SETS, ELEMENTS, AND WELL-DEFINEDNESS 2.

Rule method – the set is described using a rule that defines the
elements included in the set. Example:
A set is a well-defined collection of objects. Well-defined means that A={x∨x is a one ‐ digit even number }. The | symbol is read as
you can always easily determine whether any object is included in a “such that”.
given set or not. In other words, you should always be able to answer Regardless of method, all sets must be enclosed in braces, except
the question “is x in the set?” easily, whether the answer is yes or no. when their names are used, and except for the empty set symbol ∅ (see
below).
Sets are denoted by capital letters. Objects included in a set are known
as elements. In symbols, x ∈ A means that x is an element of set A . CARDINALITY
Similarly, x ∉ A means that x is not an element of A .
The cardinality of a set is the number of elements that it has. The
Examples: cardinality of a set A is denoted by n( A) or ¿ A∨¿.

1. The set of all letters in the English alphabet is a well-defined set. It is TYPES OF SETS BY CARDINALITY
easy to tell whether any given object is in the set. A, B, and C are 1. Empty set
elements, while π , 3, and green are not. a. Has no elements
2. The set of all excellent books by male authors is not well-defined, for b. Also known as null set
several reasons. c. Symbols: ∅ or {}
a. People have different preferences, tastes, and standards for d. { ∅ } is NOT an empty set. To see why, consider this: suppose ∅ is
what makes a book “excellent”. Generally, if personal opinion is
an empty matchbox, and {} is an empty shoebox. If you put the
involved, the collection is not well-defined.
matchbox in the shoebox, the shoebox won’t be empty anymore.
b. There are books with anonymous authors, which means that it is
e. Cardinality is 0
unclear whether they were written by male authors.
f. Example: set of all numbers in the English alphabet
c. There are female authors who write some of their works using
2. Singleton set
male pen names, like Mary Ann Evans (under the pen name
a. Has one element
George Eliot) and J. K. Rowling (under the pen name Robert
b. Cardinality is 1
Galbraith). (No need to remember the names, those won’t
c. Example: set of all numbers which are neither positive nor
appear in the test.)
negative
3. Finite set
SET NOTATION
a. Has more than one element, but not infinite
b. Cardinality is greater than 1
Sets can be written formally in either of two ways. (The examples
c. Technically, singleton sets are also finite, but for purposes of
describe the same set.
discussion let’s classify them separately
1. Roster method – the elements of the set are written one by one.
d. Finite is pronounced “fay-nayt”, not “finit”
Ellipsis symbols may be used if necessary. Example:
e. Example: set of all people on Earth
A={−8 ,−6 ,−4 ,−2,0,2,4,6,8 } 4. Infinite set
 a. Has more elements than any finite set 4. Disjoint sets
b. Cardinality is ∞ a. have no elements in common
c. Example: set of all numbers from 0 to 1 b. Example: E={ x∨x is an odd number } and
F={ x∨x is an even number }
TESTING FINITE/INFINITE SETS
SUBSETS
To distinguish between finite and infinite sets, we may use the following
thought experiment. Set A is a subset of set B if all elements of set A are also elements of
1. Imagine that you are a supernatural being who can do almost set B. In symbols,
anything. However, there’s a limitation to your powers: you have to
count the elements of a set one by one to find its cardinality. You
A ⊆ B if and only if n ∈ A ⇒ n∈ B
can’t use any powers to count any set of objects.
2. Freeze time to stop the objects that you’ll be counting from
The symbol for subset is ⊆.
growing/reproducing.
3. Count the objects one by one. You’ll never have to stop, because
Given any set A , the sets A and ∅ are both subsets of A .
you won’t die or become tired/hungry/lazy/bored.
4. Can you ever finish counting? If yes, the set is finite. If not, the set is
If A is a subset of B, then B is a superset of A . In symbols, B⊇ A .
infinite.
5. Examples: The set of all the stars in the universe is finite, while the
If A is a subset of B and the two sets are not equal, then A is a proper
set of all integers is infinite.
subset of B. In symbols, A ⊂ B .
TYPES OF SETS BY RELATIONSHIP
1. Equal sets Example: If A={ x∨x is a student ¿CECS } and
a. have the exact same elements B= { x|x is a student of JPLPC }, then A ⊆B .
b. elements may appear in a different order
c. Example: A={ 1, 2 , 3 } and B= {2 , 3 ,1 } are equal sets POWER SET
d. If two sets are equal, then they are also equivalent and joint.
(The test about this topic in the problem set requires only one The power set of a set A , denoted by P( A), is the set whose elements
answer. Any correct answer will do.) are the subsets of A .
2. Equivalent sets
a. have the same cardinality If the cardinality of set A is ¿ A∨¿, then it has 2|A| subsets. Also, the
b. elements may be the same or different cardinality of its power set is |P ( A )|=2| A|.
c. Example: C={ 0,1 } and D= {1,3 } are equivalent sets
3. Joint sets When constructing the power set of a given set, it helps to write the
a. have at least one element in common subsets in alphabetical or numerical order.
b. Example: C={ 0,1 } and D= {1,3 } are joint sets
Example: Find the power set of B= {¿ ,¿ }.

P ( B )={ ∅ , { ¿ } , { ¿ } , {¿ ,¿ } }

SET OPERATIONS

There are four basic set operations. (See the next section on Venn
diagrams for more info about the figures.)

1. Union – the union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪B , is the set

of all elements in A or in B (or both). It can be formed by combining
3. Complement – the complement of a set A , denoted by A ' , is the
all the elements of A and B, then removing any duplicate elements.
set of all elements of the universal set U which are not elements of
A . (The universal set U is the set of all elements in consideration in
a given situation.) Note that in the figure below, inclusion or
exclusion from set B is irrelevant to A ' .

2. Intersection – the intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by

A ∩ B, is the set of all elements which are contained in both A and B
. It can be formed by taking all common elements of A and B.
4. Difference – the difference between sets A and B, denoted by
A−B , is the set of all elements of A which are not elements of B.
 Solution: The key to solving set-counting problems like this one is to fill
out a Venn diagram, starting with the innermost region. There are 5
people who use all three sites.

VENN DIAGRAMS

A Venn diagram is a graphical representation of a given set or sets and

the relationship between them. Venn diagrams are named after the
English mathematician John Venn, who devised the concept.

A Venn diagram is composed of a rectangle that represents the

universal set. This is labeled with a letter U at one of its corners. Sets
There are 11 people who use both Facebook and Twitter. However, this
are illustrated other shapes inside the universal rectangle, usually
includes the 5 people who use all three sites, which means that there
circles. Two joint sets are represented by overlapping circles, two
are only 6 people who use Facebook and Twitter only.
disjoint sets are represented by non-overlapping circles, a subset is
represented by a circle within another circle, and so on.

Elements may also be written inside the circles to show which sets they
belong to. The cardinality of each set may also be written inside the
circles, which is useful in set-counting problems.

Example: Fifty people were interviewed regarding three known web sites
they access frequently. How many among these 50 people access
exactly one site?

30 use Facebook 14 use Facebook and Gmail

20 use Twitter 12 use Twitter and Gmail
25 use Gmail 11 use Facebook and Twitter
5 use all three sites
The correct numbers for the other regions of the Venn diagram can be
determined in the same manner.

In some cases, the sum of all the numbers in the Venn diagram does
not match the total number of elements, or in this case, the total number
of people. The difference is the number of people who do not use any of
Similarly, the number of people who use only Facebook can be found by the three sites, or more generally, the number of elements not included
taking the number of people who use Facebook and subtracting the in any set.
number of people who use Facebook along with other sites.

The other regions of the diagram can be labeled in the same way.
 imaginary unit (so called because there is no real number whose
square is negative). This set is disjoint with R .
3. The set of rational numbers (Q ) is the set of all real numbers that
p
can be written in the form , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
q
This is a subset of R , and it includes all fractions, terminating
decimals, and repeating decimals.
4. The set of irrational numbers (Q ' ) is the set of all real numbers
which are not rational numbers. This subset of R is disjoint with Q ,
and it includes all radicals which cannot be simplified into rational
form, as well as numbers like π and ϕ .
5. The set of integers ( Z ) is the set of all rational numbers whose
denominator q is equal to 1. It is a subset of Q , and therefore also a
subset of R . The letter Z in the symbol stands for Zahlen, the
Finally, we can answer the question being asked in the problem using German word for “number”.
the Venn diagram. There are 10+2+ 4=16 people who access exactly 6. The set of whole numbers ( Z or W ) is the set of all non-negative
¿

one of the three sites mentioned. integers. It is a subset of Z , Q , and R .

−¿¿
7. The set of negative integers ( Z ) is self-explanatory. It is the
THE SET OF REAL NUMBERS AND RELATED SETS
complement of Z . Thus, it is also a subset of Z , Q , and R .
¿

The set of positive integers ( Z or N ) is also self-explanatory. It is

+¿ ¿
8.
The set of real numbers, denoted by R , is the set of all numbers that
a subset of Z , Q , W , and R . (NOTE: the letter N is used because
can be plotted on a number line. Its related sets can be described as
this set is more formally known in mathematics as the set of natural
follows. The symbol/s for each set is shown in parentheses. If there are
numbers. However, from an IT/CS/programming perspective, the
multiple symbols, you may use any of them.
set of natural numbers includes 0, which means that it refers to the
set of whole numbers. To work around any possible confusion, we’ll
1. The set of complex numbers (C ) is the set of all numbers of the
avoid using the term “natural numbers”.)
form a+ bi, where a and b are real numbers and i=√ −1. This is a
superset of the set of R , and for our purposes, it may be considered Here is a Venn diagram of the set of real numbers and related sets.
as the universal set of numbers. (The outermost shape for complex numbers should instead be a
2. The set of imaginary numbers (i R ) is the set of all numbers of the rectangle.)
form ri , where r is a real number and i=√ −1, also known as the
FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS Example: This table shows the domain and range of each of the three
relations described above.
A relation is a set of ordered pairs. An ordered pair, commonly known
as a point, has two components which are the x - and y -coordinates. Relation Domain Range
These are also known as the first element and the second element, (1) { 1 , 2, 3 } { 1 , 2, 3 }
respectively. (2) { 1 , 2, 3 } {2 , 3 , 4}
(3) {−2 , 0 ,1 , 3 } {−3 , 1 ,3 , 4 }
Relations can be illustrated in several different ways.
1. Using set notation A function is a special type of relation in which no two ordered pairs
{ ( 1,1 ) , ( 2,2 ) , ( 3,3 ) } have the same first element. Aside from the previously discussed
2. Using a table methods of writing relations, functions may also be described in the
x 1 2 3 following manner:
y 2 3 4
3. Using a mapping diagram 1. Through an equation that relates its first and second elements: y=x
2. Through function notation, where the first elements are treated as
input and the second elements are treated as output: f ( x )=x
3. Through a graph whose points represent the ordered pairs of the
function

The domain of a relation is the set of all possible values of its x -

coordinate (or first element), while the range of a relation is the set of all
possible values of its y -coordinate (or second element).
 f ( x )=x +1
f ( x )=x 2
f ( x )=−x 3 −3 x 2 +4
Polynomial functions are usually classified according to their largest
exponent.

Degree Name Changes

1 Linear 0
2 Quadratic 1
3 Cubic 2
4 Quartic 3
5 Quintic 4
DISTINGUISHING RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

The easiest way to distinguish between a relation and a function is to 2. Radical function – a radical is an expression inside a √n F ( x ) sign (a
check whether there are any ordered pairs with the same first element. radical sign). The expression F ( x ) inside is the radicand and n is
This is especially easy to do when the given information is in the form of the index.
a set, table, or mapping diagram.
1. Look for ordered pairs with the same first element.
n Name
2. If there are any, compare their second elements. 2 square root
3. If the second elements are different, the given relation is not a 3 cube root
function. Otherwise, the relation is a function. 4 fourth root
If the given is a graph, try to find a vertical line that intersects the graph
in at least two points. If you can find such a line, the graph does not Examples:
represent a function. If there are no such lines, then the graph f ( x )= √ x
represents a function. This is known as the vertical line test. 3
f ( x )= √ x 2−1
If the given is in equation or function notation, graph it and apply the
vertical line test.
3. Rational function – a rational function is a fraction whose
numerator and denominator are both polynomials. The denominator
COMMON TYPES OF FUNCTIONS
must contain the variable x .
Examples:
1. Polynomial function – a polynomial is an expression composed of
a variable (usually x ), constants/coefficients, and addition and
1
f ( x )=
subtraction signs. Any exponent of the variable must be a non-
x +1
negative integer. x 3 +1
f ( x )= 2
Examples: x −1
4. Floor function – a floor function such as flr ( x )=⌊ x ⌋ yields the
largest integer that is less than its argument, or the expression
inside it.
5. Ceiling function – a ceiling function such as clg ( x )=⌈ x ⌉ yields the
smallest integer that is greater than its argument.

The floor and ceiling functions are collectively known as stair-step

functions.

BINARY OPERATIONS

A binary operation is any operation that can be applied to two given

quantities in order to obtain a third quantity. Common examples include
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, but other operations
may also be defined.

Example: Let us define the ⊕ operation as follows:

a ⊕ b=√ a2 +b2

Then 4 ⊕3=√ 4 2 +32= √ 16+ 9=√ 25=5.

To be discussed in class:
1. Your questions about these topics
2. Piecewise functions
3. Absolute value functions