ULTRASONIC GAS FLOW METERS FOR CUSTODY TRANSFER MEASUREMENT

Jim Micklos
Elster Instromet
13333 NW Freeway, Suite 650
Houston, TX 77040

Summary 2.0 Operating Principle

This paper outlines the operating principals and Acoustic techniques for the measurement of flow
application of ultrasonic gas flow metering for have been applied for nearly fifty years. Depending
custody transfer. Basic principles and underlying upon the magnitude of the Mach number, v/c, and
equations are discussed, as are considerations for due to the rapid change in electronics, different
applying ultrasonic flow meter technology to station measurement methods have been applied in meters
design, installation, and operation. These which appeared on the market over this time
applications are illustrated based on operating interval. For instance:
experience with the Instromet 3-path and 5-path
1. The sing-around method (1950s), which is
Q.Sonic custody transfer flow meter; however, many
essentially a phase-shift measurement.
of these issues can be generalized to meters
manufactured by others. 2. Continuous-wave frequency shift method
(1960s).
1.0 Introduction
3. Analog differential-time-delay measurement
Ultrasonic gas flow meters, employing the transit- (1970s).
time measurement principle, have gained
4. Digital absolute-travel-time measurement
acceptance for fiscal accounting of gas transfer.
(1980s).
Advantages of this technology include:
• Wide measuring range, 40:1 turndown. Although some of the older methods occasionally
reappear in new instruments (mainly because of
• Reasonably high accuracy.
their inexpensive manufacturing cost), they cannot
• Reasonably high repeatability. compare with modern methods that employ high-
• Negligible offset. speed digital signal processing techniques and
advanced piezoceramic transducers, in terms of
• Negligible pressure drop.
accuracy and repeatability. The first three methods
• General insensitivity to dust and liquid mentioned above are problematic when:
deposits.
• Gas composition, temperature, or pressure is
• Insensitivity to fluctuations of the gas fluctuating.
composition.
• The gas is not completely clean.
• Low maintenance.
• Pulsating flow is present.
Extremely accurate and reliable multi-path ultrasonic
metering systems have emerged as one of the Using state-of-the-art digital signal processing
preferred measurement technologies for large- electronics, modern ultrasonic flow meters employ
volume gas flows. Pushed by continuously the method of absolute digital travel-time
improving signal-processing technology and pulled measurement, which is discussed in detail below.
by increasing customer requirements, multi-path
2.1 The Absolute Digital Travel Time Method
instruments provide state-of-the-art gas flow
measurement. Its accuracy and reliability were 2.1.1 General
initially investigated by NMi in The Netherlands, and In ultrasonic flow measurement, acoustic pulses are
is now continuously evaluated by users in North transmitted and received by a pair of piezoelectric
America during routine flow calibrations at CEESI, transducers. Figure 1 shows the simple geometry of
Southwest Research Institute, and TransCanada
two transducers, A and B, at an angle ϕ with respect
Calibrations. A recommended practice has been
to the axis of a straight cylindrical pipe.
established by the American Gas Association
(Report No.9), and contractual requirements have
been successfully defined by parties for use of this
measurement technology in custody transfer
applications.
 1,000 to 1,500 ft/s at typical natural gas transmission
pressures). If the speed of sound is constant during
both measurements, the two equations can be
combined:

(Equation 3)
Figure 1. Example Acoustic Path Geometry Where v denotes the flow velocity (positive in the
downstream direction). The history of this method
D denotes the diameter, L the path length and v the goes back to Rütten (1928), who filed the first patent
velocity vector. on the application of ultrasound in flow
Some instruments, like the Q.Sonic, employ measurement. From the above equations, the
reflection paths like that shown in Figure 2, where speed of sound can be calculated:
the acoustic pulses reflect one or more times against
the pipe wall.

(Equation 4)

Since the speed of sound is related to the density of

the medium in the transport system, it can be used
to calculate mass flow. Further, it is noted that the
cancellation of c from the average velocity equation
(gas properties, such as density, affect both tup and
tdown equally) means that absolute velocity
measurement is not dependent on gas density. That is,
Figure 2. Example Reflected Acoustic Path
pressure, temperature, and gas composition have
Geometry
no effect on the velocity calculation from pulse
Other meter configurations may employ chordal or transit time.
point-to-point pulse transmission paths, as shown in
2.1.2 Pulse Generation
Figure 1. Regardless of the path geometry, the
operating principal is the same, and basic transit- Specially-designed transducers are used for the
time equations apply. At zero flow, the travel time is generation of ultrasonic pulses that both transmit
equal in both directions and the measured time of and receive these pulses. The main component
flight difference between them (tu – td) is zero. within a transducer performing these functions is a
However if there is flow, the travel time of the sound piezoceramic element. In the transmitting mode,
pulse transmitted in the same direction as the flow these piezoceramic elements are excited with a
decreases due to its being accelerated by the characteristic voltage that results in the emission of
moving gas. Conversely, the pulse traveling a well-characterized sound pulse. When used as a
upstream experiences an increased transit time due receiver, the incoming sound pulse generates a
to the retarding effect of the gas flow. Transit times small voltage, which is processed after amplification.
in the upstream and downstream directions may be The frequency and directivity pattern of a transducer
calculated as: depends, for the most part, on the dimensions and
characteristics of the piezoceramic element. The
transducers developed by Instromet have been
designed for the generation of short, powerful pulses
in order to exploit the advantages of single- and
(Equation 1) double-reflection paths at high repetition rates at
And operating pressures ranging from atmospheric up to
5,000 psi. Because they are fabricated within tight
specifications under strict quality control, and with
detailed characterization, they can be exchanged
(Equation 2) without parameter adjustment or meter recalibration.

Where L is the length of the path, φ is its angle with 2.1.3 Pulse Detection
respect to the axis of the pipe, and c is the speed of
Before pulse detection and recognition take place,
sound in the gas (e.g., about 300 to 450 m/s or
the received acoustic pulse is pre-processed using
an Automatic Gain Control and filtering circuitry to smooth, straight, circular ducts, the velocity profile is
ensure pulse discrimination. After the pre- determined as a function of the Reynolds number
processing stage (detection) takes place, the signal (Re) of the flow. This dimensionless number, which
is digitized and compared with a 'fingerprint' of a is the ratio of inertial to viscous forces, is calculated
reference pulse. This method provides the unique using the flow speed, the duct diameter, the gas
ability to check the quality of every single pulse density, and the dynamic viscosity of the flowing
against preset standards before processing for medium. For low Reynolds numbers, the flow is
velocity measurement purposes. The pulses are laminar (see Figure 3), with a parabolic (Hagen-
either accepted when the signal completely meets Poiseuille) profile, while for high Reynolds numbers,
the preset quality standards or rejected when a the flow becomes turbulent and with a plug-like
deviation from these quality standards is detected. (logarithmic) profile, as shown in Figure 4.
Only when both pulses are accepted are their travel
times used to calculate flow velocity and speed of
sound. This method results in the highest precision.
During signal detection and processing, built-in
diagnostics supply real-time information to the user
about the performance of the system, and may be
used to set alarm limits on meter performance.
These parameters will be discussed in more detail
later.

2.1.4 Timing Characteristics

The accuracy required in the travel time
measurement can be found from the equations. For
example, when a velocity of 3 ft/s is measured with
Figure 3. Symmetric, Laminar Velocity Profile
0.5 % accuracy along a 3-ft path length in a gas with
sound velocity of 1,300 ft/s, both travel times are of
the order of 2.5 milli-seconds, but their difference is
about 6 micro-seconds, which must be measured
with an error no greater than 30 nano-seconds! This
small travel time difference requires high-speed,
high-accuracy digital electronics. The travel times of
only a few milliseconds enable individual ultrasonic
flow velocity measurements at high repetition rates.
Typical rates are 20 to 50 Hz, depending on pipe
diameter. The need for high repetition rates is
evident in cases such as surge control applications,
where the flow may drop from its set point to its
minimum in less than 0.05 second.

2.2 Path Weighting Factors

The velocity, v, calculated by Equation 3 represents Figure 4. Symmetric, Turbulent Velocity Profile
an average along the acoustic path. The velocity of
interest, however, is the mean, or bulk, value, V, The transition from a laminar to a turbulent velocity
over the pipe cross section. This variable is profile begins to take place (Schlichting, 1968) at a
computed by: Reynolds numbers of between 2,000 and 4,000.
However, in typical pipeline systems, the Reynolds
V=kv (Equation 5) numbers usually range from 100,000 to over 1
million. Therefore, a turbulent profile is most
Where the meter factor k expresses the influence of
commonly encountered in high-pressure gas
the flow velocity profile. The value of the path-
transmission systems.
weighting factor depends on the velocity profile in
the duct, as sensed by the acoustic path. Due to the presence of one or more, possibly out-of-
plane, bends in the transport system, the flow profile
2.3 Acoustic path configuration will likely be distorted with respect to the ideal,
To create optimal acoustic path configurations for logarithmic profile shape. A single elbow induces a
multi-path flow meters, knowledge is required about dual-eddy pattern, which has two counter-rotating
the actual flow patterns in transport systems. For vortices on either side of the center plane of the
elbow. The resulting transverse flow is directed characteristics (i.e., delay times, crystal response,
outward, with axial velocities much lower than in etc). Therefore, errors caused by geometrical
corresponding ideal velocity profiles. This double- factors must be reconciled otherwise.
eddy pattern decays faster than the single-eddy one
A unique methodology has been developed to
induced by double bends out-of-plane. This
eliminate the mechanical uncertainties in path
important form of distortion is called swirl. Although
length, angle, and measurements of them. By
the presence of swirl does not contribute to or
closely controlling the clock used for the signal
detract from bulk flow, it causes a distortion of the
processing electronics and the medium used to
velocity profile, which usually results in an effect on
characterize the meter and by knowing the
ultrasonic pulse travel time that introduces an error
thermodynamic properties of the test medium, one
in flow velocity measurement. Mathematical
can determine the critical “Acoustic Path Lengths.”
modeling has been used to characterize and
That is, a meter can be filled with a pure fluid that
account for the influence of swirl on average velocity
has well-characterized properties (such as nitrogen
measurements. Instromet chose a bounce path
gas) and the pressure, temperature, and speed of
design based on profile studies to better
sound of the test medium can be precisely
characterize bulk velocity under variable conditions.
measured. Since the speed of sound in a
A three-path example of such a design is shown in
homogeneous (or pure, single-phase) fluid is well
Figure 5.
characterized, a comparison of the measured and
calculated speed of sound values can then be made.
The measured and calculated values for speed of
sound can be reconciled to agree with one another
by adjusting the acoustic path lengths of the meter.
This reconciliation, which forces agreement of meter
output with documented fluid properties, eliminates
mechanical variabilities in transducers and meter
body construction.

2.4.2 Travel Time

The accuracy of the time measurement is limited
Figure 5. Three-path Meter Configuration with only by the signal to noise ratio and the digital clock
Bounce Paths frequency. The travel time measurement of the
ultrasonic pulse is based on high-resolution, quartz-
2.4 Accuracy controlled electronics. Since samples of travel times
are available at a rate of about 20 to 50 Hz, the
The average velocity flux measured by a single-path
resulting mean error can be reduced to just a few
ultrasonic flow meter is calculated using the
nano-seconds.
following equation:
2.4.3 Flow Profile Accuracy
To assure that fluid distortions do not affect the
(Equation 6) accurate determination of bulk flowing velocity, it is
possible to modify the velocity profile (velocity
Where A denotes the cross-sectional area of the distribution) with a high-performance flow
pipe. From this equation, the total accuracy conditioner (not a tube bundle). Flow conditioner
depends upon the individual accuracies of all factors generated profiles do not generate either a fully-
involved and can be split into three parts: developed, symmetric velocity distribution
characterized by either a laminar or a turbulent flow
• The accuracy of the geometry. field. However, they do have the advantage of
• The accuracy in the travel time measurement. generating a repeatable flow profile. That is,
• The accuracy of the velocity profile. regardless the type disturbance entering the flow
conditioner, the velocity profile exiting the device is
2.4.1 Geometry always the same. Therefore, an ultrasonic meter
flow calibrated with a flow conditioner upstream will
Meter geometry is a function of the path length L, produce the same measurand for velocity in both the
angle φ, pipe diameter, and the mechanical flow laboratory and in the field installation; thus,
measurements of these components. Even when eliminating the concern regarding effect of variable
tight mechanical tolerances are used in the velocity distributions.
manufacturing process and careful measurements
are made, it is not possible to perfectly harmonize
these variables and individual transducer
3.0 Meter Station Design Considerations Good, representative, samples of gas quality are
3.1 Footprint necessary to facilitate calculation of reference speed
of sound values needed to evaluate meter operating
Space limitations and the environment in which the condition. Depending on the importance of a
station will operate often dictate equipment selection particular meter station, station designers may need
and configuration. If shorter meter runs are to consider whether a gas chromatograph (GC) is
required, headers and several tees may be involved, necessary, or whether a periodic gas spot sample
which can result in significant flow disturbances at will suffice. If it is determined that a GC is needed,
the meter inlet. High performance flow conditioners gas quality may dictate whether the instrument
may be desirable to such cases to help ensure required to characterize the speed of sound (SOS)
consistent velocity profiles in short-coupled meter should be able to resolve individual hydrocarbon
tube installations. components to a C9+ or C6+ level. Likewise, if spot
sampling is determined to be acceptable, judicious
3.2 Sizing
selection of the sampling point is needed. Note that
Ultrasonic meters are typically sized based on actual only a spot sample will suffice (a composite sample
velocity. Therefore, when selecting the meter, one will not provide the desired result), since the meter
must consider the pressure, temperature, and flow measured SOS must be chronologically correlated
range. Basic calculation programs to size ultrasonic with the spot sample draw to provide a valid
meters based on these parameters are available comparison of meter measured SOS to that
from most manufacturers. In addition to meter size, calculated from the analysis. Pressure and
designers need consider the nature of the operation temperature data are also required as part of the
and the maintenance requirements for the particular data collected at the time of sample draw.
station:
4.0 Meter Installation
• Are multiple runs needed to provide
Several steps occur prior to physical installation, the
redundancy or flexibility should a meter
judicious monitoring of which can assure a
require out-of-pipe service or recalibration?
successful start-up as well as providing benchmark
• Are multiple runs needed in stepped line performance criteria upon which to evaluate the
sizes to extend station rangeability? operating condition of the meter over the life of the
• Are there pressure or control valves that station.
might require installation of additional noise-
attenuating elements, such as blind tees? 4.1 Dry Calibration
• Will a building enclose the meter runs and This terminology is somewhat of a misnomer, since
will clearance between meter and building this process is intended to characterize electronic
wall be an issue if transducers are performance and, in the case of Instromet, tighten
retracted? up path length data, rather than generate a meter
factor as the result of an actual calibration. Pure
These are several of the potential questions nitrogen gas is used to assess meter functionality at
designers should consider when laying out an high pressure prior to flow calibration of these
ultrasonic meter station. There may be others meters. Electronics (i.e., SPU and transducers) are
questions peculiar to a given meter installation. given their final quality control check by running a
static test on the meter at stable conditions (i.e.,
3.3 Gas Quality known gas, steady temperature and pressure). In
For wet gas operating environments (i.e., addition to ensuring electronic functionality,
hydrocarbon condensate or water vapor), Instromet utilizes this opportunity to compare meter-
consideration must be given as to whether or not the measured speeds of sound to calculated, certified,
meter run needs to be angled or a siphon drain values. Acoustic path length is adjusted to provide
needs to be added to assure that liquids do not agreement with the calculated, certified, values so
collect in the pipe or can be drained if they do. If that the meter exits the assembly process with tight
sulfur content in the flowing stream is a concern, it per-path performance tolerances that can be used
needs corrosion resistant transducers must be used. later as baseline meter performance criteria.
Carbon dioxide in concentrations exceeding 15%
4.2 Flow Calibration
(this level can vary somewhat, depending on
operating pressure) can attenuate ultrasonic signals Once a custody meter is successfully dry calibrated,
to such a point that transmissibility of pulses and it is usually sent to an independent testing facility to
flow measurement is lost. certify its meter factor. A flow calibration is
recommended for any meter that is used for custody
service, particularly when a flow conditioner is part of
the meter run. Flow calibration not only certifies are pollution (i.e., dirt and liquids) and ultrasonic
meter performance traceable to a recognized noise. Many gas flow meters are sensitive to dust
standard, it also helps avoid many measurement and liquid residue in the flowing stream. Using
disputes. These tests generally consist of flowing digital pulse recognition techniques, the acoustic
gas through the meter under test ("MUT") at various flow meter can be made relatively immune to these
flow rates across its capacity range, and comparing deposits. If the signal is attenuated too much by
the meter output of the MUT to a reference or deposits on the transducer faces, measurement is
transfer standard. no longer possible. However, due to digital signal
As of the time this paper was written, AGA Report processing of time-of-flight measurements, dust and
No.9 did not require flow calibration, but did specify liquid residue do not affect the accuracy of the
that ultrasonic flow meters meet un-calibrated ("out meter.
of the box") measurement accuracy criteria of +/-
5.2 Ultrasonic Noise
0.7% for meters 12-inches and larger in diameter or
1.0% for meters of lesser diameter. These Although many new control valve designs are
established criteria typically are not sufficient for promoted as 'low noise,' they are the main source of
acceptable fiscal measurement, particularly in light interference encountered in the field. During tests at
of recent high natural gas prices. Therefore, it is various installations, these 'low noise' valves, when
prudent practice to certify a meter at a traceable nearly closed, created much non-audible ultrasonic
facility. Key factors to assess during calibration are noise that interfered with the transmitted sound.
the repeatability and linearity of the meter proof This is problematic for ultrasonic meters, since the
curve. Proof curves may be linearized (usually to reduction of audible control valve noise has been
better characterize low-flow performance), but an accomplished by shifting it to ultrasonic, or non-
optimal proof curve is one composed of tightly audible, frequencies used by these meters. While
clustered data points that form a flat, straight line. measurement accuracy is not compromised, pulse
Criteria for acceptable linearity and repeatability are detection may become impossible, causing a loss of
published in AGA Report No.9. measurement.

4.3 Physical Installation 5.3 Performance Monitoring

AGA Report No.9 also describes criteria for inside Meter diagnostics, made available by virtue of signal
diameter (ID) match of spool pieces that comprise processing routines, may be applied to determine if
the meter run. When bolting up the meter run for sediment or ultrasonic noise compromise meter
final installation, it is essential to assure proper spool function.
alignment and ensure that joint gaskets do not Transducer Gain Levels: The "sound volume" of the
protrude into the flowing stream. One can make that pulse is usually controlled automatically with
assurance by either assembling the meter run at the electronic gain controls. Monitoring gain levels over
site and installing it as a unit or by making a visual time provides an indication of whether sediment may
inspection of the assembled run as each spool is be attenuating pulse transmission (gains will be
installed in the station piping. found to increase).
4.4 Start-up Signal Rejection: Pulse signals are rejected when
they fail to match the fingerprint of an electronically-
Once the meter is physically installed, it is important stored reference pulse. Signal rejection indicates
to generate baseline documentation of its potential transducer failure, but is usually indicative
performance. Such information, generated when the of noise interference from devices such as control
meter is new and in pristine condition, may be used valves.
during subsequent routine inspections to assure that
the meter condition has not changed. Key data to Speed of Sound: Ultrasonic meters measure the
capture for baseline characterization are average speed of sound (SOS) in the flowing medium
SOS, per path SOS, per path gain levels, and per (reference Equation 4). Using American Gas
path gain limits. Interpretation of these parameters Association Report No.8 equations of state, the
is addressed in the Maintenance section that speed of sound may be accurately calculated using
follows. flowing temperature, pressure, and gas composition
as inputs. Comparisons of meter measured SOS
5.0 Field Applications & Routine Maintenance may be made against this calculation as a "health
check." Direct correlation between meter accuracy
5.1 Dirty Gas
and SOS has yet to be established, but it is known
In real-world gas pipeline systems, actual conditions that correct meter function is doubtful if the SOS
may differ considerably from the ideal encountered calculation is in error. Per Equation 4, poor SOS
in flow measurement labs. Major disturbing factors comparisons suggest clock or transducer problems.
Using the sophisticated capabilities of flow (comprehensive sensitivity analysis of this effect is
computers, or an on-board electronic archive, these lacking, but it is advisable to obtain an extended
parameters may be trended and alarm limits analysis for SOS calculations if aggregate C6+ is
established for these important operating greater than 0.5 mol%). Likewise, an accurate gas
characteristics; thus, signaling the meter operator of temperature measurement is necessary: Calculated
maintenance requirements or failure onset. SOS can differ from that measured, by as much as 3
to 5 fps, if the measured gas temperature is in error
5.4 Ultrasonic Meter Maintenance by 1ºF at typical pipeline operating pressures (800 to
Ensuring proper function of custody measuring 1,000 psig). SOS comparison is an extremely useful
devices is a measurement technician's major tool, but be sure inputs to the calculation are correct
responsibility. Field operating experience suggests (good gas analysis and assured temperature
that ultrasonic meters, while nearly trouble free, may transmitter calibration) before spending time and
require special maintenance in addition to routine money to review meter characterization.
inspection. A typical routine inspection might consist
of the following: 6 Q.Sonic Performance
1. Pressure transmitter calibration. After proprietary testing of the Instromet Q.Sonic by
the manufacturer, a calibration run was conducted
2. Temperature transmitter calibration. by the NMi (the official Netherlands Measurement
3. Verification of pulse output (if used) accuracy Institute) to certify the meter for initial custody use in
(i.e. validation of D/A converter performance). Europe. NMi is an independent test institute that
performs all meter calibrations for Gasunie (the
4. Collection and review of meter data logs which
major gas company of the Netherlands), and many
typically include SOS, signal acceptance rate,
other gas transmission companies internationally.
gain and gain limit data.
The initial test results for this meter are given in the
Performance parameters from collected logs should figure below.
be compared to a baseline log or trended against
previously recorded logs. A "baseline" log is one
collected when the operational condition of the
meter was known to be satisfactory, usually taken at
the time of initial meter start-up, or after re-
certification. Special maintenance is required when
performance monitoring dictates or complete meter
failure occurs. The signals identified for monitoring
may be interpreted as follows: Figure 6. Instromet Q.Sonic Meter Calibration
Test Results
Increasing Gain Levels: If performance monitoring
reveals gain levels have increased over time, it can Subsequently, the meter was installed in the
be an indication of potential transducer fouling. In Gasunie export station at Winterswijk near the
this event, transducers should be carefully removed, German border. Up to now, the meter output has
inspected, and cleaned, if necessary. If the meter is agreed to within 0.2% of the values measured by
blown-down to accomplish this, it is advisable to adjacent turbine meters. This ultrasonic meter has
clean the nozzles (transducer receptacles in the been operating for nearly three years with virtually
meter body) as best as possible. no maintenance, as only performance monitoring
Signal Rejection: Should performance monitoring and pressure/temperature calibrations have been
reveal excessive signal rejection rates, suggesting conducted. Subsequent to this commercial
ultrasonic noise is a problem, control valves or introduction of the product, many successful
throttled valves should be inspected and/or calibrations have been conducted in both Europe
experimented with to determine if accommodation and North America. It is estimated that more than
can be made (i.e., change in valve position or trim). 3,000 multi-path ultrasonic meters are now in
custody service in North America alone.
SOS Comparisons: Discrepancies between
measured and calculated SOS indicate a 7 Conclusions
fundamental meter problem (e.g., a clock or
Ultrasonic gas meters have become one of the flow
transducer problem). However, one must recognize
meters of choice for large-capacity transmission and
the sensitivity of the equation of state calculations to
city-gate meter stations. They are also finding
gas composition and temperature, prior to assuming
acceptance for use in power plant fuel gas
meter malfunction. Seemingly insignificant
measurement applications because of their wide
concentrations of heavier hydrocarbons greatly
rangeability and robust operating characteristics. If
influence the accuracy of the calculation
properly monitored, ultrasonic meters afford
customers some of the highest measurement
accuracy levels yet encountered, with relatively low
maintenance requirements.

Acknowledgment
The author wishes to thank Gasunie for their
cooperation in field-testing, and the many customers
who have provided invaluable feedback regarding
meter performance and diagnostic markers.

References
Bird R.B., Stewart W.E., and Lightfoot E.N. (1960)
Transport Phenomena, Wiley, New York
Rütten, O. (1928) Deutsches Patent No 520484.
th
Schlichting, H. (1968) Boundary Layer Theory, 6
edition, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Steenbergen, W. (1995) Turbulent Pipe Flow with
Swirl. Ph.D. thesis, Eindhoven University,
Eindhoven, The Netherlands.