Developments in Gas Hydrates

Richard Birchwood Gas hydrates—ice-like compounds containing methane—may become a significant

Jianchun Dai
Dianna Shelander energy resource if ways can be found to exploit them. Techniques designed to find
Houston, Texas, USA and evaluate conventional oil and gas reserves are being used to characterize gas
Ray Boswell hydrate deposits and to map their distribution.
US Department of Energy
National Energy Technology Laboratory
Morgantown, West Virginia, USA

Timothy Collett
US Geological SURVEY
DENVER, Colorado, USA
Gas hydrate deposits hold copious amounts of 1
Ann Cook hydrocarbon. Estimates range over several orders of

Ice-water phase boundary

Lamont-Doherty Earth OBSERVATORY Earth magnitude, but the volume of gas contained in gas
Institute of Columbia UNIVERSITY hydrate accumulations is thought to be more than that
Palisades, New York, USA in all the world’s known gas reserves. M ethane
These accumulations often occur in parts of the 5 ga s + ice
Scott Dallimore
world that lack conventional reserves, poten- tially
Geological SURVEY of Canada Sidney,
bringing a new level of self-sufficiency to countries
British Columbia, Canada 10
that rely on imported oil and gas. The promise of
Kasumi Fujii this untapped energy source is prompt- ing several Met hane
government and industry groups to initiate detailed
Pressure, atm

Yutaka Imasato gas + water

Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan investigations into developing gas hydrates.
M ethane
In addition to their potential role as an energy
h ydrate
Masafumi Fukuhara source, gas hydrates can present drilling hazards, 50
+ g as + ice
Moscow, Russia threaten flow assurance, affect seafloor stability and
store or release greenhouse gases. Although these are 100
Koji Kusaka all important issues, this discussion focuses on the
Tokyo, Japan benefits of gas hydrates as a supply of natural gas for
future energy needs. Methane hydrate
Doug Murray This article reviews results of some early + wate r + gas
Beijing, China hydrate studies and presents the findings of new
500
international efforts that are using advanced
Tatsuo Saeki technologies to characterize properties and dis-
Japan Oil, Gas and Metals 1,000
–10 0 10 20 30 40
National Corporation
Temperature, C
Chiba City, Chiba, Japan tributions of gas hydrates. Case studies from the > Phase diagram of methane hydrate stability.
Gulf of Mexico, Japan and India demonstrate how The methane-water combination is a solid at low
Oilfield REVIEW Spring 2010: 22, no. 1. Copyright © temperatures and high pressures (hatched shading).
2010 Schlumberger. oilfield technologies are helping to identify and At higher temperatures and lower pressures, solid
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Barbara hydrate dissociates into its gas and water
Anderson, Brookfield, Connecticut, USA; George Bunge, Houston;
evaluate gas hydrate accumulations. Examples from
Emrys Jones, Chevron, Houston; Tebis Llobet, Yuzhno- Canada and the USA show how natural gas can be components.
Sakhalinsk, Sakhalin, Russia; Yuri Makogon, Texas A&M
University, College Station, Texas; and Osamu Osawa, Sagamihara, produced from these reservoirs.
Japan.
CHFR, DMR, EcoScope, geoVISION, MDT, PeriScope, RAB,
sonicVISION and TeleScope are marks of Schlumberger.

Spring 2010 1
 H

C H
H
> Gas hydrate crystal structure. Methane [CH4] (green and white) H
is the guest molecule in a cage formed by water [H2O] molecules (red and
white). This structure is one of five types of water cages that contain
guest gas molecules. Gas hydrates have been produced from some
sites in the Arctic, such as this one in Alaska, USA. (Photograph
courtesy of the Mount Elbert gas hydrate stratigraphic test well
project.)

Basics of Gas Hydrates compact nature of the hydrate structure results in Throughout the 19th century hydrates were
Gas hydrates are crystalline solids that resem- ble ice. highly efficient packing of methane. A volume of concocted in laboratories and remained mere
Structurally they are clathrates, or com- pounds in hydrate contains gas that will expand to some- where experimental curiosities without practical appli-
which the basic structure consists of a cage-like between 150 and 180 volumes at standard pressure cations. It was only after the 1920s—when pipe- lines
crystal of water molecules contain- ing a gas and temperature. began to transport methane from gas fields—that a
molecule, called a guest (above). Of greatest Chemists have known about gas hydrates for more better understanding of hydrates was required for
interest to the energy industry are methane than 200 years. As with many aspects of sci- entific practical applications. In cold weather, solid plugs
hydrates, which are also the most abundant in discovery, the history of hydrates is open to debate. would sometimes disrupt gas flow through pipelines.
nature. However, the earliest formation of hydrate in the These blockages were at first interpreted to be frozen
Gas hydrates form when sufficient amounts of laboratory seems to be in 1778 by Joseph Priestley, water. However, in the 1930s the cause of the
water and gas are present at the right combina- tion who inadvertently obtained a hydrate of sulfur problems was correctly
of temperature and pressure (previous page). dioxide.1 The first documented identification of
Outside this stability zone hydrates disso- ciate into 1. Makogon YF: Hydrates of Hydrocarbons. Tulsa: PennWell
hydrocarbon hydrates was in 1888 by Paul Villard, Publishing Co., 1997.
their water and gas components. The who synthesized hydrates of methane and other
gaseous hydrocarbons.
 1968 ice cores containing air hydrates were
extracted during scientific drilling at Byrd Station in
western Antarctica.5
In the 1970s scientists on deepsea drilling
expeditions discovered that gas hydrates occur
naturally and abundantly in deepwater sediments on outer
continental margins. Recently, hydrate masses have
been observed on the ocean floor and, in one case,
> Marine and onshore hydrate locations. About 98% of the gas hydrate resources are concentrated in marine were brought to the surface by fishing net.6 These
sediments, with the other 2% beneath permafrost. Most of the mapped occurrences of recovered gas hydrates near-surface concentrations of hydrates in sediments
(blue) have been discovered by scientific drilling programs, and the inferred gas hydrate accumulations (orange) have
been identified by seismic imaging. [Data from Lorenson TD and Kvenvolden KA: A Global Inventory of Natural Gas are often associated with gas seeps, also called cold
Hydrate Occurrence, USGS, http://walrus.wr. usgs.gov/globalhydrate/index.html (accessed March 24, 2010).] vents, such as those in the Gulf of Mexico and off
the Pacific coast of Canada and the USA.7
Scientists now know gas hydrates occur natu- rally
in many parts of the world (left). The typical depth
Recovered gas hydrates Inferred gas hydrates range for hydrate stability lies 100 to 500 m [330 to
1,600 ft] beneath the seafloor. About 98% of these
resources are believed to be concen- trated in
marine sediments, with the other 2% in polar
landmasses. Significant accumulations have been
identified on the North Slope of Alaska, USA; in the
Northwest Territories of Canada; in the Gulf of
Mexico; and offshore Japan, India, South Korea
and China.
identified as methane hydrates.2 This revelation In 1946 Russian scientists proposed that the Only a small proportion of the evidence for
ushered in a new era of hydrate studies, and conditions and resources for hydrate generation and hydrate accumulations comes from direct sam- pling;
investigators developed principles for predicting the stability exist in nature, in areas covered by most is inferred from other sources, such as seismic
formation of hydrates and methods for inhib- iting and permafrost.4 This prediction was followed by the reflections, well logs, drilling data and pore-water
controlling them.3 discovery of naturally occurring hydrates. In salinity measurements from cores. Borehole and core
data indicate the distribution of hydrates in sediments
2. Ziegenhain WT: “Every Precaution Taken to Eliminate 9. Frye M: “Preliminary Evaluation of In-Place Gas Hydrate
Clogging of New Chicago Gas Line,” Oil & Gas Journal 30, no. Resources: Gulf of Mexico Outer Continental Shelf,” OCS varies according to the conditions under which they
19 (1931): 34. Report MMS 2008–004: US Department of the Interior, Minerals form. Some cores exhibit sparse amounts of hydrates
Hammerschmidt EG: “Formation of Gas Hydrates in Management Service, February 1, 2008.
Natural Gas Transmission Lines,” Industrial & 10. “Gulf of Mexico Gas Hydrates Joint Industry Project (JIP)
distributed in clay-rich sediments, while others contain
Engineering Chemistry 26, no. 8 (1934): 851–855. Characterizing Natural Gas Hydrates in the Deep Water inter- vals of highly concentrated gas hydrate in sandy
3. Carroll J: Natural Gas Hydrates: A Guide for Engineers. Gulf of Mexico—Applications for Safe
Exploration,” National Methane Hydrates R&D Program, US sediments, and nearly pure, solid gas hydrate has been
Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Elsevier, 2003, http://www.
knovel.com/web/portal/browse/display?_EXT_KNOVEL_ Department of Energy, http://www.netl.doe.gov/ found as fracture-filling material in clay- rich
DISPLAY_bookid=1275 (accessed February 27, 2010). technologies/oil-gas/futuresupply/methanehydrates/
projects/DOEProjects/CharHydGOM-41330.html (accessed zones.
4. Makogon, reference 1. February 17, 2010). Extrapolating these different scenarios of
5. Miller SL: “Clathrate Hydrates of Air in Antarctic Ice,” 11. The results of the 2005 expedition, for which WesternGeco
Science 165, no. 3892 (August 1969): 489–490. distribution to all areas where gas hydrates are
donated the seismic data and acquisition, were published as a
6. Riedel M, Hyndman RD, Spence GD, Chapman NR, thematic set: Ruppel C, Boswell R and Jones E (eds): Marine presumed to occur has led to a tremendous range of
Novosel I and Edwards N: “Hydrate on the Cascadia and Petroleum Geology 25, no. 9 (November 2008): 819–988. potential resource estimates—anywhere from 2.8 ×
Accretionary Margin of North America,” presented at the 12. “DOE-Sponsored Expedition Confirms Resource-Quality Gas
AAPG Hedberg Research Conference, September 12–16, Hydrates in the Gulf of Mexico,” National Methane Hydrates 1015 to 8 × 1018 m3 [9.9 × 1016 to 2.8 × 1020 ft3]
2004, Vancouver, British Columbia, R&D Program, US Department of Energy, http://
Canada, http://www.searchanddiscovery.net/documents/ of methane globally.8 Narrowing this spread requires
www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/FutureSupply/
abstracts/2004hedberg_vancouver/extended/reidel/ reidel.htm MethaneHydrates/2009GOMJIP/index.html (accessed February advances in several areas: clearer insight into how
(accessed February 17, 2010). 10, 2010).
7. Brooks JM, Cox HB, Bryant WR, Kennicutt MC II,
hydrates are generated and deposited, better
Shedd B, Godfriaux P, Frye M, Boswell R and
Mann RG and McDonald TJ: “Association of Gas Hutchinson D: “Occurrence and Variety in Seismic understanding of the effects of hydrates on borehole
Hydrates and Oil Seepage in the Gulf of Mexico,”
Organic Geochemistry 10, no. 1–3 (1986): 221–234.
Expression of the Base of Gas Hydrate Stability in the and geophysical measurements, and fuller exploration
Gulf of Mexico, USA,” Fire in the Ice (Winter 2009): 11–
Reidel M, Collett TS, Malone MJ and Expedition 311 14, http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/ of areas where conditions for gas hydrate stability
Scientists: “Cascadia Margin Gas Hydrates: Expedition 311 of publications/Hydrates/Newsletter/MHNewswinter09. exist.
the Riserless Drilling Platform: Balboa, Panama, to Victoria, pdf#page=11 (accessed March 23, 2010).
British Columbia (Canada),” Proceedings of the Integrated 13. Boswell R, Collett T, Frye M, McConnell D, Shedd W, The most widespread evidence for accumula-
Ocean Drilling Program, vol 311, http:// Dufrene R, Godfriaux P, Mrozewski S, Guerin G and Cook A: tions of hydrates offshore comes from seismic data.
publications.iodp.org/proceedings/311/311title.htm (accessed “Gulf of Mexico Gas Hydrate Joint Industry Project
March 24, 2010). Leg II: Technical Summary,” http://www.netl.doe.gov/ The potentially strong acoustic impedance contrast
8. Collett TS, Johnson AH, Knapp CC and Boswell R: technologies/oil-gas/publications/Hydrates/2009Reports/ between gas hydrate–bearing sediments and adjacent
“Natural Gas Hydrates: A Review,” in Collett TS, Johnson TechSum.pdf (accessed March 9, 2010).
AH, Knapp CC and Boswell R (eds): Natural Gas Hydrates— sediments that contain free gas or
Energy Resource Potential and Associated Geologic Hazards.
Tulsa: The American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
AAPG Memoir 89 (2010): 146–219.
 water can cause a high-amplitude reflection. The
Alaminos Canyon
reflection depth depends on the temperature and
pressure conditions conducive to hydrate stabil- ity; 3,300
typically, it parallels the seafloor. Such inter- faces are 3,400
Seafloor
known as bottom-simulating reflectors (BSRs), and
the seismic reflections they cause often cut across 3,500
Gas hydrate– stability zone
structural and stratigraphic reflections. However, 3,600
lack of a BSR does not pre- clude the presence of
3,700 BSR
hydrates.

Two-way time, ms
The discovery of BSRs in many parts of the 3,800
world has led government agencies, energy compa- nies
3,900
and other institutions to form collaborative ventures to JIP Leg I drillsite (2005) JIP Leg II drillsite (2009) Hydrate indicator
assess particular hydrate accumula- tions. One such 4,000
New Orleans
joint industry project (JIP) is investigating hydrates 4,100
in the Gulf of Mexico. Amplitude
4,200

Gulf of Mexico Hydrate Assessment 4,300

0km 150
The Minerals Management Service (MMS) of the US 0mi150 Green Canyon
4,400 AT-14
Department of the Interior has used seismic data, along 2010 WesternGeco Used by Permission
4,500 Atwater Valley
with wellbore, geologic, geochemical and AC-21
KC-195 GC-955 WR-313
paleontological information, to assess large areas of Keathley Canyon Walker Ridge
the Gulf of Mexico—about 174,000 mi2 Alaminos Canyon

>
[450,000 km2]—where pressure and tempera- ture Seismic section with a bottom-simulating reflector (BSR) from the Gulf of Mexico. A BSR is caused
by the acoustic impedance contrast between hydrate-bearing and non-hydrate-bearing sediments. This BSR cuts across
conditions are suitable for hydrate-stability layering and a fault and represents the base of the hydrate-stability zone. The reflecting interface separates stiffer
conditions.9 The MMS study estimates the total in- material above from less stiff material below, giving rise to a seismic reflection with polarity opposite to that at the
place volume of biogenically generated gas hydrates seafloor. The high-amplitude signals on the right side of the section probably indicate free gas trapped below the
hydrate. The 2005 Gulf of Mexico JIP expedition investigated sites in the Atwater Valley and Keathley Canyon areas.
ranges from 11,112 to 34,423 Tcf [315 to In 2009 JIP scientists drilled and logged boreholes in Alaminos Canyon, Walker Ridge and Green Canyon. Geophysical
975 trillion m3]. indicators of the base of the hydrate-stability zone are shown in red on the inset map. (Map adapted from Shedd et al,
In 2000 Chevron and the US Department of reference 12; seismic section courtesy of WesternGeco.)
Energy initiated a JIP to develop technology and
acquire data to help characterize naturally
occurring gas hydrates in the deepwater Gulf of
Mexico.10 In addition to assessing the impact of Walker Ridge Block 313
3,350
hydrates on drilling safety and seafloor stability, the NW SE
project strives to understand the long-term potential 3,400
of hydrates as a supply of natural gas.
In the early phases of the project, JIP team 3,450

members acquired and analyzed seismic data,

3,500
selected drilling locations and conducted a 35-
day drilling, coring and logging expedition 3,550
Two-way time, ms

covering several sites.11 In 2009 the JIP con-

Base of gas hydrate stability
ducted a second expedition, which included sites in 3,600

the Walker Ridge and Green Canyon areas.12

3,650
Borehole locations were selected based on an
integrated geologic and geophysical analysis of 3,700
indicators for the presence of gas hydrates at high
saturations within sand reservoirs (above right). The 3,750

JIP program in the Gulf of Mexico has provided

3,800
substantial information on gas hydrate exploration
and drilling hazard assessment. Amplitude
3,850
 2010 WesternGeco Used by Permission
Gas hydrate exploration—An example of a
3,900
hydrate indicator in the Walker Ridge area is the
discontinuous high-amplitude reflection that cor- > Seismic data from Walker Ridge Block 313, Gulf of Mexico. The seismic section shows a series of isolated
responds to the updip terminations of free gas in high-amplitude spots (blue and red) that delineate the base of the hydrate-stability zone. The high-amplitude reflections
are discontinuous in this view because the layers have varying lithology and are steeply dipping. Free gas and gas
sandstones (right). The high amplitudes track the hydrates are concentrated in the sand-rich layers. Because shale-rich layers contain little or no hydrate, they do not
base of the hydrate-stability zone.13 exhibit significant amplitudes. Horizons A and B are discussed in a later figure. (Courtesy of WesternGeco.)
Cement at Contacts Grain Coating 5.5
M1 M2
5.0

M1
M3
Supporting Matrix or Grains
4.5 M4
M3

P-wave velocity, km/s

4.0
M5
Pore-Fill 3.5
M4
3.0

2.5

2.0

Matrix and Inclusions Fracture-Fill 1.5

M6 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
M5
Gas hydrate saturation, %

3.0

2.5 M1
M3
> Microstructural models of hydrate-bearing sediments. In the first five of the six

S-wave velocity, km/s

2.0
models, gas hydrates (blue) are evenly distributed throughout the sedimentary grains M2
(tan) to a first approximation. Hydrate may occur as cement at grain contacts (top
left), as coating on grains (top right), as a component of the grain matrix (middle left) 1.5
or as pore-filling material (middle right). The fifth model considers sedimentary
grains as inclusions in a hydrate matrix (bottom left). The sixth model (bottom right) M4
depicts hydrates as nodules or fracture-fill in fine-grained, low-permeability 1.0
sediments. These models are used to simulate the response of hydrate- bearing
sediments to logging and seismic measurements. (Adapted from Dai et al, reference M5
0.5
14.)

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Gas hydrate saturation, %
> Comparison of measured and modeled seismic velocities in hydrate- bearing
sediments. Compressional-wave (P-wave) velocities (top) measured in hydrate-rich
layers in a Canadian well (blue triangles) are plotted with velocities calculated
Predicting gas hydrate saturation from seis- mic using the models described in the previous figure. The measured velocities best fit
data in the Walker Ridge and Green Canyon areas the velocities from the model treating hydrate as a component of the grain
requires a rock physics model that estab- lishes the matrix (M3).
relationship between those elastic properties that Shear-wave (S-wave) velocities (bottom) show a similar match. (Adapted
from Dai et al, reference 14.)
control the speed of acoustic energy through
sediments and gas hydrate satu-
rations; in other settings around the world high A comparison of seismic velocities computed 14. Shelander D, Dai J and Bunge G: “Predicting Saturation of Gas
hydrate concentrations have been associated with from these models with those measured in hydrate- Hydrates Using Pre-Stack Seismic Data, Gulf
of Mexico,” Marine Geophysical Researches, 2010 (in
increases in acoustic velocities.14 Several models bearing rocks indicates that the model in which press).
have been proposed to explain this effect, and all of hydrate acts as a component of the grain matrix fits Dai J, Xu H, Snyder F and Dutta N: “Detection and
them indicate that these properties are highly the data best (above right). In this model hydrate Estimation of Gas Hydrates Using Rock Physics and
Seismic Inversion: Examples from the Northern
dependent on the location of hydrate in the sediment neither coats nor cements sedi- ment grains. Inputs Deepwater Gulf of Mexico,” The Leading Edge 23, no. 1
(above left). Theoretically, hydrate may occur in include rock porosity and hydrate saturation, (January 2004): 60–66.
Kleinberg RL, Flaum C, Griffin DD, Brewer PG, Malby GE,
sedimentary rocks as cement at grain contacts or as enabling estimates of hydrate saturation if porosity Peltzer ET and Yesinowski JP: “Deep Sea NMR: Methane
coating on grains. It may also act as a component of and seismic velocity are known. Furthermore, Hydrate Growth Habit in Porous Media and
Its Relationship to Hydraulic Permeability, Deposit
the grain matrix or may fill pores. These porosity can be related to seismic velocity, so hydrate Accumulation, and Submarine Slope Stability,” Journal of
microstructural models all consider the hydrate to be saturation can be cal- culated from velocity alone. Geophysical Research 108, no. B10 (2003): 2508–2525.
15. For a description of the type of inversion used: Mallick S,
evenly distributed in sediments, and equations have Velocities are usually obtained by inversion of Huang X, Lauve J and Ahmad R: “Hybrid Seismic
been derived to link gas hydrate concentration to seismic data for acoustic impedance, which is the Inversion: A Reconnaissance Tool for Deepwater
Exploration,” The Leading Edge 19, no. 11 (November 2000):
elastic properties. Because gas hydrates have also product of density and velocity. However, in gas 1230–1237.
been encoun- tered in cores as nodules and hydrates density does not vary much with satura- tion For more on seismic inversion in general: Barclay F, Bruun
fracture-fill, these less homogeneous forms of and therefore can be neglected for a first A, Rasmussen KB, Camara Alfaro J, Cooke A, Cooke D,
Salter D, Godfrey R, Lowden D, McHugo S, Ozdemir H,
distribution must also be considered, although no approximation. This makes it possible to esti- mate Pickering S, Gonzalez Pineda F, Herwanger J, Volterrani S,
quantitative treat- ment of such distributions has saturation solely from acoustic impedance. Murineddu A, Rasmussen A and Roberts R: “Seismic
Inversion: Reading Between the Lines,”
been developed. Oilfield REVIEW 20, no. 1 (Spring 2008): 42–63.
16. Boswell et al, reference 13.
In support of the JIP effort, geophysicists at hold the thickest and most highly saturated reservoirs.
WesternGeco performed high-resolution, full- In April 2009 the JIP drilled and logged five wells at the Walker Ridge and Green Canyon sites. Four
waveform prestack inversion and combined the results of the wells encountered sand reser- voirs with gas hydrate at saturations exceeding 50% and potentially as
with conventional linear prestack inver- sion to high as 85%.16 At the Green Canyon site one well penetrated nearly 100 ft [30 m] of gas hydrate–bearing
produce estimates of P-wave and S-wave impedances sand (below).
in the 3D volumes created by the seismic surveys.15
These impedances, in turn, were converted into
saturation cubes (right). Predrill gas hydrate
saturation estimates in Walker Ridge and Green
Well G Well H
Canyon clearly high- lighted those areas expected to Well H
Well G
Horizon A
N
Horizon B

0 40
Hydrate saturation, %
> Gas hydrate saturations in Walker Ridge estimated from seismic inversion. Saturations range from 0% to 40%
(green to red). Horizon A (left) lies stratigraphically above Horizon B (right). Well H penetrates both horizons within
the gas hydrate–stability zone, but Well G penetrates only Horizon A in the gas hydrate–stability zone, intersecting
Horizon B at a deeper point. The white dot is an oil and gas industry well not related to the gas hydrate study. The base
of the gas hydrate–stability zone is marked by BGHS. (Adapted from Shelander et al, reference 14.)
 Caliper Density Hydrate Saturation

1,340

1,360

1,380

1,400

1,420

1,440

1,460

1,480

> Well logs (left) from a Green Canyon gas hydrate well. High resistivities (Track 3) are the clearest indications of gas hydrates (pink shading) in this 100-ft sand. Deeper,
thinner sands also contain hydrates. The caliper log (Track 1) shows washouts in the hydrate-free zones (blue shading). Washouts can lead to poor density results (Track 4). Estimated
gas hydrate saturations (Track 5) range from 50% to more than 85% and depend on the saturation exponent, n, used in Archie’s law, which relates resistivity to porosity and
saturation. Personnel prepare LWD tools on the Q4000 floating drilling unit (right). (Photograph courtesy of the JIP Leg II Science Team.)
Well H Scientists confirmed that at the Walker Ridge site,
NE 8,600 SW gas hydrate occurred in multiple reservoir sands and
3,360
fully saturated them over their geo- logic extent.
3,380 The Gulf of Mexico JIP Legs I and II are the
first drilling projects to have prepared predrill
3,400
estimates of gas hydrate saturation and then tested
8,800
3,420 them by subsequent drilling. The excellent results
3,440
provide increased confidence in the geo- logic and
geophysical concepts and technologies applied by the
Two-way time, ms

3,460 JIP team (left).17

Depth, ft

3,480
9,000
Gamma ray
Assessing gas hydrate drilling hazards—
Resistivity Drilling wells into gas hydrate accumulations
3,500 Sonic slowness requires consideration of several wellbore-
3,520 stability issues. The drilling process must avoid stress-
9,200 0 Hydrate saturation, % 40 induced mechanical failure, washouts and fluid influx
3,540
resulting from hydrate dissociation and shallow-
3,560 water or free-gas flows.
3,580
In support of the JIP 2009 expedition,
9,400 Schlumberger geomechanics experts evaluated
3,600
9,380 9,370 9,360 9,350 9,340 9,330 9,320 9,310 9,300
Inline number

> Estimated saturations and acquired well logs through a gas hydrate zone. Seismic inversion predicted high
Pump Rate, galUS/min

420 3.65 3.13 2.72 2.

saturations of gas hydrate (reds) in Horizon B at the location of Well H. High concentrations of gas hydrate 410 3.40 2.92 2.53 2.
can be inferred from the high resistivity values (yellow log) and sonic slownesses (green log). The decrease in gamma
400 3.16 2.71 2.35 2.
ray readings (blue log) indicates the layer is a sand. (Adapted from Shelander et al, reference 14.)
390 2.93 2.51 2.18 1.
380 2.71 2.32 2.01 1.
370 2.50 2.14 1.86 1.
360 2.30 1.97 1.71 1.
Bit Total Flow Area, in.2 350 2.12 1.81 1.57 1.
0.52 0.56 0.60 0.65 0.69 0.74 0.79 340 1.94 1.66 1.44 1.
 330 1.77 1.52 1.32 1.14 1.00 0.88 0.77 the proposed drilling locations and flagged sites where
320 1.62 1.39 1.20 1.04 0.91 0.80 0.70 excess pore pressure presented potential drilling
310 1.47 1.26 1.09 0.95 0.83 0.73 0.64 hazards. They also developed methods to predict the
300 1.33 1.14 0.99 0.86 0.75 0.66 0.58 mechanical and phase stability of boreholes drilled
290 1.20 1.03 0.89 0.78 0.68 0.59 0.52 in sediments containing gas hydrates. These methods
280 1.08 0.93 0.81 0.70 0.61 0.53 0.47 involved calibration correlations relating the
270 0.97 0.83 0.72 0.63 0.55 0.48 0.42 mechanical properties of hydrate-bearing sediments to
> Optimizing circulation rates and bit design for the Green Canyon area. This table log- and seismic- derived data.18 Using numerical
shows bit hydraulic horsepower per square inch (HSI) as a function of the bit simulators, the JIP team modeled the while-drilling
total flow area and the circulation, or pump, rate. The light-yellow shading denotes borehole temperatures and estimated the energy of
the range of circulation rates and bit sizes that maintains the bit HSI between 1 and 1.5 impact of drilling fluid streams impinging on the
to minimize hole erosion and optimize the mechanical action of the bit. An additional
design criterion governing the circulation rate was to ensure that gas hydrate did not forma- tion from bit nozzles.
dissociate during drilling. These analyses enabled the JIP team to evalu- ate
the potential for mechanical failure of the borehole,
gas hydrate dissociation and hydraulic erosion of the
sediment. Design criteria were developed to
optimize bit selection and circula- tion practice
(left).
17. Jones E: “Characterizing Natural Gas Hydrates in the
Deep Water Gulf of Mexico: Applications for Safe
Exploration and Production Activities, Semi- Annual
Progress Report #41330417,” prepared for the US
Department of Energy, October 2009, http://
www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/publications/
Shear Failure
Hydrates/2009Reports/NT41330_SemiAnnSep2009.PDF (accessed
February 10, 2010). Mud Weight
18. Birchwood R, Singh R and Mese A: “Estimating the In
8 lbm/galUS 18 Gas
Situ Mechanical Properties of Sediments Containing
Hydrates,” Proceedings ofModeled
the 6th International
Pore PressureConference
on Gas Hydrates, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada,
8 lbm/galUS 18
July 6–10, 2008.
19. Schlumberger provided several LWDModeled
services, including
sonicVISION sonic logging,Horizontal
EcoScopeStress
multifunction logging,
TeleScope high-speed telemetry,
8 geoVISION imaging
lbm/galUS 18 and
PeriScope bed boundary mapping. Out of
Unconfined Compressive Modeled Gauge
During the 2009 campaign, several LWD tools update predrillGammamodels
Strength Shear Failure Envelope
Ray and to diagnose
Dilation drilling modeling and correlation
Angle methods (below). Bit Size The
were run in the JIP boreholes, including an experi- situations.0 This made
gAPI it possible
150 to optimize drill- ing success of the drilling campaign confirmed 8 that
in. with
12
mental multipole sonic tool to evaluate shear practices
Depth, over the course of the expedition. proper
–10 deg 50 0 MPaplanning 10 and
8 careful engineering
lbm/galUS 18 design, gas
velocities in the unconsolidated hydrate-rich sedi- ft
The predictions made by wellbore-stability
Resistivity Friction Angle and Static
hydrate
Young’sformations
Modulus can be drilled
Modeled safely. Density Caliper
Overburden
ments.19 Transmission of LWD data in real time downhole0 temperature
ohm.m models20 were consis- tent with 8 in. 12
enabled shipboard and onshore specialists to observed data, raising confidence –10in the deg 50 0 MPa 500 8 lbm/galUS 18

7,000

Gas
. Elastoplastic wellbore-stability model in Green Canyon hydrates
Block 955, Well H. High resistivities (Track 1, in clay-
orange) indicate the presence of gas hydrates. Track 2 7,500 rich
shows the friction (green) and dilation (purple) angles. layers
A binary lithology model predicts much higher friction
angles in sands than in clays, particularly in shallower
sections where the confining stress at the borehole
wall is low. The dilation angle is estimated in sands
using a correlation; it is assumed to be zero in clays.
Track 3 displays the static Young’s modulus (red) and the
unconfined compressive strength (blue). Both show a
tendency to increase whenever gas hydrate is
present in the main target sands, between 8,077 and Predicted
8,186 ft, but are relatively unaffected by the presence hole
of gas hydrates in clays. Track 4 contains the output of enlargement
the wellbore-stability model: pore pressure (blue), 8,000
shear failure envelope (green), horizontal stress
(magenta) and overburden stress (red).
The mud weight used to drill the well is shown in
brown. The model predicts a stable borehole Target
everywhere except in the olive-shaded intervals, where gas
the shear failure envelope exceeds the mud weight. hydrate–
Such intervals are prone to hole enlargement due to bearing
sands
Observed
hole
enlargement
shear failure. Track 5 shows the difference (blue
shading) between the bit size (black) and the density
caliper (purple). The borehole is generally close to
gauge; however, some hole enlargement can be seen in
sandy zones between 8,000 and 8,328 ft, where there is
little or no gas hydrate. The wellbore-stability model
predicts that such zones are too weak to support a
borehole. The model also correctly accounts for the
strengthening effect of gas hydrates in sand intervals
where the borehole is in gauge.
 Hydrates in the Eastern Nankai Trough
Gamagori
Another area of gas hydrate exploration is off-
shore Japan, in the region of the eastern Nankai
Trough. Seismic data indicate widespread exis- tence
of BSRs (left). In 1999 a Japanese govern- ment–
funded project drilling in the eastern Nankai Trough
successfully penetrated a BSR and recovered a
number of gas hydrate sam- ples.20 A few years
later, in 2001, the Japanese government initiated an
0km 50
0mi50
18-year exploration project to evaluate the
distribution of gas hydrates, estimate reserves and
develop a meth- ane hydrate field.21
As part of this program, 2D and 3D seismic
surveys were acquired and 32 wells were drilled
through the BSR in water depths of 722 to 2,033 m
[2,370 to 6,670 ft]. The base of the hydrate-
JJ AA PP AA NN stability zone ranges from 177 to 345 m [581 to
1,132 ft] below the seafloor. Of the wells drilled,
16 were logged with LWD tools, 12 were cored, 2
were logged with wireline tools, and 1 was
equipped with long-term temperature sensors.22 Cores
were retrieved from a variety of hydrate- rich
sediments (below).
One of the many studies focused on analysis of
well logs for determination of gas hydrate satu-
0km 200
ration.23 As solids in the pore space, gas hydrates are
0mi200 invisible to NMR tools. Although there are
hydrogen atoms in both the water and the meth- ane,
they are locked in the hydrate lattice struc- ture and
> The region of the Nankai Trough, offshore Japan. Drilling locations in the eastern their spins cannot be manipulated by the NMR tool.
Nankai Trough area are shown as red dots (inset). Seismic BSRs (purple)
indicate the presence of hydrates over vast areas. Their absence from the NMR mea- surement results in
a porosity value that is typi- cally lower than that
measured by other tools.

> Gas hydrates from the eastern Nankai Trough. At one site the gas hydrate (white) occupies a layer within a mud-silt zone (left). At a different site, the gas hydrate is
disseminated in the pore space of a sand layer (right). The scale is in centimeters.
This difference can be used to estimate hydrate measurements showed alternation of hydrate- and non-hydrate-bearing layers (right). The difference
volume. The method is analogous to the DMR between porosities seen by the magnetic resonance tool and those com- puted from the density tool data
density–magnetic resonance technique developed to corresponds to the approximate volume of hydrate contained in the sediments. Saturations calculated from
determine gas saturation in gas reservoirs.24 the resistivity and magnetic resonance responses are comparable except where washouts have affected the
Such a technique helped log analysts esti- mate density and magnetic resonance readings. Washouts occur mainly in the non-hydrate- bearing layers.
saturation from wireline logs in an eastern Nankai Using all available core, log and seismic data, experts estimate the total amount of methane gas in the
Trough well.25 Gamma ray, caliper, resistivity, surveyed area of the eastern Nankai Trough to be 40 Tcf [1.1 trillion m3].26
neutron, density, magnetic resonance and sonic The Japanese program has recently announced that it will proceed with preparations to conduct field tests
of gas hydrate productivity at sites within the
Nankai Trough.27 Porosity Difference

Depth, m
Density Porosity
Washout 80 % 0
Hunting Hydrates in India
Bit Size NMR Porosity
Gas hydrate is also a potential source of energy for 10 in. 20 80 % 0
DMR Water
Saturation
India, which currently does not produce enough Caliper Deep Resistivity Neutron Porosity 100 % 0
oil and gas to fuel its growing economy. The 10 in. 20 0.2 ohm.m 200 80 % 0 Resistivity Water
presence of gas hydrates on India’s continen- tal Gamma Ray Shallow Resistivity DMR Porosity Saturation
margins has been inferred from BSRs seen in seismic 0 gAPI 100 0.2 ohm.m 200 80 % 0 100 % 0
data. The total estimated resource from natural gas
hydrates in the country is placed at 1,894 trillion
X10
m3 [66,880 Tcf].28
In 1997 the government of India formed the
National Gas Hydrates Program (NGHP) to explore and
develop the country’s gas hydrate resources.

X20

X30

X40

> Formation evaluation in a hydrate zone. Track 1 plots gamma ray (green) and caliper
(solid black). Blue fill indicates washed-out intervals. Track 2 contains shallow and
deep resistivity data. High resistivities correspond to hydrate-rich zones. Low
resistivities signify laminations without hydrate— layers that tend to wash out
during drilling. Track 3 contains neutron porosity (dotted blue), density porosity
(red), NMR porosity (black) and the DMR porosity obtained by combining density
and NMR measurements (green). Gold shading represents the volume of gas hydrate.
Track 4 shows the water saturations calculated using the resistivity (red) and
density- NMR-difference technique (blue). Several spikes in Tracks 3 and 4 correlate
with borehole washouts.

20. Matsumoto R, Takedomi Y and Wasada H: “Exploration of

23. Murray D, Kleinberg R, Sinha B, Fukuhara M, Osawa O, 26. Fujii T, Saeki T, Kobayashi T, Inamori T, Hayashi M,
Marine Gas Hydrates in Nankai Trough, Offshore Central
Endo T and Namikawa T: “Formation Evaluation of Gas Takano O, Takayama T, Kawasaki T, Nagakubo S,
Japan,” presented at the AAPG Annual Convention,
Hydrate Reservoirs,” Transactions of the SPWLA 46th Nakamizu M and Yokoi K: “Resource Assessment of
Denver, June 3–6, 2001.
Annual Logging Symposium, New Orleans, June 26–29, 2005, Methane Hydrate in the Eastern Nankai Trough, Japan,” paper
21. Fukuhara M, Sugiyama H, Igarashi J, Fujii K, Shun’etsu O, paper SSS. OTC 19310, presented at the Offshore Technology Conference,
Tertychnyi V, Shandrygin A, Pimenov V, Shako V, Houston, May 5–8, 2008.
24. Freedman R, Cao Minh C, Gubelin G, Freeman JJ,
Matsubayashi O and Ochiai K: “Model-Based Temperature
McGinness T, Terry B and Rawlence D: “Combining NMR 27. Masuda Y, Yamamoto K, Tadaaki S, Ebinuma T and
Measurement System Development
and Density Logs for Petrophysical Analysis in Gas- Nagakubo S: “Japan’s Methane Hydrate R&D Program
for Marine Methane Hydrate-Bearing Sediments,”
Bearing Formations,” Transactions of the SPWLA 39th Annual Progresses to Phase 2,” Fire in the Ice (Fall 2009): 1–6,
Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Gas
Logging Symposium, Keystone, Colorado, USA, May 26–29, http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/
Hydrates, Trondheim, Norway, June 13–16, 2005.
1998, paper II. publications/Hydrates/Newsletter/MHNewsFall09.
22. Takahashi H and Tsuji Y: “Multi-Well Exploration pdf#Page=1 (accessed March 9, 2010).
Program in 2004 for Natural Hydrate in the Nankai- 25. Murray DR, Kleinberg RL, Sinha BK, Fukuhara M,
Trough Offshore Japan,” paper OTC 17162, presented at the Osawa O, Endo T and Namikawa T: “Saturation, Acoustic 28. Government of India, Directorate General of Hydrocarbons:
Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, May 2–5, 2005. Properties, Growth Habit, and State of Stress of a Gas “Gas Hydrate: R&D Advances in India,”
Hydrate Reservoir from Well Logs,” Petrophysics 47, http://www.dghindia.org/NonConventionalEnergy. aspx?
no. 2 (April 2006): 129–137. tab=2#3 (accessed February 17, 2010).
 The shale-dominated interval of hydrate- filled
BANGLADESH
fractures encountered at Site NGHP-01-10 is one of
the richest marine gas hydrate accumu- lations ever
BURMA discovered.32 Among the highlights of the expedition
INDIA
was the discovery of one of the deepest gas hydrate
Mumbai Mahanadi accumulations known: At Site NGHP-01-17, offshore
Krishna-Godavari the Andaman Islands, gas hydrate–bearing volcanic
Kerala Konkan ash layers were encountered as far as 600 m [1,970
Chennai
ft] below the seafloor. Future plans call for a pilot
Andaman Islands project to produce methane from some of these
locations.

Other Exploration Efforts

0 km 500
The successes of marine hydrate exploration cam-
0 16A
paigns in Japan and India have encouraged groups in
mi 500 7A-D
other countries to pursue similar programs. For
example, investigative projects in China have
Krishna-
begun in areas conducive to hydrate stability.
11A 5A-E14A 15A Godavari
2A-B 4A
3A-C
6A China’s first gas hydrate drilling expedition,
GMGS-1, was conducted in 2007 by the Guangzhou
10A-D 12A
20A 13A

Marine Geological Survey (GMGS), China

> Exploration sites (red circles) of the 2006 expedition of the Indian National Gas Geological Survey (CGS) and the Ministry of Land
Hydrates Program (NGHP). A scientific team aboard the JOIDES Resolution
drilling vessel assessed data from 39 boreholes in four different regions. Samples and Resources of the People’s Republic of China.
from the Krishna-Godavari region (inset) contained significant hydrate accumulations. The Bavenit geotechnical and scientific drilling
(Adapted from Collett et al, reference 29.) vessel visited eight sites in the Shenhu area of the
South China Sea. On this expedition, the project
team described both a new gas hydrate province
and a potentially new mode of hydrate distribution
within sediments.33
At each site a pilot hole was drilled and then
The first NGHP expedition, in 2006, explored four lenses and wispy subvertical veins oriented in a logged with a suite of high-resolution slimhole
areas of the Indian Ocean (above). The primary goal primary direction, with some crossing in a wireline tools. From these logs decisions were
of NGHP Expedition 01 was to conduct scien- tific secondary direction. made either to immediately drill an adjacent coring
ocean drilling, coring, logging and analytical In the intervals where hydrates reside in pore hole or to move on to another site.
activities to assess the geologic occurrence, space, the Archie relationship can be used to At three of the five sites cored, gas hydrates
regional context and characteristics of gas hydrate determine saturation. However, in other zones, for were detected in clay- and silt-rich sediments
deposits along the continental margins of India.29 example, where hydrate occupies fractures in low- directly above the base of the hydrate-stability
The expedition team consisted of more than 100 permeability sediments, the method is not zone. Thickness of the hydrate-rich layers ranged from
scientists and professionals representing more than 30 applicable, but resistivity logs and images can still 10 to 25 m [33 to 82 ft]. Hydrate was distrib- uted
universities, national institutes and com- panies. be used to identify hydrate-filled fractures. evenly in 20% to 40% of the pore volume
During the 113-day operation, the scien- tific ocean Images from an RAB resistivity-at-the-bit LWD tool throughout these fine-grained sediments. While it is
drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution drilled 39 clearly show resistive hydrate-filled fractures as well as common to find hydrate dispersed in coarse- grained
boreholes in water depths ranging from 907 to 2,674 conductive fractures in several holes in the Krishna- sediment and hydrate-filled fractures in clay-
m [2,975 to 8,774 ft]. Scientists recovered 2,850 m Godavari region.30 Fractures in most of the holes dominated sediments, seldom have hydrates been
[9,350 ft] of core, logged 12 holes with LWD tools analyzed have steep dips—70° to 80° (next page). seen disseminated in extremely fine- grained
and an additional 13 holes with wireline tools, and Stress orientations calculated from dip data indicate a layers at such elevated saturations.
performed six borehole seismic surveys. maximum horizontal stress direction perpendicular to Further analysis of samples and data col- lected
The cores indicate that hydrates occur in a the edge of India’s Continental Slope—a finding that during the expedition will continue at the GMGS and
variety of settings. In the Indian Ocean, as in other is inconsistent with those from other passive continental at laboratories throughout China. Potential future
parts of the world, hydrates are present in coarse- margins documented for boreholes deeper than the expeditions to the Shenhu area and other regions of the
grained sediments. More surprising was the amount holes in the NGHP study. This contradiction suggests South China Sea margin are under discussion.
of hydrates discovered in fine- grained sediments, that the fractures may be related to local slumps and
where they occur as layers, slides, signifying shallow stresses at work rather than
deep tectonic stresses.31
Producing Methane from Hydrates Dip and Dip Direction
Although many countries and organizations are Deep Resistivity
Gas Hydrate– Filled Fracture
Caliper
finding gas hydrates plentiful and widespread, the
8 in. 20 Medium Resistivity
Deep Resistivity Image
Deep
Statically
Resistivity
Enhanced
Image Dynamically Enhanced
problem remains as to how to produce meth- ane ResistiveConductive ESWResistiveConductive ESW
Dip, deg
Gamma Ray

Depth, m
50 60 70 80
from them safely, efficiently and economi- cally. In gAPI Density Shallow Resistivity
addressing this problem, a top priority is to 60120 g/cm3 ohm.m
1.32.0 0.2200
understand the dissociation mechanisms of hydrates
in different habitats.
Safety is also an important issue. Hydrates in pore
space strengthen the grain matrix, but when the solid 65
hydrate turns into gas and water, the volume of the
pore-filling material can increase significantly; the
sediment becomes fluidized, compromising the
strength and stiffness of the sediment column. This
can lead to compaction of the sediment in the
producing zone and over- burden, destabilization of
faults, sand production and other processes that may 70
potentially damage infrastructure. Techniques for
hydrate exploita- tion will have to succeed without
causing sedi- ment instability.
To recover methane from hydrates, experts
concur that exploiting hydrates in sandy sedi- ments
has the highest probability of success and requires the
lowest investment in new technology. 75
Two principal techniques have been field tested for
recovering methane from hydrates: heating and
depressurization. For ease of access, tests have been
conducted on hydrate accumulations on land, in
permafrost regions. Comprehensive tests have taken
place at the Mallik gas hydrate field in the Canadian
Northwest Territories and at the Mount Elbert prospect
in Alaska.

> Borehole image and core from the Krishna-Godavari region. Among the logs acquired in Well
NGHP-01-10A, a borehole image log (Tracks 4 and 5) exhibits high-resistivity gas hydrate (light colors) in steeply
dipping fractures (Track 6). Dips are consistently 70° to 80°. (Log courtesy of Ann Cook,
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory.) The core (inset) shows gas hydrate (white) filling a fracture in black fine-
grained sediments. (Photograph courtesy of the NGHP Expedition 01.)

29. US Geological Survey, “Results of the Indian National Gas

Expedition 01,” adapted from an oral presentation at the 31. Cook and Goldberg, reference 30.
Hydrate Program (NGHP) Expedition 01,”
AAPG Annual Convention, San Antonio, Texas, April 20– 32. Collett et al, reference 29.
http://energy.usgs.gov/other/gashydrates/india.html (accessed
23, 2008, http://www.searchanddiscovery.
February 17, 2010). 33. Zhang H, Yang S, Wu N, Su X, Holland M, Schultheiss P,
net/documents/2008/08135collett/ndx_collett01.pdf (accessed
Collett TS, Riedel M, Cochran J, Boswell R, Kumar P, February 17, 2010). Rose K, Butler H, Humphrey G and GMGS-1 Science Team:
Sathe A and NGHP Expedition 01 Scientific Party: “Successful and Surprising Results for China’s First Gas
30. Cook A and Goldberg D: “Stress and Gas Hydrate-Filled Hydrate Drilling Expedition,” Fire in the Ice (Fall 2007):
“Geologic Controls on the Occurrence of Gas Hydrates
Fracture Distribution, Krishna-Godavari Basin, India,” 6–9, http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/ oil-
in the Indian Continental Margin: Results of the Indian
Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Gas gas/publications/Hydrates/Newsletter/ HMNewsFall07.pdf
National Gas Hydrate Program (NGHP)
Hydrates, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, July 6–10, (accessed February 17, 2010).
2008.
 Mallik Gas Hydrate Production
The Mallik field, located on the Mackenzie Delta in
the Beaufort Sea, has a long history of gas hydrate
investigation (left).34 Hydrates were dis- covered in
Mallik 1972 during exploration drilling by Imperial Oil Ltd.
In the early 1990s the Geological Survey of Canada
(GSC) undertook a regional appraisal of gas hydrates
in the Mackenzie Delta area. Later, in 1998, the
Japan National Oil Corporation (JNOC) and the GSC,
working with several other institutions, completed the
Mallik 2L-38 Gas Hydrate Research Well Program.
Results from these studies establish the Mallik
field as one of the most concentrated gas hydrate
accumulations in the world.35 Interbedded sequences of
hydrate-rich sands occur at depths from 890 to 1,106
m [2,920 to 3,629 ft], with some layers surpassing 30
Inuvik
0 km 50 m [100 ft] in thickness.36 In certain zones hydrate
0mi50 saturations exceed 80% (below left). The
abundance of subsurface data available, the
advantage of access by land and the similarities with
many offshore hydrate deposits make the Mallik site
attractive for research.
In 2002 a new program was initiated to conduct
production testing of hydrates from the Mallik field.37
The production research program included the GSC and
JNOC, as well as formal collaboration with the
International Continental Scientific Drilling Program
and institutions from the USA, Germany and India. A
1,166-m [3,825-ft] production well was drilled, cored,
logged and cased, and two 1,188-m [3,898-ft]
observation wells were drilled and cased. The response
of the formation to thermal stimulation and
> The Mallik field, Northwest Territories, Canada. The Mallik field has been the site of hydrate
discoveries and research since 1972. The site is accessible only in winter by way of an ice road. depressurization was monitored using fiber-optic
(Photograph courtesy of Scott Dallimore, Geological Survey of Canada.) distributed temperature sensors (DTS) installed in each
well, repeat cased hole log- ging in the production well
and cross-well seismic surveys conducted in the
monitoring wells.
The 13-m [43-ft] interval selected for the ther- mal
test was a relatively clean sandstone bounded by
shales and located below the permafrost, with hydrate
saturation ranging from 70% to 85%.38 Heated brine
was circulated past open perfora- tions. The fluid and
produced gas returned to sur- face in the annulus
between the circulation string and the casing. During
the 5-day test cumulative gas production was 516 m3
[18.2 Mcf].39
The differences noted in pretest openhole
resistivity logs and post-test cased hole resistivity logs
were used to determine the radius of hydrate
dissociation over the test interval (next page).40 The
analysis indicated that the dissociation radius was not
uniform and was greatest near the outlet of the
circulation string, where fiber-optic DTS sensors had
recorded the highest temperatures. In addition to
variations in temperature across
> A Mallik gas hydrate core sample collected in 2002. Gas hydrate (white) resides
within the pore space of a pebbly conglomerate. (Photograph courtesy of Scott
Dallimore, Geological Survey of Canada.)
the zone, variations in porosity and permeability and hydrate-rich zones using a modified MDT modu- numerical modeling efforts, the
in water invasion may have affected heat exchange lar formation dynamics tester.41 The tool col- research team concluded that
with the formation. lected samples of gas and water and measured depressurization would be a more
Deeper in the test well, small-scale pressure- changes in pressure and flow rates. After analysis effective method than thermal
drawdown tests were also carried out over six of these and other data, along with intensive stimulation for inducing hydrate
dissociation. Resistivity, ohm.m Radius, m
The next phase of production testing research at 1 10 100 1,000 –2 –1 0 1 2
Mallik was undertaken in the winters of 2007 and 900

2008. For this project Japan was represented by the

Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National
Corporation (JOGMEC), and Canada was repre-

910

Collar

Depth, m
920

Collar
930
CHFR log Openhole resistivity log Hole radius
sented by Institute
Research Natural Resources Canada. Aurora
in Inuvik, Northwest CHFR model Resistivity model Dissociation radius

Territories, acted as the operator. This program was > Determining hydrate dissociation volume. Logs were acquired before and after a
designed to advance long-term production testing 2002 thermal stimulation production test in the Mallik field (left). Openhole
resistivity logs acquired before the test (orange) were compared with CHFR cased hole
using a depressurization technique. Considerable formation resistivity logs run afterward (purple) to determine the radius of hydrate
emphasis was also placed on design and testing of dissociation over the test interval. The differences correspond to a modeled radius
various geophysical monitoring techniques and of dissociation (right) that varies with depth. (Adapted from Anderson et al,
evaluation of downhole comple- tion technologies for reference 38.)
gas hydrate production.
Operations during the first winter—the site
is accessible only when the 200-km [124-mi] ice separation was performed in the wellbore; the gas in the 5 days of thermal stimulation in the 2002
road from Inuvik is frozen—involved installing well was produced to surface and the produced water test.44 Sand production was much greater than
infrastructure and conducting a short pro- duction was reinjected into water zones below the gas anticipated, a problem that would have to be
test in the Mallik 2L-38 well drilled as part of the hydrate test interval.42 overcome in future operations. The team planned to
1998 research program. The test zone was a 12-m The April 2007 production test was performed return the next year, when freezing conditions would
[39-ft] interval near the bottom of a hydrate-rich without sand control measures to monitor and allow operations to continue.
zone. An ESP was set below the per- forations to measure the direct formation response to pres- sure After reviewing the experience from the first
depressurize the formation by lower- ing the water drawdown.43 As expected, a significant amount of winter’s operation, the team returned to Mallik in the
level in the well. Because of permit restrictions during sand was produced—so much that the test was winter of 2008 with a simplified research pro- gram.
the first year, the operation plans called for disposal of curtailed after 60 hours. However, during the most This time produced water was flowed to the surface
produced water in the same wellbore. To accomplish successful 12.5 hours of pumping, 830 m3 [29.3 and reinjected into a water-disposal well. In addition,
this, gas-water Mcf] of gas was produced, more than a custom-designed sand screen
34. Dallimore SR, Collett TS, Uchida T, Weber M, Chandra A, “The Mallik 2002 Consortium: Drilling and Testing a 2002 Gas Hydrate Production Research Well Program,
Mroz TH, Caddel EM, Inoue T, Takahashi H, Taylor AE Gas Hydrate Well,” National Methane Hydrates Mackenzie Delta, Northwest Territories, Canada: Geological
and Mallik Gas Hydrate Research Team: “The Mallik Gas R&D Program, US Department of Energy, http://www. SURVEY of Canada Bulletin 585, 2005, available at
Hydrate Field: Lessons Learned from 30 Years of Gas netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/FutureSupply/ http://geoscan.ess.nrcan.gc.ca/cgi-bin/ starfinder/0?
Hydrate Investigation,” AAPG Bulletin 88, no. 13 MethaneHydrates/projects/DOEProjects/Mallik-41007. html path=geoscan.fl&id=fastlink&pass= &search=R
(supplement), 2004. (accessed February 11, 2010). %3D220702&format=FLFULL (accessed April 1, 2010).
35. Dallimore et al, reference 34. 38. Anderson BI, Collett TS, Lewis RE and Dubourg I: “Using 42. Yamamoto K and Dallimore S: “Aurora-JOGMEC- NRCan
36. Dallimore SR, Uchida T and Collett TS (eds): Scientific Open Hole and Cased-Hole Resistivity Logs to Monitor Gas Mallik 2006-2008 Gas Hydrate Research Project Progress,”
Results from JAPEX/JNOC/GSC Mallik 2L-38 Gas Hydrate Dissociation During a Thermal Test in the Mallik 5L- Fire in the Ice (Summer 2008): 1–5, http://
Hydrate Research Well, Mackenzie Delta, Northwest 38 Research Well, Mackenzie Delta, Canada,” Petrophysics 49, www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/publications/
Territories, Canada: Geological SURVEY of Canada no. 3 (June 2008): 285–294. Hydrates/Newsletter/HMNewsSummer08.pdf#Page=1 (accessed
Bulletin 544, 1999. 39. Dallimore and Collett, reference 37. February 17, 2010).
37. Dallimore SR and Collett TS (eds): Scientific Results from 40. Anderson et al, reference 38. 43. “Energy from Gas Hydrates: Assessing the Opportunities &
the Mallik 2002 Gas Hydrate Production Research Well Challenges for Canada,” Report in Focus (July 2008),
41. Hancock SH, Dallimore SR, Collett TS, Carle D, http://www.scienceadvice.ca/documents/(2008_07_07)_
Program, Mackenzie Delta, Northwest Territories, Canada: Weatherill B, Satoh T and Inoue T: “Overview of
Geological SURVEY of Canada Bulletin 585, 2005, available at GH_Report_in_Focus.pdf (accessed January 27, 2010).
Pressure-Drawdown Production-Test Results for the
http://geoscan.ess.nrcan.gc.ca/cgi-bin/ starfinder/0? JAPEX/JNOC/GSC et al. Mallik 5L-38 Gas Hydrate 44. Hancock et al, reference 41.
path=geoscan.fl&id=fastlink&pass= &search=R Production Research Well,” in Dallimore SR and Collett
%3D220702&format=FLFULL (accessed TS (eds): Scientific Results from the Mallik
April 1, 2010).
st zone
Gas
Depth, m

890

P
1,070
er
Aquifers
m
af
650 1,100 ro
 Water S
a e limit sand influx into the wellbore (left). The 6-day
a d test was highly successful, with sustained gas flows
n s
d s ranging from 2,000 to 4,000 m3/d [70 to 140
e b Mcf/d].45 Operations continued smoothly at three
s m e target drawdown pressures. The Mallik tests
c b f successfully demonstrated a field-scale proof-of-
r
l o concept for gas production from hydrates by
e
y r depressurization using conventional oilfield
e
n e technologies adapted for arctic conditions.
w
a t Gas Hydrate Production in Alaska
ESP
B s e The USGS has studied gas hydrate accumulations in the
Gas
r s Alaska North Slope and currently estimates they contain
separat i
i t between 25.2 and 157.8 Tcf [714 and 4,468 billion
d i
or
g n m3] of undiscovered technically recoverable natural
Heater e s n gas.46 Much of this resource occurs within gas hydrate
t g deposits near existing oil and gas production
p a facilities (next page).47
Pressure and t
temperature
l l Early work on hydrates in this area dates to
sensors u
l o 1972, when ARCO and Exxon drilled, cored and tested
g
methane hydrates in the Northwest Eileen
> Well completion for the Mallik 2008 depressurization production test. An electric State-2 well.48 However, that testing indicated
submersible pump (ESP) installed above the perforations depressurized the subcommercial production rates; as a result,
formation by lowering the water level in the well. Sand screens prevented sand
influx from the unconsolidated formation into the borehole. Hydrate dissociation Alaska’s gas hydrate zones were not considered
produced gas and water. After gas-water separation, gas flowed to the surface, and
45. Report in Focus, reference 43.
produced water was sampled then reinjected in a separate water-disposal well. (Adapted
46. “Assessment of Gas Hydrate Resources on the North Slope,
from Yamamoto and Dallimore, reference 42.) Alaska, 2008,” U.S. Geological Survey, Fact Sheet 2008-
3073 (October 2008), http://pubs.usgs.
gov/fs/2008/3073/pdf/FS08-3073_508.pdf (accessed January 18,
2010).
47. “Alaska North Slope Gas Hydrate Reservoir
Characterization,” National Methane Hydrates R&D
Program, US Department of Energy, http://www.
netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/futuresupply/
Flowing bottomhole pressure
Flowing
12 bottomhole temperature (FBHT) Hydrate-stability pressure at initial FBHT methanehydrates/projects/DOEProjects/Alaska-41332. html
4 (accessed January 18, 2010).
48. Collett TS: “Natural Gas Hydrates of the Prudhoe Bay and
10 Kuparuk River Area, North Slope, Alaska,” AAPG Bulletin
Flowing bottomhole pressure, MPa

Flowing bottomhole temperature, C

3
77, no. 5 (May 1993): 793–812.
49. “BP Drills Alaska North Slope Gas Hydrate Test Well to
8 Assess Potential Energy Resource,” BP press release
2
End flow period 2 (February 2007), http://www.bp.com/genericarticle. do?
categoryId=2012968&contentId=7028944 (accessed January 18,
6 2010).
1
End flow period 3 50. Boswell R, Hunter R, Collett T, Digert S, Hancock S,
Weeks M and Mount Elbert Science Team: “Investigation
4 of Gas Hydrate-Bearing Sandstone Reservoirs at the
0 “Mount Elbert” Stratigraphic Test Well, Milne Point,
Alaska,” Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on
2 Gas Hydrates, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, July 6–
End flow period 1 –1 10, 2008.
51. Anderson BJ, Wilder JW, Kurihara M, White MD,
0 Moridis GJ, Wilson SJ, Pooladi-Darvish M, Masuda Y,
0 1 2 –2 Collett TS, Hunter RB, Narita H, Rose K and Boswell R:
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 “Analysis of Modular Dynamic Formation Test Results
Test time, h
> Gas hydrate production test. An MDT tool was used to reduce well pressure by from the Mount Elbert-01 Stratigraphic Test Well, Milne
Point Unit, North Slope of Alaska,” Proceedings of the 6th
drawing water from a layer containing high saturations of gas hydrate. Between fluid- International Conference on Gas Hydrates, Vancouver, British
withdrawal, or flow, periods, the pump was shut off, pressure build-up was monitored Columbia, Canada, July 6–10, 2008.
and gas and water samples were collected. During the first flow period the bottomhole 52. Collett T and Boswell R: “The Identification of Sites for
pressure (blue) was kept above the hydrate-stability pressure (green), so no methane Extended-Term Gas Hydrate Reservoir Testing on the
was produced. During the second and third flow periods the bottomhole pressure was Alaska North Slope,” Fire in the Ice (Summer 2009): 12–16,
decreased to below the stability pressure, allowing the gas hydrate to dissociate and gas to http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/
be produced. (Adapted from Anderson et al, reference 51.) publications/Hydrates/Newsletter/MHNewsSummer09. pdf
(accessed January 27, 2010).
53. US DOE, reference 47.
54. Report in Focus, reference 43.
as potential gas reservoirs but were treated as
drilling hazards to be dealt with as deeper targets were
developed.
The recent assessment of Alaska gas hydrates as a Alaska USA CANADA
resource began in 2001 with a cooperative research
program between BP Exploration Alaska Inc., the
US Department of Energy and the USGS. BP Point Barrow
provided a 3D seismic survey over its Milne Point
production unit. Through analysis of the 3D seismic Prudhoe Bay
data, public well logs and reser- voir modeling studies, IC
USGS scientists identified several potential
accumulations. The highest ranked prospect was
selected for acquisition of well log and core data. Northern Alaska gas hydrate total petroleum system

In 2007 the project team drilled and collected data

National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska
from the Mount Elbert gas hydrate research well.49
Hydrate-bearing formations were encoun- tered 1,800
to 2,500 ft [550 to 760 m] below the surface. As a Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
precaution against hydrate dissocia- tion and hole
destabilization, oil-base drilling fluid was chilled to
0km100 Mount Elbert well
below 32°F [0°C]. The result- ing borehole remained 0mi100 Milne Point 3D seismic survey
in gauge, enabling high- quality data collection.
Data include LWD and extensive wireline
openhole logs, more than 500 ft [152 m] of contin-
uous core, and MDT pressure tests. Log analysis Kuparuk River oil field
Prudhoe Bay oil field
confirmed the presence of 100 ft of hydrate-
saturated sand in which porosities reach 40%,
intrinsic permeabilities are in the multiple-Darcy range
and hydrate saturations vary between 45% and 75%.50
Nuclear magnetic resonance logs indicate the > Gas hydrates in Alaska. The northern Alaska gas hydrate total petroleum system is shaded in blue-gray.
presence of mobile water even in the most The limit of the gas hydrate–stability zone is outlined in red. The area covered by the 3D seismic survey is shown
as a red-dashed rectangle. (Modified from USGS Fact Sheet 2008-3073, reference 46).
hydrate-saturated intervals. Mobile water, which is the Mount Elbert case, when the well pressure was Early Days for Hydrates
removed from the formation to initiate depres- greater than the hydrate-stability pressure, in situ The current state of understanding of the produc-
surization, appears to be a prerequisite for effective permeability was 0.12 to 0.17 mD. ibility of gas from hydrates is analogous to that of
producing methane from gas hydrate reservoirs that Decreasing the wellbore pressure to below the level coalbed methane and heavy-oil sands about 30 years
are not otherwise in contact with free gas or water. required for hydrate stability caused disso- ciation of ago.54 Although recovery from both coal- bed methane
The MDT tests exhibited a variety of results hydrate within the pore space, and the effective formations and oil sands took sev- eral decades to
depending on drawdown pressures.51 During the first permeability increased. become commercially viable, it is too early to
flow period the test interval was intention- ally held at To conduct extended production tests in the determine the development horizon of gas hydrate
pressures above the hydrate equilib- rium pressure; Alaska North Slope, scientists will need year- round resources.
hydrate dissociation did not occur and no gas was access to a wellsite with existing infra- structure. As far as resource supply and access are con-
produced (previous page, bot- tom). In the second Seven potential surface locations within the Prudhoe cerned, several countries are optimistic about the
and third flow periods the well pressures were below Bay, Kuparuk River and Milne Point fields have been potential of gas hydrates to meet future energy needs.
the gas hydrate–sta- bility pressure and gas was evaluated.52 A site in the Prudhoe Bay field has been Japan, India, China and South Korea, all countries that
produced. The pres- sure responses were successfully identified as optimal because of its combination of import oil and gas, have launched programs to explore
modeled using reservoir simulators. low geologic risk, low operational risk, maximal the possibilities of unlocking methane from the
A key observation of the simulation studies is that operational flexi- bility and promise of meaningful hydrate cage. As with other unconventional resources,
short-term tests do not necessarily indicate the fully reservoir response. BP and the other companies with development of hydrate reserves will undoubtedly
developed flow behavior of a gas hydrate reservoir. work- ing interest in the site are discussing plans for benefit from technolo- gies originally designed for
The pore space available for fluid flow changes as long-term production testing there.53 conventional oil and gas exploration and production.
hydrate dissociates. For example, in —LS