Lecture Handouts

on

VECTORS AND CLASSICAL MECHANICS

(MTH-622)

Virtual University of Pakistan

Pakistan
 i

About the Handouts

The following books have been mainly followed to prepare the slides and handouts:

1. Spiegel, M.R., Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis: And an Introduction to Tensor
Analysis. 1959: McGraw-Hill.
2. Spiegel, M.S., Theory and problems of theoretical mechanics. 1967: Schaum.
3. Taylor, J.R., Classical Mechanics. 2005: University Science Books.
4. DiBenedetto, E., Classical Mechanics: Theory and Mathematical Modeling. 2010:
Birkhäuser Boston.
5. Fowles, G.R. and G.L. Cassiday, Analytical Mechanics. 2005: Thomson Brooks/Cole.

The first two books were considered as main text books. Therefore the students are advised to
read the first two books in addition to these handouts. In addition to the above mentioned books,
some other reference book and material was used to get these handouts prepared.
 ii

Contents
Module No. 1................................................................................................................................................ 1
Introduction to the Course and Mathematics ....................................................................................... 1
Module No. 2................................................................................................................................................ 2
Scalar and Vector Fields ........................................................................................................................ 2
Module No. 3................................................................................................................................................ 4
The Operator Del and Gradient of Function........................................................................................ 4
Module No. 4................................................................................................................................................ 6
Properties of the Gradient...................................................................................................................... 6
Module No. 5................................................................................................................................................ 8
Directional Derivative ............................................................................................................................. 8
Module No. 6.............................................................................................................................................. 10
Theorem related Directional Derivative ............................................................................................. 10
Module No. 7.............................................................................................................................................. 11
Example of the Directional Derivative ................................................................................................ 11
Module No. 8.............................................................................................................................................. 12
Related Problem 1 of the Directional Derivative ............................................................................... 12
Module No. 9.............................................................................................................................................. 13
Related problem 2 of Directional Derivative ...................................................................................... 13
Module No. 10............................................................................................................................................ 14
Related Problem 3 of the Directional Derivative ............................................................................... 14
Module No. 11............................................................................................................................................ 16
Geometrical Interpretation of Gradient ............................................................................................. 16
Module No. 12............................................................................................................................................ 17
Theorem Related to Gradient .............................................................................................................. 17
Module No. 13............................................................................................................................................ 19
Related Problem 1; Gradient ............................................................................................................... 19
Module No. 14............................................................................................................................................ 20
Related Problem 2; Gradient ............................................................................................................... 20
Module No. 15............................................................................................................................................ 21
Related Problem 3; Gradient ............................................................................................................... 21
Module No. 16............................................................................................................................................ 23
Divergence of a Vector Point Function ............................................................................................... 23
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Module No. 17............................................................................................................................................ 25

Properties of the Divergence ................................................................................................................ 25
Module No. 18............................................................................................................................................ 27
Laplacian ............................................................................................................................................... 27
Module No. 19............................................................................................................................................ 29
Example of Divergence ......................................................................................................................... 29
Module No. 20............................................................................................................................................ 30
Related Problem 1: Divergence ........................................................................................................... 30
Module No. 21............................................................................................................................................ 33
Related Problem 2: Divergence ........................................................................................................... 33
Module No. 22............................................................................................................................................ 35
Related Problem 3: Laplacian ............................................................................................................. 35
Module No. 23............................................................................................................................................ 37
Curl of a vector Point Function ........................................................................................................... 37
Module No. 24............................................................................................................................................ 39
Properties of the Curl ........................................................................................................................... 39
Module No. 25............................................................................................................................................ 42
Example of Curl .................................................................................................................................... 42
Module No. 26............................................................................................................................................ 43
Related Problem 1: Curl ...................................................................................................................... 43
Module No. 27............................................................................................................................................ 45
Related Problem 2: Curl ...................................................................................................................... 45
Module No. 28............................................................................................................................................ 48
Related Problem 3: Curl ...................................................................................................................... 48
Module No. 29............................................................................................................................................ 50
Vector Identities .................................................................................................................................... 50
Module No. 30............................................................................................................................................ 54
Line Integral .......................................................................................................................................... 54
Module No. 31............................................................................................................................................ 56
Other forms and General Properties of line Integrals ....................................................................... 56
Module No. 32............................................................................................................................................ 58
Example of Line Integral...................................................................................................................... 58
Module No. 33............................................................................................................................................ 60
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Example of Line Integral...................................................................................................................... 60

Module No. 34............................................................................................................................................ 62
Line Integral Dependent on Path ........................................................................................................ 62
Module No. 35............................................................................................................................................ 64
Independence of Path ........................................................................................................................... 64
Module No. 36............................................................................................................................................ 66
Theorems on line Integral .................................................................................................................... 66
Module No. 37............................................................................................................................................ 70
Selected Example/Problem 1 ................................................................................................................ 70
Module No. 38............................................................................................................................................ 72
Selected Example/Problem 2: Line Integrals ..................................................................................... 72
Module No. 39............................................................................................................................................ 73
Selected Example/Problem 3: Line Integrals ..................................................................................... 73
Module No. 40............................................................................................................................................ 75
Selected Example/Problem 4: Line Integral ....................................................................................... 75
Module No. 41............................................................................................................................................ 77
Surface Integral..................................................................................................................................... 77
Module No. 42............................................................................................................................................ 79
Evaluation of the Surface Integral ...................................................................................................... 79
Module No. 43............................................................................................................................................ 81
Example to the previous topic: Surface Integrals .............................................................................. 81
Module No. 44............................................................................................................................................ 84
Further Example on Surface Integral ................................................................................................. 84
Module No. 45............................................................................................................................................ 86
Selected Example/Problem 1: Surface Integrals ................................................................................ 86
Module No. 46............................................................................................................................................ 88
Selected Example/Problem 2: Surface Integral.................................................................................. 88
Module No. 47............................................................................................................................................ 91
Selected Example/Problem 3: Surface Integral.................................................................................. 91
Module No. 48............................................................................................................................................ 94
Volume Integral .................................................................................................................................... 94
Module No. 49............................................................................................................................................ 96
Example on Volume Integral ............................................................................................................... 96
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Module No. 50............................................................................................................................................ 98

Selected Example/Problem 1: Volume Integral ................................................................................. 98
 1

Module No. 1

Introduction to the Course and Mathematics

Introduction to Mathematics

“Mathematics is the branch of science which deals with the study of relations and patterns, and
means to represent and communicate them.”

Introduction to the Course

There are two main portions of this course:

 Vectors
 Classical Mechanics
 2

Module No. 2

Scalar and Vector Fields

Scalar Point Function
If to each point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) of a region R in space there corresponds a scalar 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), then 𝜑 is
called a scalar point function in R.

Scalar Field
Scalar field is a function define on space whose value at each point is a scalar quantity
The set of all values of scalar point function 𝜑 in R together forms a Scalar field.

Examples of Scalar Fields

1. The temperature 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) within a body A is a scalar point function because there exist
only one temperature at each point of A.
2. The pressure and potential due to gravity of the air in the earth’s atmosphere define scalar
field.

Vector Point Function

If to each point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) of a region R in space there exist a unique vector 𝐴⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), then 𝐴⃗ is
called a vector point function in R.

Vector Field
A function of a space whose value at each point is a vector quantity is called vector field.
Mathematically, we can write it as
𝐴⃗=𝐴⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) =𝐴1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)+ 𝐴2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) +𝐴3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
The set of all values of 𝐴⃗ in R constitute a vector field.

Examples of Vector Field

 3

1. 𝐴⃗=𝐴⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦𝚤̂ − 2𝑦𝑧 3 𝚥̂ + 𝑦 2 𝑧𝑘� defines a vector point function and hence is a
vector field.
2. The motion of a moving fluid at any time define vector field.
3. The set of tangent vector of a curve C and the set of normal vectors of a surface S are
examples of vector field.
 4

Module No. 3

The Operator Del and Gradient of Function

The Del Operator

The vector differential operator del, symbolize as ∇, is defined by

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
The symbol ∇ called del or nabla is used to symbolize del operator. It is only applied as defined
derivative on one-dimensional function, and for more dimensions it may be applied as partial
derivative on the function. The del operator is not a particular operator but when we applied it on
a scalar point function or a vector point function; this may be known as the gradient, the
divergence, and the curl.

Gradient: grad (f) = 𝛻𝜑

Curl: curl 𝐴⃗ = ∇ × 𝐴⃗

����⃗) = ∇. 𝐴⃗
Divergence: div (𝐴

We will discuss here the first application of del operator as gradient.

Gradient Function

Let 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be a scalar point function defined on a specific region on R and also differentiable
on the same domain. The we can apply del operator on 𝜑 in order to obtain gradient of scalar
function 𝜑 of grad( 𝜑) written as ∇𝜑 is defined by
 5

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇𝜑 = � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � 𝜑
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
it is to be noted that ∇𝜑 defined a vector field. Also ∇𝜑 = 0 if and only if 𝜑 is constant.
 6

Module No. 4

Properties of the Gradient

If 𝜑 and 𝜓 are Scalar point functions as well as differentiable on a specific domain and C is a
constant then we can show that the gradient holds the following properties.
i. ∇(𝐶𝜑) = 𝐶∇𝜑
ii. ∇( 𝜑 + 𝜓) = ∇𝜑 + ∇𝜓
iii. ∇( 𝜑 𝜓) = 𝜑∇𝜓 + 𝜓∇𝜑
𝜑 𝜓∇𝜑−𝜑∇𝜓
iv. ∇ �𝜓 � = 𝜓2
,𝜓≠0

Proof:
i. 𝛁(𝑪𝝋) = 𝑪𝛁𝝋
𝜕(𝐶𝜑) 𝜕(𝐶𝜑) 𝜕(𝐶𝜑)
L.H.S = ∇(𝐶𝜑) = 𝜕𝑥
𝚤̂ + 𝜕𝑦
𝚥̂ + 𝜕𝑧
𝑘�

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
=𝐶 𝚤̂ + 𝐶 𝚥̂ + 𝐶 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 𝐶� 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 𝐶∇𝜑 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆

ii. 𝛁( 𝝋 + 𝝍) = 𝛁𝝋 + 𝛁𝝍
𝜕( 𝜑 + 𝜓) 𝜕( 𝜑 + 𝜓) 𝜕( 𝜑 + 𝜓)
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = ∇( 𝜑 + 𝜓) = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
= � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�� + � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= ∇𝜑 + ∇𝜓 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆

iii. 𝛁( 𝝋 𝝍) = 𝝋𝛁𝝍 + 𝝍𝛁𝝋

𝜕( 𝜑 𝜓) 𝜕( 𝜑 𝜓) 𝜕( 𝜑 𝜓)
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝛻( 𝜑 𝜓) = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
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𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜑
= �𝜑 + 𝜓 � 𝚤̂ + �𝜑 + 𝜓 � 𝚥̂ + �𝜑 + 𝜓 � 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
=𝜑 � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � + 𝜓 � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘��
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 𝜑∇𝜓 + 𝜓∇𝜑 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆

𝝋 𝝍𝛁𝝋−𝝋𝛁𝝍
iv. 𝛁 �𝝍 � = 𝝍𝟐

𝜑 1 1 1
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝛻 � � = ∇ �𝜑 � = 𝜑∇ � � + 𝜓∇ � �
𝜓 𝜓 𝜓 𝜑
−1 1
= 𝜑� 2
� ∇𝜓 + 𝜓∇ � �
𝜓 𝜑
𝜓∇𝜑 − 𝜑∇𝜓
= = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆
𝜓2
 8

Module No. 5

Directional Derivative
The procedure to determine the derivative in a specific direction, other than the coordinate axes
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is called directional derivative.

Let 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be a scalar point function defined on a specific region on R and also differentiable
on the same domain. The first partial derivatives of 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) are the rate of change of 𝜑 in the
direction of coordinate axes (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). It is a restricted way to calculate the rate change is given
function. Maybe one ought to need the derivative in a specific direction. Therefore the idea of
directional derivative introduced.

To define the directional derivative we choose a point 𝐴(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in space and a direction at 𝑃,
given by a unit vector 𝑎�. Let C be the ray drawn from 𝑃 in the direction of 𝑎�, and let 𝐴(𝑥 +
∆𝑥, 𝑦 + ∆𝑦, 𝑧 + ∆𝑧) denoted by 𝐵 be a neighboring point on C, whose distance from P is ∆𝑠 as
shown in figure,

The value of given scalar point function is 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and 𝜑(+∆𝑥, 𝑦 + ∆𝑦, 𝑧 + ∆𝑧) at P and P’
respectively.
Then the limit
∆𝜑 𝜑(𝑃′ ) − 𝜑(𝑃)
lim = lim
∆𝑠→0 ∆𝑠 ∆𝑠→0 ∆𝑠
𝜕𝜑
if it exists, is called the directional derivative of 𝜑 at P in the direction of 𝑎� and is denoted by 𝜕𝑠
.

Obviously,
 9

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝑧
= + +
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
=( 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� )( 𝚤̂ + 𝚤̂ + 𝚤̂)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑟⃗
= ∇𝜑. 𝑑𝑠 = ∇𝜑. 𝑎� (1)
𝜕𝜑
Since 𝑎� is a unit vector, directional derivative of 𝜑 (i.e. 𝜕𝑠
) is the component of ∇𝜑 in the

direction of this unit vector.

From equation (1), we have the operator equivalence,

𝜕
= ∇. 𝑎�
𝜕𝑠
This means that the operator ∇. 𝑎� applied to the scalar function 𝜑 differentiates it w.r.t the
distance s in the direction of 𝑎�.

Deductions

In particular, if we assume 𝑎� has the direction of the positive x-axis, the 𝑎� = 𝚤̂ then equation (1)
will become 𝛻𝜑. 𝚤̂
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
=� 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � . 𝚤̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜑
𝛻𝜑. 𝚤̂ =
𝜕𝑥
Similarly,
𝜕𝜑
𝛻𝜑. 𝚥̂ = 𝜕𝑦
,
𝜕𝜑
𝛻𝜑. 𝑘� = 𝜕𝑧
 10

Module No. 6

Theorem related Directional Derivative

Statement

Show that the maximum value of the directional derivative of 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is equal to the magnitude
of 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)is equal to the magnitude of ∇𝜑 (i. e |∇𝜑 |) and it takes place in the direction of ∇𝜑.

Proof

We know that
𝜕𝜑
= ∇𝜑. 𝑎�
𝜕𝑠

= |∇𝜑||𝑎�| cos 𝜃

𝜕𝜑
where 𝜃 is the angle between ∇𝜑 and 𝑎�. Since −1 ≤ cos 𝜃 ≤ 1, therefore 𝜕𝑠
is maximum when
𝜕𝜑
cos 𝜃 = 1 or 𝜃 = 0° i.e. when the direction of 𝑎� is the direction of ∇𝜑 and max � 𝜕𝑠 � = ∇𝜑.

Thus the maximum value of directional derivative takes place in the direction of ∇𝜑 and has the
magnitude |∇𝜑|.

𝜕𝜑
It is important to be note that directional derivative 𝜕𝑠
is zero, when 𝜃 = 90° i.e when ∇𝜑 and 𝑎�

are orthogonal to each other.

 11

Module No. 7

Example of the Directional Derivative

Problem Statement:

Find the directional derivative of 𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 + 4𝑥𝑧 2 at (1, −2, −1) in the direction
2𝚤̂ — 𝚥̂ — 2𝑘�.

Solution:
As we studied the equation
Directional derivative = ∇𝜑. 𝑎�

∇𝜑 = ∇(𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 + 4𝑥𝑧 2 )

= (2𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 4𝑧 2 )𝚤̂ + (𝑥 2 𝑧) 𝚥̂ + 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 8𝑥𝑧)𝑘�

∇𝜑 at (1, −2, −1) = 8𝚤̂ — 𝚥̂ — 10𝑘�
The unit vector in the given direction can be calculated as
→ 2𝚤̂ — 𝚥̂ — 2𝑘�. 2 1 2
𝑎� = 𝑎
= = �� − 𝚥̂ − 𝑘�
|𝑎| 3 3 3 3
then the required directional unit vector is
2 1 2
∇𝜑. 𝑎� = �8𝚤̂ — 𝚥̂ — 10𝑘��. � 𝚤̂ − 𝚥̂ − 𝑘��
3 3 3
16 1 20 37
= + + =
3 3 3 3
Since this is positive, 𝜑 is increasing in this direction.
 12

Module No. 8

Related Problem 1 of the Directional

Derivative
Problem Statement:
Find the directional derivative of 𝜑 = 4𝑥𝑧 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 at (2, −1,2) in the direction 2𝚤̂ − 3𝚥̂ +
6𝑘�.
Solution:
As we studied the equation
Directional derivative = ∇𝜑. 𝑎�
∇𝜑 = ∇(4𝑥𝑧 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 )
= (4𝑧 3 − 6𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧)𝚤̂ + (−6𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧) 𝚥̂ + (12𝑥𝑧 2 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 )𝑘�
∇𝜑 at (2, −1,2) = 8𝚤̂ + 24𝚥̂ + 84𝑘�
The unit vector in the given direction can be calculated as
→ 2𝚤̂ — 3𝚥̂ + 6𝑘�. 2 3 6
𝑎� = 𝑎
= = 𝚤̂ − 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
|𝑎| 7 7 7 7
then the required directional unit vector is
2 3 6
∇𝜑. 𝑎� = �8𝚤̂ + 48𝚥̂ + 84𝑘��. � 𝚤̂ − 𝚥̂ + 𝑘��
7 7 7
16 144 504 376
= − + =
7 7 7 7
Since this is positive, 𝜑 is increasing in this direction.
 13

Module No. 9

Related problem 2 of Directional Derivative

Problem Statement
a) In what direction from the point (2,1, −1) is the directional derivative of 𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 a
maximum?
b) What is the magnitude of this maximum?

Solution

First of all, we calculate gradient of 𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3

∇𝜑 = ∇(𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 ) = (2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 )𝚤̂ + (𝑥 2 𝑧 3 )𝚥̂ + (3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 )𝑘�
∇𝜑 at (2,1, −1) is −4𝚤̂ − 4𝚥̂ + 12𝑘�
using the result that directional derivative is maximum in the direction of 𝛻𝜑 and its maximum
magnitude is | ∇𝜑 |
The directional derivative is a maximum in the direction 𝛻𝜑 = — 4𝚤̂ — 4𝚥� + 12𝑘�
the magnitude of this maximum is | 𝛻𝜑| = |(−4)2 + (−4)2 + (12)2 | = √176 = 4√11
 14

Module No. 10

Related Problem 3 of the Directional

Derivative
Problem Statement:

Find the values of the constants 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 so that the directional derivative of 𝜑 = 𝑎𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑏𝑦𝑧 +
𝑐𝑧 2 𝑥 3 at
(1,2, −1) has a maximum of magnitude 64 in a direction parallel to the z-axis.

Solution:
Since 𝜑 = 𝑎𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑏𝑦𝑧 + 𝑐𝑧 2 𝑥 3 , therefore
∇𝜑 = ∇(𝑎𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑏𝑦𝑧 + 𝑐𝑧 2 𝑥 3 )
= (𝑎𝑦 2 + 3𝑐𝑧 2 𝑥 2 )𝚤̂ + (2𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑧)𝚥̂ + (𝑏𝑦 + 2𝑐𝑧𝑥 3 )𝑘�
At the point (1,2, −1), the value of this gradient is
= (4𝑎 + 3𝑐)𝚤̂ + (4𝑎 − 𝑏)𝚥̂ + (2𝑏 − 2𝑐)𝑘�
We know that the maximum directional derivative takes place in the direction of ∇𝜑 and has the
magnitude of ∇𝜑. The maximum directional derivative will be parallel to the z-axis if

4𝑎 + 3𝑐 = 0 (1)
4𝑎 − 𝑏 = 0 (2)
Therefore
∇𝜑 = (2𝑏 − 2𝑐)𝑘�
since the magnitude of this maximum directional derivative is 64, there fore
2𝑏 − 2𝑐 = 64
(3)
Solving equation (1), (2) and (3), we find
𝑎 = 6, 𝑏 = 24, 𝑐 = −8
 15

which is the required solution.

 16

Module No. 11

Geometrical Interpretation of Gradient

Geometrically, gradient of a scalar function represents a normal vector to the surface.
𝛻𝜑|(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) represents the normal vector of the surface at (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).

Example
If 𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧
𝛻𝜑 = 2𝑥𝑦𝑧𝚤̂ + 𝑥 2 𝑧𝚥̂ + 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑘�
At (1,1,1)
𝛻𝜑|(1,1,1) = 2𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
which is normal to the surface 𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧
 17

Module No. 12

Theorem Related to Gradient

Theorem
Prove that ∇𝜑 is a vector perpendicular to the surface 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = C, where C is a constant.
Proof
Let the parametric equation of the curve 𝐾 be 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑠), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑠), 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑠).
𝑑𝑟
let 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑧𝑘� be the position vector of the point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), then 𝑇� = 𝑑𝑠 is unit tangent

vector to the curve K at P as shown in figure.

Since the curve K lies on the level surface, together, the condition of any point on the curve must
satisfy equation (1), and so [𝑥(𝑠), 𝑦(𝑠), 𝑧(𝑠)] = 𝐶.
Differentiating above equation w.r.t‘s’ using the chain rule,
𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝑧
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑠
or
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � . � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
or
𝑑𝑟
∇𝜑. = 0 𝑜𝑟 ∇𝜑. 𝑇� = 0
𝑑𝑠
 18

Which implies that ∇𝜑 is a vector perpendicular to the unit tangent vector 𝑇�and therefore on the
surface 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐶.
 19

Module No. 13

Related Problem 1; Gradient

Problem Statement
If 𝐴⃗ = 2𝑥 2 𝑖 − 3𝑦𝑧𝑗 + 𝑥𝑧 2 𝑘 and 𝜑 = 2𝑧 − 𝑥 3 𝑦
Find
i. 𝐴⃗. ∇𝜑
ii. 𝐴⃗ × ∇𝜑

Solution
Since 𝜑 = 2𝑧 − 𝑥 3 𝑦 then
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
∇𝜑 = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(2𝑧 − 𝑥 3 𝑦 ) 𝜕(2𝑧 − 𝑥 3 𝑦 ) 𝜕(2𝑧 − 𝑥 3 𝑦 )
= 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
∇𝜑 = −3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑥 3 𝑗 + 2𝑘
∇𝜑 at (1, −1,1)
∇𝜑 = 3𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2𝑘
Given vector 𝐴⃗ = 2𝑥 2 𝑖 − 3𝑦𝑧𝑗 + 𝑥𝑧 2 𝑘 at (1, −1,1)
𝐴⃗ = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 𝑘
i. 𝐴⃗. ∇𝜑 = (2𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 𝑘). (3𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2𝑘)
(2)(3) − (3)(1) + (1)(2) = 5

ii. 𝐴⃗ × ∇𝜑 = (2𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 𝑘) × ( 3𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2𝑘)

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
= �2 3 1�
3 −1 2
= �6 − (−1)�𝑖 − (4 − 3)𝑗 + (−2 − 9)𝑘
= 7𝑖 − 𝑗 − 11𝑘
 20

Module No. 14

Related Problem 2; Gradient

Statement
Show that
𝑓 ′ (𝑟)𝑟⃗
∇𝑓(𝑟) =
𝑟
Proof
We know that
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇𝑓(𝑟) = 𝑓(𝑟)𝚤̂ + 𝑓(𝑟)𝚥̂ + 𝑓(𝑟)𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑟
= 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑓 𝜕𝑟 𝑑𝑓 𝜕𝑟 𝑑𝑓 𝜕𝑟
= 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� (1)
𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑧

since 𝑟 = �𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 , it follows that

𝜕𝑟 𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝑧
= , = , =
𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟

putting these values in (1), we get

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑟) 𝚤̂ + 𝑓 ′ (𝑟) 𝚥̂ + 𝑓 ′ (𝑟) 𝑘�
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
′ (𝑟)
𝑓
= (𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑧𝑘�)
𝑟
𝑓 ′ (𝑟)𝑟⃗
=
𝑟
Hence Proved
 21

Module No. 15

Related Problem 3; Gradient

Statement
If ∇𝜑 = 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 𝚤̂ + 𝑥 2 𝑧 3 𝚥̂ + 3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑘�,
Find
𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) if 𝜑(1, −2,2) = 4
Solution
Given equation is
∇𝜑 = 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 𝑖 + 𝑥 2 𝑧 3 𝑗 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑘� (1)
We know that
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝛻𝜑 = 𝜕𝑥
𝚤̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝚥̂ + 𝜕𝑧
𝑘� (2)

therefore by comparing equation(1) and (2), we get

𝜕𝜑
𝜕𝑥
= 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 (3)
𝜕𝜑
𝜕𝑦
= 𝑥2𝑧3 (4)
𝜕𝜑
𝜕𝑧
= 3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 (5)

Integrating Equation (3) w.r.t x , keeping y and z constants

𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 + 𝑓(𝑦, 𝑧) (6)
Similarly, from equation (4) and (5), we get
𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 + 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑧) (7)
𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 + ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) (8)
Comparison of equation (6), (7) and (8) shows that there will be a common value of 𝜑 if we
choose
𝑓(𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑧) = ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐶
where C is an arbitrary constant.
Thus
𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 + 𝐶 (9)
 22

using 𝜑(1, −2,2) = 4 in equation (9) we get

𝐶 = 20
hence from equation (9), we obtained
𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 + 20
Which is the required solution of 𝜑.
 23

Module No. 16

Divergence of a Vector Point Function

Definition
Divergence is a vector operator, when we applied this operator to the quantity of a vector field, it
produces a scalar field.
�⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑉1 𝚤̂ + 𝑉2 𝚥̂ + 𝑉3 𝑘� be defined and differentiable at each point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in a
Let 𝑉
certain region of space (i.e. V defines a differentiable vector field). Then the divergence of V,
written ∇. 𝑉 or 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑉, is defined by
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
�⃗ = (
∇. 𝑉 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� ). (𝑉1 𝚤̂ + 𝑉2 𝚥̂ + 𝑉3 𝑘�)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑉1 𝜕𝑉2 𝜕𝑉3

= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Some Deductions
�⃗ is a scalar quantity. Also ∇. 𝑉
It is important to be noted that ∇. 𝑉 �⃗ ≠ 𝑉
�⃗ . ∇
�⃗ is a constant vector, then ∇. 𝑉
If 𝑉 �⃗ = 0.
�⃗ = 0 everywhere in some region of R, Then 𝑉
if ∇. 𝑉 �⃗ is called solenoid vector point function in
the region.
We can consider an example of solenoid to understand the concept.

Example
�⃗ = (𝑥 + 3𝑦)𝚤̂ + (𝑦 — 2𝑧)𝚥̂ + (𝑥 + 𝑎𝑧)𝑘� is
Determine the constant a so that the vector 𝑉
solenoidal.
Solution
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. 𝑉 = � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � . �(𝑥 + 3𝑦)𝚤̂ + (𝑦 — 2𝑧)𝚥̂ + (𝑥 + 𝑎𝑧)𝑘� �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(𝑥 + 3𝑦) 𝜕(𝑦 — 2𝑧) 𝜕(𝑥 + 𝑎𝑧)
= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 24

=1+1+𝑎 = 2+𝑎
𝑎 = −2
�⃗ will become solenoidal.
Hence if we substitute 𝑎 = −2 in given vector field then given 𝑉
 25

Module No. 17

Properties of the Divergence

Statement
If 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
�⃗ are differentiable vector point functions, and 𝜑 is differentiable scalar point function,
then prove that
i. ∇. �𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
�⃗ � = ∇. 𝐴⃗ + ∇. 𝐵
�⃗

ii. ∇. �𝜑𝐴⃗� = 𝜑(∇. ����⃗

𝐴) + ���⃗. (∇𝜑)

Proof
Let
𝐴⃗ = 𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘� and 𝐵
�⃗ = 𝐵1 𝚤̂ + 𝐵2 𝚥̂ + 𝐵3 𝑘� , then

i. ��⃗ + 𝑩
𝛁. �𝑨 ��⃗� = 𝛁. �𝑨
�⃗ + 𝛁. �𝑩
�⃗

�⃗ � = (𝐴1 + 𝐵1 )𝚤̂ + (𝐴2 + 𝐵1 )𝚥̂ + (𝐴3 + 𝐵3 )𝑘�

𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = �𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
hence
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. �𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
�⃗ � = (𝐴1 + 𝐵1 )𝚤̂ + (𝐴2 + 𝐵1 )𝚥̂ + (𝐴3 + 𝐵3 )𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐵1 𝜕𝐵2 𝜕𝐵3
=( + + )+( + + )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= ∇. 𝐴⃗ + ∇. 𝐵
�⃗ = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆

ii. ��⃗� = 𝝋(𝛁. ����⃗

𝛁. �𝝋𝑨 𝑨) + �𝑨
�⃗. (𝛁𝝋)

𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝛻. �𝜑𝐴⃗�

We have 𝜑𝐴⃗ = 𝜑𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝜑 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝜑𝐴3 𝑘�

Hence
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. �𝜑𝐴⃗� = (𝜑𝐴1 )𝚤̂ + (𝜑𝐴2 )𝚥̂ + (𝜑𝐴3 )𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝜑
=𝜑 + 𝐴1 +𝜑 + 𝐴2 +𝜑 + 𝐴3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
 26

𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑

= 𝜑� + + � + (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
����⃗ + (
= 𝜑(∇. 𝐴) 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� )( 𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘�)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
∇. �𝜑𝐴⃗� == 𝜑(∇. ����⃗
𝐴) + (∇𝜑).����⃗ ����⃗ + 𝐴⃗. (∇𝜑)
𝐴 = 𝜑(∇. 𝐴)

∇. �𝜑𝐴⃗� = 𝜑(∇. ����⃗

𝐴) if 𝜑 is constant.
 27

Module No. 18

Laplacian
The Laplacian or Laplace operator is a second-order differential operator given by the
divergence of the gradient of a given function defined over a space R. It is usually denoted by
∇. ∇, 𝑜𝑟 ∇2 𝑜𝑟 ∆.
Thus if u
�⃗ is a twice differentiable function, then the Laplacian of u
�⃗ is defined by
�⃗ = ∇2 u
∆u �⃗ = ∇. ∇u
�⃗
In cartesian coordinate system, the Laplacian is given by the sum of second order partial
derivatives of the function w.r.t each independent variable. Laplace is a Second order differential
operator which is obtained by taking the divergence of gradient of any scalar point function.
It is denoted as
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. ∇= ∇2 = � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � . � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇2 = + +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
It is a scalar operator.
In one and two dimension, the Laplace operator reduces to
𝜕2
∇2 =
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕2
2
𝜕2
∇ = 2+ 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
If 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a scalar point function, then the divergence of gradient of 𝜑 written as ∇. ∇𝜑 =
∇2 𝜑 is called the Laplacian of 𝜑 and the equation ∇2 𝜑 = 0 is called Laplace’s equation.
If a scalar function 𝜑 satisfies the Laplace equation ∇2 𝜑 = 0 in a Cartesian region R, then 𝜑 is
said to be a harmonic function in the region R.
Mathematically, we can write it as

2
𝜕 2𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑
∇ 𝜑= + + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
We can also express the Laplace operator in polar coordinate (𝑟, 𝜃) notation.
 28

Two dimensional Laplace operators can be expressed as

2
1𝜕 𝜕𝑓 1 𝜕 2𝜑
∇ 𝜑= �𝑟 � + 2 � 2 �
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕 2 𝜑 1 𝜕𝜑 1 𝜕 2 𝜑
= + +
𝜕𝜃 2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2
The Laplacian occurs in differential equation that describes many physical phenomena, such as
Diffusion equation for heat and fluid flow, gravitational potentials and quantum mechanics.
 29

Module No. 19

Example of Divergence
Statement
If 𝐴⃗ = 𝑥 2 𝑧𝚤̂ − 2𝑦 3 𝑧 2 𝚥� + 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧𝑘�, find ∇. 𝐴⃗ (or div A) at the point (1, −1,1).

Solution
As we know del operator ∇ is
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Since given vector point function 𝐴⃗ is
𝐴⃗ = 𝑥 2 𝑧𝚤̂ − 2𝑦 3 𝑧 2 𝚥� + 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧𝑘�
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. 𝐴⃗ = � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � . �𝑥 2 𝑧𝚤̂ − 2𝑦 3 𝑧 2 𝚥� + 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧𝑘��
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(𝑥 2 𝑧) 𝜕(−2𝑦 3 𝑧 2 ) 𝜕(𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧)
= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 2𝑥𝑧 − 6𝑦 2 𝑧 2 + 𝑥𝑦 2
As we calculated the expression ∇. 𝐴⃗, we can easily determine its value at (1, −1,1).
∇. 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑡 (1, −1,1) = 2(1)(1) − 6(−1)2 (1)2 + (1)(−1)2
= 2 − 6 + 1 = −3
∇. 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑡 (1, −1,1) = −3
which is the required Result.
 30

Module No. 20

Related Problem 1: Divergence

Statement
If �А⃗ = З𝑥у𝑧 2 �𝚤 + 2ху3 𝚥̂ − 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧𝑘� and 𝜑 = З𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑧,
find
i. ∇. �А⃗
ii. �А⃗. ∇𝜑

iii. �⃗�
∇. �𝜑А
iv. ∇. (∇𝜑)

at the point (1, −1,1).

Solution
Since �А⃗ = З𝑥у𝑧 2 �𝚤 + 2ху3 𝚥̂ − 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧𝑘�
also
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
then
i. �⃗
𝛁. А
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. �А⃗ = � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � . �З𝑥у𝑧 2 �𝚤 + 2ху3 𝚥̂ − 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧𝑘� �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= Зу𝑧 2 + 6ху2 𝚥̂ − 𝑥 2 𝑦
�⃗ at point (1, −1,1)𝑖𝑠
∇. А
= 3(−1)(1)2 + 6(1)(−1)2 − (1)2 (−1)
= −3 + 6 − 1 = 2
ii. �А⃗. 𝛁𝝋
Since 𝜑 = З𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑧
then
 31

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
∇𝜑 = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(З𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑧) 𝜕(З𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑧) 𝜕(З𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑧)
= 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 6𝑥𝚤̂ − 𝑧𝚥̂ − 𝑦𝑘�
Now,
�⃗. ∇𝜑 = �З𝑥у𝑧 2 �𝚤 + 2ху3 𝚥̂ − 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧𝑘� �. � 6𝑥𝚤̂ − 𝑧𝚥̂ − 𝑦𝑘� �
А
= (18𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 − 2ху3 𝑧 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧)

�⃗. ∇𝜑 at point (1, −1,1)is

А
= [18(1)2 (−1)(1)2 − 2(1)(−1)3 (1) + (1)2 (−1)2 (1)]
= −18 + 2 + 1 = −15
iii. �⃗�
𝛁. �𝝋А

then
�⃗ = (З𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑧)�З𝑥у𝑧 2 �𝚤 + 2ху3 𝚥̂ − 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧𝑘� �
𝜑А
= (9𝑥 3 у𝑧 2 − З𝑥у2 𝑧 3 ) �𝚤 + (6𝑥 3 у3 − 2ху4 𝑧)𝚥̂ + (3𝑥 4 𝑦𝑧 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 2 )𝑘�
Now
�⃗� = ∇. ((9𝑥 3 у𝑧 2 − З𝑥у2 𝑧 3 ) �𝚤 + (6𝑥 3 у3 − 2ху4 𝑧)𝚥̂ + (3𝑥 4 𝑦𝑧 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 2 )𝑘�)
∇. �𝜑А
𝜕(9𝑥 3 у𝑧 2 − З𝑥у2 𝑧 3 ) 𝜕(6𝑥 3 у3 − 2ху4 𝑧) 𝜕(3𝑥 4 𝑦𝑧 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 2 )
= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 27𝑥 2 у𝑧 2 − Зу2 𝑧 3 + 18𝑥 3 у2 − 8ху3 𝑧 + 3𝑥 4 𝑦 − 2𝑥 4 𝑦𝑧
�⃗� at point (1, −1,1)is
∇. �𝜑А

�⃗� = −27 − 3 + 18 + 8 − 3 + 2 = −5
∇. �𝜑А
iv. 𝛁. (𝛁𝝋)
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕� 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � . � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕(З𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑧) 𝜕(З𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑧) 𝜕(З𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑧)
=� 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � . ( 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 32

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � . �6𝑥𝚤̂ − 𝑧𝚥̂ − 𝑦𝑘� � = 6
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 33

Module No. 21

Related Problem 2: Divergence

Problem Statement
Given
𝜑 = 2𝑥 3 𝑦 2 𝑧 4 .
To find
i. ∇. ∇𝜑 (or div grad𝜑).
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
ii. Show that ∇. ∇𝜑 = ∇2 𝜑 , where ∇2 = 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 denotes the Laplacian operator.

Solution
i. 𝛁. 𝛁𝝋
As we know the grad of 𝜑

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
∇𝜑 = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(2𝑥 3 𝑦 2 𝑧 4 ) 𝜕(2𝑥 3 𝑦 2 𝑧 4 ) 𝜕(2𝑥 3 𝑦 2 𝑧 4 )
= 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 4 𝚤̂ + 4𝑥 3 𝑦𝑧 4 𝚥̂ + 8𝑥 3 𝑦 2 𝑧 3 𝑘�
Then the divergence of the grad of 𝜑
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. ∇𝜑 = � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � . � 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 4 𝚤̂ + 4𝑥 3 𝑦𝑧 4 𝚥̂ + 8𝑥 3 𝑦 2 𝑧 3 𝑘� �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕𝜑 𝜕 𝜕𝜑 𝜕 𝜕𝜑
= � �+ � �+ � �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 4 ) 𝜕(4𝑥 3 𝑦𝑧 4 ) 𝜕(8𝑥 3 𝑦 2 𝑧 3 )
= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 12𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 4 + 4𝑥 3 𝑦𝑧 4 + 24𝑥 3 𝑦 2 𝑧 2
ii. 𝛁. 𝛁𝝋 = 𝛁 𝟐 𝝋
L.H.S= ∇. ∇𝜑

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
=� 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � . ( 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 34

𝜕 𝜕𝜑 𝜕 𝜕𝜑 𝜕 𝜕𝜑
= � �+ � �+ � �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 2𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑
= + +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
=� + + �𝜑
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
= ∇2 𝜑
Hence proved.
 35

Module No. 22

Related Problem 3: Laplacian

Problem Statement
Show that
i. ∇. (𝑟 3 𝑟⃗)
1 3
ii. ∇. �𝑟⃗∇(𝑟 3 )� = 𝑟 4
𝑟⃗ 2𝑟⃗
iii. ∇. �∇. (𝑟)� = − 𝑟 3

where 𝑟⃗ is position vector.

Solution
First of all we will derive a general relation for ∇. [𝑟⃗𝑓(𝑟)] then we will substitute our given
values to evaluate our required result.
∇. [𝑟⃗𝑓(𝑟)] = 𝑓(𝑟)(∇. 𝑟⃗) + 𝑟⃗. (∇𝑓(𝑟))
∴ ∇. 𝑟⃗ = 3
We have
𝑓′(𝑟)𝑟⃗
= 3𝑓(𝑟) + 𝑟⃗𝑓 ′ (𝑟)𝑟̂ = 3𝑓(𝑟) + 𝑟⃗.
𝑟
𝑟⃗
∴ 𝑟̂ =
𝑟
𝑓′(𝑟)
= 3𝑓(𝑟) + 𝑟⃗. 𝑟⃗
𝑟
∴ 𝑟⃗. 𝑟⃗ = 𝑟 2
∇. [𝑟⃗𝑓(𝑟)] = 3𝑓(𝑟) + 𝑟𝑓′(𝑟)
Now setting 𝑓(𝑟) = 𝑟 𝑛 in above relation, we obtain
∇. (𝑟⃗𝑟 𝑛 ) = 3𝑟 𝑛 + 𝑟(𝑛𝑟 𝑛−1 )
∇. (𝑟⃗𝑟 𝑛 ) = 3𝑟 𝑛 + (𝑛𝑟 𝑛 )
∇. (𝑟 𝑛 𝑟⃗) = (3 + 𝑛)𝑟 𝑛
i. We have ∇. (𝑟 3 𝑟⃗) to evaluate, it is of the form ∇. [𝑟⃗𝑓(𝑟)], where �(𝑟) = 𝑟 3
 36

Put 𝑛 = 3 in above relation, we will obtain the required result

∇. (𝑟 3 𝑟⃗) = (3 + 3)𝑟 3 = 6𝑟 3
Is the required solution.
1
ii. 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = ∇. �𝑟∇(𝑟 3 )�

We can also write it as

= ∇. [𝑟(∇𝑟 −3 )] = ∇. [𝑟(−3𝑟 −5 𝑟⃗)]
where we used the result
𝑓′(𝑟)𝑟⃗
∇𝑓(𝑟) =
𝑟
We have ∇. [𝑟(−3𝑟 −5 𝑟⃗)] to evaluate, it is of the form ∇. [𝑟⃗𝑓(𝑟)], where 𝑓(𝑟) = 𝑟 −4 𝑟⃗
thus,
1 3
∇. �𝑟⃗∇( 3 )� = −3∇. (𝑟 −4 𝑟⃗) = −3(−4 + 3)𝑟 −4 = 4 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆
𝑟 𝑟
is the required solution.
𝑟⃗
iii. 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = ∇. �∇. (𝑟)�

𝑟⃗
frist we evaluate ∇. (𝑟) using formula ∇. [𝑟⃗𝑓(𝑟)], where 𝑓(𝑟) = 𝑟 −1 𝑟⃗

∇. (𝑟 𝑛 𝑟⃗) = (3 + 𝑛)𝑟 𝑛
put 𝑛 = 1, we have
2
∇. (𝑟 −1 𝑟⃗) = (3 − 1)𝑟 −1 =
𝑟
therefore
2 2𝑟⃗
= ∇. � � = −2𝑟 −3 𝑟⃗ = − 3 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆
𝑟 𝑟
 37

Module No. 23

Curl of a vector Point Function

Introduction
The infinitesimal rotation of a vector field is described by the curl. The curl of a specific point is
shows by a vector at every point of the vector field. The attributes of this vector (length and
direction) characterize the rotation at that point.
The direction of the curl is the axis of rotation, as determined by the right-hand rule, and the
magnitude of the curl is the magnitude of rotation.
Definition
�⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a differentiable vector field in a certain region of space, then the curl or rotation of
If 𝑉
�⃗, curl V or rot V, is defined by
V, written ∇ × 𝑉
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
�⃗ = (
∇×𝑉 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� ) × (𝑉1 𝚤̂ + 𝑉2 𝚥̂ + 𝑉3 𝑘�).
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Where 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 are the components of vector field along x, y and z-axis.
We can write this expression in matrix from
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
�⃗ = �� 𝜕
∇×𝑉
𝜕 𝜕�
�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= �𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧� 𝚤̂ − �𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧� 𝚥̂ + �𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦� 𝑘�
𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉1 𝑉3 𝑉1 𝑉2
𝜕𝑉3 𝜕𝑉2 𝜕𝑉3 𝜕𝑉1 𝜕𝑉2 𝜕𝑉1
=� − � 𝚤̂ − � − � 𝚥̂ + � − � 𝑘�
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
A vector field whose curl is zero is called irrotational.
Identities of Curl
Some identities of curl are stated below
A gradient has zero curl:
∇ × 𝛻𝜑 = 0.
A curl has zero divergence:
 38

�⃗ ) = 0
𝛻 · (𝛻 × 𝑉
�⃗ )= (𝛻 × 𝛻). 𝑉
Note: ∇ · (𝛻 × 𝑉 �⃗ = 0 because 𝛻 × 𝛻 = 0.
 39

Module No. 24

Properties of the Curl

If 𝐴⃗ and �В⃗ are differentiable vector functions, and φ is differentiable scalar functions of position
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), then
i. ∇ × (𝐴⃗ + �В⃗ ) = ∇×𝐴⃗ + ∇×В
�⃗ or curl (𝐴⃗ +B) = curl 𝐴⃗ + curl В
�⃗

ii. ∇× (𝜑𝐴⃗) = 𝜑 (∇×𝐴⃗) +(∇𝜑) ×𝐴⃗

iii. ∇× (∇𝜑) = 0 The curl of the gradient of 𝜑 is zero.
iv. ∇.(∇×𝐴⃗) = 0 The divergence of the curl of 𝐴⃗ is zero.

Proof
Let 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘� and 𝐵
�⃗ = 𝐵1 𝚤̂ + 𝐵2 𝚥̂ + 𝐵3 𝑘� , then

i. ��⃗ +B) = curl �𝑨⃗ + curl �В⃗

curl (𝑨
L.H. S= curl (𝐴⃗ +В
�⃗)
�⃗ = (𝐴1 + 𝐵1 )𝚤̂ + (𝐴2 + 𝐵2 )𝚥̂ + (𝐴3 + 𝐵3 )𝑘�
𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
Hence by using the definition of curl
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ × (𝐴⃗ + B) =� �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐴1 + 𝐵1 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 𝐴3 + 𝐵3
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘� 𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕� �𝜕 𝜕 𝜕�
= �� �+� �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3 𝐵1 𝐵2 𝐵3
= ∇×𝐴⃗ + ∇×В
�⃗
Hence proved
ii. �⃗) = 𝝋 (∇×𝑨
∇× (𝝋𝑨 ��⃗) + (∇𝝋) ×𝑨
�⃗

L.H.S=∇× (𝜑𝐴⃗)

𝜑𝐴⃗ = 𝜑�𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘� � = 𝜑𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝜑𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝜑𝐴3 𝑘,

�

Then by using the definition of curl

 40

𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇× (𝜑𝐴⃗) = � �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜑𝐴2 𝜑𝐴2 𝜑𝐴3

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=� (𝜑𝐴3 ) − (𝜑𝐴2 )� 𝚤̂ − � (𝜑𝐴3 ) − (𝜑𝐴1 )� 𝚥̂ + � (𝜑𝐴2 ) − (𝜑𝐴1 )� 𝑘�
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕(𝐴3 ) 𝜕(𝜑) 𝜕(𝐴2 ) 𝜕(𝜑) 𝜕(𝐴3 ) 𝜕(𝜑) 𝜕(𝐴1 ) 𝜕(𝜑)

= �𝜑 + 𝐴3 −𝜑 − 𝐴2 � 𝚤̂ − �𝜑 + 𝐴3 −𝜑 − 𝐴1 � 𝚥̂
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(𝐴2 ) 𝜕(𝜑) 𝜕(𝐴1 ) 𝜕(𝜑)
+ �𝜑 + 𝐴2 −𝜑 − 𝐴1 � 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕(𝐴2 ) 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 𝜑 �� 𝜕𝑦3 − � 𝚤̂ + � 𝜕𝑥3 − � 𝚥̂ + ( − )𝑘�� + �(𝐴3 𝜕𝑦 𝐴2 𝜕𝑧 )𝚤̂ + �𝐴3 𝜕𝑥 − 𝐴1 𝜕𝑧 � 𝚥̂ +
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
(𝐴2 𝜕𝑥 − 𝐴1 𝜕𝑦 )𝑘��

𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 𝜑 (∇×𝐴⃗) + � � = 𝜑 (∇×𝐴⃗) +(∇𝜑) ×𝐴⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
Hence Proved
iii. ∇× (∇𝝋) = 0
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
L.H.S=∇× (∇𝜑) = ∇ × � 𝜕𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝚥̂ + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘� � = �� 𝜕𝑥 𝜕� 𝜕𝑧 �
�
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 2𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑
=� − � 𝚤̂ − � − � 𝚥̂ + � − � 𝑘� (1)
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
We assume that 𝜑 has continuous second order partial derivative so the order of
differentiation can be neglected.
i.e.
𝜕 2𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑
= , = , =
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
⟹equation (1) must be equal to zero
Hence the expression.
iv. �⃗) = 0
∇.(∇×𝑨
L.H.S=∇.(∇×𝐴⃗)
 41

Since
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×𝐴⃗ = � �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1
=� − � 𝚤̂ − � − � 𝚥̂ + ( − )𝑘�
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴1

Hence ∇.(∇×𝐴⃗) = �𝜕𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝚥̂ + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘� � . � 𝜕𝑦3 − � 𝚤̂ − � 𝜕𝑥3 − � 𝚥̂ + ( 𝜕𝑥2 − )𝑘�
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦

𝜕 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1

= � − �− � − �+ � − �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴1
=� − �−� − �+� − �
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦

𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴1
= − + − + − =0
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦
Assuming that 𝐴⃗ has continuous second order derivative.
Hence the theorem.
 42

Module No. 25

Example of Curl
Statement
If 𝐴⃗ = 𝑥𝑧 3 𝑖 − 2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧𝑗 + 2𝑦𝑧 4 𝑘,

Find
∇ × 𝐴⃗ (or curl 𝐴⃗) at the point (1, −1,1).

Solution
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ × 𝐴⃗ = � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � × (𝑥𝑧 3 𝚤̂ − 2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧𝚥̂ + 2𝑦𝑧 4 𝑘�)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ × 𝐴⃗ =� 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
�
3 2
𝑥𝑧 −2𝑥 𝑦𝑧 2�𝑧 4

𝜕(2𝑦𝑧 4 ) 𝜕(−2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧) 𝜕(2𝑦𝑧 4 ) 𝜕(𝑥𝑧 3 ) 𝜕(−2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧) 𝜕(𝑥𝑧 3 )

=� − � 𝚤̂ + � − � 𝚥̂ + ( − )𝑘�
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

∇ × 𝐴⃗ = (2𝑧 4 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧)𝚤̂ + 3𝑥𝑧 2 𝚥̂ − 4𝑥𝑦𝑧𝑘�

Now we calculate the value of ∇ × 𝐴⃗ at (1, −1,1)

∇ × 𝐴⃗ = (2 − 2)𝚤̂ + 3𝚥̂ + 4𝑘�

∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 3𝚥̂ + 4𝑘�
is the required solution.
 43

Module No. 26

Related Problem 1: Curl

Problem Statement

If 𝐴 = 2𝑦𝑧 𝑖 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑥𝑧 2 𝑘 and 𝜑 = 2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 ,
Find
i. (𝐴 × ∇)𝜑
ii. 𝐴 × (∇𝜑)

Also show whether they are identical or not.

Solution
Since 𝐴 = 2𝑦𝑧 𝑖 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑥𝑧 2 𝑘 and 𝜑 = 2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3
i. (𝑨 × 𝛁)𝝋
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
(𝐴 × ∇)𝜑 = �(2𝑦𝑧 𝑖 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑥𝑧 2 𝑘 ) × � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� �� 𝜑
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
2𝑦𝑧 −𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑥𝑧 2 �
(𝐴 × ∇𝜑) = �� 𝜑
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= ��−𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑧 2 � 𝚤̂ − �2𝑦𝑧 − 𝑥𝑧 2 � 𝚥̂ + �2𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 � 𝑘�� 𝜑
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Now substituting 𝜑
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= ��−𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑧 2 � 𝚤̂ − �2𝑦𝑧 − 𝑥𝑧 2 � 𝚥̂ + �2𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 � 𝑘��
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Since 𝜑 = 2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 , substituting value
𝜕(2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 ) 𝜕(2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 ) 𝜕(2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 ) 𝜕(2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 )
= ��−𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑧 2 � 𝚤̂ − �2𝑦𝑧 − 𝑥𝑧 2 � 𝚥̂
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
𝜕(2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 ) 𝜕(2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 )
+ �2𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥2𝑦 � 𝑘��
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
 44

= �{−𝑥 2 𝑦(6𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 ) − 𝑥𝑧 2 (2𝑥 2 𝑧 3 }𝚤̂ − {2𝑦𝑧(6𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 ) − 𝑥𝑧 2 (4𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 }𝚥̂

+ {2𝑦𝑧(2𝑥 2 𝑧 3 ) + 𝑥 2 𝑦(4𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 }𝑘��
(𝐴 × ∇)𝜑 = −(6𝑥 4 𝑦 2 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥 3 𝑧 5 )𝚤̂ − (12𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 3 − 4𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 5 )𝚥̂ + (4𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 4 + 4𝑥 3 𝑦 2 𝑧 3 )𝑘�
(1)

ii. 𝑨 × (𝛁𝝋)
Here 𝐴 = 2𝑦𝑧 𝑖 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑥𝑧 2 𝑘 and 𝜑 = 2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
∇𝜑 = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 ) 𝜕(2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 ) 𝜕(2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 )
= 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
∇𝜑 = 4𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 𝚤̂ + 2𝑥 2 𝑧 3 𝚥̂ + 6𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑘�
Now
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝐴 × (∇𝜑) = � 2𝑦𝑧 −𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑥𝑧 2 �
4𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 2𝑥 2 𝑧 3 6𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2

= [(−𝑥 2 𝑦)(6𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 ) − (𝑥𝑧 2 )(2𝑥 2 𝑧 3 )]𝚤̂ − [(2𝑦𝑧)(6𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 ) − (𝑥𝑧 2 )(4𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 )]𝚥̂

+ �(2𝑦𝑧)(2𝑥 2 𝑧 3 ) − (−𝑥 2 𝑦)(4𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 )�𝑘�

𝐴 × (∇𝜑) = −(6𝑥 4 𝑦 2 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥 3 𝑧 5 )𝚤̂ − (12𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 3 − 4𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 5 )𝚥̂ + (4𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 4 + 4𝑥 3 𝑦 2 𝑧 3 )𝑘�

(2)
From equation (1) and (2), we conclude that
𝐴 × (∇𝜑) = (𝐴 × ∇)𝜑
 45

Module No. 27

Related Problem 2: Curl

Problem Statement

A vector V is called irrotational if 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑣 = 0.

i. Find constants 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 so that
𝐴⃗ = (𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧)𝚤̂ + (𝑏𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 𝑧)𝚥̂ + (4𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 + 2𝑧)𝚤̂
is irrotational.
ii. Show that 𝐴⃗ can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar function.

Solution
Since give vector field is
𝐴⃗ = (𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧)𝚤̂ + (𝑏𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 𝑧)𝚥̂ + (4𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 + 2𝑧)𝚤̂
i. Also for a vector to be irrotational, we have expression

curl𝐴⃗ = ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ × 𝐴⃗ = �� ��
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑏𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 𝑧 4𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 + 2𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=� (4𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 + 2𝑧) − (𝑏𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 𝑧)� 𝚤̂ − � (4𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 + 2𝑧) − (𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧)� 𝚥̂
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜕
+� (𝑏𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 𝑧) − (𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧)� 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

= (𝑐 − 1)𝚤̂ − (4 − 𝑎)𝚥̂ + (𝑏 − 2)𝑘�

or
= (𝑐 − 1)𝚤̂ + (𝑎 − 4)𝚥̂ + (𝑏 − 2)𝑘�
According to the given condition
(𝑐 − 1)𝚤̂ + (𝑎 − 4)𝚥̂ + (𝑏 − 2)𝑘� = 0
 46

⟹𝑐−1=0 ⟹𝑐 =1
⟹𝑎−4=0⟹𝑎 =4

⟹𝑏−2=0 ⟹𝑏 =2
and thus
𝐴⃗ = (𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧)𝚤̂ + (2𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 𝑧)𝚥̂ + (4𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧)𝚤̂ (1)
is irrotational vector field.
ii. Assume that

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝐴⃗ = ∇𝜑 = 𝜕𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝚥̂ + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘� (2)

By comparing equation (1) and (2), we obtain

𝜕𝜑
𝜕𝑥
= 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 (3)
𝜕𝜑
𝜕𝑦
= 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 𝑧 (4)
𝜕𝜑
𝜕𝑧
= 4𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 (5)

Integrating equation (3) w.r.t 𝑥, keeping 𝑦 and 𝑧 constants,

𝑥2
𝜑= + 2𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑥𝑧 + f(𝑦, 𝑧) (6)
2
3𝑦 2
𝜑 = 2𝑥𝑦 − − 𝑦𝑧 + g(𝑥, 𝑧) (7)
2

𝜑 = 4𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑧 2 + h(𝑥, 𝑦) (8)

Comparison of equation (6), (7) and (8) shows that there will be a common value of 𝜑 if we
choose
3𝑦 2
f(𝑦, 𝑧) = − + 𝑧2
2
𝑥2
g(𝑥, 𝑧) = + 𝑧2
2
𝑥 2 3𝑦 2
h(𝑥, 𝑦) = −
2 2
so that
𝑥2 3𝑦 2
𝜑= − + 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦𝑧 +constant
2 2
 47

Note that we can also add any constant to 𝜑. In general if ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0, then we can find 𝜑 so that
𝐴⃗ = ∇𝜑.A vector field 𝐴⃗ which can be derived from a scalar field φ so that 𝐴⃗ = ∇𝜑 is called a
conservative vector field and 𝜑 is called the scalar potential.
Note that conversely if 𝐴⃗ = ∇𝜑, then ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0
 48

Module No. 28

Related Problem 3: Curl

Problem Statement

If 𝜈 = 𝜔 × 𝑟, prove 𝜔 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣 where 𝜔 is a constant vector.

Solution
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝜈 = ∇ × 𝑣 = ∇ × (𝜔 × 𝑟)
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
= ∇ × �𝜔1 𝜔2 𝜔3 � = ∇ × �(𝜔2 𝑧 − 𝜔3 𝑦)𝚤̂ − (𝜔1 𝑧 − 𝜔3 𝑥)𝚥̂ + (𝜔1 𝑦 − 𝜔2 𝑥)𝑘��
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=� �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜔2 𝑧 − 𝜔3 𝑦 𝜔3 𝑥 − 𝜔1 𝑧 𝜔1 𝑦 − 𝜔2 𝑥
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=� (𝜔1 𝑦 − 𝜔2 𝑥) − (𝜔3 𝑥 − 𝜔1 𝑧)� 𝚤̂ − � (𝜔1 𝑦 − 𝜔2 𝑥) − (𝜔2 𝑧 − 𝜔3 𝑦)� 𝚥̂
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕
+ � (𝜔3 𝑥 − 𝜔1 𝑧) − (𝜔 𝑧 − 𝜔3 𝑦)� 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2
= (𝜔1 + 𝜔1 )𝚤̂ − (−𝜔2 − 𝜔2 )𝚥̂ + (𝜔3 − (−𝜔3 ))𝑘�
= 2(𝜔1 𝚤̂ + 𝜔2 𝚥̂ + 𝜔3 𝑘�)
⟹ ∇ × (𝜔 × 𝑟) = 2𝜔
�⃗
⟹ ∇ × 𝑣 = 2𝜔
�⃗
1
⟹ �ω
�⃗ = ∇ × 𝑣
2
1
⟹ �ω
�⃗ = curl 𝑣
2
 49

This problem indicates that the curl of a vector field is linked with rotational properties of the
field. We might say that if curl 𝐴⃗ = 0, then there would be no rotation and the field is called
irrotational field. A field which is not irrotational is sometimes called a vortex field.
 50

Module No. 29

Vector Identities
Problem Statement

Evaluate ∇. (𝐴⃗ × 𝑟) 𝑖𝑓 ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0.

Solution
Let 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘� and 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑧𝑘� , then
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝐴⃗ × 𝑟 = �𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3 �
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
= (𝐴2 𝑧 − 𝐴3 𝑦)𝚤̂ − (𝐴1 𝑧 − 𝐴3 𝑥)𝚥̂ + (𝐴1 𝑦 − 𝐴2 𝑥)𝑘�
And
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. �𝐴⃗ × 𝑟� = � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � . �(𝐴2 𝑧 − 𝐴3 𝑦)𝚤̂ − (𝐴1 𝑧 − 𝐴3 𝑥)𝚥̂ + (𝐴1 𝑦 − 𝐴2 𝑥)𝑘��
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= (𝐴2 𝑧 − 𝐴3 𝑦) − (𝐴1 𝑧 − 𝐴3 𝑥) + (𝐴1 𝑦 − 𝐴2 𝑥)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2

=𝑧 −𝑦 −𝑧 +𝑥 +𝑦 −𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1
= 𝑥� − �+𝑦� − �+𝑧� −𝑧 �
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1

= �𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑧𝑘� �. �� − � 𝚤̂ + � − � 𝚥̂ + � − � 𝑘��
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

= 𝑟⃗. �∇ × 𝐴⃗� = 𝑟⃗. 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐴⃗

If ∇ × 𝐴 = 0 this reduces to zero.
 51

Statement

Prove that
∇ × �∇ × 𝐴⃗� = ∇. �∇. 𝐴⃗� − ∇2 𝐴⃗

Proof
Let 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘� be a vector point function
Then
L.H.S=∇ ×(∇×𝐴⃗)
Since
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×𝐴⃗ = � �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1
=� − � 𝚤̂ + � − � 𝚥̂ + ( − )𝑘�
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Hence ∇×(∇×𝐴⃗) = �� 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
�
�
𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1
− − −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴2

=� � − �+ � − �� 𝚤̂ − � � − �− � − �� 𝚥̂
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴2
+� � − �− � − �� 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴2
=� − + − � 𝚤̂ + �− + + − � 𝚥̂
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴2
+� − − + � 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧
𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴3
= �− − � 𝚤̂ + �− − � 𝚥̂ + � − � � +�
𝑘 + � 𝚤̂
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑥
𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴2
+� + � 𝚥̂ + � + � 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧
 52

𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴3
= �− − − � 𝚤̂ + �− − − � 𝚥̂ + � 2 − − � 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴3
+� 2 + + � 𝚤̂ + � 2 + + � 𝚥̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦
𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴2
+� 2 + + � 𝑘�
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3
= −� 2
+ 2
+ 2
� �𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘� � + � + + �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3
+ � + + �+ � + + �
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3
= −∇2 𝐴⃗ + ∇. ( + + )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= −∇2 𝐴⃗ + ∇. �∇. 𝐴⃗� = ∇. �∇. 𝐴⃗� − ∇2 𝐴⃗
Hence the result.
Problem Statement
Find 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 (𝑟⃗𝑓(𝑟)) where 𝑓(𝑟) is differentiable.
Solution
Let 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘 be the given vector
then
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 �𝑟⃗𝑓(𝑟)� = ∇ × �𝑟⃗𝑓(𝑟)�
= ∇ × �𝑥𝑓(𝑟)𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝑓(𝑟)𝚥̂ + 𝑧𝑓(𝑟)𝑘��
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 �
= �� �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑥𝑓(𝑟) 𝑦𝑓(𝑟) 𝑧𝑓(𝑟)
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=� 𝑧𝑓(𝑟) − 𝑦𝑓(𝑟)� 𝚤̂ + � 𝑥𝑓(𝑟) − 𝑧𝑓(𝑟)� 𝚥̂ + � 𝑦𝑓(𝑟) − 𝑥𝑓(𝑟)� 𝑘�
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑓(𝑟) 𝜕𝑓(𝑟) 𝜕𝑓(𝑟) 𝜕𝑓(𝑟)
= �𝑧 −𝑦 � 𝑖 + �𝑥 −𝑧 � 𝚥̂
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑓(𝑟) 𝜕𝑓(𝑟)
+ �𝑦 −𝑥 � 𝑘� (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

As we know 𝑟 = �𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 , therefore
 53

𝜕𝑓(𝑟) 𝜕𝑓(𝑟) 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑓(𝑟) 𝜕 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑟)𝑥

= = �𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑟) =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑥 �𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 𝑟

Similarly,
𝜕𝑓(𝑟) 𝑓 ′ (𝑟)𝑦
=
𝜕𝑦 𝑟
And
𝜕𝑓(𝑟) 𝑓 ′ (𝑟)𝑧
=
𝜕𝑧 𝑟
By substituting these values in equation (1), we obtain
𝑓 ′ (𝑟)𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑟)𝑧 𝑓 ′ (𝑟)𝑧 𝑓 ′ (𝑟)𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑟)𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑟)𝑦
= �𝑧 −𝑦 � 𝑖 + �𝑥 −𝑧 � 𝚥̂ + �𝑦 −𝑥 � 𝑘� = 0
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
Hence the result.
 54

Module No. 30

Line Integral
An integral where the function is evaluated along a curve is called line integral. It is also named
as path integral, curve integral, and curvilinear integral; contour integral as well. The function to
be integrated may be a scalar field or a vector field. The value of the line integral is the sum of
values of the field at all points on the curve, weighted by some scalar function on the curve. A
line integral is a natural generalization of definite integral. Line integral can be transformed into
double integral and surface integrals and vice versa.
The symbolic form of line integral is

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝐶

Where 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘� is called the differential displacement vector. The integrals that
involves differential displacement vector 𝑑𝑟⃗ care called line integrals.
Line integral can also be expressed as

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = � �𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘��. �𝑑𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘��

𝐶 𝐶

= � (𝐴1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐴3 𝑑𝑧)
𝐶

The line integral ∫𝐶 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ is sometimes called a scalar line integral of a vector field 𝐴⃗.
If C is a closed curve which we shall assume a simple closed curve (a curve which does not
intersect itself anywhere), the line integral around C is denoted by

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = � (𝐴1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐴3 𝑑𝑧)

𝐶 𝐶

Applications
Some applications of line integrals are:
i. If the vector field to be integrated 𝐴⃗ is the force 𝐹⃗ on a particle move along C, then this
line integral show the work done by the force.
 55

ii. In fluid mechanics, if the vector field to be integrated 𝐴⃗ represents the velocity of some
fluid then the line integral is called the circulation of 𝐴⃗ about C.
iii. In general, we can say that any integral which is to be calculated along a curve is called a
line integral.
 56

Module No. 31

Other forms and General Properties of line

Integrals
Other forms of Line integrals
Generally, we define line integral by the vector function 𝐴⃗ by

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝐶

As we studied previously, that the function to be integrated can be either scalar point function or
vector point function.
Here, we will define line integral using scalar function,

� 𝜑𝑑𝑟⃗ = � 𝜑�𝑑𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘��

𝐶 𝐶

= � �𝜑𝑑𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝜑𝑑𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝜑𝑑𝑧𝑘��

𝐶

� 𝜑. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝚤̂ � 𝜑𝑑𝑥 + 𝚥̂ � 𝜑𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘� � 𝜑𝑑𝑧

𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶

Also the general line integral indicates the dot product (“.”) between the given vector field and
the differential displacement vector. However we can also express it as a cross product (×) of
both the vector according to our requirement.

� 𝐴⃗ × 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝚤̂ � (𝐴2 𝑑𝑧 − 𝐴3 𝑑𝑦) + 𝚥̂ � (𝐴3 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐴1 𝑑𝑧) + 𝑘� � (𝐴1 𝑑𝑦 − 𝐴2 𝑑𝑥)

𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶

Thus any integral that involves differential displacement vector 𝑑𝑟⃗ are called line integrals.
General Properties of Line Integral
The following are the properties of the line integrals that are useful in computational subjects and
application

i. ∫𝐶 𝐾𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝐾 ∫𝐶 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ (𝐾 is any real constant)

ii. ∫𝐶 �𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
�⃗ �. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ + ∫ 𝐵
𝐶 𝐶
�⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗
 57

iii. ∫𝐶 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫𝐶 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ + ∫𝐶 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗

1 2

Where the path C is subdivided into two arcs 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 that has the same orientations as C. If the
sense of orientation along C is reversed, the value of the integral is multiplied by ‘-1’.
iv. If C is piece-wise smooth, consisting of smooth curves 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , … … … . . , 𝐶𝑛 then the line
integral of 𝐴⃗ over C is defined as the sum of the line integrals of 𝐴⃗ over each of the
smooth curve making up C:

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = � 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ + � 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ + ⋯ … … … … … … . + � 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗

𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛

In the sum, the orientation along C must be maintained over curves 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , … … … . . , 𝐶𝑛 . That is
the initial point of 𝐶𝑗 is the terminal point of 𝐶𝑗−1.
 58

Module No. 32

Example of Line Integral

Problem Statement
If 𝜑 = 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 , 𝐹⃗ = 𝑥𝑦𝚤̂ − 𝑧𝚥̂ + 𝑥 2 𝑘� and С is the curve 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 2𝑡, 𝑧 = 𝑡 3 from
𝑡 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑡 = 1.
Evaluate the line integrals

i. ∫𝐶 𝜑. 𝑑𝑟⃗

ii. ∫𝐶 𝐹 × 𝑑𝑟⃗

Solution
i. �⃗
∫𝑪 𝝋. 𝒅𝒓

By substituting the given values of x, y, z, we obtain

𝜑 = 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 = 2(𝑡 2 )(2𝑡)(𝑡 3 )2 = 4𝑡 9
and 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑧𝑘�
⟹ 𝑟⃗ = 𝑡 2 𝚤̂ + 2𝑡𝚥̂ + 𝑡 3 𝑘�
Also 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘�
⟹ 𝑑𝑟⃗ = �2𝑡𝚤̂ + 2𝚥̂ + 3𝑡 2 𝑘��𝑑𝑡
As we studied the relation

� 𝜑. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝚤̂ � 𝜑𝑑𝑥 + 𝚥̂ � 𝜑𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘� � 𝜑𝑑𝑧

𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
1 1 1 1
⟹ � 𝜑𝑑𝑟⃗ = � 4𝑡 9 (2𝑡𝚤̂ + 2𝚥̂ + 3𝑡 2 𝑘�) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝚤̂ � 8𝑡10 𝑑𝑡 + 𝚥̂ � 8𝑡 9 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑘� � 12𝑡11 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 0 0 0 0

8 8
� 𝜑𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝐶 11 10
Hence the required solution.

ii. �⃗
∫𝑪 𝑭 × 𝒅𝒓
 59

Since 𝐹⃗ = 𝑥𝑦𝚤̂ − 𝑧𝚥̂ + 𝑥 2 𝑘�, first of all we will calculate the value of F using parametric
equations of x,y,z
𝐹⃗ = 2𝑡 3 𝚤̂ − 𝑡 3 𝚥̂ + 𝑡 4 𝑘�
Also we calculated, 𝑑𝑟⃗ = �2𝑡𝚤̂ + 2𝚥̂ + 3𝑡 2 𝑘� �𝑑𝑡
Then
𝐹⃗ × 𝑑𝑟⃗ = �2𝑡 3 𝚤̂ − 𝑡 3 𝚥̂ + 𝑡 4 𝑘�� × �2𝑡𝚤̂ + 2𝚥̂ + 3𝑡 2 𝑘��

𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝑡 4 � = (−3𝑡 − 2𝑡 )𝚤̂ − (6𝑡 − 2𝑡 )𝚥̂ + (4𝑡 + 2𝑡 )𝑘�
5 4 5 5 3 4
= �2𝑡 3 −𝑡 3
2𝑡 2 3𝑡 2
Using the expression

� 𝐴⃗ × 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝚤̂ � (𝐴2 𝑑𝑧 − 𝐴3 𝑑𝑦) + 𝚥̂ � (𝐴3 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐴1 𝑑𝑧) + 𝑘� � (𝐴1 𝑑𝑦 − 𝐴2 𝑑𝑥)

𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶

Substituting values, we get

1 1 1
� 𝐹⃗ × 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝚤̂ � (−3𝑡 5 − 2𝑡 4 )𝑑𝑡 − 𝚥̂ � (6𝑡 5 − 2𝑡 5 )𝑑𝑡 + 𝑘� � (4𝑡 3 + 2𝑡 4 )𝑑𝑡
𝐶 0 0 0
9 2 7
=− 𝚤̂ − 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
10 3 5
 60

Module No. 33

Example of Line Integral

Problem statement

Find the total work done in moving a particle in a force field given by 𝐹⃗ = 3𝑥𝑦𝚤̂ — 5𝑧𝚥̂ +
10𝑥𝑘� along the curve 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 + 1, у = 2𝑡 2 , 𝑧 = 𝑡 3 from 𝑡 = 1 to 𝑡 = 2.

Solution

Since 𝐹⃗ = 3𝑥𝑦𝚤̂ — 5𝑧𝚥̂ + 10𝑥𝑘� ,

Substituting values 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 + 1, у = 2𝑡 2 , 𝑧 = 𝑡 3 , in 𝐹⃗ .
𝐹⃗ = 3(𝑡 2 + 1)(2𝑡 2 )𝚤̂ — 5(𝑡 3 )𝚥̂ + 10(𝑡 2 + 1)𝑘�
𝐹⃗ = (6𝑡 4 + 6𝑡 2 )𝚤̂ — 5(𝑡 3 )𝚥̂ + (10𝑡 2 + 10)𝑘�
Also, 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘�
⟹ 𝑑𝑟⃗ = �2𝑡𝚤̂ + 4𝑡𝚥̂ + 3𝑡 2 𝑘��𝑑𝑡

Total work done = ∫𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ =

2
= � �(6𝑡 4 + 6𝑡 2 )𝚤̂ — 5(𝑡 3 )𝚥̂ + (10𝑡 2 + 10)𝑘��. �2𝑡𝚤̂ + 4𝑡𝚥̂ + 3𝑡 2 𝑘� �𝑑𝑡
1
2
= � 2𝑡(6𝑡 4 + 6𝑡 2 )— 4𝑡(5𝑡 3 ) + 3𝑡 2 (10𝑡 2 + 10)𝑑𝑡
1
2
= � (12𝑡 5 + 12𝑡 3 )— (20𝑡 4 ) + (30𝑡 4 + 30𝑡 2 )𝑑𝑡
1
2
= � (12𝑡 5 + 10𝑡 4 + 12𝑡 3 + 30𝑡 2 )𝑑𝑡
1
2 2 2 2
= � 12𝑡 5 𝑑𝑡 + � 10𝑡 4 𝑑𝑡 + � 12𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 + � 30𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
12𝑡 6 10𝑡 5 12𝑡 4 30𝑡 3
=� � +� � +� � +� �
6 1 5 1 4 1 3 1
 61

= 2[(2)6 − (1)6 ] + 2[(2)5 − (1)5 ] + 3[(2)4 − (1)4 ] + 10[(2)3 − (1)3 ]

= 303
 62

Module No. 34

Line Integral Dependent on Path

The value of line integrals ∫𝐶 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ generally depends not only on the end points 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 of
the curve C but also the geometric shape of the path C i.e. if we integrate form point 𝑃1 to 𝑃2
along different paths, we in general, obtain different values of the integral.

We will illustrate this concept by the following example

If 𝐴 = (3𝑥 2 + 6𝑦)𝚤̂ − 14𝑦𝑧𝚥̂ + 20𝑥𝑧 2 𝑘� , evaluate ∫𝐶 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟��⃗ from (0,0,0) to (1,1,1) along the
following paths С
i. The straight lines from (0,0,0) to (1,0,0), then to (1,1,0), and then to (1,1,1).
ii. The straight line joining (0,0,0) and (1,1,1).

Solution
i. Along the straight line from (0,0,0)to (1,0,0)у = 0, 𝑧 = 0, 𝑑𝑦 = 0, 𝑑𝑧 = 0 while x
varies from 0 to 1. Then

the integral over this part of the path is

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = � (𝐴1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐴3 𝑑𝑧)

𝐶 𝐶
1 1
= � 3𝑥 + 6(0) 𝑑𝑥 − 14𝑦(0)𝑑𝑦 + 20𝑥(0) = � 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 1
2 2
0 0
 63

Along the straight line from (1,0,0) to (1,1,0) 𝑥 − 1, 𝑧 = 0, 𝑑𝑥 = 0, 𝑑𝑧 = 0 while у varies

from 0 to 1.
Then the integral over this part of the path is
1 1
� 3(1)2 + 6𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 14𝑦(0)𝑑𝑦 + 20𝑥(0)2 = � 3 + 6𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0
0 0

Along the straight line from (1,1,0) 𝑡𝑜 (1,1,1) 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1, 𝑑𝑥 = 0, 𝑑𝑦 = 0 while z varies

from 0 to 1.
Then the integral over this part of the path is
1 1
20
� 3(1) + 6(1) (0) − 14(1)𝑧(0) + 20(1)𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = � 20𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 =
2 2
0 0 3
By adding all the results, we have
1
20 23
� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 1 + 0 + =
0 3 3
ii. The straight line joining (0,0,0) and (1,1,1) is given in parametric form by 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 =
𝑡, 𝑧 = 𝑡. Then

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = � (3𝑥 2 + 6𝑦)𝚤̂ − 14𝑦𝑧𝚥̂ + 20𝑥𝑧 2 𝑘� . 𝑑𝑟⃗

𝐶 𝐶
1 1
13
= � (3𝑡 2 + 6𝑡) − 14𝑡 2 + 20𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 = � 6𝑡 − 11𝑡 2 + 20𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 =
0 0 3

In example, we discuss two cases here. In each case the end points of the curve were same
but we chose different path to obtain results. The results obtained by both the cases are
different. Hence we conclude that the line integral not only depends on the end points of the
curve but also on the path taken by the particle.
 64

Module No. 35

Independence of Path
Definition
�⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ is said to be independent of the path C in a given region R, if the value
The line integral ∫𝐶 𝑉
𝑃
�⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ is the same for all paths C joining any two points 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 in R.
of the line integral ∫𝑃 2 𝑉
1

Theorem
𝑃
�⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ to be independent of the path joining
Prove that a necessary and sufficient condition for ∫𝑃 2 𝑉
1

�⃗ to be conservative) in a given region is that ∮ 𝑉

any two points 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 (i.e. 𝑉 �⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0 for all
𝐶

closed path C in the region.

Proof
Let C be any simple closed curve, and let 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 be any two points on C as shown.
�⃗ to be conservative), we
Then since by the supposition, the integral is independent of path (i.e. 𝑉
have

� �⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = �
𝑉 �⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑉
𝑃1 𝐴 𝑃2 𝑃1 𝐵𝑃2

Reversing the direction of integration in the integral on the right, we have

� �⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = − �
𝑉 �⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑉
𝑃1 𝐴 𝑃2 𝑃2 𝐵𝑃1

or

� �⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ + �
𝑉 �⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0
𝑉
𝑃1 𝐴 𝑃2 𝑃2 𝐵𝑃1

or

�⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0
� 𝑉
𝐶

�⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0,
Conversely, if ∮𝐶 𝑉
then
 65

� �⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ + �
𝑉 �⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0
𝑉
𝑃1 𝐴 𝑃2 𝑃2 𝐵𝑃1

� �⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = − �
𝑉 �⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑉
𝑃1 𝐴 𝑃2 𝑃2 𝐵𝑃1

Again changing the direction in the integral, we have

� �⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = �
𝑉 �⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑉
𝑃1 𝐴 𝑃2 𝑃1 𝐵𝑃2

Which shows the line integral is independent of the path joining 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 as required.
 66

Module No. 36

Theorems on line Integral

Scalar Potential Function
A scalar potential function 𝜑 is a single-valued function for which there exists a continuous
�⃗ in a simply connected region R that satisfies the relation 𝑉
vector field 𝑉 �⃗ = ∇� .

Theorem 1 Statement
𝑃
�⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ to be independent of the path joining
Prove that a necessary and sufficient condition for ∫𝑃 2 𝑉
1

�⃗ to be conservative) is that there exist a scalar

any two points 𝑃1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and 𝑃2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) (i.e. 𝑉
�⃗ = ∇𝜑, where 𝜑 is single valued and has continuous partial derivatives.
function 𝜑 such that 𝑉

Proof
�⃗ = ∇𝜑 , then
Let 𝑉
𝑃2 𝑃2
�⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = � 𝑉
� 𝑉 �⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = � ∇𝜑. 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝐶 𝑃1 𝑃1
𝑃2
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= � � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� � . (𝑑𝑥𝑖 + 𝑑𝑦𝑗 + 𝑑𝑧𝑘)
𝑃1 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝑃2
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= � � 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧�
𝑃1 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑃2
= � 𝑑𝜑 = 𝜑(𝑃2 ) − 𝜑(𝑃1 ) = 𝜑(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) − 𝜑(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 )
𝑃1

Thus the line integrals only depends only on points 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 and not on the path joining them
�⃗ is conservative.
i.e. 𝑉
�⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ be the independent of the path C joining any two points, We choose
Conversely, let ∫𝐶 𝑉
these points as a fixed point 𝑃1 ≡ (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and a variable point 𝑃2 ≡ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), so that the result
is a function of only of the coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) of the variable end points. Then
 67

(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)
𝑑𝑟⃗
𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = � �⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = �
𝑉 �⃗ .
𝑉 𝑑𝑠
(𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ,𝑧1 ) (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ,𝑧1 ) 𝑑𝑠
By taking derivative, we have
𝑑𝜑
�⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗
=𝑉 (1)
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

But
𝑑𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑑𝑠
= 𝜕𝑠
= ∇𝜑. 𝑑𝑠 (2)

From (1) and (2) we have

�⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∇𝜑. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = �𝑉
𝑉 �⃗ − ∇𝜑�. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗
Since 𝑑𝑠 is a unit tangent vector, therefore 𝑑𝑠 ≠ 0

�⃗ − ∇𝜑 = 0
⟹𝑉
Or
�⃗ = ∇𝜑
𝑉
Hence Proved.
Theorem 2 Statement

�⃗ be conservative is that
Prove that a necessary and sufficient condition that a vector field 𝑉
�⃗ = 0(i.e. 𝑉
∇×𝑉 �⃗ is irrotational).

Proof

�⃗ is conservative field then by the previous theorem, we have 𝑉

If 𝑉 �⃗ = ∇𝜑.
Thus
�⃗ = ∇ × ∇𝜑 = 0
∇×𝑉
�⃗ = 0, then
Conversely, if ∇ × 𝑉
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
�� 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕�
�=0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3
and thus
 68

𝜕𝑉3 𝜕𝑉2 𝜕𝑉1 𝜕𝑉3 𝜕𝑉2 𝜕𝑉1

= , = , =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
�⃗ = ∇𝜑 follows as a consequence of this,
we must prove that 𝑉
Now,

�⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = � (𝑉1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑉2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑦 + 𝑉3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑧)

� 𝑉
𝐶 𝐶

where C is path joining (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧3 ). Let us choose as a particular path, the
straight lone segment from (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) to (𝑥, 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) to (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) the value of the
integral along this particular path. Then omitting the integrand, we have
(𝑥,𝑦1 ,𝑧1 ) (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧1 ) (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)

𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = � [ ]+ � [ ]+ � [ ] (1)
(𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ,𝑧1 ) (𝑥,𝑦1 ,𝑧1 ) (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧1 )

i. Along the straight line (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) to (𝑥, 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) , 𝑦 = constant = 𝑦1 , 𝑧 = constant = 𝑧1 ,

so that 𝑑𝑦 = 0, 𝑑𝑧 = 0, while 𝑥 varies from 𝑥1 to 𝑥.
ii. Along the straight line (𝑥, 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) to (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧1 ) , 𝑥 = constant, 𝑧 = constant, so that
𝑑𝑥 = 0, 𝑑𝑧 = 0, while 𝑦 varies from �1 to 𝑦.
iii. Along the straight line (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧1 ) to (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) , 𝑥 = constant, 𝑦 = constant, so that
𝑑𝑥 = 0, 𝑑𝑦 = 0, while 𝑦 varies from 𝑧1 to 𝑧.

Thus we can write equation (1) as

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = � 𝑉1 (𝑥, 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 )𝑑𝑥 + � 𝑉2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧1 )𝑑𝑦 + � 𝑉3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑧

𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1
 69

it follows that
𝜕𝜑
= 𝑉3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝜕𝑧
𝑧
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑉3
= 𝑉2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧1 ) + � (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝑧1
𝑧
𝜕𝑉2
= 𝑉2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧1 ) + � (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 𝑉2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧1 ) + |𝑉2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)|𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑉2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝜕𝑧
𝑧1
𝑦 𝑧
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑉2 𝜕𝑉3
= 𝑉1 (𝑥, 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) + � (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧1 )𝑑𝑦 + � (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑦1 𝑧1
𝑦 𝑧
𝜕𝑉1 𝜕𝑉1
= 𝑉1 (𝑥, 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) + � (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧1 )𝑑𝑦 + � (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑦1 𝑧1

= 𝑉1 (𝑥, 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) + |𝑉1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧1 )|𝑦𝑦1 + |𝑉1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧1 )|𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑉2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

= 𝑉1 (𝑥, 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) + 𝑉1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧1 ) − 𝑉1 (𝑥, 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) + 𝑉1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) − 𝑉1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧1 )
𝜕𝜑
= 𝑉1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝜕𝑥
Then we have,
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
�⃗ = 𝑉1 𝚤̂ + 𝑉2 𝚥̂ + 𝑉3 𝑘� =
𝑉 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� = ∇𝜑
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
�⃗ is conservative i.e 𝑉
hence 𝑉 �⃗ = ∇𝜑.
 70

Module No. 37

Selected Example/Problem 1
Problem Statement
If 𝛢⃗(𝑡) = 𝑡𝚤̂ − 𝑡 2 𝚥̂ + (𝑡 − 1)𝑘� and 𝐵
�⃗ (𝑡) = 2𝑡 2 𝚤̂ + 6𝑡𝑘� ,
Evaluate

2
i. ∫0 𝛢⃗. 𝐵
�⃗ 𝑑𝑡
2
ii. ∫0 𝛢⃗ × 𝐵
�⃗ 𝑑𝑡

Solution
𝟐
i. ∫𝟎 �𝜜
�⃗. �𝑩
�⃗𝒅𝒕

�⃗ (𝑡) = 2𝑡 2 𝚤̂ + 6𝑡𝑘�
Since 𝛢⃗(𝑡) = 𝑡𝚤̂ − 𝑡 2 𝚥̂ + (𝑡 − 1)𝑘 and 𝐵
So,
�⃗ = (𝑡𝚤̂ − 𝑡 2 𝚥̂ + (𝑡 − 1)𝑘 ). �2𝑡 2 𝚤̂ + 0𝚥̂ + 6𝑡𝑘� �
𝛢⃗. 𝐵
= 2𝑡 3 + 6𝑡(𝑡 − 1)
Now
2 2
� 𝛢⃗. 𝐵
�⃗ 𝑑𝑡 = � [2𝑡 3 + 6𝑡(𝑡 − 1)]𝑑𝑡
0 0

2 2 2
3 2
= � 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + � 6𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − � 6𝑡𝑑𝑡
0 0 0
2
𝑡4
= � + 2𝑡 3 − 3𝑡 2 �
2 0

= 8 + 16 − 12 = 12
Hence
2
� 𝛢⃗. 𝐵
�⃗ 𝑑𝑡 = 12
0

is required solution.
 71

𝟐
ii. ��⃗ × 𝑩
∫𝟎 𝜜 ��⃗𝒅𝒕

𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
⃗ �⃗
𝛢×𝐵 = � 𝑡 −𝑡 2 𝑡 − 1�
2𝑡 2 0 6𝑡
= [(−𝑡2 )(6𝑡) − (𝑡 − 1)(0)]𝑖̂ − [(𝑡 )(6𝑡 ) − (𝑡 − 1)(2𝑡2 )]𝑗̂ + [(𝑡 )(0) − (−𝑡2 )(2𝑡2 )]𝑘�
= −6𝑡 3 𝑖̂ − (6𝑡 2 + 2𝑡2 − 2𝑡3 )𝑗̂ + 2𝑡4 𝑘
= −6𝑡 3 𝑖̂ − (8𝑡 2 − 2𝑡3 )𝑗̂ + 2𝑡4 𝑘
Now,
2 2
�⃗ 𝑑𝑡 = � (−6𝑡3 𝚤̂ − �8𝑡2 − 2𝑡 3 �𝚥̂ + 2𝑡 4 𝑘� )𝑑𝑡
� 𝛢⃗ × 𝐵
0 0
2 2 2
= −𝚤̂ � 6𝑡3 𝑑𝑡 − 𝚥̂ � �8𝑡2 − 2𝑡 3 �𝑑𝑡 + 𝑘� � 2𝑡 4 𝑑𝑡
0 0 0
2
3 4 8 3 𝑡4 2
= �−𝚤̂ 𝑡 − 𝚥̂ � 𝑡 − � + 𝑘� 𝑡 5 �
2 3 2 5 0
3(16) 8(8) 16 2(32)
= −𝚤̂ − 𝚥̂ � − � + 𝑘�
2 3 2 5
80 64
= −𝚤̂24 − 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
6 5
2
40 64
� 𝛢⃗ × 𝐵
�⃗ 𝑑𝑡 = −24𝚤̂ − 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
0 3 5
is the required result.
 72

Module No. 38

Selected Example/Problem 2: Line Integrals

Problem Statement
If 𝐹 = 3𝑥𝑦𝚤̂ — 𝑦 2 𝚥̂, evaluate work done by the force on the curve С in the xy plane, у = 2𝑥 2 ,
from (0,0) to (1,2).

Solution
As we know total work done on a curve is

� 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝐶

Also,
𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝚥̂
By substituting
1
= � (3𝑥𝑦𝚤̂ — 𝑦 2 𝚥̂) . (𝑑𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝚥̂)
0
1
= � (3𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥— 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦)
0

As у = 2𝑥 2 is given, this implies 𝑑𝑦 = 4𝑥𝑑𝑥, now substituting these values in above integral,
we obtain
1
= � (3𝑥(2𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥— (2𝑥 2 )2 4𝑥𝑑𝑥)
0
1 1
= � 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − � 16𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥
3
0 0

3 4 8 6 1
=� 𝑥 − 𝑥 �
2 3 0
3 8 −7
= − =
2 3 6
Note that if the curve were traversed in the opposite sense, i.e. from (1,2) to (0,0), the value of
the integral would have been 7/6 instead of — 7/6.
 73

Module No. 39

Selected Example/Problem 3: Line Integrals

Problem Statement
Find the work done in moving a particle once around a circle С in the xy plane, if the circle has
center at the origin and radius 3 and if the force field is given by
𝐹⃗ = (2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧)𝚤̂ + (𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 2 )𝚥̂ + (3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 4𝑧)𝑘�

Solution
In the plane 𝑧 = 0, 𝐹⃗ = (2𝑥 − 𝑦)𝚤̂ + (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝚥̂ and 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝚥̂
So, that the work done on the curve is

Total work done= ∫𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗

= � ((2𝑥 − 𝑦)𝚤̂ + (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝚥̂) . (𝑑�𝚤̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝚥̂)

𝐶

= � ((2𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑑𝑦)

𝐶

As radius of the circle is 𝑟 = 3, we choose the parametric equations of the circle as

𝑥 = 3 cos 𝑡 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = −3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡
у = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 3 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 74

where t varies from 0 to 2𝜋. Then the line integral

2𝜋
= � ( (2(3 cos 𝑡) − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡)(−3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡)𝑑𝑡) + (3 cos 𝑡 + 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 )(3 cos 𝑡 )𝑑𝑡
0
2𝜋
= � (6 cos 𝑡 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡)(−3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡) + 9(cos 𝑡) 2 + 9𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
2𝜋
= � −18 cos 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 9 sin2 𝑡 + 9 cos 2 𝑡 + 9𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
2𝜋
= � 9 − 9 cos 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
2𝜋
9
= �9𝑡 − sin2 𝑡�
2 0

= 18𝜋
In traversing С we have chosen the counterclockwise direction indicated in the adjoining figure.
We call this the positive direction, or say that С has been traversed in the positive sense. If С
were traversed in the clockwise (negative) direction the value of the integral would be —18𝜋.
 75

Module No. 40

Selected Example/Problem 4: Line Integral

Problem Statement
Given a force vector 𝐹⃗ = (2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 )𝚤̂ + 𝑥 2 𝚥̂ + 3𝑥𝑧 2 𝑘� .
i. Show that 𝐹⃗ a conservative force field
ii. Find the scalar potential
iii. Find the work done in moving an object in this field from (1, −2,1) 𝑡𝑜 (3,1,4).

Solution
i. We derived a necessary and sufficient condition that a force will be conservative is that

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = ∇ × 𝐹⃗ = 0.
Now
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘�
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 �
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = ∇ × 𝐹⃗ = �� �
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 𝑥2 3𝑥𝑧 2
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=� (3𝑥𝑧 2 ) − ( 𝑥 2 )� 𝚤̂ − � (3𝑥𝑧 2 ) − (2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 )� 𝚥̂
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜕
+� ( 𝑥2) − (2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 )� 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

= 0𝚤̂ − (3𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 2 )𝚥̂ + (2𝑥 − 2𝑥)𝑘� = 0

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 0
Hence 𝐹⃗ is conservative.
ii. As 𝐹⃗ is conservative, so 𝐹⃗ = ∇𝜑

and
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
∇𝜑 = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
this implies=
 76

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝐹⃗ = ∇𝜑 = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘� = (2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 )𝚤̂ + 𝑥 2 𝚥̂ + 3𝑥𝑧 2 𝑘�
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
By comparing, we get
𝜕𝜑
𝜕𝑥
= 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 (1)
𝜕𝜑
𝜕𝑦
= 𝑥2 (2)
𝜕𝜑
𝜕𝑧
= 3𝑥𝑧 2 (3)

By integrating equation (1), (2) and (3), we get

𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 3 + f(𝑦, 𝑧)
𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 + g(𝑥, 𝑧)
𝜑 = 𝑥𝑧 3 + h(𝑥, 𝑦)
These equation will agree if we choose
f(𝑦, 𝑧) = 0, g(𝑥, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑧 3 and h(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 𝑦
so that 𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 3 to which may be added any constant.
iii. From part (ii), we have

𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 3 + 𝐾
Where K is any constant,
Then work done = 𝜑(𝑃2 ) − 𝜑(𝑃1 )
= 𝜑(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) − 𝜑(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) (4)

𝜑(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) = 𝜑(3,1,4) = (3)2 (1) + 3(4)3 = 9 + 192 = 201

𝜑(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) = 𝜑(1, −2,1) = (1)2 (−2) + 1(1)3 = −2 + 1 = −1
Now substituting these values in equation (4)
Work done = 𝜑(𝑃2 ) − 𝜑(𝑃1 ) = 𝜑(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) − 𝜑(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) = 201 − (−1) = 202
202 is the required work done.
 77

Module No. 41

Surface Integral
Definition
Integrals that involves the differential surface elements 𝑑𝑆⃗ are called surface integrals.
Mathematically, we can represents it as

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗
𝑆

Let S be a two-sided surface (open or closed), and 𝐴⃗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘� be be a defined

and continuous vector function over the surface S. Let one side of S be considered arbitrarily as
the positive side (if S is a closed surface this is taken as the outer side). A unit normal 𝑛� to any
point of the positive side of S is called a positive or outward drawn unit normal.

[1]
Associate with the differential of surface area 𝑑𝑆 a vector 𝑑𝑆⃗ whose magnitude is 𝑑𝑆 and whose
direction is that of n. Then 𝑑𝑆⃗ =𝑛� 𝑑𝑆.

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗

𝑆 𝑆

The surface integral of a vector field 𝐴⃗ is called the flux of 𝐴⃗ through S.

The other forms of surface integrals are

� 𝜑 𝑑𝑆⃗ and � 𝐴⃗ × 𝑑𝑆⃗

𝑆 𝑆
 78

Where 𝜑 is a scalar point function.

If S is a closed surface, then the surface integrals may be written as

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗,

� 𝐴⃗ × 𝑑𝑆⃗,

Or

� 𝜑 𝑑𝑆⃗

Properties of Surface Integrals

Like the double integrals, surface integrals have the following properties:

i. ∬𝑆 𝐾𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 𝐾 ∬𝑆 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ (𝐾 is any real constant)

ii. ∬𝑆 (𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
�⃗ ). 𝑑𝑆⃗ = ∬ 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ + ∬ 𝐵
𝑆 𝑆
�⃗ . 𝑑𝑆⃗

iii. ∬𝑆 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ = ∬𝑆 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ + ∬𝑆 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗

1 2

Where the surface S is subdivided into two smooth surfaces 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 having atmost a curve in
common.
iv. If the surface S is partitioned by the smooth curves into a finite number of non-
overlapping smooth patches 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 , … … … , 𝑆𝑛 (i.e. is S is piece-wise smooth), then the
normal surface integral of 𝐴⃗ over S is the sum of the normal surface integrals of 𝐴⃗ over
all the smooth patches, i.e.

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ = � 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ + � 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ + ⋯ … … … … … … . + � 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗

𝑆 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆𝑛
 79

Module No. 42

Evaluation of the Surface Integral

To evaluate the surface integral, it is convenient to express them as double integrals taken over
the projected area of the surface S on one of the coordinate planes.
Evaluation of surface integrals can be made by done by the following result

Theorem Statement
Let R ne the projection of the surface S on the xy-plane, then prove that
𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚
� �𝑨⃗. 𝒏
� 𝒅𝑺 = � �𝑨⃗. 𝒏
�
𝑺 𝑹 �𝒏 ��
�. 𝒌

Proof
Let the surface S and its projection R on the xy-plane be as shown in figure.
Divide R into a rectangles of area ∆𝐴𝑘, 𝑘 = 1,2, … … , 𝑛 and erect a vertical column on each of
these sub-regions to intersects S in an element of surface area ∆𝑆𝑘 .

[1]
Choose a point (𝑥𝑘 , 𝑦𝑘 , 𝑧𝑘 ) on each surface element ∆𝑆𝑘 and draw the unit normal 𝑛�𝑘 to this
element at this point. Let 𝛾𝑘 be the acute angle between this unit normal 𝑛�𝑘 and the positive z-
axis.
If this surface element is sufficiently small, it can be regarded as a plane.
We know from geometry, that if two planes intersect at an acute angle, an area in one plane may
be projected into the other by multiplying the cosine of the included angle as shown in figure.
Since the angle between two planes is the angle between their normal, therefore
∆𝑆𝑘 cos 𝛾𝑘 ≈ ∆𝐴𝑘
 80

or
∆𝑥𝑘 ∆𝑦𝑘
∆𝑆𝑘 ≈ sec 𝛾𝑘 ∆𝐴𝑘 =
�𝑛�. 𝑘��
Thus the sum (1) in the definition of unit normal surface integrals
𝑛 𝑛 ∆𝑥𝑘 ∆𝑦𝑘
� 𝐴𝑘 . 𝑛�𝑘 ∆𝑆𝑘 ≈ � 𝐴𝑘 . 𝑛�𝑘
𝑘=1 𝑘=1 �𝑛�. 𝑘��
and the limit of this sum can be written as
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�
𝑆 𝑅 �𝑛�. 𝑘��
Similarly, we can prove that if R is the projection of the surface S on the yz-plane, then
𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�
𝑆 𝑅 |𝑛�. 𝚤̂|
And if R is the projection of S on the xz-plane, then
𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑥
� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�
𝑆 𝑅 |𝑛�. 𝚥̂|
 81

Module No. 43

Example to the previous topic: Surface

Integrals
Problem Statement
Evaluate

∬𝑆 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 where 𝐴 = 18𝑧𝚤̂ − 12𝚥̂ + 3𝑦𝑘� and S is that part of the plane
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 12 which is located in the first octant.

Solution
The surface S and its projection R on the xy plane are shown in the figure below.

[1]

We know that
 82

𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚
� �𝑨⃗. 𝒏
� 𝒅𝑺 = � �𝑨⃗. 𝒏
�
𝑺 𝑹 �𝒏 ��
�. 𝒌
Also we know that a normal vector to the surface 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 12 is given by
∇(2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 6𝑧) = 2𝚤̂ + 3𝚥̂ + 6𝑘�
�
2𝚤̂+3𝚥̂ +6𝑘 2 3 6
Then a unit normal 𝑛� to any point of S is 𝑛� = 7
= 7 𝚤̂ + 7 𝚥̂ + 7 𝑘�
2 3 6 6
Thus 𝑛�. 𝑘� = �7 𝚤̂ + 7 𝚥̂ + 7 𝑘�� . 𝑘� = 7

and so
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 7
= 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
�𝑛�. 𝑘�� 6
Also
2 3 6
��⃗. 𝑛� = �18𝑧𝚤̂ − 12𝚥̂ + 3𝑦𝑘��. � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘��
𝑨
7 7 7
36𝑧 − 36 + 18𝑦
=
7
Now from the equation of the surface S 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 12 ,
12 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑦
𝑧=
6
Therefore
6(12 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑦) − 36 + 18𝑦 36 − 12𝑥
𝐴⃗. 𝑛� = =
7 7
Then
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�
𝑆 𝑅 �𝑛�. 𝑘��
36 − 12𝑥 7
=� 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑅 7 6
12−2𝑥
6 3

= � � (6 − 2𝑥)𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0 𝑦=0
6
12 − 2𝑥
= �(6 − 2𝑥) � � 𝑑𝑥
3
0
 83

6
4
= � �24 − 12𝑥 + 𝑥 2 � 𝑑𝑥
3
0
6
4
= �24𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 �
9 0

= 144 − 216 + 96 = 24
If we had chosen the positive unit normal 𝑛� opposite to that in the figure above, we would have
obtained the result — 24 .
 84

Module No. 44

Further Example on Surface Integral

Problem Statement
If 𝐹⃗ = 2𝑦𝚤̂ — 𝑧𝚥̂ + 𝑥 2 𝑘� and S is the surface of the parabolic cylinder 𝑦 2 = 8𝑥 in the first octant
bounded by the planes у = 4 and 𝑧 = 6,
Evaluate

� 𝐹⃗ . 𝑛�𝑑𝑆
𝑆

Solution
The surface S and its projection R on the yz-plane are shown in figure.

[1]
A vector normal to S is
∇(8𝑥 − 𝑦 2 ) = 8𝚤̂ − 2𝑦𝚥̂
and therefore
8𝚤̂ − 2𝑦𝚥̂ 8𝚤̂ − 2𝑦𝚥̂ 8𝚤̂ − 2𝑦𝚥̂ 4𝚤̂ − 𝑦𝚥̂ 4𝚤̂ −𝑦𝚥̂
𝑛� = = = = = +
�82 + (2𝑦)2 �64 + 4𝑦 2 �4(16 + 𝑦 2 ) �16 + 𝑦 2 �16 + 𝑦 2 �16 + 𝑦 2
Also,
4
𝑛�. 𝚤̂ =
�16 + 𝑦 2
 85

and
4𝚤̂ −𝑦𝚥̂
𝐹⃗ . 𝑛� = �2𝑦𝚤̂ — 𝑧𝚥̂ + 𝑥 2 𝑘��. � + �
�16 + 𝑦 2 �16 + 𝑦 2
8𝑦 + 𝑧𝑦
=
�16 + 𝑦 2
Thus
𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦
� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�
𝑆 𝑅 |𝑛�. 𝚤̂|
4 6
8𝑦 + 𝑧𝑦 �16 + 𝑦 2
= �� 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦
�16 + 𝑦 2 4
0 0
4 6 4
1 1
= � �(8𝑦 + 𝑧𝑦) 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦 = � 66𝑦𝑑𝑦
4 4
0 0 0
4
33 2 33 2
=� 𝑦 � = 4 = 132
4 0 4

� 𝐹⃗ . 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = 132
𝑆

is the required result.

 86

Module No. 45

Selected Example/Problem 1: Surface

Integrals
Problem Statement
Evaluate

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆
𝑆

for 𝐴⃗ = 𝑦𝚤̂ + 2𝑥𝚥̂ — 𝑧𝑘� and S is the surface of the plane 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 6 in the first octant cut off
by the plane 𝑧 = 4

Solution
The Surface S and its projection R in the yz-plane are shown in figure.

[1]
A vector normal to S is given by
∇(2𝑥 + 𝑦) = 2𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂
Therefore,
2𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ 2𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ 2𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂
𝑛� = = =
�22 + (1)2 √4 + 1 √5
Also,
 87

2
𝑛�. 𝚤̂ =
√5
and
2𝚤̂ 𝚥̂
𝐴⃗. 𝑛� = �𝑦𝚤̂ + 2𝑥𝚥̂ — 𝑧𝑘��. � + �
√5 √5
2𝑦 2𝑥 2
= + = (𝑥 + �)
√5 √5 √5
and
𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦
� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�
𝑆 𝑅 |𝑛�. 𝚤̂|
6 4
2 √5
= � � (𝑥 + 𝑦) 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦
√5 2
𝑦=0 𝑧=0

6−𝑦
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 6 ⟹ 𝑥 =
2
6 4 6 4
6−𝑦 𝑦
= � �𝑦+� � 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦 = � � �3 + � 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦
2 2
𝑦=0 𝑧=0 𝑦=0 𝑧=0
6
𝑦
= � �3 + � |𝑧|40 𝑑𝑦
2
𝑦=0
6
𝑦
= 4 � �3 + � 𝑑𝑦
2
𝑦=0
6
𝑦2
= �3𝑦 + �
4 0

= 4(18 + 9) = 108
 88

Module No. 46

Selected Example/Problem 2: Surface

Integral
Problem Statement
Evaluate

i. ∬𝑆 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆

ii. ∬𝑆 𝜑 𝑛�𝑑𝑆

3
where 𝐴⃗ = 𝑧𝚤̂ + 𝑥𝚥̂ — 3𝑦 2 𝑧𝑘� and 𝜑 = 8 𝑥𝑦𝑧 S is the surface of the cylinder 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 16

included in the first octant between 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑧 = 5.

Solution
i. The surface S and its projection R on the xz-plane are shown in figure.

[1]
 89

[1]
Then
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛� (1)
𝑆 𝑅 |𝑛�. 𝚥̂|
A normal vector to 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 16 is ∇(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) = 2𝑥𝚤̂ + 2𝑦𝚥̂
Thus the unit normal 𝑛� to S is
2𝑥𝚤̂ + 2𝑦𝚥̂ 2𝑥𝚤̂ + 2𝑦𝚥̂ 2𝑥𝚤̂ + 2𝑦𝚥̂ 2𝑥𝚤̂ + 2𝑦𝚥̂ 2𝑥𝚤̂ + 2𝑦𝚥̂
𝑛� = = = = =
�(2𝑥)2 + (2𝑦)2 �4𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 �4(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) �4(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) �4(16)
2𝑥𝚤̂ + 2𝑦𝚥̂ 2(𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂) (𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂)
= = =
√64 8 4
2 2
Using 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 16 on S
Now,
𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂
𝐴⃗. 𝑛� = �𝑧𝚤̂ + 𝑥𝚥̂ — 3𝑦 2 𝑧𝑘��. � �
4
1
= (𝑧𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦)
4
And
𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ 𝑦
𝑛�. 𝚥̂ = � � . 𝚥̂ =
4 4
Thus putting obtained values in equation (1)
1 4
� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � (𝑧𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
𝑆 𝑅 4 𝑦
5 4
𝑧𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦
= � � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
𝑦
𝑧=0 𝑥=0
5 4 𝑧𝑥
= ∫𝑧=0 ∫𝑥=0 𝑦
+ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 (2)
 90

Utilizing the equation of the surface of the cylinder

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 16 ⟹ 𝑦 2 = 16 − 𝑥 2 ⟹ 𝑦 = √16 − 𝑥 2
Substituting the value of y in equation (2)
5 4
𝑧𝑥
= � � + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
√16 − 𝑥 2
𝑧=0 𝑥=0
5 4
𝑥2
= � �−𝑧�16 − 𝑥2 + � 𝑑𝑧
2 0
0
5

= �(4𝑧 + 8)𝑑𝑧 = |2𝑧 2 + 8𝑧|50 = 90

0

ii. ∬𝑆 𝜑 𝑛�𝑑𝑆

𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
� 𝜑. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝜑𝑛�
𝑆 𝑅 |𝑛�. 𝚥̂|
Substituting values, we get
3 𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ 4
� 𝜑. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � ( 𝑥𝑦𝑧 ) � � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
𝑆 𝑅 8 4 𝑦
5 4
3
= � � 𝑥𝑧 (𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
8
𝑧=0 𝑥=0

Using the value of 𝑦 = √16 − 𝑥 2 in above integral,

5 4
3
= � � �𝑥 2 𝑧𝚤̂ + 𝑥𝑧�16 − 𝑥 2 𝚥̂� 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
8
𝑧=0 𝑥=0
5 4 4
𝑥3 −1 2 3�2
= � �𝑧𝚤̂ � � + 𝑧𝚥̂ � (16 − 𝑥 ) � � 𝑑𝑧
3 0 3 0
0
5 5
64 64 𝑧2 𝑧2
= �( 𝑧𝚤̂ + 𝑧𝚥̂)𝑑𝑧 = 8 � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂�
3 3 2 2 0
0

25 25
= 8 � 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂� = 100𝚤̂ + 100𝚥̂
2 2
is required solution.
 91

Module No. 47

Selected Example/Problem 3: Surface

Integral
Problem Statement

Evaluate ∬𝑆 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆

over the entire surface of the region above the xy plane bounded by the cone S
𝑧 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 and the plane 𝑧 = 4, if 𝐴⃗ = 4𝑥𝑧 𝚤̂ + 𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 𝚥̂ + 3𝑧𝑘�.

Solution
The surface S and its projection R on the xy-plane are shown in figure.

[1]
Then

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆1 + � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆2

𝑆 𝑆1 𝑆2

For 𝑆1 , 𝑧 = 4, 𝑛� = 𝑘� and 𝑛�. 𝑘� = 1

Then

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 12 𝑑𝑆1 = 12 � 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

𝑆1 𝑆1 𝑅

= 12 × 𝜋(4)2 = 192𝜋
 92

For 𝑆2 , the normal vector is given by

∇(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 ) = 2𝑥𝚤̂ + 2𝑦𝚥̂ − 2𝑧𝑘�
Therefore,
2𝑥𝚤̂ + 2𝑦𝚥̂ − 2𝑧𝑘� 2(𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ − 𝑧𝑘�) (𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ − 𝑧𝑘�) (𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ − 𝑧𝑘� )
𝑛� = = = =
�4𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 + 4𝑧 2 2�𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 √𝑧 2 + 𝑧 2 √2𝑧 2
�
(𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ − 𝑧𝑘)
𝑛� =
𝑧√2
Also,
1 −1
𝐴⃗. 𝑛� = (4𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 − 3𝑧) and 𝑛�. 𝑘� =
√2 √2
Therefore
4 √16−𝑥2
1
� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆2 = � � (4𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 − 3𝑧). √2 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑆2 √2
−4 −√16−𝑥 2

Using 𝑧 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 in the above integral, we obtain

4 √16−𝑥2

= � � �4𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 2 �𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 3�𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 � 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

−4 −√16−𝑥 2

Now we will further solve it by using polar coordinates

Let 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 , therefore 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 4 and 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
and
2𝜋 4

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆2 = � �(4𝑟 2 cos2 𝜃 + 𝑟 4 cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 − 3𝑟)𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝜃

𝑆2
0 0
2𝜋 4

= � �(4𝑟 3 cos 2 𝜃 + 𝑟 5 cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 − 3𝑟 2 )𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃

0 0

integerating w.r.t 𝑟
2𝜋 4
𝑟6
= � �𝑟 cos 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 − 𝑟 3 � 𝑑𝜃
4 2
6 0
0
2𝜋
46
= � �256 cos2 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 − 43 � 𝑑𝜃
6
0
 93

2𝜋
46
= � �256 cos 2 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 − 43 � 𝑑𝜃
6
0
2𝜋
2048
= � �128(1 + cos 2𝜃) + cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 − 64� 𝑑𝜃
3
0

Now integrating w.r.t 𝜃 , we get

2𝜋
2048 3
= �128𝜃 + 64 sin 2𝜃 + sin 𝜃 − 64𝜃�
3 0

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆2 = 128𝜋

𝑆2

Thus,

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆1 + � 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆2

𝑆 𝑆1 𝑆2

� 𝐴⃗. 𝑛�𝑑𝑆 = 192𝜋 + 128𝜋 = 320𝜋

𝑆

is the required solution.

 94

Module No. 48

Volume Integral
A volume integral refers to an integral over a 3-dimensional domain, that is, it is a special case of
multiple integrals.

Definition
Let 𝐴⃗ be a given vector point function which is defined and continuous in a closed region R.Then

� 𝐴⃗𝑑𝑉
𝑅

If 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴1 𝚤̂ + 𝐴2 𝚥̂ + 𝐴3 𝑘�, then the above integral may be written as

� 𝐴⃗𝑑𝑉 = 𝚤̂ � 𝐴1 𝑑𝑉 + 𝚥̂ � 𝐴2 𝑑𝑉 + 𝑘� � 𝐴3 𝑑𝑉
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

If we have a scalar point function 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) defined as continuous over the region R, then the
volume integral becomes

� 𝜑𝑑𝑉
𝑅

In rectangular coordinate system, 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 so the volume integral becomes

� 𝜑𝑑𝑉 = � 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

𝑅 𝑅

Which is ordinary triple integral of 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) over the region R.

If 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 1, the volume V of the region R is given by

� 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = � 𝑑 𝑉
𝑅 𝑅

Notations for other than Cartesian system

Volume integral can be expressed also in cylindrical and spherical coordinates as
i. Volume integral in cylindrical coordinates:
 95

� 𝑔(𝜌, 𝜑, 𝑧)𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜑𝑑𝑧
𝑅

ii. Volume integral in cylindrical coordinates:

� 𝑔(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑)𝑟 2 sin 𝜑 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑

𝑅

Which are equivalent to ordinary triple integrals in cylindrical and spherical coordinates.
 96

Module No. 49

Example on Volume Integral

Problem Statement
Let 𝐹⃗ = 2𝑥𝑧𝑖 − 𝑥𝑗 + 𝑦 2 𝑘.
Evaluate

� 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑉
𝑅

where V is the region bounded by the surfaces 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 = 6, 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑧 = 4.

Solution
We will evaluate the given problem through following scheme.

[1]
The region V is covered (i) by keeping x and у fixed and integrating from 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 to 𝑧 = 4 (base
to top of column PQ),

[1]
 97

(ii) Then by keeping χ fixed and integrating from у = 0 𝑡𝑜 у = 6 (R to S in the slab),

(iii) Finally integrating from 𝑥 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 2 (where z = x2 meets 𝑧 = 4). Then the required
integral is
2 6 4

� 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = � � �(2𝑥𝑧𝑖 − 𝑥𝑗 + 𝑦 2 𝑘)𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑅 0 0 𝑥2
2 6 4 2 6 4 2 6 4

= 𝚤̂ � � � 2𝑥𝑧 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 − 𝚥̂ � � � 𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑘� � � � 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

0 0 𝑥2 0 0 𝑥2 0 0 𝑥2

Solving integrals turn by turn

2 6 4 2 6 2 2

� � � 2𝑥𝑧 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = � � 𝑥(16 − 𝑥 )𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = � 𝑥(16 − 4

𝑥 4 )|𝑦|60 𝑑𝑥 = 6 � 𝑥(16 − 𝑥 4 )𝑑𝑥
0 0 𝑥2 0 0 0 0
2 2
5 )𝑑𝑥
16𝑥 2 𝑥 6 64 64
= 6 �(16𝑥 − 𝑥 = 6� − � = 6 � − � = 128
2 6 0 2 6
0
2 6 4 2 6 2 6 2

� � � 𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = � � 𝑥|𝑧|4𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = � � 𝑥(4 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = � 𝑥(4 − 𝑥 2 )|𝑦|60𝑑𝑥

0 0 𝑥2 0 0 0 0 0
2 2
𝑥4
2
16 2
= 6 � 𝑥(4 − 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 6 �2𝑥 − � = 6 �8 − � = 24
4 0 4
0
2 6 4 2 6 2 6 2 6
𝑦3
� � � 𝑦 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 2
� � 𝑦 2 |𝑧|4𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ��𝑦 2 (4
−𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
= � � � (4 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
3 0
0 0 𝑥2 0 0 0 0 0
2 2
2 )𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 8
= 72 �(4 − 𝑥 = 72 �4𝑥 − � = 72(8 − ) = 384
3 0 3
0

Hence
2 6 4 2 6 4 2 6 4

� 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝚤̂ � � � 2𝑥𝑧 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 − 𝚥̂ � � � 𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑘� � � � 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

𝑅 0 0 𝑥2 0 0 𝑥2 0 0 𝑥2

� 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = 128𝚤̂ − 24𝚥̂ + 384𝑘�

𝑅

is the required solution.

 98

Module No. 50

Selected Example/Problem 1: Volume

Integral
Problem Statement
Find the volume of the region common to the intersecting cylinders𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 and 𝑥 2 +
𝑧 2 = 𝑎2 .

Solution
Let 𝑀 be the required common region then

[1]

[1]
 99

Required volume = 8 times volume of region shown in above figure.

𝑎 √𝑎2 −𝑥 2 √𝑎2 −𝑥 2

� 𝑀𝑑𝑉 = 8 � � � 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑉 𝑥=0 𝑦=0 𝑧=0

𝑎 √𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑎 √𝑎2 −𝑥2 𝑎

= � � 𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = � � �𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = �( 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥

𝑥=0 𝑦=0 𝑥=0 𝑦=0 𝑥=0

16𝑎3
=
3