Laboratory Manual: Biology
Exercise 2
Procedure
Procedure for the study of organisms vary from one organism to the other
depending upon their shape and size.
• Microscopic organisms like bacteria, algae, fungi can be studied with
the help of microscope only. Observe the permanent slides under a
microscope and note down the characters.
• Large-sized specimen (fresh or preserved) can be examined directly
with naked eye or with the help of a hand lens.
• Compare your observations with the characteristics given below.
Observation
BACTERIA
(i) Bacteria (sing. : bacterium) are unicellular (Fig. 2.1).
(ii) Cell wall is present.
(iii) Absence of membrane bound organelles like
mitochondria, nucleus, golgi bodies, plastids, etc.
(iv) Mesosomes are present.
Fig. 2.1 Bacteria (rod-shaped)
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(v) Bacteria exist in different shapes like globular (coccus), rod-shaped
(bacillus), spiral (spirullum) and comma-shaped (vibrio).
Systematic position
Kingdom – Monera
Class – Eubacteria
OSCILLATORIA
The features given below are useful in identifying Oscillatoria
(Fig. 2.2).
(i) It is a blue-green algae of fresh water bodies.
(ii) Thallus is filamentous, unbranched, multicellular. Dead cell
(iii) The cells are arranged one above the other like a pack of cards.
(iv) Each cell has a definite cell wall.
(v) Some cells of the filament may be dead and appear as blank
Fig. 2.2 Oscillatoria
spaces in the filament.
(vi) Fresh specimen of the filaments show oscillatory movements and
hence the name Oscillatoria.
Systematic position
Kingdom – Monera
Division – Cyanobacteria
Class – Cyanophyceae
SPIROGYRA Pyrenoids
Observe the following features: Chloroplast
(i) Spirogyra is a green-coloured algae commonly found in
Nucleus
stagnant fresh water bodies.
(ii) It is unbranched, filamentous and slimy to touch.
(iii) The filament is composed of large number of long, Vacuole
cylindrical cells placed one above the other in a
single row.
(iv) The cells are characterised by long spiral ribbon-shaped
Fig. 2.3 Spirogyra
chloroplasts with several pyrenoids (Fig. 2.3).
(v) There is a single large vacuole in each cell.
Note : Spirogyra can be collected from a pond. It is silky, slippery, green-coloured scum
(floating in water). It can also be preserved in the FAA (Formalin, Acetic acid, Alcohol mixture).
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(vi) Conjugation tubes formed between the cells of two different
filaments may also be found when in reproductive phase.
Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Thallophyta
Class – Chlorophyceae
Sporangium RHIZOPUS
Spores
Observe the following features:
Columella (i) Thallus is an interwoven mass of hyphae called mycelium.
Sporangiophore
(ii) Hyphae are tubular, multinucleate and without any septa
(coenocytic) (Fig.2.4).
(iii) Some hyphae are horizontal and grow parallel on the surface of the
Stoloniferous substratum. These are called stoloniferous hyphae. Some hyphae
hyphae grow down into the substratum, and are called rhizoidal hyphae.
Erect vertically growing hyphae are called sporangiophores.
Rhizoidal
• Sporangiophore bears the capsule or sporangium, which is
hyphae
globular in outline.
Fig. 2.4 Rhizopus
• A dome-shaped columella is found inside the cavity of
sporangium.
• Numerous black spores fill the cavity between columella and
the sporangial wall.
Note : Rhizopus can be grown on moist piece of bread covered under a glass jar or kept in a
petridish for a few days in dark. The fungus appears as a white cotton like mass.
Systematic position
Kingdom – Fungi
Division – Eumycota
Class – Zygomycetes
AGARICUS (COMMON EDIBLE MUSHROOM)
Observe the following features in the specimen:
(i) Common edible mushroom is the fruiting body
Pileus
or basidiocarp of Agaricus.
(ii) The fungus is a saprophyte that grows in soil
rich in humus and with thick layer of semi- Gills
Stipe
decomposed organic matter.
(iii) The thallus consists of an underground, highly Annulus
interwoven mass of thick colourless hyphae. Fig. 2.5 Agaricus
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(iv) A young fruiting body is a white, spherical, button like structure.
A mature fruiting body can be distinguished into two parts (Fig. 2.5).
(a) An erect stalk or stipe composed of mass of vertically arranged
hyphae, and
(b) An umbrella like pileus attached ventrally at the centre to the stalk.
At the base of the stipe is collar like ring known as annulus, which
is a remnant of the covering of young basidiocarp.
(v) There are radiating plate like structures called gills on the under surface
of pileus, which radiate from the centre to the periphery. The gills bear
basidia and basidiospores.
Note: Fungus is very soft, one has to handle it carefully. Avoid inhaling spores. Use forceps
to take out basidia which contain black spores.
Systematic position
Kingdom – Fungi
Division – Eumycota
Class – Basidiomycetes
SACCHAROMYCES (YEAST)
Observe the following features (Fig. 2.6):
(i) Cells are oval or spherical in shape, and colourless. Bud
(ii) Cells form chains of buds that help in propagation.
(iii) Each cell has one vacuole.
(iv) Single nucleus is present in each cell. Nucleus
Systematic position
Kingdom – Fungi
Division – Eumycota Fig. 2.6 Yeast
Class – Saccharomycetes
LICHENS
(i) The body of lichen is a thallus, which is grey or greyish in colour.
Yellow, red, orange or brown segments may be present in some species
(Fig. 2.7).
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.7 Lichen : (a) Crustose; (b) Foliose; (c) Fruticose
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(ii) There are different forms of thallus. Three main categories of thalli are
recognised on the basis of their general growth, form and nature of
attachment to the substratum. These are as follows:
(a) Crustose
• These are encrusting lichens with thin, flat, inconspicuous
thallus without lobes.
• The thallus appears as a thin layer or crust, closely attached by its
whole of the lower surface to stones, rocks, barks of wood
trees, etc.
(b) Foliose
• Foliose lichens are leafy lichens with flat lobed and horizontally
spreading thalli.
• These are attached to the substratum by rhizoid like structures.
(c) Fruticose
• These are shrubby lichens with cylindrical, flat or ribbon like
upright, generally branched and pendulous thalli.
• These are attached to the substratum by disc like structures at
their bases.
MARCHANTIA (LIVERWORT)
(i) Marchantia thallus is dorsiventrally flat, thalloid structure that grows
flat on the surface of the soil substratum (Fig. 2.8).
(ii) Thallus is dichotomously lobed, with an apical notch in each lobe.
(iii) There is a dark median furrow called mid-rib on the dorsal side that
extends into each lobe.
(iv) Small cup-like structures called gemma cups are borne on the dorsal
(a) surface of the thallus. They contain the vegetative propagules called
gemmae.
(v) Ventral side of the thallus bears colourless, unicellular rhizoids which
are of two types- (a) smooth walled, and (b) tuberculate rhizoids. The
rhizoids help in anchorage and absorption of water through their
capillary action.
(vi) Reproductive organs are borne on antheridiophores and
(b) archegoniophores that arise from the apical notches of male and female
Fig. 2.8 Marchantia
thalli respectively.
bearing (vii) The antheridiophore has a flattened, more or less convex head or
(a) antheridiophore receptacle which bears antheridia.
(b) archegoniophore (ix) The archegoniophores are umbrella shaped structure, with outwardly
projected ribs. Between the ribs are the archegonia.
Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Bryophyta
Class – Hepaticopsida
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FUNARIA (MOSS)
(i) The thallus of Funaria consists of small upright, 'stem'
that bears, small, ovate and leaf-like structures which
are without midrib (Fig. 2.9).
(ii) The leaves are green and are spirally arranged on the
stem-like portion.
Capsule
(iii) The thallus is attached to the substratum by a cluster of
rhizoids. Seta
(iv) Rhizoids are long, colourless, septate and intertwined.
(v) Reproductive organs are borne on separate branches of
the same thallus. Leaf
(vi) The flattened apex of the male branch bears the antheridia
which are club shaped, while the flattened receptacle of
the female branch bears archegonia which are flask Rhizoids
shaped.
(vii) A mature Funaria plant bears (on female branches) the Fig. 2.9 Moss
sporophyte which consists of a prominent conical capsule
raised on a long stalk known as seta and a foot which is
embedded into the tissues of the gametophyte.
Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Bryophyta
Class – Musci/Bryopsida
DRYOPTERIS (FERN)
Fronds
(i) Dryopteris is a fern (Pteridophyta) with obliquely
growing, subterranean rhizome (Fig. 2.10).
(ii) Rhizome is short, thick and is covered with scale leaves,
remnants of leaf bases and cluster of adventitious roots.
Ci r ci nnat e
(iii) The aerial shoot consist of several large compound leaves
venation
called fronds.
(iv) Each compound leaf arises from a bud. The young leaf Rhizome
has circinnate venation. The leaf is rolled from apex
Fig. 2.10 Dryopteris
downwards like a watch spring and petiole has dense
covering of brown hair like structures called ramenta.
(v) Leaves are long, upto 1.0-1.5 m length, compound with
leaflets arranged on either side of mid-rib called rachis.
Rachis is the extended part of the petiole.
(vi) Petiole is long, cylindrical and covered with hairs when
young.
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(vii) Leaflets or pinnules have wavy margin, and are sub sessile.
(viii) Large number of greenish (when young) or black (when mature) sac
like structures are borne on the ventral side of the pinnule at the point
of bifurcation of each vein. These are called as sori (single: sorus).
(ix) Each sorus contains a cluster of sporangia bearing spores.
Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Pteridophyta
Class – Filicopsida
PINUS
(i) Pinus is a cone-shaped tall tree (Fig.2.11).
(ii) Stem is hard, woody, cylindrical, rough and
branched.
(iii) Branches are of two types- (a) branches of
unlimited growth, and (b) branches of
limited growth.
(iv) Both types of branches bear large number
of brown, membranous scaly leaves.
(v) Branches of limited growth are borne in the
axil of scale leaves. They are 2-3 cm long
and bear a cluster of long, needle like leaves.
(vi) The needle like green leaves are called
acicular leaves.
(vii) The dwarf branch with its needles is known Fig. 2.11 Pinus tree
as spur shoot.
(viii) Reproductive organs are borne in male and female cones in the same
plant.
(ix) Male cones are borne in large clusters (8-40). They are small, green,
conical and composed of central axis surrounded by large number of
green and small microsporophylls which are compactly arranged .
(x) Micro sporophylls bear two elongated sac like structures at the base on
the ventral side. These are called pollen sacs. Pollen grains are winged.
(xi) Female cones are large, 10-30cm in length consisting of
megasporophylls. Megasporophylls are compact when young but
spread apart when mature. Each megasporophyll has (a) bract scale
and (b) ovuliferous scale which bears 2 ovules on the ventral side.
Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Gymnosperm
Class – Coniferopsida
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Exercise 2
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANT
(i) Plant body is differentiated into roots, stems and leaves (Fig. 2.12).
(ii) Taproot system.
(iii) Leaves simple or compound, with reticulate venation.
(iv) Flowers tetramerous or pentamerous, either solitary or in clusters
forming inflorescence.
(v) Reproductive organs are stamens and carpels. Within the carpels ovules
are present.
(vi) Seeds have two cotyledons.
Example: Hibiscus, pea, gram, lady's finger, ground nut.
Fig. 2.12 Pea plant
Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Angiosperm
Class – Dicotyledonae
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANT Male flower
(i) Plant body differentiated into roots, stems, and leaves (Fig. 2.13).
(ii) Fibrous root system.
(iii) Leaves simple or compound with parallel venation. Fruit
(iv) Flower trimerous. Leaf
(v) Ovules situated inside the carpels.
(vi) Seed has one cotyledon Stem
Example: maize, wheat, sugarcane, paddy
Systematic position Fig. 2.13 Maize plant
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Angiosperm
Class – Monocotyledonae
Questions
1. An unlabelled slide shows filamentous structures with linearly arranged cells and blank
spaces occuring intermittently. Name the specimen.
2. What is the structure bearing capsules in a moss called as – a sporophyte/gametophyte?
3. What type of leaves are found in ferns?
4. What are the similarities and differences observed in gymnosperms and angiosperms?
5. Given only flowers of some plants, how would you classify them as monocots and dicots?
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