 Yosa Buson (1716 – 1783) is regarded as the second-greatest haiku poet. He lived in Kyoto throughout most of his
life and was one of the finest painters of his time. Buson presents a romantic view of the Japanese landscape, vividly
capturing the wonder and mystery of nature.
 Kobayashi Issa (1763 –1827) is ranked with Bashō and Buson although his talent was not widely recognized until
after his death. Issa’s poems capture the essence of daily life in Japan and convey his compassion for the less
fortunate.
c) Yasunari Kawabata (1899 – 1972) won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1968. The sense of loneliness and
preoccupation with death that permeates much of his mature writing possibly derives from the loneliness of his childhood
having been orphaned early. Three of his best novels are: Snow Country, Thousand Cranes, and Sound of the
Mountains. He committed suicide shortly after the suicide of his friend Mishima.
d) Junichiro Tanizaki (1886 –1965) is a major novelist whose writing is characterized by eroticism and ironic wit. His
earliest stories were like those of Edgar Allan Poe’s but he later turned toward the exploration of more traditional
Japanese ideals of beauty. Among his works are Some Prefer Nettles, The Makioka Sisters, Diary of a Mad Old Man.
e) Yukio Mishima (1925 – 1970) is the pen name of Kimitake Hiraoka, a prolific writer who is regarded by many writers as
the most important Japanese novelist of the 20th century. His highly acclaimed first novel, Confessions of a Mask is partly
autobiographical work that describes with stylistic brilliance a homosexual who must mask his sexual orientation. Many of
his novels have main characters who, for physical or psychological reasons, are unable to find happiness. Deeply
attracted to the austere patriotism and marital spirit of Japan’s past, Mishima was contemptuous of the materialistic
Westernized society of Japan in the postwar era. Mishima committed seppuku (ritual disembowelment).
f) Dazai Ozamu (1909 – 1948) just like Mishima, and Kawabata committed suicide, not unusual, but so traditional among
Japanese intellectuals. It is believed that Ozamu had psychological conflicts arising from his inability to draw a red line
between his Japaneseness clashing with his embracing the Catholic faith, if not the demands of creativity. The Setting
Sun is one of his works.
g) Ryunosuke Akutagawa (1892 – 1927) is a prolific writer of stories, plays, and poetry, noted for his stylistic virtuosity. He
is one of the most widely translated of all Japanese writers, and a number of his stories have been made into films. Many
of his short stories are Japanese tales retold in the light of modern psychology in a highly individual style of feverish
intensity that is well-suited to their macabre themes. Among his works are Rashomon, and Kappa. He also committed
suicide.
h) Oe Kenzaburo (1935 -) a novelist whose rough prose style, at time nearly violating the natural rhythms of the Japanese
language, epitomizes the rebellion of the post-WWII generation which he writes. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for

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 Literature in 1994. Among his works are: Lavish are the Dead, The Catch, Our Generation, A Personal Matter, The Silent
Cry, and Awake, New Man!.
D. AFRICA

1. The Rise of Africa’s Great Civilization. Between 751 and 664 B.C. the kingdom of Kush at the southern end of the Nile River
gained strength and prominence succeeding the New Kingdom of Egyptian civilization. Smaller civilizations around the edges
of the Sahara also existed among them the Fasa of the northern Sudan, whose deeds are recalled by the Soninka oral epic,
The Daust.
a) Aksum (3rd centuray A.D.), a rich kingdom in eastern Africa arose in what is now Ethiopia. It served as the center of a
trade route and developed its own writing system.
b) The Kingdom of Old Ghana (A.D. 300) the first of great civilizations in western Africa succeeded by the empires of Old
Mali and Songhai. The legendary city of Timbuktu was a center of trade and culture in both the Mali and Songhai empires
c) New cultures sprang up throughout the South: Luba and Malawi empires in central Africa, the two Congo kingdoms, the
Swahili culture of eastern Africa, the kingdom of Old Zimbabwe, and the Zulu nation near the southern tip of the cotinent.
d) Africa’s Golden Age (between A.D. 300 and A.D. 1600) marked the time when sculpture, music, metalwork, textiles, and
oral literature flourished.
e) Foreign influences came in the 4th century.
 The Roman Empire had proclaimed Chirstianity as its state religion and taken control of the entire northern coast of
Africa including Egypt.
 Around 700 A.D. Islam, the religion of Mohammed, was introduced into Africa as well as the Arabic writing system.
Old Mali, Somali and other eastern African nations were largely Muslim. Christianity and colonialism came to sub-
Saharan Africa towards the close of Africa’s Golden Age.
 European powers created colonized countries in the late 1800s. Social and political chaos reigned as traditional
African nations were either split apart by European colonizers or joined with incompatible neighbors.
 Mid-1900s marked the independence and rebirth of traditional cultures written in African languages.

2. Literary Forms.
a) Orature is the tradition of African oral literature which includes praise poems, love poems, tales, ritual dramas, and moral
instructions in the form of proverbs and fables. It also includes epics and poems and narratives.
 Griots, the keepers of oral literature in West Africa, may be a professional storyteller, singer, or entertainer and were
skilled at creating and transmitting the many forms of African oral literature. Bards, storytellers, town criers, and oral
historians also preserved and continued the oral tradition.
 Features of African oral literature:
- repetition and parallel structure – served foremost as memory aids for griots and other storytellers. Repetition
also creates rhythm, builds suspense, and adds emphasis to parts of the poem or narrative. Repeated lines or
refrains often mark places where an audience can join in the oral performance.
- repeat-and-vary technique – in which lines or phrases are repeated with slight variations, sometimes by changing
a single word.
- tonal assonance – the tones in which syllables are spoken determine the meanings of words like many Asian
languages.
- call-and-response format - includes spirited audience participation in which the leader calls out a line or phrase
and the audience responds with an answering line or phrase becoming performers themselves.
b) Lyric Poems do not tell a story but instead , like songs, create a vivid, expressive testament to a speaker’s thoughts or
emotional state. Love lyrics were an influence of the New Kingdom and were written to be sung with the accompaniment
of a harp or a set of reed pipes.
c) Hymns of Praise Songs were offered to the sun god Aten. The Great Hymn to Aten is the longest of several New
Kingdom hymns. This hymn was found on the wall of a tomb built for a royal scribe named Ay and his wife. In was
intended to assure their safety in the afterlife.
d) African Proverbs are much more than quaint old sayings. Instead, they represent a poetic form that uses few words but
achieves great depth of meaning and they function as the essence of people’s values and knowledge.
 They are used to settle legal disputes, resolve ethical problems, and teach children the philosophy of their people.
 Often contain puns, rhymes, and clever allusions, they also provide entertainment.
 Mark power and eloquence of speakers in the community who know and use them. Their ability to apply the
proverbs to appropriate situations demonstrates an understanding of social and political realities.
e) Dilemma or Enigma Tale is an important kind of African moral tale intended for listeners to discuss and debate. It is an
open-ended story that concludes with a question the asks the audience to choose form among several alternatives. By
encouraging animated discussion, a dilemma tale invites its audience to think about right and wrong behavior and how to
best live within society.
f) Ashanti Tale comes from Ashanti, whose traditional homeland is the dense and hilly forest beyond the city of Kumasi in
south-central Ghana which was colonized by the British in the mid-19th century. But the Ashanti, protected in their
geographical stronghold, were able to maintain their ancient culture. The tale exemplifies common occupations of the
Ashanti such as farming, fishing, and weaving. It combines such realistic elements with fantasy elements like talking
objects and animals.
g) Folk Tales have been handed down in the oral tradition from ancient times. The stories represent a wide and colorful
variety that embodies the African people’s most cherished religious and social beliefs. The tales are used to entertain, to
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 teach, and to explain. Nature and the close bond that Africans share with the natural world are emphasized. The
mystical importance of the forest, sometimes called the bush, is often featured.
 Origin stories include creation stories and stories explaining the origin of death.
 Trickster Tale is an enormously popular type. The best known African trickster figure is Anansi the Spider, both the
hero and villain from the West African origin to the Caribbean and other parts of the Western Hemisphere as a result
of the slave trade.
 Moral Stories attempt to teach a lesson.
 Humorous Stories is primarily intended to amuse.
h) Epics of vanished heroes – partly human, partly superhuman, who embody the highest values of a society – carry with
them a culture’s history, values, and traditions. The African literary traditions boasts of several oral epics.
 The Dausi from the Soninke
 Monzon and the King of Kore from the Bambara of western Africa
 The epic of Askia the Great, medieval ruler of the Songhai empire in western Africa
 The epic of the Zulu Empire of southern Africa
 Sundiata from the Mandingo peoples of West Africa is the best-preserved and the best-known African epic which is a
blend of fact and legend. Sundiata Keita, the story’s hero really existed as a powerful leader who in 1235 defeated
the Sosso nation of western Africa and reestablished the Mandingo Empire of Old Mali. Supernatural powers are
attributed to Sundiata and he is involved in a mighty conflict between good and evil. It was first recorded in Guinea in
the 1950s and was told by the griot Djeli Mamoudou Kouyate.

3. Negritude, which means literally ‘blackness,’ is the literary movement of the 1930s – 1950s that began among French-speaking
African and Caribbean writers living in Paris as a protest against French colonial rule and the policy of assimilation. Its leading
figure was Leopold Sedar Senghor (1st president of the Republic of Senegal in 1960) , who along with Aime Cesaire from
Martinique and Leo Damas from French Guina, began to examine Western values critically and to reassess African culture.
The movement largely faded in the early 1960s when its political and cultural objectives had been achieved in most African
countries. The basic ideas behind Negritude include:
a) Africans must look to their own cultural heritage to determine the values and traditions that are most useful in the modern
world.
b) Committed writers should use African subject matter and poetic traditions and should excite a desire for political freedom.
c) Negritude itself encompasses the whole of African cultural, economic, social, and political values.
d) The value and dignity of African traditions and peoples must be asserted.

4. African Poetry is more eloquent in its expression of Negritude since it is the poets who first articulated their thoughts and
feelings about the inhumanity suffered by their own people.
a) Paris in the Snow swings between assimilation of French, European culture or negritude, intensified by the poet’s
catholic piety.
b) Totem by Leopold Senghor shows the eternal linkage of the living with the dead.
c) Letters to Martha by Dennis Brutus is the poet’s most famous collection that speaks of the humiliation, the despondency,
the indignity of prison life.
d) Train Journey by Dennis Brutus reflects the poet’s social commitment, as he reacts to the poverty around him amidst
material progress especially and acutely felt by the innocent victims, the children
e) Telephone Conversation by Wole Soyinka is the poet’s most anthologized poem that reflects Negritude. It is a satirical
poem between a Black man seeking the landlady’s permission to accommodate him in her lodging house. The poetic
dialogue reveals the landlady’s deep-rooted prejudice against the colored people as the caller plays up on it.
f) Africa by David Diop is a poem that achieves its impact by a series of climactic sentences and rhetorical questions
g) Song of Lawino by Okot P’Bitek is a sequence of poems about the clash between African and Western values and is
regarded as the first important poem in “English to emerge from Eastern Africa. Lawino’s song is a plea for the Ugandans
to look back to traditional village life and recapture African values.

5. Novels.
a) The Houseboy by Ferdinand Oyono points out the disillusionment of Toundi, a boy who leaves his parents maltreatment
to enlist his services as an acolyte to a foreign missionary. After the priest’s death, he becomes a helper of a white
plantation owner, discovers the liaison of his master’s wife, and gets murdered later in the woods as they catch up with
him. Toundi symbolizes the disenchantment, the coming of age, and utter despondency of the Camerooninans over the
corruption and immortality of the whites. The novel is developed in the form of a recit, the French style of a diary-like
confessional work.
b) Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe depict a vivid picture of Africa before the colonization by the British. The title is an
epigraph from Yeats’ The Second Coming: ‘things fall apart/ the center cannot hold/ mere anarchy is loosed upon the
world.’ The novel laments over the disintegration of Nigerian society, represented in the story by Okwonko, once a
respected chieftain who looses his leadership and falls from grace after the coming of the whites. Cultural values are
woven around the plot to mark its authenticity: polygamy since the character is Muslim; tribal law is held supreme by the
gwugwu, respected elders in the community; a man’s social status is determined by the people’s esteem and by
possession of fields of yams and physical prowess; community life is shown in drinking sprees, funeral wakes, and sports
festivals.

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 c) No Longer at Ease by Chinua Achebe is a sequel to Things Fall Apart and the title of which is alluded to Eliot’s The
Journey of the Magi: ‘We returned to our places, these kingdoms,/ But no longer at ease here, in the old dispensation.’
The returning hero fails to cope with disgrace and social pressure. Okwonko’s son has to live up to the expectations of
the Umuofians, after winning a scholarship in London, where he reads literature, not law as is expected of him, he has to
dress up, he must have a car, he has to maintain his social standing, and he should not marry an Ozu, an outcast. In the
end, the tragic hero succumgs to temptation, he, too receives bribes, and therefore is ‘no longer at ease.’
d) The Poor Christ of Bombay by Mongo Beti begins en medias res and exposes the inhumanity of colonialism. The novel
tells of Fr. Drumont’s disillusionment after the discovery of the degradation of the native women, betrothed, but forced to
work like slaves in the sixa. The government steps into the picture as syphilis spreads out in the priest’s compound. It
turns out that the native whose weakness is wine, women, and song has been made overseer of the sixa when the
Belgian priest goes out to attend to his other mission work. Developed through recite or diary entries, the novel is a satire
on the failure of religion to integrate to national psychology without first understanding the natives’ culture.
e) The River Between by James Ngugi show the clash of traditional values and contemporary ethics and mores. The Honia
River is symbolically taken as a metaphor of tribal and Christian unity – the Makuyu tribe conducts Christian rites while
the Kamenos hold circumcision rituals. Muthoni, the heroine, although a new-born Christian, desires the pagan ritual.
She dies in the end but Waiyaki, the teacher, does not teach vengeance against Joshua, the leader of the Kamenos, but
unity with them. Ngugi poses co-existence of religion with people’s lifestyle at the same time stressing the influence of
education to enlighten people about their socio-political responsibilities.
f) Heirs to the Past by Driss Chraili is an allegorical, parable-like novel. After 16 years of absence, the anti-hero Driss Ferdi
returns to Morocco for his father’s funeral. The Signeur leaves his legacy via a tape recorder in which he tells the family
members his last will and testament. Each chapter in the novel reveals his relationship with them, and at the same time
lays bare the psychology of these people. His older brother Jaad who was ‘born once and had ided several times’
because of his childishness and irresponsibility. His idiotic brother, Nagib, has become a total burden to the family. His
mother feels betrayed, after doin her roles as wife and mother for 30 years, as she yearns for her freedom. Driss flies
back to Europe completely alienated fro his people, religion, and civilization.
g) A Few Days and Few Nights by Mbella Sonne Dipoko deals withracial prejudice. In the novel originally written in French,
a Cameroonian scholar studying in France is torn between the love of a Swedish girl and a Parisienne show father owns
a business establishment in Africa. The father rules out the possibility of marriage. Therese, their daughter commits
suicide and Doumbe, the Camerronian, thinks only of the future of Bibi, the Swedish who is expecting his child.
Doumbe’s remark that the African is like a turtle which carries it home wherever it goes implies the racial pride and love
for the native grounds.
h) The Interpreters by Wole Soyinka is about a group of young intellectuals who function as artists in their talks with one
another as they try to place themselves in the context of the world about them.

6. Major Writers.
a) Leopold Sedar Senghor (1906) is a poet and statesman who was cofounder of the Negritude movement in African art
and literature. He went to Paris on a scholarship and later taught in the French school system. During these years
Senghor discovered the unmistakable imprint of African art on modern painting, sculpture, and music, which confirmed his
belief in Africa’s contribution to modern culture. Drafted during WWII, he was captured and spent two years in Nazi
concentration camp where he wrote some of his finest poems. He became president of Senegal in 1960. His works
include: Songs of Shadow, Black Offerings, Major Elegies, Poetical Work. He became Negritude’s foremost spokesman
and edited an anthology of French-language poetry by black African that became a seminal text of the Negritude
movement.
b) Okot P’Bitek (1930 – 1982) was born in Uganda during the British domination and was embodied in a contrast of
cultures. He attended English-speaking schools but never lost touch with traditional African values and used his wide
array of talents to pursue his interests in both African and Western cultures. Among his works are: Song of Lawino, Song
of Ocol, African Religions and Western Scholarship, Religion of the Central Luo, Horn of My Love.
c) Wole Soyinka (1934) is a Nigerian playwright, poet, novelis, and critic who was the first black African to be awarded the
Nobel Prize for Literature in 1986. He wrote of modern West Africa in a satirical style and with a tragic sense of the
obstacles to human progress. He taught literature and drama and headed theater groups at various Nigerian universities.
Among his works are: plays – A Dance of the Forests, The Lion and the Jewel, The Trials of Brother Jero; novels – The
Interpreters, Season of Anomy; poems – Idanre and Other Poems, Poems from Prison, A Shuttle in the Crypt, Mandela’s
Earth and Other Poems.
d) Chinua Achebe (1930) is a prominent Igbo novelist acclaimed for his unsentimental depictions of the social and
psychological disorientation accompanying the imposition of Western customs and values upon traditional African society.
His particular concern was with emergent Africa at its moments of crisis. His works include, Things Fall Apart, Arrow of
God, No Longer at Ease, A Man of the People, Anthills of Savanah.
e) Nadine Gordimer (1923) is a South African novelist and short story writer whose major theme was exile and alienation.
She received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1991. Gordimer was writing by age 9 and published her first story in a
magazine at 15. Her works exhibit a clear, controlled, and unsentimental technique that became her hallmark. She
examines how public events affect individual lives, how the dreams of on’s youth are corrupted, and how innocence is
lost. Among her works are: The Soft Voice of the Serpent, Burger’s Daughter, July’s People, A Sport of Nature, My Son’s
Story.
f) Bessie Head (1937 –1986) described the contradictions and shortcomings of pre- and postcolonial African society in
morally didactic novels and stories. She suffered rejection and alienation from an early age being born of an illegal union

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 between her white mother and black father. Among her works are: When Rain Clouds Gather, A Question of Power, The
Collector of Treasures, Serowe.
g) Barbara Kimenye (1940) wrote twelve books on children’s stories known as the Moses series which are now a standard
reading fare for African school children. She also worked for many years for His Highness the Kabaka of Uganda, in the
Ministry of Education and later served as Kabaka’s librarian. She was a journalist of The Uganda Nation and later a
columnist for a Nairobi newspaper. Among her works are: KalasandaRevisited, The Smugglers, The Money Game.
h) Ousmane Sembene (1923) is a writer and filmmaker from Senegal. His works reveal an intense commitment to political
and social change. In the words of one of his characters: “You will never be a good writer so long as you don’t defend a
cause.” Sembene tells his stories from out of Africa’s past and relates their relevance and meaning for contemporary
society. His works include, O My Country, My Beautiful People, God’s Bits of Wood, The Storm.

PART II: ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

Directions. Choose the letter of the best answer.

1. He holds the distinction of being the first Asian to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature
A. Wole Soyinka C. Po Chu-I
B. Yasunari Kawabata D. Rabindranath Tagore

The correct answer is D. Tagore won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913. Both (A) Soyinka and (B) Kawabata are also Nobel
Prize winners but these are not the correct answers; Kawabata won in 1968 and Soyinka 18 years later in 1986,. The Nobel Prize,
which was first given in 1901, did not exist during (C) Po Chu-I’s time in 846 A.D.

2. Filial piety is a basic tenet of this school of thought

A. Taoism C. Hinduism
B. Confucianism D. Buddhism

The correct answer is B. Respect and devotion to parents is important in establishing harmonious relationship and is a fundamental
concept of Confucianism. (A) Taoism emphasizes wu wei or non- action to achieve harmony with nature. (C) Hinduism highlights
the individual’s dharma or duty, while (D) Buddhism focuses on self-awareness to attain enlightenment.

3. What does this excerpt from the Rigveda reveal about the Hindu belief on the god Purusha?

A thousand heads hath Purusha, a thousand eyes, a thousand feet.

One every side pervading earth he fills a space ten fingers wide.
The Purusha is all that yet hath been and all that is to be,
The Lord waxes greater still by food.
So mighty is his greatness: yea, greater than this is Purusha,
All creatures are one-fourth of him, three-fourths eternal life in heaven.

A. Purusha is the personification of natural phenomena.

B. The god Purusha is the source of mercy and salvation for all.
C. Purusha is the primal source of all creation.
D. Purusha is powerful and supreme over all earth.

The correct answer is C. Purusha is the Primal Person in a sacrificial ritual where his body parts are dismembered to create the
different parts of the world and the form caste system. (A) is incorrect because the deities such as, fire (Agni), the sun (Surya),
death (Yama), not Purusha, personify various natural phenomena. (B) is incorrect because the excerpt does not describe Purusha
as merciful savior; neither is (D) correct because the excerpt does not talk about Purusha’s power and supremacy rather, Purusha
as the Primal Sacrifice in the ritual.

4. What insight is suggested by this haiku from Bashō?

Poverty’s child –
He starts to grind the rice
And gazes at the moon.

A. Nature has a soothing effect on the human spirit.

B. Child labor is a reality in many Asian nations.
C. The poor dreams and are hopeful of better things in their life.
D. Life is a never-ending routine of work and leisure.

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The correct answer is A. By contrasting the task of grinding rice with the boy’s observation of the moon, Bashō evokes a sense of
longing and captures the comforting effect of nature on the human soul. (B) Child labor is an actual problem in many third world
nations in Asia but it is not the subject of this haiku. (C) Gazing at the moon may be suggestive of dreaming and hoping but this
leaves out the essence that the imagery creates. (D) is incorrect because, while the grinding of rice is routine, the haiku does not
have the tone of boredom.
5. This excerpt from Soyinka’s Telephone Conversation indicates the universal issue of __________.

“ARE YOU DARK? OR VERY LIGHT?” Revelation came.

“You mean – like plain or milk chocolate?” Her assent was clinical, crushing its light
Impersonality. Rapidly, wave-length adjusted,
I chose, “West African sepia.” – and as an afterthought,
“Down in my passport.”

A. gender discrimination C. human rights violation

B. colonial mentality D. racial discrimination

The correct answer is D. The landlady’s questions about color indicate her deep-rooted prejudice against black Africans even if
they are educated and accomplished. (A) is incorrect because although the telephone conversation is between a female house
owner and a male caller the poem does not focus on gender discrimination. Neither is (B) acceptable because the poem does not
highlight colonial mentality. (C) may be considered because racial discrimination is a form of human rights violation but this is not
the best answer.

6. The Hindu belief that life is an illusion

A. dharma B. artha C. maya D. kama

7. Varnas, the theoretical basis for the caste system of the Hindus rests on __________
A. one’s birthright
B. karma of past thought and actions
C. a person’s capacity and intelligence
D. the quality of contribution to society

8. __________ is a collection of non-speculative hymns representative of the Aryan religious spirit often comparable to the
psalms in the Old Testament.
A. Bhagavad Gita C. Rigveda
B. Dhammapada D. Upanishads

9. What rhetorical device is used in this line from the Ramayana?

“Dearly, loved, devoted Sita! daughter of a royal line.”
A. onomatopoeia B. alliteration C. assonance D. consonance

10. What do these thoughts of Dushyanta reveal about his character?

“A tranquil spot! Why should I thrill?/ Love cannot enter there – ”
A. indecisive B. emotional C. rational D. ambivalent

11. A collection of sayings raging from brief statements to more extended dialogues between Confucius and his students.
A. Analects C. Book of Changes
B. Tao-Te Ching D. Manyusho
12. Known as the ‘old philosopher’, he is credited as the founder of Taoism
A. Lao-Tzu B. Confucious C. Chuang Tzu D. Li Po

13. The __________ is a Chinese poem sung to the tunes of popular melodies
A. shih B. li sao C. lu-shih D. tzu

Read the following excerpted dialogue from Injustice Done to Tou Ngo then answer questions 14 – 15

Donkey Chang: You’ve poisoned my father, Tou Ngo. Do you want to settle it in court or out of the court?
Tou Ngo: What do you mean ‘settle it in court or out of court?’
Donkey Chang: If you want to settle in court, I’ll take you there to be tried and cross-examined and put to the torture.
With a delicate body like yours you’ll find it hard to bear that. You’re bound to confess to having
poisoned my father. If you want to settle out of court, you’d better become my wifejust as quick as you
can. It’ll be doing you a favor.
Tou Ngo: I have not poisoned your father. I’ll go to court with you.

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14. What does Donkey Chang’s attitude show of him as a man?
A. He has so much masculine pride C. He feels that he is the savior.
B. He belittles the strength of women. D. He regards women as objects.

15. What does line 9 reflect about Tou Ngo’s character?

A. She is picky with men. C. She is a very strong woman.
B. She is unafraid of suffering. D. She is truly innocent.

16. The __________ written by Sei Shōnagon records her irreverent reflections on life at the Imperial Court during the Heian
dynasty.
A. The Tale of Genji C. The Pillow Book
B. Things That Cannot Be Compared D. Essays in Idleness

17. This ethical concept suggests a sense of obligation or indebtedness which explains the sense of patriotism and nationalism of
the Japanese.
A. giri B. on C. seppuku D. kami

18. The earliest form of Japanese drama performed on an almost bare stage by a small but elaborately costumed cast of actors
wearing masks is called ___________
A. Nō B. Kabuki C. Jorori D. Kyogen

19. Atsumori compares warriors to images from nature in these excerpt from Motokiyo’s Atsumori. What do these images reveal
about his view of war?

Atsumori: . . . The leaves of the autumn of Juyei

Were tossed by the four winds;
Scattered, scattered (like leaves too) floated their ships.
And they, asleep on the heaving sea, not even in dreams
Went back to home.
Caged birds longing for the clouds –
Wild geese were they rather, whose ranks are broken
As they fly to southward on their doubtful journey. ..

A. War is a challenge for the brave who are unafraid of the risks.
B. War is hateful because warriors have no control over their lives.
C. War is the revenge of the strong and the powerful.
D. War is freedom for the dreams of the people.

20. What is the main idea of this haiku by Bashō?

So soon to die,
And no sign of it showing –
locust cry.

A. beauty of nature C. permanence of things

B. transitoriness of life D. reality of death

21. One of these features is not characteristic of African oral literature

A. repetition and parallel structure C. call-and-response
B. tonal alliteration D. repeat-and-vary

22. The __________ is an important kind of African moral tale intended for listeners to discuss and debate usually with an open-
ending.
A. Trickster B. Ashanti C. enigma D. origin

23. He is the leading figure of the Negritude movement.

A. Leopold Senghor B. Dennis Brutus C. Wole Soyinka D. David Diop

Read this excerpt from Diop’s Africa then answer questions 24-25.

Africa, my Africa,
Africa of proud warriors
In ancestral savannas,
Africa of whom my grandmother sings,
On the banks of the distant river

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 I have never known you.
24. Which description best describes the persona’s perception of Africa?
A. free and beautiful C. primitive and uncivilized
B. old and defeated D. mythical and elusive
25. What is the dominant tone of the poem?
A. regretful and frustrated C. sad and disdainful
B. angry and bitter D. invigorated and proud

PART II – ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

Directions. Choose the letter of the best answer.

1. This is the plot development of the Ramayana.

A. circular B. en medias res C. linear D. pyramid
2. A Sanskrit play like Shakuntala typically begins with __________
B. benediction upon the audience C. revelation of conflict
C. invocation of the muse D. flashback
3. The epic Ramayana is attributed to the poet __________
A. Vyasa B. Valmiki C. Kalidasa D. Bidpai
4. What is the theme of this excerpt from Tagore’s Gitanjali?
“Mother, it is no gain, they bondage of finery,
If it keeps one shut off from the healthful dust of the earth.”
A. The mother is a source of comfort and inspiration to her children.
B. Attachment to material wealth becomes a source of burden.
C. Nature conservation is important for one’s health and well-being.
D. A child’s affection to his/her mother shows tenderness.
5. Which emotion describes how the persona feels in this excerpt from The Taj Mahal?
“To you, my love, the Taj is a symbol of love. Fine.”
A. appreciative B. disbelieving C. supportive D. sarcastic
6. Fine arts and literature flourished during this dynasty which is viewed as the Golden Age of Chinese civilization.
A. Shang B. Ch’in C. Han D. T’ang
7. Chou-Shu-Jen is better known as __________ and is called the ‘father of the modern Chinese short story’
A. Mao Tse-Tung B. Lu Shun C. Li Ch’ing-chao D. Po Chu-I
8. This novel is based on the pilgrimage of the Buddhist monk Xuanzang to India in search of sacred texts.
A. On Learning to be an Indian C. The Tale of Genji
B. Record of a Journey to the West D. Dream of the Red Chamber
9. “To yield is to be preserved whole.” What figure of speech is used in this line from the Tao Te Cheng?
A. oxymoron B. paradox C. metonymy D. synecdoche
10. What does the falling of the plums in this excerpt from the Book of Songs mean?

Ripe plums are dropping,

Now there are only seven.
May a fine lover come for me
Now while there is yet time.

A. getting older C. overripe fruits

B. fewer men D. lost opportunities
Read Wang Wei’s poem below then answer questions 11-12

On an Autumn Evening in the Mountains

(trans. Arthur Christy)

How clear are the mountains after the new rain!

The dusk of the Autumn evening is pouring in,
As moonbeams filter through the pine trees.
Cool spring-water flows over white stones.
A lone washing-girl returns homeward by the bamboo grove.
The boatman sails his barge through the lotus patch.
Although Spring is long gone

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 Why cannot I linger over this pleasant view?

11. What is the dominant imagery in this poem?

A. visual B. auditory C. tactile D. olfactory
12. What emotion does the person express in the question at the end of the poem?
A. regret B. admiration C. nostalgia E. bitterness
13. All of these are novels of Yasunuri Kawabata except __________.
A. Confessions of a Mask C. Thousand Cranes
B. Snow Country D. Sound of the Mountain
14. This genre is one of the oldest and the most popular genre of expression and communication in the Japanese culture,
A. short story B. drama C. poetry D. essay
15. Ryunusuke Akutagawa’s In the Grove is distinct for its unique __________
A. characterization C. narrative technique
B. use of deus-ex-machina D. use of epiphany
16. The __________ is the best-preserved and the best-known African epic which is a blend of fact and legend of a powerful
leader who reestablished the Mandingo Empire of Old Mali.
A. Sundiata C. The Dausi
B. Askia the Great D. Monzon and the King of Kore
17. Chinua Achebe’s novel, the title of which is an epigraph from Yeat’s’ The Second Coming, is a lament over the disintegration of
Nigerian society represented by Okwonko, once a respected chieftain who looses his leadership with the coming of the British
colonizers.
A. Things Fall Apart C. A Man of the People
B. No Longer at Ease D. Arrow of God
18. __________ is a South African novelist and short story writer whose major themes are on exile and alienation won the Nobel
Prize for Literature in 1991.
A. Bessie Head C. Nadine Gordimer
B. Barbara Kimenye D. Ousmane Sembene
19. What is the theme of this African proverb?
“On the way to one’s beloved there are no hills.”
A. Real love knows no boundaries.
B. Sacrifice is the gauge of true love.
C. Obstacles make a relationship strong.
D. True love is tested by difficulties.
Read the excerpt below from Grace A. Ogot’s Rain

It was no longer a question of being the chief of hunger-stricken

people that weighed Labong’s hear. It was the life of his only daughter that
was at stake. At the time when Oganda came to meet him, he saw the
glittering chain shining around her waist. The prophecy was complete. “It
is Oganda, Oganda, my only daughter, who must die so young.” Labong’o
burst into tears before finishing the sentence. The chief must not weep.
Society had declared him the bravest of men. But Labong’o did not care any
more. He assumed the position of a simple father and wept bitterly. He loved
his people, the Luo, but what were the Luo for him without Oganda?

20. What is the main conflict of the story?

A. individual vs. self C. individual vs. society
B. individual vs. another D. individual vs. nature
21. One of these selections is a frame story.
A. Panchatantra C. The Tale of Genji
B. Record of a Journey to the West D. The Rain Came
22. This literary selection is an example of a satire.
A. R.K. Narayans’ The English Teacher
B. Cao Zhan’s Dream of the Red Chamber
C. Junichiro Tanizaki’s The Makioka Sisters
D. Mongo Beti’s The Poor Christ of Bombay
23. This novel is developed in a form of a recit, the French style of a diary-like confessional work.
A. The God of Small Things by Arundhati Roy
B. The Houseboy by Ferdinand Oyono
C. The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon
D. Song of Lawino by Okot P’Bitek
24. The indigenous literature of this country features the light entertainment of oral story telling.
A. India B. China C. Japan D. Africa
25. Many of this country’s writers committed suicide at the height of their careers.
A. India B. China C. Japan D. Africa

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 ANSWER KEY

PART II. ANALYZING TEST ITEMS PART II. ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

1. D 1. B
2. B 2. B
3. C 3. B
4. A 4. B
5. D 5. D
6. C 6. D
7. D 7. B
8. C 8. B
9. B 9. B
10. C 10. A
11. A 11. A
12. A 12. B
13. D 13. A
14. C 14. C
15. D 15. C
16. C 16. A
17. B 17. A
18. A 18. C
19. B 19. A
20. B 20. C
21. B 21. A
22. C 22. D
23. A 23. C
24. D 24. D
25. D 25. C

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