CHAPTER - I

INTRODUCTION TO JAINISM

Jainism is one of the very old religions of India . It is a non-vedic

religion, it does not accept the authority of the vedas. Religion maintains

to keep peace on earth and promote good will among the individuals and

show the way to lead a highest order of life. Jainism is such a religion and

hopes for the highest order of life. It believes that it is possible only by

the observance of truth and non-violence which are the cardinal

principles of Jainism.

Another significant feature of Jainism is that it gives solution to the

religious conflicts through pluralistic approach to truth. Jainism says that

one cannot clair that his understanding of any faith or religion is absolute

truth and it is only partial truth. Its approach to truth is Anekantavada. It

files with the wings of syadvada and Nayavada to discover perfect truth

which alone can lead each and every individual to get pure knowledge

and liberation.

Though it is a non- vedic religion there are some common features

between these two religions. Though Jainism denies the existence of God

for the origin of this world the followers of Jainism accepts Gods of

vedic religion to have prosperity in this world. Jainism differs in one

1
sense by stressing asceticism is the only way of life to get liberation from

bondage whereas Hinduism advocates the prosperity of life on this earth

and puts asceticism as the final order of life. Jainism does not believe in

Absott soul as told in Hinduism and maintains that each and every soul is

a separate entity. The basic ethical principles of truth non-violence non

stealing non possession and chastity of Jainism are also accepted in

Hinduism. However Jainism emphasises the observance of nonviolence

to the extreme level.

According to Jainism it has long history for its ongin Jainism was

not founded at one time and by one great person. Jainism owes twenty

four Thirthankars for its origin. From Rishaba Mahavira they were

twenty four Thirthankaras They were also known with other epithets like.

Arhat and Jina. Jin or Thirthankara means one who had con quered

himself and controlled all the senses. They were path finders and help

the humanity to liberate themselves from the bondage of karma and lead

to a higher order of life. Jainism comes from the word Jin Further it is

essentially a way of life. These twenty four Thirthankaras have been

mentioned namely

1. Rishaba

2. Ajitha.

2
3. Sambhara

.4. Abhinandana

5. Sumatinath

6. Padrnaprabha

7. Suparshvanath

8. Chandraprabha

9. Pushpadanta

10 Sheelalaath

11. Shreyan sanath

1 2. Vasupujya

13. Vimalanath

14. Anantanath

15. Dharma

16. Shantinath

17. Kunthunath

18. Aranath

19. Mallinath

20. Munisuvrata

3
 21. Namiatha

22 Neminatha

23. Parshavanath

24. Mahavirar

Except Parsuranatha and Mahavirar the history of all other

Thirthankaras is more legendary than a fact. We come across only

references about Rishaba in Vishnu-purana . Mahabharatha and

Marusmirithi. Parsuva and Mahavira are considered to be historical

figures .the former being the son of a King of Benaras and the latter

being the son of a King of a Vaisali Kingdom. Both renounced the

family life and took to asceticism at the age of thirty. After spending

many years in the forest they got enlightenment. However Jainism had

been revived and rejunivated during the period of Mahavirar.

Basics or Special Features of Jainism

1. Jainism having its close association with Ajivikism is the oldest

non- Aryan religion of India.

2. It is non- vedic in the sense that it does not recognize the veda as

its religious scripture - does not admit caste distinction and is

opposed to the Rigvedic Religion. It accepts moksha and not

heavenly abode as the highest human end.. It also accepts non-

4
 vedic Yoga and austerities as important means for securing

Liberation.

3. Unlike Rigvedic principle it accepts the four pillars of Karma -

Samsara - jnana - Mukti as. Its creed.

4. lt is where they atheistic but intensely spiritual form of Religion

5. As there is no place for God in its system so Jainism regards the

world as eternal in its on- goings

6. . Though Buddhism too accepts Ahimsa as an Important moral

creed yet Ahimsa is the central teaching of Jainism ( Ahimsa

Parmo Dharmah) and account for the moral conduct of Jaina

seekers and sadhus.

7. From the viewpoint essence Jainism is dualistic for it admits. the

distinction between the two entities of Jiva and Ajiva But from the

view point of number it accepts the plurality of spirits and atoms .

8. In order to give a system to its plural ontology it takes resort to

Anuekantavada and Syadvada.

9. Jaine doctrine of soul is very distinctive for it admits spatial

dimension to it. Again Jainism also admits that Karmas are like

subtle material objects that cling to the soul.

5
10. Jainism has a, great deal of modern tone in the form of its

rationalism. Jaina holds that each man can realize his own self-

sameness of the soul by his own efforts without references to any

supernatural agency.

11. Unlike Hinduism and very much like Buddhism, Jainism is

associated with historical person of Mahavira who, might not have

originated Jainism but has given an authoritative seal to its

principal tenets.

12. Jainism has no place for caste distinction by birth.1

Parsuvanatha and Mahavira

Parsuvanatha was a king of Varanasi for some years and then

turned to Jainism. He became a Jina and remained in this order till his

death. It is believed that he was died in 777 B.C. He exposed four kinds

of doctrines to be followed. But Mahavira advocated five kinds of

doctrines. The disciples of Mahavira practiced these five doctrines. The

preachings of Parsava is known as Caturyama- Camvara. Accepting to

this four kinds of doctrines should be practiced: Non- injury not speaking

untruth not accepting whatever Was Not given non-possession. These

doctrines are agreable to Mahavira also. Additionally Brahmacharya is

also emphasised by Mahavira. Swatambara sect agrees this. The scholar

6
Modi says that these doctrines or vows indicate four kinds of actions

Mind body word and senses. However all these doctrines reflect the

basic „vows‟ that the bad things should be rejected. It is told that

Mahavira‟s parents were of Parsavanatha.

Jain Literary Tradition . it is considered that Parsavanatha lived

between 817 and 717 B.C and Mahàvira Liked between 599 and 527 B.C.

Parsava lived 100 years and Mahavira lived 72 years. He is the elder

contemporary of Buddha Originator of Buddhism . However the source

materials are very scanty to construct the life span of these two great

historical Thir-thankaras in detail.

Born in Gundagramam. in the Kingdom of Vaisali Mahavira

belongs to royal family. He is the last and twenty fourth Thirthankara

and greatest philosopher of Jainism. He is an extraordinary genius and

exponent of Jaina Religion. The history of Parsava is a proof that Jainism

had been established long before Vardhamana Mahavira. His father was

chieftain of Vaisali Kingdom.

At the age of Thirty Mahavira retired to forest and wandered there

for twelve years deeply involving in spiritual activities and meditation.

During the first year of his search he happened to meet Makkalli Kosala

who founded Asivaka sect. After having his contact he took to the

7
practice of nudity culture. Soon he differed with him on religious matter

and went alone to search for truth.

His spiritual experiment with truth to attain wisdom continued for

twelve years. At last he got wisdom over self- purification self-control

and Ahimsa. This means that he attained Kevalyagnana and emerged as a

Thirthankara. He was the last Thirthankara this cycle.

Parsuvanatha preached for sixty nine years and eleven months and

finally reached the Sammeda hill which is a sacred place for Jainas

because many saints and sages have attained enlightenment here. Still this

mount is known as. the hill of Parsvanath reminding the people his

attainment of liberation.

Later Period

After becoming a Jina Mahavira preached to the humanity for

thirty years. He preached truth Ahimsa non-possession non-stealing.

Brahmacharya and asked to be compassionate towards all lives on earth

and to show respect to them. He announced that these were universal

ethics of life-style of humanity. He led a life begging alms. He accepted

the share of food which was already cooked for the family. He never

accepted the food specially prepared for him. He finished with evening

meal and did not take anything in the night.

8
He preached two kinds of doctrines:

1. Anakara Dharma. The religion of monks and nuns .

2. Sakara Dharma. The religion of family persons and laymen.

During his life Jain religion was followed by saints and masses.

Even women monks were allowed into this religious order.

He started sangams to spread the Religion.

With his deep and rich scholarship he deepened the knowledge

about Anekantavatha soul theory of knowledge. He might have got

knowledge over this from his procedures and succeeded to the

development. Whatever he preached were collected into canonical texts

by the followers. During this period this religion was strengthened with

the increase of large number of followers. While he died there were

14,000 monks 36,000 sisters 1,59, 000 men, 388 women. Both the sects

agree this.2 At the age of seventy two he left the world which means

attaining Nirvana. It was during the monsoon in 527 B.C. He died at

Pavapuri, in a day of Amavasai ( in the month of Karthigai). This event

is still celebrated by the Jains by arranging lights in their homes.

After his death this religion spreaded to many parts of India. It was

patronised by the then rulers of kingdoms. Jainism was more popular

from Orissa in the East to Mathura in the West in the period between the

9
Mauryas and the Guptas. In later period it was dominantly prevailed

in Gujarat and Rajasthan where swetambaras sect was popular. In

mysore and Hyderabad which are in Southern Peninsula Digambara sect

was dominant. The Swatembaras found much support in Western

Kingdoms while Digambaras found much support among : the chiefs of

Kingdoms in Mysore and Tamilnadu. Due to the rise of Bakthi cult of

Saivism and Vaisnavism Jainism lost its hold on south. So many

persecution against them were informed in literatures of Tamil but Jains

deny such attempts as dubious.3

10
 CHAPTER – II

JAINA LITERATURE

Jain Text

The texts of Jainism known as Purvas has been orally transmitted

among Tirthankaras upto the period of last Tirthankara Mahavira but

Badrababu is the last person to know the texts fully. On his death

sthulabhadra called a great council at Pataliputra and this council

reconstructed the texts called Angas replacing the Purvas which are

completely not extant at present. Swetambara sect accepts this

convention and the texts but Digambara rejects this. They composed new

texts of their own. The texts of Swetambara also were corrupted and these

texts were known as Upangas.

The basic ethics of both sects were the same and they owe most

probably to Mahavira. Therefore from the beginning to till date they are

able to keep uniformity at the development of basic philosophy of

Jainism.

The earliest extant Canonical works of Jains consist of sixty texts.

They were divided into three groups of works known as purva, Anga,

Angabahya. All were accounted in ancient Maghata Language

Ardhamagadhi.

11
 In addition to this Digambaras are also Keeping Canonical works

produced by its wise scholars. Mostly from south the principal place for

Digambaras from the period of Bhadrababu.

Swetambaras also produced secondary Canon supplement the

ancient texts These works of both sects are known as Anuyogas

(Expositions). They Were divided into four categories , Prathamanu

Yoga, Karananuyoga Caranant Yoga, DravyanaYoga. They were

greatest collection of non-vedic period of Jains, known as the four vedas.

1.Purvas

Purvas include fourteen texts of great antiquity. All are not extant

in total. But the contents of these texts found in latest Literature. These.

were orally transmitted. from the earlier period and Mahavira preached a

new. These works dealt with cosmos, the bondage of soul and astrology

elaborately. The expressions over these concepts seem to be developed

contrary views Over other religions.

Fourteen Purvas:

1. Utpada

2. Agrayahi

3. Virya

4. Astinasti- pravada

5. Janapravada

12
 6. Satyapravada

7. Atmapravada

8. Karmapravada

9. Pratyakhyanapravada

10. Vidyanuvada

11. Kalyanavada

12. Pranavada

13. Kriyavisala

14. Lokabindusara.

II. Angas

These were miscellaneous texts of which twelfth Anga was not

extant. They were not uttered neither in a single period not by a single

person. The eleven Angas can be broadly categorised into four areas;

ecclesiastical law, examination of false views doctrine and narratives

for the edification of the laity. The significant feature of Angas is that

these works dealt with laws and conducts for monks and nuns.

Twelve Angas:

1. Acarange-sutra

2. Sutrakrtanga

3. Sthananga

4. Samavayanga

5. Bhagavati

13
 6. Jnatrdharmakatha

7. Upasakadash

8. Antakrddash

9. Anuttaraupäpatikadash

10. Prasana vyakarana

11. Vipakasruta

12. Drstivada.

Out of twelve Angas the Acharanga formulates the rules of

conduct for monks and Sutrakrtanga describes the Jaina Rites and points

out its distinctive features.

III. Angabahya
It contains thirty four texts -12 Upangas, 6 Chedasutras -4

Mulasutras, 10 Prakirnasutras and 2 Culikasutras.

A. 12 Upangas

These texts are mainly addressed to the laity.

They are subsidiary texts to Angas containing stories

and dialogues.

1. Anupapapatka

2.Rajaprasniya

3. Jivajinabhugma

4. Prajnapána & Suryaprajapti

14
 6 Jumbudnipaprajnapti

7. Candraprajnapti.

8. Niragavali

9. Kaipavatarnsikah

10. Puspikah

11. Puspaculikah

12. Vrshidasah.

B. 6. Chedasutras:

They are another important collected texts dealing with moral

conducts. These texts prescribe systematic punishments for wrongs

involved in the life of mendicants . They deals elaborately about 21

wrongs against the vows of mendicants , 33 kinds of irrespective acts

against elders, 8 kinds of qualities of leaders and 12 kinds of progressive

and hard vows. These were actually 7 in number including jita kalpa. As

it was not available, it is deleted from the list. At present only six texts

are available.

1. Acaredash

2. Brahalkalpa

3. Vyavahara

4. Nistha

5. Mahanisitha

6. Jitakalpa

15
4.Mulasutras

1. Dasavaikaliga

2. Uttaredhyayana

3. Avasyaga

4. Pindaniryukti.

Among these texts , Dasavaikaliga contains ten lectures relating to

renounced life.

10 Prakirnakasutras

1. Catuhsarana

2. Aturaprayatkhyana

3. Bhaktapanijna

4. Samststaraka

5. Tandularaicarika

6. Cándravedhyaka

7. Derendrastra

8. Ganividya

9. Mahapratyakhyana

10. Virastva.

2. Culikasutras

Nandi - sutra 2; Anuyogadvara – sutra

16
 Digambaras considers that all these two texts were completely

not extant.

The studies of these texts reveal the fact that the fundamental

concepts of Jainism remain with unity througout the ages. The saints

followed these Canonical texts. This study resulted in writing of

commentaries of which the texts of Badrababu and Jinabhadra are

significant. The text of Bhadrababu is known as Acaranga Niryaji which

was written in 5th century B.C and Jinabhadra„s text is known as

visesavasyaga - bhasyam which was written in 6th century B.C

Digambaras maintained only few texts. They are known as Anuyogas

(expositions) .

Formerly these texts were written in Arthamagathi. Later it was

written systematically in Prakrith and sanskrit

17
 CHAPTER – III

JAINA SECTS

Two major sects:

The dispute over practicing of nudity caused for the division of

Jains into two major groups known as

1. Swetambaras and

2. Digambaras.

This dispute was among them from the beginning The division

took place in A.D. 79 or 82.Swetambaras maintained wearing of clothes

while digambaras remained practice of nudity. This practice is relevant

only for ascetics of this religion.4

Another opinion

For some two centuries the Jams remained a small community of

monks and lay followers According to a strongly held Jaina tradition

ChandraGupta joined the order as a monk on his abdication, and it

seems certain that there was accession of strength in Maurya times.

A serious famine at the end of Chandragupta‟s reign led to the a great

exodus of Jaina monks from Ganges to the Deccan Where they

established important centers of their faith.

18
 Out of this migration arose the great schism of Jainism on a point

of monastic discipline. Bhadrababu, the elder of the community, who had

led the emigrants, had insisted on the retention of the rule of nudity

which Mahavira hd established. Sthulabadra, the leader of the monks

who had remained in the north, allowed his followers to ear white

garments, owing to the hardships and confusions of the famine. Hence

arose the two sects of the Jainas the Digarnbaras and the Swetambaras.

The schism did not become final until the Ist century A.D and there

were never any fundamental doctrinal differences later most monks of

the naked sect took to wearing robes in public but the division has

persisted down to the present day.5

They were divided not on any major issue or fundamental issue.

The basic concepts of the religion are agreable to both sects. Swetambrara

culture spreaded widely in north. The nudity culture of Digambaras

prevailed in south especially in Mysore and Tamilnadu. Further they

found many sects in both order.

There are some more differences between these two sects. The

omnipotent Jinas are not like other human beings. They are not doing the

deeds of human beings like eating and sleeping. They speek through

divine voice. This is the belief of Digambaras. Swetambaras maintain

that the omnipotent Jinas are not extraordinary human beings and they

19
rose to this height by the practice of religious doctrines from the ordinary

level.

Digambaras uphold the practice of nudity because of their faith that

even a single possession in this world will be barrier to attain salvation.

Regarding this swetambaras are exempted. They believe that wearing

clothes is not wrong practice and it will not be a barrier to attain

salvation in any way. Digambaras hold contrary view to this. Women

monks used to wear clothes and they could not get salvation in this birth

according to Digambaras. Further they hold the view that they can get

relief only after borning as men in the next birth. Swetambararas differed

firmly in this issue. They say that nineteenth Tirthankara was a woman

Except the first Tirthankara „Rishaba‟ and the last Tirthankara Mahavira

all others in between them used to wear clothes. Therefore use of clothes

is not a major problem.

It is also significant fact that there is no support for women monks

practising nudity in Indian culture Particularly they cannot remain

Without clothes for few days in a month. But Digambaras had

strong faith in Nirvana saintly life which alone can

facilitate to practice penance and give relief from sexual senses. But

there is no permission for woman monks to practice nudity in both sects.

They are accustomed to use clothes.

20
 They are also differed in some more habits. The saints of

Swetambara sect lead the life of begging for alms. They collect food in a

vessel and take it to monastry or a place wherever they are staying. But

they do not accept food specilly prepared for them. Digambaras do not

use any vessel for taking food. While taking food with their hand they

remain standing. They are also leading a life by begging for alms in all

the places. 6

New Sects

These two major sects were further broken into many sects. Among

the new sects stanakavasi is revolutionary sect and it deviates from the

cult of idol worship in Temples. This sect came into existence breaking

from Swetambaa sect before 300 yers .

Both Digambara and Swetambara sects engaged worship of idols

of Thirthankaras in ternples. sweetambara sect used to wear white

clothes. Therefore their idols of Thirthankaras have clothes on them.

Digambara sect is known for not wearing clothes. They are sky- clads.

They practiced nudity. There fore their idols have no dress and they

remain nude.

21
 Stanakavasi used to wear clothes. They follow Swetambaras

regarding this culture. In what way they differ? They worship Cenonical

texts of Jainism in the temples, instead of idols.

Swetambaras and Stariakavasi sects are popular in North. But: in

South Digambaras dominated.

12th and 13th centuries witnessed the fall of Jaina religion

throughout the country. Though it was patronized by kings it could not

maintain its position. At the same time both sects moved towards it own

refomation. In 1017 A.D. a new outlook developed in Swatembara sect. It

was against the temple cult and idol worship. This cult led to the

accumulation of wealth which caused corruptive way of life. The

reformers stressed holding of essential values in this Life rather than any

other process of religion. Dingambara sect also witnessed reformation in

its group.

Due to this progress many reformers appeared in the scene and

found new sects. Among them the magnificent saint was Bikkanji who

stressed that true Ahimsa means the aleviation of evils of the humanity.

He belonged to 18th century. He was against idol worship. His

conception of complete non- resistance and practicing Ahimsa absolutely

were echoed in his preachings. In the beginning there were twelve

22
followers with him. But after him it developed into large sect. This sect

was called as Terabanta which means the way of thirteenth. 7

The first new division in Swetambara sect originated before 300

years. This division of people are known as “stanagavasis”. They have

no idol worship.

Further there are more divisions as Terabanthi (Thirteenth way).

Bisapanthi ( Twentieth way) and Tarapanthi.

Divisions of Jainism

Digambara
swetambara

1.Bisapanthi
1.Mandiramargi

2. Tarapanthi
2. Stanakvasi

Sramana sangha Sadhu margi etc

3.Terapanthi 3.Digambara

Terapanthi

23
 Though there are various sects in Jains the „summum bonum‟ of

the Jain Religion is the attainment of salvation freedom from the endless

cycle of births and deaths Jainism emphasises Right faith Right

knowledge Right conduct to get salvation. Thirthankaras are perfect

exemplorers for this way. It is human soul that gets purification after

shedding all Karmas. There are fourteen such steps to self purification.

Thus man becomes God. Those who attained this perfection are

Thirthankaras possess God like qualities.

The ethical principle of Jainism occupies the most important place

in Jainism. Among five vows Non-violence is promoted by Jainism to the

extreme level. Human beings remain human beings while they adapt

Non-violence and reject violence in their system of life. It considers

violence in any form is an evil and promotes universal brotherhood which

mi the special feature of Jainism.

Jainism tries to remove ignorance and superstition. It has been a

religion of peace and equality.8

South Indian Contributions

After the demise of Mahavira the disciples him carried his mission

to the people of many parts of India. It is understood from tradions some

Jaina texts and rock inscriptions that Badrabahu who then chief of

24
JainaSangh during 293 - 317 B.C eighth disciple of Mahavira was

responsible for spreading of Jainism to the south. This is also ascertained

by other books like Pirukath Katha Kosam by Aricenan in Tamil and

Rajavali Kathe by Devachandrar in Kannada.

By these sources it is learnt that the great mass exodus took place

during the reign of Chandra Gupta Mauriya (322- 298 B.C) from North to

south. Under the leadership of Badrabahu more than twelve thousand

monks migrated from north to south due to worst affected famine there.

The King chandra Gupta Mauriya who was also grandfather of King

Asoka renounced the Kingdom and joined with him in this journey to

south. After reaching south they found their settlement near Mysore.

There are still the cave of Badrabahu and a Samadhi of the King known

as Chandra Gupta basti. Stone carvings with - images of these two great

personalities tell the story of them.9

Mayilai seeni Venkatasarny says in his book in Tamil that Jainism

came to Tamilnadu (through Vaisaka muniver a disciple of Badrabahu

in third centrury B.C. Further he also says in the same hook even before

him Jainism had come to Tamilnadu Neminatha a twenty second

Thirthankara wasa relative to Krishna of Mahabaratha. It is believed that

due to Neminatha and Agasthiyar Jainism could have spreaded in

Tamilnadu.

25
 Another significant feature of Jainism is that the monks tried to

convey the message of Jain religion through the regional engages. As

such a fact there are many literary works in Tamil like silappathikaram

of sangam period and Neelkesi and chivakasinthamani or later period

standing for Jainism Naladiyar describing the ideas infour stages is so

representing there Religion of Jainism. Tirukkural is also considered on

this line.10

The more striking factor is that images of Parsavanatha remains

with serpent behind in the stone carvings of South India. It is clear that

it seems to represent mesopotomian culture of very ancient one. This

type of culture . also belongs to Dravadian Civilization. Jainism was a

predominant Religion in Tamilnadu during the 3rd century B.C to 6th

century A.D. The predominant sect in Tamilnadu was Dhigambaras.

Therefore most of Tamil Literature represents the philosophy of

Dhigambara sect.11

This Dhigambara monks were known to the Greeks during the

period of Chandragupta Maurya. Greeks called them as naked

philosophers. This culture continued up to 1000 A.D without any

interruption of Kings or the people. But during the Muslim rule they were

compulsorily asked to wear clothes, These naked monks mostly lived in

the lonely hilly places.

26
 Another clossal figure was erected about 983 A.D at Saravana

Belagola Hasan district Mysore. This fifty six feet huge image of

commata or Bahubali the Son of first Thirthankara Rshabhada whose

huge image was at Mount Abu. To this the entire surface of this statue

of bahubali is annointed every twenty five years with melted butter as a

result of which it still looks fresh and clean.12

Basic Features

Jainism is a different school of religion and philosophy among all

other religions and philosophies of It India. It has some distinct features

as its basis in understanding and validity of Truth. The problems of

origin and development of truth are dealt with different measures in

Jainism; metaphysics for Jainism is based on Epistemology or Theory of

Knowledge. 1 holds the different world-view in contrary to Absolute

world view in relation to comprehending things. It stresses the relativistic

approach to the knowledge about things. Thus it deviates from all her

religions of India in this respect.

In its approach to human knowledge and its origin it.

it differentiates between immediate knowledge (aporaksa) and mediate

knowledge (paroksa). The immediate knowledge includes three kinds

27
 1. The direct knowledge space of things.

2. The direct knowledge of thoughts of them

3. The direct knowledge of soul which in perfect or pure

knowledge. Again the mediate ( Paroksa) knowledge

is divided into two kinds.

(i) Knowledge based on perception or inference (Mati)

(ii) Knowledge e based on authority ( Suruti).

The first two kinds of knowledge is based o some aids or

instruments and thus they are indirectly acquired. The other three kinds

of knowledge are based on direct approach and thus. they are acquire

directly without the help of any aid or instrument. 13

It is said that during the time of Mahavira then were more than

72 theories to comprehend the origin of truth and the validity of truth.

Buddhism introduce the middle path in this respect. Mahavirar introduced

Nayavada and Saptabhangi to congnize and realize truth. Nayavada

means many sided ways of under standing truth about things.

Saptabhangi mean realising truth about a thing in a particular sense with

particular aspect.

Thus it holds the view that truth should. understood with manifold

and many sided aspects well as in particular sense with particular aspects.

28
Thus it emphasises pluralistic approach to realise truth Our knowledge

based on perception and inference be imperfect and only the direct

knowledge is feet. Jainism attributes this kind of capacity to so which can

acquire knowledge directly that is only real absolute and pure knowledge.

This is like a that get lighted and at the same time spreads light. In the

same way the soul receives direct enlightened knowledge which is

absolute and pure and remains like light as the exponent of Knowledge.

Thus Jainism believes in the omnipotent nature of soul which is

unquestionable as in other religions and faiths the existence of God is

unquestionable Thus Jainism deviates from all other religions in belief

about the existence of God. Further by It is theory of knowledge of

relativity it does not go to the study of origin and causes of the world and

It also stresses that the belief in the existence of God does not help any

one of the humanity to get salvation or liberation from the bondage.

Now we will understand that it is unorthodox religion i.e. belonging to

heterodox order and a religion of self. - help.

There remains a question which is sometimes asked whether

Jainism is atheistic. The answer to this question naturally depends upon

the meaning we attach to the word “atheistic”. If we take it in the sense of

nastika, which is its commonly accepted Sanskrit equivalent the answer

is clear. For the word nastika means one that does not believe in a life

29
beyond (para- loka) i.e. one that does not believe in surviving self. In

this sense there is only one atheistic doctrine , viz , the sensualist

Carvaka. The word nastika is sometimes used as the result of a

modification in its meaning to describe these that repudiate the

authority of the Veda. In that sense, Jainism is nastika for it is

antagonistic to the scriptures and there it sides with Buddhism. If other

hand we take „atheistic‟ as not believing in God which is its sense in

English, a doubt may well arise regarding the character of Jainism. For it

believes in no God, though it does in godhead. Infact every liberated

soul is divine; and there can be many such since only addition is
14
possible to their but no deduction from it. If by „God. Then we

understand a supreme personality responsible creation of the creation

world, Jainism must be declared to be atheistic It deliberately rejects

such an of divinity as self- discrepant. If God needs to create the world.

It means that he feels a want which is inconsistent with his necessary

perfection as the Supreme. So there is no God and the world was never

created. In this view the Jainas is curiously enough in agreement with the

Mimamsaka, the upholder of strict orthodoxy. However opposed to the

common trend of human belief; this position is not altogether without

rational support. Theistic systems are generally anthropomorphic. They

being down God to the level of man. Jainism on the other hand looks

30
upon man himself as God when his inherent powers are fully in blossom.

God is here only another word for the soul at its best. It is the ideal man

that is the ideal of man; and there is only one way to achieve it-to strive

for it in the manner in which others have striven with their example

shining before - us. Such. an ideal carries with it all necessary hope and

encouragement for what man has done man can do. In rejecting God who

is so by his own right and with it also the belief that salvation may be

attained through his mercy. Jainism and other systems of the kind

recognize that karma by itself and without the intervention of any divine

power is adequate to explain the whole of experience and thus impress

on the individual his complete responsibility for what he does Jainism

more .than any other creed gives absolute religious independence and

freedom to man. Nothing can intervene between the actions which we do

and the fruits thereof. Once done they become our masters and must

fructify. As my independence is great so my responsibility is

co extensive with it. I can live as I like but my choice is irrecoverable

and I cannot escape the consequences it.15

“The Jains recognize matter as well as spirit, and each according

to them, implies the other for they maintain that nothing is wholly

independent and can be fully understood by itself. An old Jainas stanza

states that he who knows one thing completely knows all things and that

31
he alone who knows all things knows anything completely”. It means that

if we have to understand one thing we have to relate it to all Hence the

Jaina view may be described as relativistic. It is pluralistic also for it

recognizes an infinite number of Jivas as well as of material elements.

These two features of relativism and pluralism point to a first analysis of

common experience; and Jainism stops short at it disregarding its

implication. Thus relativism if pushed to its logical conclusion, leads to

asbolutism which the Jains refuse to accept. Let us see how it does so in

the case of spirit and matter overlooking the categories of space and

time. So far as matter is concerned Jainism adopts a criterion which

enables it to “reduce the entire variety of the physicl universe to one kind

of substance, (pudgala) It does the same in the case of spirit also

concluding that all jivas are of one kind. But when it comes to a

question of matter and spirit, Jainism abandons that criterion and adopts

mere contrast as the guiding principle.

If the dualism of spirit and matter were a clear- cut one as it is in

the Sankhya we might somehow understand it; but it is not so here. The

distinction between the two ultimate entities of prabrti and purusa which

the Sankhya admits is absolute and neither in reality comes into relation

with the other Here on the other hand, spirit and matter are admitted to

be in actual relation with each other. The very disjunction between jiva

32
and ajiva, as they are termed, shows, their interdependence. Yet no

attempt is made to took for a common principle behind them,and the two

are set side by side as if they were entirely independent. If now we

consider the other aspect of the teaching viz pluralism we are forced to

take a similar view. Matter is divided into an infinite number of atoms;

but all being of the same kind it is impossible. to distinguish them from

one another. Similarly in the case of the Jivas their empirical distinctions

are adequately explained by their physical adjuncts. Even the difference

in their more nature is fully accounted for by them. Jainism electing

to explain karma as a form of matter. In these circumstances the intrinsic

distinction which is assumed to exist between one jiva and another or the.

plurality of spirit, becomes only nominal. The necessary implication of

Jaina thought in this respect is therefore a single spiritual substance

encountering a single material substance. And since these two substance

are interdependent the dualism must in its turn and finally be resolved in

a monism and point to an Absolute which owing to its essentially

dynamic character. develops within itself the distinctions of jiva and

ajiva as known to us. That is the inevitable consequence of the Jaina

view.

The half-hearted character of. the Jaina inquiry is reflected in the

seven-fold mode of predication ( sapta- bhangi) which stops at giving us

33
the sevral partial views together without attempting to overcome the

opposition in them by a proper synthesis. It is all right so far as it

cautions us against one-sided conclusions; but it leaves us in the end as it

has been observed, with little more than such one-sided solutions. The

reason for it if it is not prejudice against Absolutism is the desire to -

keep close to common beliefs. The doctrine hesitates to deny anything

that is familiar. But at the same time its partiality for common views does

not mean acquiescence in all popular beliefs as is clear from its

repudiation of the idea of God in the accepted sense. The truth is that the

primary aim of Jainism is the perfection of the soul rather than the

interpretation of the universe-a fact which may be supported by the old

statement that asrava and samvara constitute the whole of Jaina teaching

the rest being only an amplification of them. “As a result we fail to find in

it an ultimate solution of the metaphysical problem”. 16

34
 CHAPTER – IV

JAINA ETHICS

Jaina Discipline :

Basically , Jainism teaches a threefold discipline, called the

discipline of three jewels (Triratna), following which one can get rid of

bondage and attain liberation. This threefold discipline is the discipline of

Right faith, Right knowledge and Right conduct “Moksha is a function

neither only of faith, nor only of knowledge, nor again of morality alone.

It is a joint product of all the three. Again the three are interconnected.

Right knowledge is not possible without right faith and right conduct is

not possible without right knowledge. Let us see them one by one.

Right faith

There seems to be a controversy regarding the exact connotation of

right faith. Some define it as a behalf in the nine Jaina categories, some

define it as a belief in six substances and nine categories, some define it

as faith in the dharma devoid of violence and in the way of life prescribed

by the jins and Kervalis, some define it as belief in Jaina scriptures and

teachers and so on. Umswami in Jaina scriptures and teachers and so on.

Umaswami defines right faith as faith in the greatness and efficacy of

knowledge. However , in general it seems to mean having a pro –

35
attitude, sense of respect and regard towards Jaina principles or towards

what the Jaina Tirthankaras have said and advised. In following a

disciplined path towards Moksha, the Jainas believe that the first requisite

is to have a faith in the spiritutal principles taught b the jins and other

Siddhas. Unless one has faith in these, he cannot proceed on the path

towards liberation. At least having such beliefs as, that we are in

bondage, that liberation is possible, that liberation can be had through

sincere personal effort, that the saints and seems have devised and

pointed to rights pats, is necessary before following any path for Moksha.

If one is skeptical about all these, no effort on his part can be successful.

So before attaining right knowledge or having allegiance to right conduct

some faith in spiritual truths and principles is necessary. Of course, in

the context of Jainism, this faith, will mean faith in the spiritual truths as

taught by the Jaina Tirthankaras and Jaina scriptures. But in no case, by

teaching, right faith, Jainism wants to teach blind faith in authority. It

leaves rom for personal thinking and realization. Right knowledge, we

will see, means personal realistion, and right faith and right knowledge go

hand in hand, Manibhadra has particularly cautioned against taking the

jains teaching of right faith as blind faith in authority.

The following eight essentials are given in Jainism for

Samyagdarsana (right faith) – Absense of doubt about scriptures

36
(Nissankita), Absence of desire for the worldly pleasures (Nihkankshita),

Absennce of doubt about the attainment of spiritual path (Niraichikitsa),

A clear and unconfusing vision about the ideal (Amudhadrsti),

Augmentation of spiritual qualities (upabrhana), Re establishing

deviations from truth (Sthirikarana), sense of affection towards the

followers of right path (vatsalya) and preaching the importance of truth

(prabhavana).

Right Knowledge

Right knowledge is the knowledge of the nature of things in the

real perspective. It is the proper knowledge about the real nature of the

living and non – living substances. We have seen that according to

Jainism, there are five non – living substances and the one living one.

Knowledge about the nature of these substances and also of the

distinction between the living and the non – living is regarded as the right

knowledge.

Right knowledge is very essential for Moksh according to Jainism,

because we have seen that the root cause of bondage is ignorance. It is

karmas done with passion which bind, and such karmas are all the results

of ignorance. So right knowledge about the true nature of things and

about the distinction of the soul from the material substances is necessary.

37
Knowledge is said to be the real tapas (penance) because it burns the

karmas to ashes, “But again it must be understood that by knowledge,

Jainism does not mean mere intellectual or scriptural knowledge.

Knowledge means here inner realization. Mere scriptural knowledge

many check someone for sometime from attachment to the world, but a

man possessed of inner knowledge sees things for himself and is

therefore never in the danger of being attached again, Right knowledge is

that which helps in controlling the mind and purifying the self, and this is

possible only by the knowledge which is self – realized, which is attained

in one‟s inner intuition or vision. “The wise declare knowledge to be a

nectar . . . . a glory which does not depend on others”, “It is self – attained

and self – realized.

Right Conduct

Only right faith or right knowledge is not sufficient for liberation.

Right conduct is also necessary . Generally speaking, right conduct is the

conduct based on detachment. “Going into the details, Jainism gives a

long list of actions constituting the right conduct for a householder and

for monk separately. However, the five vows mentioned below constitute

the necessary ingredients of the behavior of everyone, whether he be a

householder or a monk. These five vows are known as panchamahavrata

in Jainism and they are as follows :

38
 (1) Non – violence (Ahimsa) – It is greatest rule of conduct in

Jainism. Violence in any form is strictly prohibited in it. Emphasis on

ahimsa as a moral virtue has been recognized for the first time in Inain

tradition in Jainism. The Vedas and Upanisads of Hinduism also

recognized It as a great moral virtue. But then the Vedas did not forbid

himsa in the context of sacred rituals. It is the spatiality of Jainism that it

strictly forbids himsa in any form and of any denomination. To cultivate

this virtue in its strict sense and spirit, the Jainas sometimes go to the

extreme of not burning light or cooking meal after sunset (because that

may attack worms) and the Jaina monka walk by brushing the path with a

smooth brush in their hand so that no worm etc. should come under their

feet.

Again. Ahimsa is understood and practiced in Jainism in a very

wide connotation. Violence or injury or harm caused to any living being

in any form is himsa. So ahimsa is to be practiced not only in deed, but

also in thought and words. Keeping ill will against someone in thought or

speaking harsh words to anyone is as good an example of himsa as

inflicting any bodily injury to any body. So mere avoidance of killing

somebody is not ahimsa. It is very much more than that. Even forcing

some one to do something against his will or curtalling somebody‟s

freedom is deemed as himsa in Jainism. Causing injury to someone due to

39
negligence is also himsa. Neglifence (Pramada) implies the passions of

attachment (raga) and aversion (dvesha) and any action done under their

spell is violence. So non – violence understood in this widest possible

sense is the rule of conduct according to Jainism. Practising ahimsad in

the Jaina sense is not something very easy. It is a kind of tapes. On its

positive side, ahimsa implies a life of love for all.

(2) Satya (Truthfuslness) – Generally speaking, this rule of conduct

enjoins abstinence from giving false statements or telling a lie. But mere

statement of fact is not truth. Truth, if it is harmful to others, should be

avoided, “It must be spoken with beneficient intentions. Otherwise it will

offend or harm some body and that will be himsa. Exaggeration of fact,

finding fault with others, using indecent speech etc. are all examples of

untruth according to Jainism therefore they must be avoided. Speaking in

a noble, beneficient and balanced manner and with a peaceful mind

upholds truth and hence it must be practiced. According to

Amaritachandra, the following are the examples of falsehood and they

must be avoided (i) Denial of the existence of a thing with reference to its

position, time and nature , (ii) Asserting the existence of a non – existent

thing with reference to its position, time and nature (iii) Representing a

thing as something else (iv)Reprehensible speech, (v) Sinful speech and

40
(vi) Unpalatable (Apriya) speck, Jainism takes untruth as a case of

violence because it harms others and therefore it must be avoided.

(3) Aeteya (Non – stealing) – Generally speaking , this means

abstention from taking a thing of some one else which is not given. But as

a Jaina rule of conduct, it is much more comprehensive and includes

within it the avoidance of all sorts of dishonesty and conceit. Buying a

valuable article at low price, appropriating some thing that has been

forgotten by someone, having greed for the property of others, taking a

thing in one‟s possession whose ownership is doubtful etc., are all

examples of stealing and they must be avoided. Jainism regards stealing

and they must be avoided Jainism regards stealing as a kind of violence

(himsa), because wealth is external vital force of a man and taking away

of it without his consent offends or harms him. Even abetment of theft or

purchasing of stolen property or doing any kind of illegal business would

be taken as stealing according to Jainism because every one of these

affects the right or property of someone.

(4) Brahmacharya (Cellibacy) – This vow has been much

emphasized in Hinduism and Buddhism also, but Jainism, lays much

more emphasis on it, because it extols the life of a celibate or monk

much more than any other religion. This vow or ruler of conduct stands

for abstinence from sexual intercourse, more specifically, from all sorts of

41
illegal sexual intercourse. Samantbhadra has therefore included within the

vow renunciation of contact with any woman other than one‟s wife. Not

only actual commitment of adultery is the violation of this vow, but also

the thought thereof. In general, brahmacharya also means abstinence from

excessive desire for any sort of sense – enjoyment. Too much thinking

about such enjoyment in also violation of the vow.

(5) Aparigraha ( Non – possession or non – attachment). It sands

for not only abstinence from excessive material possession but also for

the avoidance of desire for such possession. So, its inner meaning is non

– attachment rather than non – possession. Excessive desire for material

possession is parigraha and therefore . It must be avoided. Accumulating

more than what one needs for his maintenance is parigraha or even steya,

because it is depriving others of their legitimate rights. Jainism counsels

that excessive desire for possession may be avoided. Attachment is

generated by moha and It results in himsa. Moha or attraction towards

worldly possession must be avoided. If not, one cannot pursue right

conduct, So, aprigraha is one of the basic rules of conduct not only in

Jainism, but also in Hinduism and Buddhism. Desire for worldly objects

is the root of all evil and therefore it must be shunned. 17

42
 CHAPTER - V

JAINA PHILOSOPHY

Religion is generally related to personal God or presupposition in

the existence of God. Jainism differs from this conviction. All the

Tirthankaras including Mahavira were adorned and idols of them are still

seen in Jain temples. Though these Jaina were worshipped Jainism never

compromised its atheism. Explaining the Jaina point of view Jacobi a

great western Jaina Scholar writes “Though the Jaina are undoubtedly

atheistical, as we understand the term still they would probably objected

to being styled atheists. While admitting that the world is without .

beginning or end by one they recognize a highest deity on the object of

veneration”. Though it denies the existence of God or the creation of the

world by God it accepts the function of Universal law.

Religion means the creation and other worldly affairs. It starts

with the belief in the existence of God. God is considered to be

omnipotent and responsible for the creation. God is identified with wand

and also he has separate existence. He is not responsible for this worldly

affairs and he has independent. function. According to another

philosophy God is immanent and pervading in nature of the world.

Another view is that God is immanent and transcendent. Jainism differs

43
from these views Jainism is not associated with the belief in God and His

creation.

It is argued that God: has created this world and function off God

is beyond this worldly affairs and this can not be questioned then there is

no change for searching for its existence. No necessity for science and

philosophy to discover this secret. If it is considered that God has created

this world and everything in this world and universe moves according to

his will then there is no necessity for questioning its existence.

According to these views nothing can not originate without sources and

God is only self-existent .

In the function of everything in this world there is wonder.

Definite attributes are with the function of each and everything. If

everything oblized in its move to God. then there is no necessity far

definite attribute to a thing. A thing in itself grows in the environment

and it is growing from the seed without changing its own nature.

Therefore it is argued that if God is self-existent why cant be all self-

existent If anything has the source for its origin why cant be God must

have source. This may be endless process and tends to lead to a state of

confusion The cause of source cannot be proved logically and it requires

only faith.

44
 There is no distinction between God and man in kind but. only in

standard or degree. Therefore Tirthanagaras were adorned as deified

persons in the place f God. The belief in the existence of God or the

creation by God does not seem to be in any sense or help to the cessation

of sufferings of the world. It emphasises on the advanced level of

spiritual life With hard exertions to glorify soul The spiritual life is

based on asceticism and mortification of flesh. In order to liberate soul it

holds negative approach to this worldly life. he love or bath towards God

is killed in asceticism and its main focus liberation of soul which could

not be achieved otherwise except ascetic way of spiritual life. The bakthi

relationship between God and human beings is suppressed in total in its

approach to attain absolute truth.

For Jainism the best mode of worship is strictly following the path

of Tirthankaras and observing the code of conducts envisaged by them.

There are so many approaches to enter into the realm of God according to

various religion As Jainism opposes the omnipotent nature of God it

considers the liberation of soul is the final stage from which life ceases to

continue. Soul takes rest after liberation in upper abode in the universe.

This abode is known as Siddhasila. It has no faith in reward and

punishment theory of God or a life of illusion as a barrier to realise

absolute truth. It emphasises that soul adheres to Karma as a result of

45
activity and this defiled nature can be purified by Jaina path of ethical life

Therefore soul grows through the process of hard exertion and becomes

omnipotent.

These omnipotent and liberated souls are glorified as Tirthankaras

or Jinas in the place of God. After the death of Mahavira worshipping of

the great soul continued for some time.

It seems that right from the beginning Jainism followed the path of

hero worship instead of worshiping God who is considered to be in the

above level of the earth. But sometime after the death of Mahavira it

gave up hero worship and tried to follow the path of those Tirthankaras.

Thus Tirthankaras are glorified as deified persons in the place of God.

The reformative out lock developed, Jaina and in later period some

sects denied worship and turned to follow the path of Tirthankaras only.

Ascetic way of life is relevant for monks and nuns and lay persons also

follow the path of Tirthankaras observing lesser vows. 18

The View Of God in Jainism

“Jainism regards the world eternal . Naturally there is no room for

any supernatural entity who can be the creator, sustainer and destroyer

of the wórld . Hence there is no God in Jainsm further for Jainism each

46
soul his pristine nature is alone and solitary He does not need any help

from other and does not give any help to others. As a matter of fact all

souls freed and Nityasiddhas have Same status. Thus there is no room

forward. Consequently each south in bondage is said to

be an architect of his own soul. Either he can Work out his own destiny

for liberation or sink further into deeper bondage. Hence J I. Jaina

observes

Alone he accumulates merit; alone he enjoys the various happiness

of heaven alone he destroys Karma alone also he attains to moksa

None can help the Jiva in his troubles ; he lie has to bear his pain

and suffering friends relatives, wife and children are powerless to

combat suffering means quenching the thirst of person by giving water.

(i) Vastra Punya means giving clothes to those who

(ii) Layana Punya and

(iii) Sayana Punya mean providing residential places with

(iv) Manapunya

(v) Sarira Punya and.

47
 (vi) Vacana Punya mean the virtues of controlling the
mind body and speech respectively .

(vii) Namaskara Punya . means showing respect to the

Papa which is vice or demerit means the activities influenced by

attachment and jealous nature. It is the meanest nature against virtuous

tendencies and inherent goodness. The following eighteen deeds are

recognised by Jainism as evil or vicious.

1. Jiva himsa

2. Untruthfulness

3. stealing directly or indirectly

4. unchastity

5. over attachment to possession, covetousness

6. Anger

7. egoism

8. Hypocrisy

9. Greed or avarice

10. personal attachment

11. Hatred

12. Quarrelsomeness

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 13. spreading false rumours inorder to debase the character of
others

14. Tale- telling

15. Talking ill of other and emphasising the badness “of others

16. Attraction towards sensual life and distraction from

17. Resorting to improper and . sinful acts

18. Taking an unreal thing as real thing Banda or Bondage mean

1) Prakriti Bandha, (natural bondage) (2) sthiti Banda (stable bondage)

(3) Anubhaga Bandha (the bondage indicating intensity. (4) Pradesa

Bandha (mingled bondage). Asrava is the quality of soul that attracts

karmic matters towards it. It is usually divided into two classes:

(1) Bhava Asrava or (internal flow) Dravya Asrava (material flow).

Samvara means stopping of inflow of Karmic matters and

destroying the new bondage Nirjara means the state of a soul in which the

inflow of Karmic matter is altogether stopped. Moksha means the

complete liberation of soul from Karmic matters.

The explanation of Jiva and Ajiva takes the world as an

evolutionary process in which space, time, matter and soul are the four

49
material causes and Dharma and Adharma are the efficient causes. In

this way the world view of Jainism is analogous to the western idea of

evolution. 19

The world

“According. to Jainism the world is eternal and real. Following

the Jain principle of identity-cum difference, the world is finite in its

spatial dimension but infinite in time and its modes. The world consists

of Akasa, Dharma, Adharma, Kala and Pudgala, Akasa, Dhaama

Adharma have no parts. Thus Pudgala is real matter which consists of

atoms and molecules. Thus It is found both in atomic form and

aggregate.

Even an atom is a substance and a substance is always found with

attributes. Hence atomic substances are those that persist through their

changes. A Substance has the three changes of utpada (origination)

Viyaya (going out of existence) and dhavya (continuing in. being).

Utpada and Viyaya in a thing to the difference (changes), but dhravya

refers to the aspect of identity by virtue of which a

thing persists its changes.

50
 Jainism is not interested in the improvement of this world order. It

is surprising the Lord Mahavira‟s uncle was the head of the Republic of

Vaishalli, and yet Lord Mahavira does not think of improving either

the public or social life of the people. The point is that he himself had

renounced the world and naturally he could not be anymore occupied

with it. It was the period of self-conquest, and not of the world conquest.

One lives in one‟s intellectual climate mateand and weather, one can

no more shake off intellectual atmosphere than one can live without

one‟s shadow. After all it is neither. a small achievement nor an

unworthy end to have one‟s conquered ones passion and emotion. A jain

is as much valuable as a scientist or a social reformer or many other

valuable lives whom mankind adores, However , as far the world was

thought of according to Jainism, it was fully scientific . It maintained

atomism which was the earliest theory of its kind in the world. Dharma

has been used in the peculiar sense. i.e ,that which makes motion

possible and Adharma is that which accounts for rest Time is that in

which changes take place and Akasa is that which serves as the

receptacle of things.

Jainism keeping to its doctrine of and self-conquest and self-

culture does not advise its adherents to get involved in wordly pleasures.

51
It ..taught respect for life and the greatest respect for man the highest of

organisms .

From the viewpoint of biology the order of organisms in terms of

the number of senses is thoroughly scientific. Most probably from the

viewpoint of the evolution of senses in the organic world the Jaina view

is scientific. Before J.C. Bose Showed to the world that plants have life,

Jainism held this belief some twenty five hundred years ago.

Not only the view of Jainism with regard to the world is scientific.

it also keeps to the doctrine of compromise and in one sense goes even.

Beyond Buddhism. According to Buddhism everything is momentary

and nothing is substantial. But the Jainas, in their doctrines of

anekantavada and Syadvada maintain that things are both momentary

and substantial. With regard to man, Jainism holds that the soul of man

is eternal and substantial but its body of karmic matter is non-eternal.

Similarly, atoms constituting a thing are eternal but their groupings are

non-eternal

But in Spite of the fact that Jainism regards world eternal and

real, its advice is that one should not lose oneself in it.

The Jains bring the whole universe under one or other of two

everlasting categories. The two classes of things are respectively

52
described as Jiva and Ajiva I.e. The conscious and the unconscious or

spirit and non-Spirit - the latter including not merely matter but also time

and space. The terms show clearly the realistic and relativistic standpoint

of Jainism. As surely as there is a subject that Jaianism. As surely as there

is a object that knows Jainism says so surely is there an object that is

known of them the ajiva has its own specific nature but that nature

cannot be properly understood until it is contrasted with the jiva. That is

why it is designated as „not-jiva‟ or the contradictory of jiva. The latter is

the higher and more important category, which accounts for its

independent designation although that also can be well understood only

when contrasted with the ajiva or non-Spirit.

Jiva : The notion of Jiva in general corresponds to that of Atman or

purusa of the other schools of Indian thought. But as implied by the

etymology of its name - what lives or is animate the concept seems to

have been arrived at first by observing the characteristics of life and not

through the search after a metaphysical principle underlying individual

existence it would therefore be more correct to take the word in its

original significance as standing for the vital principle than for the soul.

The spirit does but mean the breath. In its present connotation however

it is practically the same as the other Indian words for the self. The

number of jivas is infinite all being alike and eternal. In their empirical

53
form they are classified in various ways such as those that.. have one

sense two senses and so forth; but it is not necessary to dwell upon those

details here.. It will suffice to remark that the classifications imply

different levels of development in the souls.

The Jains believe not only,that the jiva exists but also that it acts

acted. It is both an experiment (bhokta) and an agent ( karta). Its intrinsic

nature is one of perfection and it is characterized by infinite intelligence

infinite peace, infinite faith and infinite power, during the period of its

union with matter which constitutes samsara , these features are obscured

though not destroyed. The jivas exterior semblance accordingly belies its

innate glory. Mans personality as it is familiarly known to us is dual

consisting - a spiritual as well as a material element.

The objects of life is so to subdue the latter, as to shake off

malignant influence and thereby enable the jiva to reveal all its inherent

excellences in their fullness. One of the curious features of Jainism is the

belief in the variable size of the jiva in its empirical condition. It is

capable of expansion and contraction according to the dimensions of the

physical body with which it is associated for the time being. In this

respect it resembles a lamp it is said which though remaining the same

illumines the whole of the space enclosed in a small or big room in which

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it happens to be placed, It means that like its other features, the jivas

non-spatial character also is affected by association with matter The

Jaina thus denies the unalterable nature of the jiva which is commonly

recognized d by Indian thinkers.

“The jiva‟s relation to matter explains also the what peculiar Jaina

view of knowledge. Knowledge is not something that characterizes the

jiva. It constitutes its very essence. The jiva can therefore know unaided

everything directly and exactly as it is only there should be no

impediment in its way, External conditions, such as the organ of sight

and presence of light are useful only indirectly and results automatically

when the obstacles are renoved through their aid. That the knowledge

which a jiva actually has is fragmentary is due to the obscuration caused

by karma which interferes with its of perception. As some schools assume

a principle of avidya to explain empirical thought, the Jains invoke the

help of karma to do so. This empirical thought is sometimes

differentiated from the jiva but its identity with the latter is at the same

ne emphasized, so that the jiva and its several Jinas in this sense

constitute a unity in difference.

Perfect enlightenment being of the very nature of the self, its

condition of partial or indistinct knowledge marks a lapse from it.

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Accordingly the senses and the manas though they are aids to knowing

from one standpoint, are from another so many indicate of the

limitation to which the jiva is subject during its earthly pilgrimage. This

leads to the recognition of differences in the extent of enlightenment that

a self may possess as a result of the removal of less or more of them

obstacles to it. But no self without jnana is conceivable or jnana

without a self- point in the doctrine which well illustrates its distinction

from Buddhism . The culmination of enlightenment is reached when the

obstacles are broken down in their entirety. Then the individual jiva

while continuing as such becomes omniscient and knows all objects

vividly and precisely as they are That is called kevala-jnana or absolute

apprehension without media or doubt and is what Mahavira is believed to

have attained at the end of the long pen of his penance it is immediate

knowledge and described as kevala. (pure) since it arisel of it se without

the help of any external like the sense etc It is soul-knowledge if we

may so term it knowledge in its pristine form and is designated Mukhya-

Pratyaksa or perception par excellence to contrast it with common

perception (samvyavaharika pratyaksa). There are other but lower

varieties of this supernormal knowledge recognized in the school but is

not necessary to describe them here.

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 (2) Ajiva - The category of ajiva is divided into kala (time) akasa

dharma and adharma ( which together ray for our purpose b regarded as

standing for „space‟) and pudgala (matter) Their essential distinction from

the Jiva is that they as such, lack life and consciousness. Of constituent

parts ( Kaya) Time is not an asti-kaya because it has lno such parts

though an - eternal entity. 20

Anekantavada

Jainism regards that reality is complex and only the knowledge

about it is partial, holistic or neither or either. Jainism does not accept

the one extreme of eternalism like vedanta philosophy or another extreme

of fluxism like Buddhist philosophy. It holds that an knowledge

acquiring in particular sense with particular aspect could not be absolute

knowledge and that is a false notion. That kind of knowledge will be

dogmatic. Jainism says that real could be understood by allowing all

kinds of contractions. It is told that there were more than seventy ways

to cognize truth and Mahavira chose the path of Anekanta which puts an

end to all kinds of religious dogmatism, contradictions and universal

claim allowing all kinds of contradictions of all religions to their view.

Therefore Jainism advocates anekantavada in the field of metaphysics

and Epistemology. Hence its approach is pluralistic.

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 Anekanta means not ekanta and anta literally means end or

extreme. Jainism limits its pluralistic approach into seven ways of

Nayavada and another seven ways of Syedvada or Saptabangi. Anekanta

vada is the logical of these approaches. The logic of Anekantavada

arrives at a conclusion about a real by these approaches which seems to

be dogmatic and obsolute which Jainism rejects to accept it. It claims that

its approach to real is non-absolutism.

Jainism defines real as one which originates exists and ceases.

Everything should be understood with its opposite nature. There are four

parallels of opposite which could be understood by experience. They

areuniversal and particular existence and non existence permanent and

impermanent speakable and unspeakable. Suppose there is light and

darkness which are two. opposites that could b understood by experience.

Any a priori knowledge is not possible. The Jaina Anekantavada or

non-absolutism contends that if being and non-being are found together

and this finding is not contracted by subsequent experience we must

conclude that there is no opposition. In other words one is not exclusive

of others .So Everything is exists with its own nature in its space and

time . an does not exist in its alien nature. Everything is i external in its

own nature and changeable in its modes. The Jains comes to this view

after deep analyses about the nature of a real.

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 Nayavada and Saptabangi help to realize truth with its sevenfold

ways Why it must be seven ways Jainism asserts within this seven-fold

all the aspects are included. Everything is infinite and at

the same time finite. Real is only an aggregate of qualities .

Nayavada

Naya means a Particular viewpoint of an entity possessed of infinite

number of attributes without descending the other parts of the entity.

The ways of approach and observtion are sevenfold

1. Naigamah naya, figurative and conventional

2. Sanngahnaya (synthetic)

3. Vyavahara (analytic )

4. Rjusutra (straight and direct )

5. Sabda (verbalistic )

6. Samabhirudha (etymological)

7. Vambhutah (actualistic) 21

8. Naigamanaya relates to particular view of Series of activities For

instance, a person carrying fuel water and rice when asked what

I am cooking instead of saying I am carrying fuel and so forth,

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This means that general purpose of cooking controls the entire

series of actions.

9. Sangrahanaya concerns itself with general or class

character of a factual situation The unitive apprehension of the

common character is called the synthetic approach. Suppose

while one asks for a direction he is told that he must turn left near

the tree which is at some distance. Here the stress is on the tree

and the tree there is a mango or neem or any one though it must

be one of it this reflects universal character without losing a

particular nature.

10. Vyavaharanaya relates to the specific features of the

object concerned.

The above three standpoints naigama Sangraha and

Vyavaharah come Under the first comprehensive category

dravyarthikanaya.

11. Rjusutra naya relates to the momentary nature of a

thing lt takes for a present moment For example the present is

pleasant time An actor who took the role of king is enacting as a

king for a moment.

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 12. Sabdanaya The verbalistic approach takes

cognizance of the entitative difference of things on the basis of

distinction of tense gender number and so on. For example the

sentences There w the Sumeru I the Golden mountain). There the

Sumeru there will be sumeru express three different facts as

they have reference to different times.

13. Sambhirudanaya stands for etymological approach

which differentiate the meanings of the synonymous words.

The words Indira, sakra and purandar indicate the same person,

but according to this approach Indra signifies all prosperous and

the other two names signify „the all powerful‟ and „the de stroyer

of enemies‟ respectively.

14. Evambhutanaya stands for the true meaning

of the word For example the word Indra signif

a person who is actually the powerful .

(a) Syadvada - It is the conception of reality, as

extremely indeterminate in its nature that is the basis of what is known as

syadvada - the most conspicuous doctrine of Jainism. The word syadvada

is derived from the Sanskrit root as “to be” being. its Form in the

potential mood. It means „may be‟ so that syadvada may be rendered in

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English as the doctrine of maybe. It signifies that the universe can be

looked at from many points of view, and that each view point yields a

different conclusion (anekanta) The nature of reality is expressed

completely by none of them for in its concrete richness it admits all

predicates. Every proposition is therefore in strictness only conditional.

Absolute affirmation and absolute negation are both erroneous.

The Jains illustrate third position by means of the my of a number

of blind people examining an elephant and arriving at varying

conclusions regarding s form while in truth each observer has got at only

part of it. The doctrine- indicates extreme caution and signifies an anxiety

to avoid all dogma in defining the nature of reality The philosophic

fastidiousness to which we alluded in an earlier chapter reaches its came

here.

“To understand the exact significance of this doctrine, it will be

necessary to know the conditions which it was formulated. There was

then, one hand the Upanisadic view that Being alone was true and on the

other the view also mentioned the Upanisads but with disapproval that

non-Being was the ultimate truth. Both these views according Jainism

are only partially true and each becomes dogma as soon as it is

understood to represent the hole truth about reality. Equally dogmatic in

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the of the Jams are two other views which also we come across

occasionally in the Upanisads and which maintained that because

neither Being nor Being is the truth reality must be characterized by

both or neither- thus adding with characteristic we for subtlety two more

alternatives - both „is‟ and „is not‟ and neither is nor is not - to the well

known ones of is and is not. The Jaina think at reality is so complex in

its structure that while every one of these views is true as far as it goes,

one is completely so Its precise nature baffies all attempts to describe it

directly and once for all but it is not impossible to make it known

through a series of partially true statements without committing

ourselves to any one among them exclusively. Accordingly the Jains

enunciate its nature in seven steps, described as the sapta-bhangi

(seven-fold )

Formula: Its several steps are :-

(1) Maybe is ( Syad asti)

(2) Maybe is not ( Syad Nasti)

(3) Maybe is . and is not ( Syad asti Nasti)

(4) aybe is inexpressible ( Syad avaktayam)

(5) Maylie is and is inexpressible ( Syad asti avaktayam)

(6) Maybe is not and is inexpressible Syad asti ca nasty ca

avaktayam ca

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 If we consider for example an object A, we may say that it is, but it

is only in a sense, viz., as A and not also as B. Owing to the indefinite

come B sometime hence or elsewhere. Thus we must remember when we

posit A, that we are not starting absolutely what the nature is of the reality

underlying it. So far as its material cause is concerned a thing has always

existed and will always continue to exist; but the particular form in which

it appears now and here has but a limited existence. While the substance

remains the same. Its modes vary. S result of this qualification, we get to

the third step, which affirms as well as denies the existence of A. It is as

well as is not.

That is in one sense but is not in another while the opposition,

between the predicates „is‟ and „is not‟ can be reconciled when they are

thought of as characterizing an object successively. the nature of the

object becomes incomprehensible when they are applied to it

simultaneously We cannot identify „A‟ not , „A‟ thus wholesale for that

would to. be subvert the law of contradiction. So it must be expressible as

neither. This gives us the fourth step, which to saying that reality from

one standpoint is inscrutable . Hence Jainism insists that in speaking of

object we must state what it is in, reference to material, place, time and

state. otherwise our description of it will be misleading. It may seem that

the formula might stop here. But there are still other ways in which the

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alternatives can be combined to void the impression that those predicates

are three more steps added.

The resulting description becomes exhaustive leaving no room for

the charge of dogma in any form. Whet is intended by all. It this is that

our judgements have only a partial application to reality. There is some

enduring factor in all the changes with which experience makes us

familiar but its modes or the forms it assumes, which may be of any

conceivable variety arise and perish indefinitely. There is no self-

identity things as common sense hastily assumes and nothing is really

isolated. Jainism recognizes both permanence and change as equally real;

hence arises its difficulty to express in one step the full nature as equally

real reality. It has been observed that the Jains are here thinking of

empirical being and not of the trancendental, which for instance is what

the Upanisads have in view when they speak of reality as only Being. But

it is clear the description of kevala-jnana, the highest Form of

knowledge as comprehending all things and all their modifications, that

the Jains made no such distinction. Reality according to them is in itself

infinitely complex; only knowledge of it may be partial and erroneous or

complete and correct. We shall defer to the end of the chapter the few

observations we have to make on this theory.22

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