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The definition of soil since the early 1800s

Article  in  Advances in Agronomy · May 2016

DOI: 10.1016/bs.agron.2015.12.001

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 CHAPTER TWO

The Definition of Soil Since

the Early 1800s
A.E. Hartemink
University of Wisconsin–Madison, Department of Soil Science, Wisconsin, United State of America
E-mail address: [email protected]

Contents
1. Introduction 74
2. A Brief History of Soil Science—The Context 76
3. Soil Descriptions and Definitions in the 1800s 78
3.1 The Agricultural Chemists 79
3.2 The Agricultural Geologists 82
3.3 Overarching Definitions 88
4. Definitions in Soil Survey and Classification 91
4.1 FAO-Unesco and WRB 93
4.2 Soil Taxonomy 96
5. The Expanding View 103
6. Soil Definitions in Dictionaries and Glossaries 106
7. Discussion 110
7.1 Framing of the Definitions 110
7.2 Evolution of the Definitions 114
7.3 Two New Definitions 116
8. Some Concluding Remarks 117
Acknowledgments 119
References 119

Abstract
The soil is defined differently by soil scientists, and its definition has changed over
time. This paper reviews how the definition of the soil has changed since the early
1800s by selecting and listing 81 definitions given in a wide range of soil science
books, handbooks, glossaries, and dictionaries. Initial definitions of the soil were based
on developments in agricultural chemistry or geology. The soil was seen as a produc-
tion factor (medium) for agriculture that needed to be understood before it could be
improved, or the soil was defined as disintegrated rocks mixed with organic matter.
Definitions were rudimentary reflecting the overall level of understanding. Soil varia-
tion was not well understood. Overarching soil definitions appeared in the late 1800s

Advances in Agronomy, Volume 137

ISSN 0065-2113 © 2016 Elsevier Inc.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2015.12.001 All rights reserved. 73
74 A.E. Hartemink

following some major shifts in the understanding and knowledge about soils. The
definition of the soil was particularly relevant for soil survey and in soil classification
because it affected how soils were viewed in the field and represented in a two
dimensional way (soil maps). Both the World Reference Base (WRB) and Soil
Taxonomy have defined the soil, but standard field books describing soils often lack
a definition. Most of the definitions in dictionaries and glossaries are detailed stressing
the organic and inorganic part of the soil as well the origin, complexity, and some of its
functions. Current soil definitions have a more environmental outlook reflecting the
broadening of the soil science discipline but definitions will change following scien-
tific advances and discovery. Soils are defined differently by subdisciplines.
Considerable research is conducted nowadays outside soil science departments and
research centres, and for some researchers the soil may solely be a medium—just as it
was in the mid-1800s. The effect of increased specialisation and expansion in soil
science causes the detail of the investigation to prevail over the idea of soil as a
complex dynamic system that is part of a much wider Earth system. This review ends
with a proposal for a scientific definition of soil, and a definition for lay persons and the
general public.

“We are told that language affects the activity of scientists, and the limitations of
language tend to divert scientific work away from Aristotelian principles.”
S.A. Wilde, 1953

1. INTRODUCTION

Soil science as a scientific discipline was established in the 1800s.

The discipline has developed a strong jargon which was needed to define
and name the soil material and its many features. Semantics, or the science
of meanings, has influenced the development of some subdisciplines in soil
science (Wilde, 1953). It continues to do so as the cognitive and linguistic
achievements of the writers on soil expands (Winiwater, 2006) and as the
soil science discipline grows and specializes (Hartemink, 2015b). The
search for definitions in soil science continues and some recently published
examples include: the difference between soils and sediments (Kristensen
and Rabenhorst, 2015), particular soil horizons (Bockheim, 2012;
Herrero, 2004), soil carbon (Ingram and Fernandes, 2001), soil water
(Kirkham, 2014), soil quality (Karlen et al., 1997), soil health (Doran and
Zeiss, 2000), soil fertility decline (Hartemink, 2006b), and soil security
(McBratney et al., 2014). There are a few recent papers on the meaning
and definition of the soil itself (Brevik and Arnold, 2015; Certini and
Ugolini, 2013).
The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s 75

The definition of soil and its concept, was extensively reviewed by

Simonson (1968). The concept of soil has changed over time, and in par-
ticular the way we view and study the soil and its naming and definition.
Some years ago, I have analysed how soils have been depicted in the past
300 years in the scientific literature (Hartemink, 2009). The trends and
patterns reflect the technical ability to depict soils, and that the depictions
reflect the state of knowledge on the factors and processes that have formed a
soil. So it is likely that the way we define the soil depends on our knowledge
base and insight about its use, features, and distribution.
Considerable soil research is nowadays conducted outside the immedi-
ate realm of soil science departments and research centres. To some extent
that is the effect of relabeling and merging of departments but there is also a
branching out of the soil science into other scientific disciplines. Soil
science is being conducted by scientists whose primary degree is in other
disciplines than soil science (eg, geology, forestry, hydrology, microbiology,
geochemistry) and only 16% of all soil science papers are published in one
of the 35 primary soil science journals (Minasny et al., 2007). Given the
expansion of the soil science discipline, there is a need for a historic
understanding how we define soil, and how the definition has evolved
over time. There is also a need to revisit what the definition of soil means
and what such a definition should include.
Soil science is now being taught in diverse university departments (Brevik,
2009), and soil science teaching is rapidly changing (Hartemink et al., 2014). A
definition is also important for the growing number of soil science practi-
tioners and their certification (Field et al., 2011) and for effective communi-
cation with other scientists, politicians and the general public (Brevik and
Arnold, 2015). In any scientific discipline it makes sense to rethink some of its
widely accepted nomenclature and its basis, and this also applies to soil science
with its many emerging topics and technologies (Lin, 2014) and expansion and
fragmentation (Janzen et al., 2011).
Here, I analyse how soils have been defined in the past 200 years. A
definition should include both the meaning and signi¢cance of the word
soil. Most soil science text books include a definition, and this review is
somewhat restricted to soil definitions that have appeared in books in
English; a few Russian, French, and German examples are included. The
list of consulted books provides a historic overview and many of the older
books consulted for this review are considered classics and seminal in soil
science (McDonald, 1994). I have aimed to give definitions from a wide
range of soil science subdisciplinary books from the past 200 years, that is: on
76 A.E. Hartemink

pedology (e.g. Joffe, 1936), soil biology (e.g. Johnson, 1998), soil physics
(e.g. Warrick, 2003), soil chemistry (e.g. Sparks, 2003; Sposito, 1989),
micromorphology (e.g. Brewer, 1964; Kubiëna, 1938), soil fertility (e.g.
Weir, 1920), soil engineering (e.g. Krynine, 1941), forest soil (e.g. Fisher
and Binkley, 2000) as well as general textbooks (Brady and Weil, 2008).
The overall objectives of this review are to (1) provide a chronological
overview of soil definitions in text books, soil classification works, and
dictionaries, (2) review how the definition of soil is influenced by progress
in soil science, and (3) propose definitions of soil for both the scientific
community and the general public. In order to frame the evolution of the
definitions, this review starts with a brief history of major developments in
the soil science discipline. It puts context to the historical overview that
follows in the subsequent sections. Throughout this review, I have used
quotation marks which indicate texts were copied from the source; some
definitions in German have been translated. I have made effort to quote
original and unique definitions and in total 81 definitions are given covering
a 200 years period, including 19 from the 19th century, 7 from soil survey
manuals and classification works, 45 definitions from text books published
between 1900 and 2014, and 10 soil definitions from soil science dictionaries
and glossaries.

2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF SOIL SCIENCE—THE CONTEXT

Research on soils began with sedentary agriculture but much of it

was applied and practical (Boulaine, 1989; Krupenikov, 1992; Yaalon, 1997).
Few soil investigations are documented from the Middle Ages coinciding
with a repression of science and dominance of religion. In the Renaissance,
soil investigations started and Europeans rediscovered the earlier works by
Greeks and Romans (Brevik and Hartemink, 2010). In the 1800s, soil
research focused on plant growth and nutrition, soil evaluation for taxation,
and on the origin and properties of soils. Some of that research was driven by
sheer curiosity but most of it was perceived needed for increased agricultural
production, land tax purposes, or geological investigations. Research in the
1800s was conducted in Germany (e.g. C. Sprenger, F. Senft, A. Thaer), USA
(e.g. Dana, 1842; Hilgard, 1906; Ruffin, 1832), England (e.g. Davy, 1815;
Donaldson, 1852; Johnston, 1845 J.T. Way; Lawes et al., 1883), France
(Boussingault, 1845) (T. Schloessing, H. Darcy), Switzerland (e.g. N.T.
Saussure), Australia (J. Voelcker) New Zealand (D. Hay), Denmark,
The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s 77

(P.E. Müller), Netherlands (Staring, 1856)(J.M. van Bemmelen), Ukraine

(S. Winogradsky), Italy (G. Gazzeri; Lambruschini), Russia (V.V. Dokuchaev,
N. Sibirtsev) and several other countries.
Soil science had a regional focus in the 1800s and there was relatively little
international exchange and cooperation (Hartemink, 2015b). Emphases
were different in different countries and continents. For example, in the
long-settled areas of Western Europe, farmers had learned to manage their
soils by trial and error (Kellogg, 1974). Possibilities for extending the farm
area were limited as the population was relatively dense. Hence, research
focused on how to improve the soil conditions of existing fields, and as a
result, agricultural chemistry largely developed in Europe.
In the USA and the Russian Empire, there were large areas of soils that
could be used for agricultural expansion. The questions were centered on
finding out what soils were present, how to select those responsive to man-
agement and how to avoid waste of effort in farm development (Kellogg,
1974). There was a clear need for soil mapping and a better understanding
of the concepts of the soils. Most of this work was started by agricultural
geologists. The Russian V.V. Dokuchaev and American C.F. Marbut made
great contributions to our understanding of how soils were formed (Simonson,
1989). That understanding formed an important base for the development of
soil mapping in Russia and the USA (Brevik and Hartemink, 2013; Hartemink
et al., 2013). As will be discussed in the next section, the agricultural chemists
and agricultural geologists worked with different definitions of the soil.
In Western Europe, soil science originated in the laboratory, whereas in
the USA and the Russian Empire soil science started in the field. The
amalgamation of these different soil research groups contributed to the
establishment of soil science as a scientific discipline. That amalgamation
was facilitated by the meetings and congresses of the InternationalSocietyofSoil
Science (now IUSS: International Union of Soil Sciences) that was founded in
1924 (Hartemink, 2015a; van Baren et al., 2000).
The Russian ideas and concepts on soil formation and distribution found
international acceptance in the interbellum (Joffe, 1936; Robinson, 1932).
Also in that time, more quantitative techniques of soil analysis were devel-
oped (Viets, 1977), and the soil science knowledge base rapidly expanded
(Blanck, 1929–32). With the development of new analytical techniques and
enhanced exchange of research results, came the need for standardization,
common nomenclature and methods for analyzing, describing and inter-
preting soils. This was recognized and prioritized by the InternationalSocietyof
Soil Science (ISSS, 1964; van Baren et al., 2000) as well as by the Soil Science
78 A.E. Hartemink

SocietyofAmerica (Shaw, 1928; SSSA, 1962). The soil science knowledge base
rapidly expanded in the first half of the 20th century with major discoveries
in all areas. Soil science became relevant in many areas other than agriculture
and branching out in many different other scientific disciplines.
From the early 1990s onward, there was a decline in soil science which
resulted in closing or merging of university departments, a reduction in the
number of research centers and a declining number of soil science students.
The reasons hereto are manifold and have yet to be researched properly, but
include reduced funding, a maturing of the science that hampered creative
breakthroughs and fostered an inward looking approach, and an overly
dependence on agriculture. The body of knowledge that has been accumu-
lated has been summarized in several handbooks and encyclopaedia
(Hartemink, 2012), and these are comparable in size and synthesis to the
multivolume handbooks of Blanck in the early 1930s (Blanck, 1929–32). In
the past 10 years, a renaissance has taken place in soil science, and soils are
back on the global agenda (Hartemink, 2008). Again, the reasons hereto
need be investigated but are related to rapid developments in technologies for
soil observations and analysis, increased awareness on the importance of the
soil, and a much larger global cooperation.
It is in this brief historical review that the definitions of soil are presented
in the following sections. First, some 19 definitions of the 1800s are pre-
sented and differences between agricultural chemists and geologists are dis-
cussed followed by the overarching definitions from the late 1800s.

3. SOIL DESCRIPTIONS AND DEFINITIONS IN THE 1800S

The 1800s was a period of searching and random discoveries about

soils. Investigations were made by a diverse group of people, some with
university education and training related to chemistry, plant physiology,
mineralogy, or geology, whereas others were natural scientists or skilled
amateurs and observers. Not everyone was trained in the natural sciences.
For example, the German F.A. Fallou (1794–1877) had studied and juris-
prudence at the University of Leipzig (Germany) but his love of nature
turned his attention to soils. Fallou studied soils as a hobby and worked as
a land tax assessor (Asio, 2005). There were also progressive farmers who
studied soils like E. Ruffin in Virginia, USA. Ruffin was a gentleman
farmer, had widely read and an insatiable curiosity; he knew nothing about
chemistry but was inspired by Davy’s Elements of Agriculture (Davy, 1815).
The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s 79

Ruffin started experimenting with calcareous manures on the acid soils

of his farm, and in his own words it was “the first systematic attempt
wherein a plan practical unpretending farmer has undertaken to examine
into the real composition of the soils which he possesses, and had to
cultivate” (Ruffin, 1832).
In the first half of the 1800s, there were many investigations that searched
for the chemical elements found in rocks, soils, plants, and the atmosphere.
Many of the macronutrients for plant nutrition were known by the 1830s but
their chemistry and exact role or origin remained unsolved. Studies focused
on the soluble and insoluble part of the soil whereby the soluble part was
usually extracted with hydrochloric acid, or the whole soil was combusted
and the ashes were analyzed. There were also physical investigations, partic-
ularly soil texture and particle sizes (e.g. Donaldson, 1852). The need and
importance to study microorganisms and biology of the soil was well recog-
nized in the late 1800s (Darwin, 1881; Fream, 1900; Miers and Crosskey,
1893; Whiting, 1917)—which is contrary to what is commonly believed
(soil biology is understudied). Much of the early work consisted of empirical
observations and there was little to no existing theory to build on. Most
researchers worked in isolation, scientific communications were limited, and
naturally there was some degree of copying without critical analysis of
methods and results. Some of the key scientific ways that characterize the
present (acknowledging the source, building on a large body of existing
work, institutional and international cooperation) had yet to be invented.

3.1 The Agricultural Chemists

In the 1700s, most field studies of soils were related to agricultural
improvement (drainage, ploughing, and lime) or for chemical, physical,
and mineralogical analysis. Several myths were developed pertaining to the
origin of soil and the origin of nutrients in the plant. For example, the
humus theory by A. Thaer (1752–1828) included the idea that plants feed
upon substances that are similar to them. Humus was regarded as the chief
nutrient for plants and was taken up by roots and converted to plant
material (Feller et al., 2003).
The chemical view of what constitutes soils dominated much of the
1800s. It started with the works of H. Davy (1778–1829). Davy was an
English chemist and he discovered several alkali and alkaline earth metals,
as well as contributions to the discoveries of the elemental nature of chlorine
and iodine. He recognized that “soils appear to have been originally
80 A.E. Hartemink

produced in consequence of the decomposition of rocks and strata” (Davy,

1815). He provided a description on the formation of soil as a result of rock
decomposition and the action of lichen, mosses and “other imperfect vege-
tables which are constantly floating in the atmosphere.” In the 1830s, the
chemical view about soils had become “Soils are so extremely varied, both in
their composition and in the proportions of their component parts, that
certain plants will grow, and even luxuriate in one soil, that will scarcely
exist in another; a knowledge, therefore, of their peculiarities cannot but be
interesting to the farmer, but chemical investigation alone can enable him to
ascertain these peculiarities with accuracy and precision” (Baxter, 1832).
Throughout the 1800s there was agricultural chemistry research, and
many researchers investigated the chemical composition of rocks, soils,
and plants to investigate possible relationships (Dana, 1842). Methods and
results differed and there was optimism about what chemistry could do, as
stated in the 1830s “The nature of soils, of manures, of the food and functions
of plants, would all be unknown from but from the analysis which chemists
have made” (Baxter, 1832). There was also criticism on the usefulness of
agricultural chemistry. For example, Boussingault was critical about the
impact of agricultural chemistry “Chemists of great talent have made many
complete analyses of soils noted for their fertility; still practical agriculture
has hitherto derived very slender benefits from labors of this kind.”
(Boussingault, 1845). Similar concerns were raised in England by Johnston
(1845) “The benefits to be derived from the chemical examination and
analysis of a soil are by many misunderstood. Some have represented it as
the only sure guide to successful cultivation; while others have not scrupled
to pronounce the analysis of soils to be entirely useless, and unfitted to lead to
any profitable practical results.” There were too many unknowns in soils.
One of the fundamental problems was the nutrition of plants. Following
the work of C. Sprenger (Feller et al., 2003), it was the German J. von Liebig
(1803–1873) who debunked the humus theory from A. Thaer (1752–1828)
from the early 1800s. Von Liebig concluded that N, S, P, K Ca, Mg, Si, Na,
and Fe are essential for plant growth, although that was largely based on
observation and speculation rather than by precise experimentation
(Marschner, 1995). He is widely accredited for discovering the mineral
nutrition of plants. From the 1840s onward, the chemical school of thought
on soils was led by von Liebig, and in his time he was one of the most
influential scientists (Brock, 1997).
For von Liebig, who was an physiologist but also an agricultural chemist
like J.H. Gilbert (1817–1901), the soil was merely a medium for plant growth
The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s 81

“... the most careful examination of the chemical nature both of the soil in
which a given plant grows, and of the plant itself, must be the foundation of
all exact and economical methods of cultivation.” The duty of the chemist
“was to explain the composition of a fertile soil, but the discovery of its
proper state or condition belongs to the agriculturists.” But von Liebig knew
that were other factors relevant for the fertility of soil and the growing of
crops “The fertility of a soil is much influenced by its physical properties,
such as its porosity, colour, attraction for moisture, or state of disintegration.
But independently of these conditions, the fertility depends upon the chem-
ical constituents of which the soil is composed” (von Liebig, 1840). In his
later writings, he noted on the origin of soils “The soil consists of disinte-
grated rocks, and either rests upon these same rocks or on others elsewhere;
the transported soil may, nevertheless, have remained the same and corre-
sponds at least to the rocks from which it has its origin” (von Liebig, 1859).
The French chemist J.P. Boussingault (1802–1887) was a contemporary
of J. von Liebig and conducted some of the first agricultural field experi-
ments. He worked on a range of agricultural practices but notably on crop
rotations and soil nitrogen uptake (discovered in 1772). Boussingault was
aware that soils were derived from the weathering of rocks (either volcanic or
sedimentary) and that the soil is formed from mechanical and chemical
causes of rock weathering (“destruction”). He realized that plants take up
nutrients from the soil “... we see that the mineral substances which meet us
in plants also exist in the soil independently of any addition from manure. We
may therefore lay it down as a principle that the mineral substances encoun-
tered in vegetables are obtained in the soil, and that the whole of these
substances come from rocks which form the solid crust of our earth.”
For Boussingault (1845), the soil was a mixture of sand, clay, and organic
matter remains, which as he states “has been designated under the somewhat
vague name of humus.” According to Boussingault, “... when examining a
soil the attention ought to be directed toward sand, clay, and humus” and
soils should be classified based on their fertility in “strong and light soils”
whereby strong soils have predominantly clay and in light soils sand prevails.
“Humus always adds to the qualities of these two kinds of soil.” He also noted
the importance of the depth or thickness of the soil (Boussingault, 1845).
These early views focused on the chemical and mechanical composition
of the soil and its importance. There was a realization that soils consist of a
mixture of organic and inorganic substances and that there are other factors
that contribute to its productivity and fertility (e.g. humus, depth, porosity).
The soil was largely seen as a production factor for agriculture that needed to
82 A.E. Hartemink

be understood before it could be improved. Definitions were rudimentary

reflecting the overall level of understanding. Soil variation was not well
understood, and as Davy stated in 1815 “It is evident what has been said
concerning the production of soils from rocks, that there must be at least as
many varieties of soils as there are species of rocks exposed at the surface of
the earth; in fact there are many more” (Davy, 1815) (Table 1).

3.2 The Agricultural Geologists

In the first half of the 1800s there were many studies on isolated properties of
soils (Vil’yams, 1967) but there was little understanding of soil formation. For
example, it was thought that the presence of stones and gravel in the soils
were the result of chemical precipitation, and that peat was formed by algae
(Hartemink, 2009). Some soil investigations in the early 1800s mixed biblical
stories and terms like diluvium (deposited during le deluge—the great floods)
were quite common. In the Netherlands, soils were defined as being diluvial
or alluvial (Staring, 1856) and a similar distinction was used in the United
Kingdom (Donaldson, 1852; Morton, 1843). The viewpoint on the origin
of soils was that soils could primarily be defined as the weathering products of
rocks (Dana, 1842; Johnson, 1870), but Nash (1861) recognized that soils are
mixtures and can be derived from transported materials “The idea that soils
have originated from the rock immediately underneath them is an error.”
A more complete definition of soil form the first half of the 19th century
was by Morton (1843) “The cultivated part of the earth’s surface is called soil,
and is formed by the combination of two or more primitive earths, united
with organic matter in a state of decay. The three principal primitive earths
are silex or sand, alumina or clay, and lime. These are frequently in a state of
minute division, forming impalpable matter; and they occur also in the form
of sand, gravel, and rubble. Some of these materials are capable of retaining
moisture, and of preserving organic matter from decay; while others hasten
the decay of vegetable and animal matter, but possess little power to absorb
and retain moisture.” Like Nash (1861), he recognized that soils were mix-
tures; in addition he noted that soils are able to retain moisture depending on
the type of particles that affect the decomposition of organic matter.
There was a relatively small group of scientists that studied soils in the field
compared to the number of agricultural chemists (Kellogg, 1974). They
were mostly trained as geologists, and they later became known as agro-geol-
ogists (van Baren, 1921)—a term that was not widely used across the globe
but which emphasizes the background of the researchers. The agricultural
 The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s
Table 1 Some definitions and descriptions of soil from 1815–1895.
Year Definition of soil Reference
1815 “Soils are extremely diversified in appearance and quality; yet they consist of different proportions of the Davy (1815)
same elements; which are in various states of chemical combination, or mechanical mixtures. The
substances that constitute a soil are certain compounds of the earths, silica, lime, alumina, magnesia and of
the oxides of iron and manganesum[Mn]; animal and vegetable matters in a decomposing state, and saline,
acid or alkaline combinations.”
1832 “The earths important to agriculture, and which form nearly the whole of the known globe, are only three Ruffin (1832)
– silicious, aluminous, and calcareous. The mixture of the three earths in due proportions, will correct the
defects of all, and with a sufficiency of animal or vegetable matter, putrecent, and soluble in water, a soil is
formed in which plants can extend their roots freely, yet be firmly supported, and derive all their needful
supplies of air, water, and warmth, without being oppressed by too much of either.”
1840 “Arable land is originally formed by the crumbling of rocks, and its properties depend of their principal von Liebig (1840)
component parts. Sand, clay, and lime, are the names given to the principal constituents of the different
kinds of soil. Pure sand and pure limestone, in which there are no other inorganic substances except
siliceous earth, carbonate or silicate of lime, from absolutely barren soils. Bur argillaceous earths form
always a part of fertile soils.”
1842 “Soil is the loose material covering rocks, and it is supposed to have been formed from their decay.” (Dana, 1842)
1843 “The cultivated part of the earth’s surface is called soil, and is formed by the combination of two or more (Morton, 1843)
primitive earths, united with organic matter in a state of decay. The three principal primitive earths are
silex or sand, alumina or clay, and lime. These are frequently in a state of minute division, forming
impalpable matter; and they occur also in the form of sand, gravel and rubble. Some of these materials are
capable of retaining moisture, and of preserving organic matter from decay; while others hasten the decay
of vegetable and animal matter, but possess little power to absorb and retain moisture .”
1844 “soil is a changed mass of material derived from minerals and containing the decomposition products of Sprengel (1844)
plants and animals.”
(Continued )

83
 84
Table 1 Some definitions and descriptions of soil from 1815–1895.—cont'd.
Year Definition of soil Reference
1845 “Mixture of sand, clay, remains of organic matters (humus). Sand is siliceous, calcareous or feldspatic; clay is Boussingault
argillaceous matter containing pure clay, extremely fine sand, particles of calcareous earth and delicate (1845)
particles of humus.”
1845 “The inorganic part of soils, - that which remains behind, when everything combustible is burned away by Johnston (1845)
heating it to redness in the open air, - consists of two portions, one of which is soluble in water, the other
insoluble. The soluble consist of saline substances, the insoluble of earthy substances. The organic part of
soils is derived chiefly from the remains of vegetables and animals which have lived and died in or upon
the soil,- which have been spread over it by rivers and rains, or which have been added by the hand of
man, for the purpose of increasing its natural fertility.”
1856 “The soil contains two kind of matter,- organic, or the part which is combustible; and inorganic, or the part Kent (1856)
which will not burn.”
1858 “Soils are these portions of the earth’s surface, which contains a mixture of mineral and vegetable or animal Allen (1858)
substances, in such proportions as adapt them to them to the support of vegetation. Rocks are the original
basis of all soils.”
1859 “The soil consists of disintegrated rocks, and either rests upon these same rocks or on others elsewhere; the von Liebig (1859)
transported soil may, nevertheless, have remained the same and corresponds at least to the rocks from
which it has its origin.”
1861 “All soils, whether alluvial, drift, or tertiary in their origin, are derived from rocks, broken down, ground to Nash (1861)
a greater or less degree of fineness, and so disseminated that the ruins of one rock may be supposed to be
mixed in most cases, with those of a great many others. The idea that soils have originated from the rock
immediately underneath them is an error.” “Soils consists of two parts – the organic and the inorganic. By
the inorganic we are to understand the mineral part, that which remains after a portion of soil has been

A.E. Hartemink
heated to redness; by the organic, that which burns away.”
1862 “soils as loose masses of mineralic and organic components, which arise from weathering and Fallou (1862)
reorganization of the earth’s surface.”
 The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s
1870 “Soils are broken and decomposed rocks. We find in nearly all soil fragments of rock, recognizable as such Johnson (1870)
by the eye, and by help of the microscope it is often easy to perceive that those portions of the soil which
are impalpable to the feel chiefly consist of minuter grains of the same rock.”
1883 “Soil is a natural independent body which like any other natural body or organism, has a specific origin, Dokuchaev
history of development, and external appearance.” (1883)
1893 “The soil or surface of the ground at any place consists mainly of altered and decomposed rock derived from Miers and
the underlying stratus or subsoil and will thus vary very greatly in its composition. It is always missed with Crosskey (1893)
a large amount of humus. In inhabited regions the soil is partly “made soil”, consisting of road material
and all the waste products of human life and buildings.”
1893 “Der Erdboden is die obersteVerwitterungsschift der festen Erdrinde” [The ground (soil) is the uppermost Ramann (1893)
weathering layer of the solid earth crust]
1894 “For convenience the soil is divided into two parts: the upper and usually shallow part is called the soil, and Barnard (1894)
the deeper part is called the subsoil. These two words, the soil and the subsoil, are used in all agricultural
science. We shall therefore understand the word “soil” to generally mean the soil and subsoil of our farms
and gardens.”
1895 “Mingled fragments of materials of various kinds; the soil is composed chiefly of small fragments of rock of King (1895)
many varieties, which may be regarded as the basis of the all. Associated with these fine rock remnants
there is almost always a varying amount of organic matter derived from the breaking-down of vegetable
and animal remains. Then, too adhering to the surface of these fragments, or scattered among them in the
form of crystals, there are various substances which have been deposited from oversaturated solutions of
soil moisture.”

85
86 A.E. Hartemink

geologists or agro-geologists, considered soil science to be a branch of

geology and aimed to add an agricultural component to geology, in part to
help secure funding for geology (Krupenikov, 1992). The German F.A.
Fallou (1794–1877) studied soils as a hobby and coined the terms pedology,
solum as well as soil quality (Fallou, 1862). It took quite some time before
these were taken up possibly as they were seen as jargon, ahead of their time,
and not well-defined. Most of all, they were ignored because in his time
Fallou was not recognized as a scientist and had no student followers (Asio,
2005; Johnson et al., 2005). Fallou noted that books on soil science were
compilations of geology, geography, agricultural chemistry, and plant phys-
iology, and in 1862 he published one of the first soil science textbooks:
Pedologie oder allgemeine und besondere Bodenkunde (Pedology or general and
special soil science) (Fallou, 1862). He defined the soil “as loose masses of
mineralic and organic components, which arise from weathering and reor-
ganization of the earth’s surface” and he emphasized that the present soils
were neither formed at the same time nor in the same way (Asio, 2005).
Fallou distinguished layers and their thickness and recognized the
importance of the soil profile, like Senft (1857) and A. Orth had done
before him. The German Senft (1810–93) had a strong geologic base for
distinguishing soils, and he developed a scheme on the function of forest
soil layers (Blume, 2002). Fallou, building on the work of Senft, attempted
to treat the study of soils as an independent science, and soil as a separate
topic from geology. Those ideas are commonly attributed to V.V.
Dokuchaev—possibly as he had a more systematic approach, and excellent
students following him (N. Sibirtsev, K. Glinka). Dokuchaev’s ideas were
translated into German and English by K. Glinka (1914) and with the
support of C. Marbut in USA (Tandarich et al., 2002); however, the work
of Fallou was not recognized for long.
The Englishman J. Morton (1781–1864) was a contemporary of Fallou.
He is a neglected pioneer of soil science (Bunting, 1964) and absent in soil
science history books (e.g. Boulaine, 1989; Yaalon, 1997). Morton built
upon the definition of the agricultural chemist Davy (1815) by emphasizing
that local variations of rock are reflected in the soil and that rocks with thin
layers of alternating texture and finer material determines the nature of the
soil. Morton also stressed the importance of local and distant agents of
transport in mixing mineral materials and so differentiating the upper part
of the soil. For Morton, soils and the underlying rocks were more or less one
“The surface of the earth partakes of the nature and colour of the subsoil or
rock on which it rests. The principal mineral of any district, is that of the
The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s 87

geological formation under it; hence, we find argillaceous soil resting on the
various clay formations-calcareous soil over the chalk and oolitic rocks; and
silicious soils over the various sandstones. On the chalk the soil is white; on
the red sandstone, it is red; and on the sands and clays the surface has nearly
the same shade of colour as the subsoil.” (Morton, 1843). He stated that “.the
surface is composed of the same materials as the subsoil, with the addition of
vegetable and animal matter, in every state of decay, intimately mixed with it;
and we perceive a change in the external appearance of the surface, whenever
there is a change in the subsoil below.”
The soil thus was seen as a mineral substance that originated from the
weathering products of rocks and included plants and animals (“as the rock
so the soil”) (e.g. Johnston, 1845) or as an inert mass of mineral debris
(Bunting, 1964). Those ideas were carried into the 20th century. Stremme
(1927) worded this as follows “Ursprünglich ist ein gestein, ein feuchtes
Mineralgemenge da, welches an sich unter der Atmosphäre eine gewisse
Zerkleinerung und Zersetzung erfahren würde, je nach der Intensität der rein
atmosphärischen Kräfte physikalischer und chemischer Art. Dabei würde ein
Trümmergestein entstehen und kein Boden. Dieser bildet sich erst, wenn
Pflanzen und Tiere sich au dem Trümmergestein ansideln. Sie nehmen unmit-
telbar und mittelbar aus dem Trümmergestein Stoffe auf und geben ihm ihre
Stoffwechselprodukte, Humus, Lösungen, Gase, ab.” (Originally there is rock,
a moist mixture of minerals in contact with the atmosphere, which has
experienced a certain crushing and decomposition, depending on the intensity
of atmospheric forces of physical and chemical nature. The result would be
debris rather than soil. Soil only forms when plants and animals settle on the
debris. They uptake directly and indirectly matter from the debris and return
metabolites like humus, solutions and gases.)
Johnson (1870) distinguished two types of soils with regard to their mode
of formation: sedentary soils (soils in place) that cover the rock from whose
integration they originate, and transported soils that are subdivided into drift,
alluvial, and colluvial. An example on rock weathering and soil development
from the USA is the book by Merrill who postulated that soils are formed
from the underlying rock; he did not include Dokuchaev’s concept of the soil
and its formation (Merrill, 1906). Marbut (1913) wrote that there is a
“widespread impression from textbooks regarding the origin and formation
of soils is that soils are derived directly from rocks through the influence of
weathering and the breaking down of the rock in place, leaving a disinte-
grated mass of material on the surface which constitutes the soil. This is only
remotely true.” Soil survey in the USA started in 1899, and by 1913 when
88 A.E. Hartemink

less than 15% of the USA was surveyed, it was found that up to 90% of the
mapped soils were derived from material deposited by the action of water, ice
or wind. Soil surveys and increased soil knowledge demystified the idea that
all soils were derived in the weathering products of underlying rocks.
Glinka (1914) was able to review how the soil concepts evolved in the
1800s noting the difference between soil as weathered products, and soils as
the result of a series processes other than rock weathering. There was a wider
view and definition of soil than a chemical medium or a mixture of organics
and broken down rock particles, but the systematic and recognition that the
soil is a natural body and part of the landscape had yet to be made.

3.3 Overarching Definitions

Russian work brought the study of soils out of the confusion of the geologic,
chemical, and agronomic points of view (Marbut, 1936). It is widely
acknowledged that V.V. Dokuchaev (1846–1903) is the founder of pedology.
Some of the early ideas were formulated by Fallou (1862) and others before
Fallou by Sprenger and Senft. According to Johnson et al. (2005),
Dokuchaev was aware of Fallou’s work but cited him only once. Just like
H. Jenny (1899-1992) is widely quoted for formulating the five factors of soil
formation, they had been postulated by several others (V.V. Dokuchaev, S.A.
Zakharov, C.F. Shaw) (Florinsky, 2012). Both Jenny and Dokuchaev solidly
framed and expanded the existing theory and lifted it to a level that is the
accepted to the present day, which explains their influence.
Like many 19th century scientists, Dokuchaev had a wide range of
scientific but most of his work was focused on the origin and properties of
soils and their role in the agricultural economy. In that sense, he did not differ
from his contemporaries or the soil researchers prior to him and elsewhere.
He opposed the application of Western European systems of agronomy to
Russian soil and stated “We should be ashamed of having applied German
agronomy in Russia to the true Russian Chernozems, without taking
account of conditions of climate, vegetation and soil conditions. Specific
Russian agronomic techniques and methods must be evolved for the indi-
vidual soil zones of Russia, in strict accordance with local pedological,
climatic, as well as socio-economic conditions.” (Anon, 1967). This suggests
that his soil research was driven by some degree of nationalism as well as the
need for knowledge about the local soil conditions. Whatever motivation,
Dokuchaev’s research resulted in an integrated way of thinking about soil,
and yielded a new overarching definition.
The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s 89

Much of the agriculture in Russia was on the steppe with Chernozems

(∼Mollisols) as the most common soils. In 1876, a research program was
started for the Chernozem area which covered about 100 million ha (80–90
dessiatines). In 1882, Dokuchaev travelled about 10,000 km through the area
and conducted a detailed study in the NizhniNovgorod provincial “zemstvo”
for land taxation purposes. It was here that he wondered “What, generally, is
to be termed as soil?” and started soil investigations that led to his magnum
opus, Ruskii Chernozem (Dokuchaev, 1883). The unique aspects of his soil
research were its aims, systematic methods, comprehensiveness, and the
collection of factual materials (data). He stratified the area (geographical
morphologic methods), collected detailed information on soils (color, thick-
ness etc.) in addition to information on geology, topography, vegetation,
climate, and crop yields. Many of his soil samples were analyzed for chemical
properties and he was able to group all the material based on differences and
similarities. Then he synthesized the information and derived the combined
effects of the factors on soil properties (Vil’yams, 1967).
Dokuchaev recognized and confirmed the importance of climate, parent
material, organisms, and relief as factors that formed the soil—the action of
time and humans were considered less important. He confirmed that “soils
were the products of extremely complex interactions of the effects of local
climate, plant and animal organisms, composition and structure of the parent
rocks, topography and, finally the age of the country, and therefore it is only
natural that the investigator must constantly excurse into various branches of
science” (Dokuchaev, 1883). It also led to an overarching definition that
resonates in many textbooks today:

“Soil is a natural independent body which like any other natural body or organism,
has a specific origin, history of development, and external appearance.”

Dokuchaev made soil genesis the central target of pedological investiga-

tions and postulated the theory of soil as a peculiar natural body which
develops under the combined influence of the natural agents. He emphasized
that the soil is not only of great practical importance but also its distribution is
of a prime scientific significance (Dokuchaev, 1883). He stressed the impor-
tance of scientific approach to soil studies (Vil’yams, 1967). Dokuchaev
considered the climate one of the key soil forming factors. Whereas many
soil studies in the 1800s were driven by the idea that geology and parent
material are the main forming factors, the Russian school unraveled the
effects of climate and introduced the zonal theory of soil distribution. This
90 A.E. Hartemink

resulted in the fundamental law of pedology “The law of the adaptability of

soil types of the globe to definite natural (primarily climatic) conditions” that
was largely defined by Glinka (1914). These ideas did not immediately take
hold outside of Russia (Joffe, 1936), and early attempts to introduce Russian
ideas to soil scientists in the USA failed (Paton and Humphreys, 2007;
Tandarich et al., 2002).
Dokuchaev had a number of disciples of which N.M Sibirtsev
(1860–1900) and K. Glinka (1867–1927) were probably the most influential.
Sibirtsev paid attention to soil ecology and was interested in farmers’ soil
knowledge (Sibirtsev, 1900). He discussed the various meaning of the term
“soil” and made a distinction between every day usage of the word soil and its
scientific definition. In everyday usage, the word soil serves to designate the
surficial or external horizon of the earth’s mass, in which the plants are rooted
and which is the object of agricultural cultivation. The scientific definition of
soil is deduced from an examination of its origin and processes of formation.
Sibirtsev distinguished soil usage in three different ways:
1. uniform layer of the earth’s crust which is close to the surface (geolog-
ical soil)
2. surficial earthy mass loosened by man, irrespective of its composition and
origin, if crops can be grown on it and the concept of soil is applied to that
horizon of the earth’s mass which is subjected to cultivation (technical
agricultural soil)
3. the term soil is sometimes applied to the entire surficial earthy layer which
is inhabited by plant roots and its limits is the depth at which roots are
found (Sibirtsev, 1900).
He noted that in different parts of the world these definitions are used.
For example, in Western Europe the term soil is generally applied to the
weathering products of any rock whether remaining in situ or transported.
When these soils are cultivated (tillage, fertilizing etc.) they become plough
land (Sibirtsev, 1900).
Soil research in the late 1800s and early 1900s became more systematically
organized; soil science departments and scientific journals were established
and the usefulness of soil knowledge for agriculture became widely appre-
ciated. In 1895, the agricultural soil physicist F.H. King (a contemporary of
Dokuchaev) wrote “... the spirit and results of investigation, which have
grown so rapidly during our century, have already so widened our horizon
of knowledge, and so changed the attitude of mind toward the phenomena of
nature about us, that we are coming to study, in the spirit of science, many of
those things which lie nearest to us, and with great moral, intellectual, and
The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s 91

pecuniary profit; and since soil, air, and water are indispensable to all forms of
life, we must know more and more of them as the demands for food and
homes increases” (King, 1895). So considerable knowledge was gained in the
1800s, but many more scientific investigations were needed because of
increasing demand by the growing population on the earth’s crust.

4. DEFINITIONS IN SOIL SURVEY AND CLASSIFICATION

The definition of the soil (material, depth, genesis etc.) was particularly
relevant for soil survey and in soil classification because it affected how soils
were viewed in the field and represented in a two dimensional way (soil
maps). Soils are classified to group our knowledge, increase our understand-
ing and communicate results (Hartemink, 2015c). The classification of soils
has been a matter of debate because of the complex nature of the soil and the
confusion in terms and criteria following difficulties in measurement and
interpretation. In the early 1800s, when little known was about soils, this was
worded as “To attempt to class soils with scientific accuracy, would be a vain
labour” (Davy, 1815) and “There have been many attempts to form a
classification of soils, but these have universally failed in conveying to the
mind, either of the practical farmer, or the scientific agriculturist, any correct
idea of their nature or properties. If we can shew an identity of the materials
which form the soil, with those of the subsoil upon which it rests, we shall
obtain a key to a more correct and satisfactory classification of soils than at
present exists, and their nature and properties, the kind of crops which they
are best calculated to produce, and the materials necessary for their perma-
nent improvement, will be more evident.” (Morton, 1843).
Johnson (1870) found that the classification of soils is customarily based
“on the relative proportions of the principal mechanical ingredients that
establishes distinctions that are scientifically very vague.” Few saw the pos-
sibilities for developing a classification system and in the early 1900s Merrill
wrote “being derived from rocks of all kinds and under greatly varying
conditions; in almost infinitely variable conditions of communication, decay,
and proportional amounts of their various constituents, no hard and fast lines
for soil classification can be laid down” (Merrill, 1906). Soils were com-
monly classified based on mechanical analysis providing the sand and clay
content (Johnson, 1870). Silt was not defined until the early 1900s (by A.
Atterberg) and adopted by the International Society of Soil Science (ISSS,
now IUSS) in 1927.
92 A.E. Hartemink

The classification scheme of Morton (1843) had several classes, some

based on soil texture, others on the diluvium and alluvium, and parent rock.
Also the early soil maps had sand and clay as a diagnostic criteria for distin-
guishing mapping units, for example, the first state soil maps in USA (Brevik
and Hartemink, 2013). The soil mapping and classification systems in the
1800s largely followed how the soils were defined and perceived. Soil survey
and classification expanded across the globe from the late 1800s to about
1950, then grew very rapidly until about the mid-1980s, followed by a
decline in most parts of the world, and an increase since about 2006. The
initial expansion of soil survey grew out of the need to know more about the
land for taxation purposes or for new developments (agriculture, forestry,
urbanization). The current expansion is largely the result of the digital soil
mapping revolution which has occurred as demand and availability for spatial
soil information increased and coincided with technical possibilities, and
scientific advances (Minasny and McBratney, 2016).
Dokuchaev’s and Glinka’s definition of soil (“soils are independent nat-
ural bodies, each with its own unique profile morphology resulting from a
unique combination of climate, living matter, parent materials, and relief,
acting over a given period of time”) as well the more practical definition
(“soil is the natural medium for the growth of land plants, whether or not it
has a distinctive profile morphology”) narrowed the use of soil to agriculture.
Such definitions could not be directly used in soil survey that from the
beginning were done because there was a problem whereby a soil property
affects soil-use for a particular area (Butler, 1980). Most of this was related to
agriculture but nonagricultural purposes of soil survey were started in the
1960s (Simonson, 1989; Western, 1978). In many countries, soil surveys
were conducted systematically (county by county, state by state) which was
coordinated by a national or federal institute. It encouraged national stan-
dards and norms in observations and definitions. In countries where there
was not enough capacity to develop national standards, they were adopted
form FAO or USDA.
In many parts of the world, soil classification schemes were developed
once a body of knowledge about soil properties and their geographic distri-
bution had accumulated. There are many national soil classification systems
(Krasilnikov et al., 2009). One of the challenging issues in soil classification
has been the soil individual, or simply said: what can be defined a soil.
Simonson (1968) defined the soil individual as a three-dimensional body
on the surface of the earth unlike the adjoining bodies, with the area of
individual soils ranging from less than 0.2 ha to more than 120 ha. According
The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s 93

to Cline (1949) the pedon is “the smallest natural body that can be divided as
a thing complete in itself.” This body or unit is regarded as the element or
entity that can be used to classify. In several soil classification systems, the
individual soil is defined as the pedon but in SoilTaxonomy the polypedon is
considered the soil individual. The definition of the individual or the pedon
is a highly relevant issue in soil classification. Not many soil classification
schemes contain a definition of the soil. An exception is the old soil classi-
fication system of New Zealand (Taylor and Pohlen, 1962), which defined
the soil as “the upper weathering layer of the earth’s crust, commonly but not
always differentiated into horizons of mineral and organic constituents; it
differs from the parent material below in morphology, physical properties
and constitution, chemical properties and composition, and biological
characteristics.” Later versions of the New Zealand soil classification scheme
had no definition of the soil.
Internationally, there are two widely used systems: SoilTaxonomy (Soil
Survey Staff, 2014) and theWorldReferenceBaseforSoilResources (WRB) (IUSS
Working Group WRB, 2014). Both systems stem from the mid-1970s
following considerable international cooperation and accumulated soil
knowledge (FAO-Unesco, 1974; Soil Survey Staff, 1975). The definition
of soil in survey manuals and international classification works is presented in
Table 2. Both SoilTaxonomy and WRB (FAO-Unesco) have field books for
describing and sampling soils but these field books include no definition of
soil (FAO, 1977, 1990, 2006; Schoeneberger et al., 2002, 2012).

4.1 FAO-Unesco and WRB

The FAO-Unesco soil classification system was developed as map legend for
the 1:5 million Soil Map of the World that used 600 existing soil maps from
all over the world (Dudal and Batisse, 1978). These maps each had their own
legend and a major obstacle was that similar soils had been given a wide
variety of names in different parts of the world. There was diversity in
nomenclature which reflects differences in vernacular (FAO-Unesco,
1974) and different definitions of soil. It took many years and a large inter-
national effort to establish a common nomenclature to form a legend for the
World Soil Map. No definition of soil was formulated for the original legend
of 1974 (FAO-Unesco, 1974) nor for its revision published in 1988 (FAO-
Unesco, 1988).
TheWorldReferenceBaseforSoilResources, that succeeded the FAO-Unesco
system, provided a definition that includes a range of features, properties, and
 94
Table 2 Definitions of soil in soil survey manuals and international classification works from 1951-2010 (Soil Taxonomy, WRB).
Year Definition of soil Reference
1951 “The following definition of soil may serve those who need one: Soil is the collection of natural Soil Survey Staff (1951)
bodies occupying portions of the earth’s surface that support plants and that have properties due to
the integrated effect of climate and living matter, acting upon parent material, as conditioned by
relief, over periods of time.”
1960 “Soil: We may say that it is the collection of natural bodies on the earth’s surface, supporting plants, Soil Survey Staff (1960)
with a lower limit at the deeper of either the unconsolidated mineral organic material lying within
the zone of rooting of the native perennial plants; or where horizons impervious to roots have
developed, the upper few feet of the earth’s crust having properties differing from the underlying
rock material as a result of interactions between climate, living organisms, parent material, and
relief.”
1975 “Soil is the collection of natural bodies on the earth’s surface, in places modified or even made by man Soil Survey Staff (1975)
of earthy materials, containing living matter and supporting or capable of supporting plants out-of-
doors. Its upper limit is air or shallow water. At its margins it grades to deep water or to barren areas
of rock or ice. Its lower limit to the not-soil beneath is perhaps the most difficult to define. Soil
includes the horizons near the surface that differ from the underlying rock material as a result of
interactions, through time, or climate, living organisms, parent materials, and relief.”
1993 “Soil is the collection of natural bodies in the earth’s surface, in places modified or even made by mad Soil Survey Division
of earthy materials, containing living matter and supporting or capable of supporting plants out-of- Staff (1993)
door. Its upper limit is air or shallow water. At its margins it grades to deep water or to barren areas
of rock or ice. Its lower limit to the not-soil beneath is perhaps the most difficult to define. Soil
includes the horizons near the surface that differ from the underlying rock material as a result of
interaction, through time, of climate, living organisms, parent materials, and relief.””

A.E. Hartemink
2006 “Soil was defined as: “a continuous natural body which has three spatial and one temporal IUSS Working Group
dimension. The three main features governing soil are: (i) It is formed by mineral and organic WRB (2006, 2014)
constituents and includes solid, liquid and gaseous phases. (iii) The constituents are organized in
 The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s
structures, specific for the pedological medium. These structures form the morphological aspect of
the soil cover, equivalent to the anatomy of a living being. They result from the history of the soil
cover and from its actual dynamics and properties. Study of the structures of the soil cover facilitates
perception of the physical, chemical and biological properties; it permits understanding the past
and present of the soil, and predicting its future. (iii) The soil is in constant evolution; thus giving
the soil its fourth dimension, time.”
1999 “Soil is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and organic matter), liquid, and gases that occurs Soil Survey Staff (1999)
on the land surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one or both of the following: horizons,
or layers, that are distinguishable from the initial material as a result of additions, losses, transfers,
and transformations of energy and mater or the ability to support rooted plants in a natural
environment.”
2010 “Soil is a natural body comprised of solids (mineral and organic matter), liquid, and gases that occurs Soil Survey Staff (2010)
on the land surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one or both of the following: horizons,
or layers, that are distinguishable from the initial material as a result of additions, losses, transfers,
and transformations of energy and matter or the ability to support rooted plants in a natural
environment.”

95
96 A.E. Hartemink

a dynamic description “a continuous natural body which has three spatial and
one temporal dimension. The three main features governing soil are: It is
formed by mineral and organic constituents and includes solid, liquid and
gaseous phases. The constituents are organized in structures, specific for the
pedological medium. These structures form the morphological aspect of the
soil cover, equivalent to the anatomy of a living being. They result from the
history of the soil cover and from its actual dynamics and properties. Study of
the structures of the soil cover facilitates perception of the physical, chemical
and biological properties; it permits understanding the past and present of the
soil, and predicting its future. The soil is in constant evolution; thus giving
the soil its fourth dimension, time” (Table 3). This definition includes
information on the material and emphasizes the some of the main soil
functions. It is unclear how this definition has influenced the classification
of soils in the WRB system, particularly the temporal dimension.

4.2 Soil Taxonomy

The USA has a long tradition of developing soil classification systems that
started in the early 1900s. A major development was the publication of the 7th
Approximation of 1960. The system led to the SoilTaxonomy classification system
that has run through to two editions (1975, 1990) and 12 classification keys
(Soil Survey Staff, 2014). In the 7thApproximation, it was noted that it was not
possible to distinguish accurately under all conditions what is and what is not
part of the soil. It was also stressed that “.soil does not need to have readily
discernible horizons, though the presence or absence of horizons is of extreme
importance in its classification” (Soil Survey Staff, 1960). When SoilTaxonomy
was developed, efforts were made to classify the soil (as it is) based on mor-
phometric characteristics and quantitative assessment (Bockheim et al., 2014).
The definition of soil in SoilTaxonomy is based on the definitions of the soil
survey manuals (Soil Survey Division Staff, 1993; Soil Survey Staff, 1951).
The first soil survey manual prepared by C. Kellogg had no definition of soil
(Soil Survey Staff, 1937) but the second edition published in 1951 contained a
definition that is a combination of Dokuchaev’s natural body and Jenny’s
factors of soil formation “Soil is the collection of natural bodies occupying
portions of the earth’s surface that support plants and that have properties due
to the integrated effect of climate and living matter, acting upon parent
material, as conditioned by relief, over periods of time.”
In the first edition of SoilTaxonomy (1975), the several meanings of the
word soil were discussed. In its traditional meaning, soil is the natural
 The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s
Table 3 Definitions of soil in soil science text books from 1900 to 2014.
Year Definition of soil Reference
1900 “A distinction should be made between the concepts of soil mass and soil formation. Soil mass is a mixture Sibirtsev (1900)
of the aggregates of various solid particles (+circulating solutions + air and gases in general) possessing
certain mechanical, physical and chemical properties. A soil formation is a complex of soil horizons of
specific origin and development.”
1906 “..a soil is the more or less loose and friable material in which, by means of their roots, plants may or do find Hilgard (1906)
a foothold and nourishment, as well as other conditioners of growth.”
1906 “..superficial portions of the regolith to which the name soil is commonly applied. The prevailing Merrill (1906)
constituent of any soil, whatever its source, is nearly always silica, with varying amounts of alumina,
oxides of iron, lime, magnesia and the alkalies. A small amount of organic matter, from extraneous source,
is usually present.”
1907 “Most soils are a mixture of ground rock, decayed plants and the remains of insects and animals.” Fletcher (1907)
1907 “The soil is, in fact, a part of the volcanic matter which composes most of the earth. It is broken into minute Campbell (1907)
fragments. These fragments are perfect specimen of rocks and stones or pulverized minerals. Bu they are
so fine that the different minerals readily combine by chemical action. The plant food is organic in nature.
It is composed of different mineral substances united by chemical action or otherwise.”
1914 “... der Boden ein Produkt derWirkung der Naturkrftevaufauf einen bestimmtenTeil der Erdkruste darstellt, der eine Glinka (1914)
ganze Reihebesonderer Eigenschaften besitzt” and “..ein Studienobjektwie P£anze, Mineral, Gestein” [... soil is a
result (product) of elemental forces that act on a particular part of the Earth’s crust having a great many of
specific properties” and “... a study object like plants, minerals, and rocks]
1915 “The broken and weathered fragments of rock that cover in a thin layer the solid part of the earth and that furnish Lyon et al. (1915)
the foothold and, in part, the sustenance for plant life, are termed soil. Soil comes from rock and returns to rock.
It is merely a transitory stage in the change from one form of rock to another. It is never still”
1918 “Soil is a blanket of loose matter formed over the land surface of the earth by the interaction of surface Whitson and
agencies on the underlying rocks.” Walster (1918)
(Continued )

97
 98
Table 3 Definitions of soil in soil science text books from 1900 to 2014.—cont'd.
Year Definition of soil Reference
1920 “... soil is that friable, upper stratum of the earth composed for the most part of mineral matter resulting Weir (1920)
from the breaking up and decay of rocks. Mixed with this mineral matter, especially at the surface, is more
or less organic matter incorporated through the subsequent growth of vegetation.”
1925 “Soils are the earthy material in which plants have their anchorage and from which they obtain their water Greaves and
and part of their food. They are in reality disintegrated rock intimately mixed with varying quantities of Greaves (1925)
decaying plant and animal residues. They are derived from the native rocks by the complex process
known as weathering.”
1931 “The upper layer of the earth’s surface, varying in thickness from 6 to 18 inches in the case of some humid soils Waksman and
and up to 10 or 20 feet in the case of arid soils, possesses certain characteristic properties which distinguishes Starkey (1931)
it from the underlying rocks and rock ingredients. This very thin surface layer of the earth’s pellicle if spoken
of as the soil. It is distinguished from the lower layers by its mechanical, physical, and chemical properties,
but especially by the presence of living organisms including a variety of microbes, lower animals, and roots of
plants. Dead bodies of these organisms also occur in the soil in all stages of decomposition.”
1932 “Soil consists essentially of (a) mineral matter, which has originated from rock by the action of a series of Robinson (1932)
weathering processes, 9b) organic matter, which has originated from the residues of natural vegetation
and organic manures, (c) soil moisture containing substances in colloidal or in true solutions, (d) soil air.”
1936 “The soil is a natural body, differentiated into horizons, of mineral and organic constituents, usually Joffe (1936)
unconsolidated, of variable depth, which differs from the parent material below in morphology, physical
properties and constitution, chemical properties and composition, and biological characteristics.”
1937 “The soil is composed of particles differing physically in size, shape, and cellular structure, varying in Hogentogler
chemical composition, and surrounded, at times, with water containing varying amounts of chemicals in (1937)
solution. Organic matter, air, bacteria, and organisms are usually present.”

A.E. Hartemink
1938 “The soil is a huge system of many shaped cavities, which are built of glassy material, partially clear and Kubiëna (1938)
colorless, partially intense green, red, yellow or brown, almost entirely transparent, seldom translucent
and only infrequently opaque. In the cavities active organisms are to be found; in some only few, in others
very many, according to the size, climate, and food condition of the various cavities.”
1938 “The natural medium for the growth of land plants on the surface of the earth. A natural body of the earth USDA (1938)
in which plants grow, composed of organic and mineral materials.”
 The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s
1940 “The soil is a very complex system. A given volume of soil is made up of solid, liquid and gaseous material. Baver (1940)
The solid may be mineral or organic. The organic fraction includes residues in different stages of
decomposition as well as live, active organisms. The liquid phase is the soil water which fills part of or all of
the open spaces between the solid particles and which varies in its chemical composition and the freedom
with which it moves. The gaseous or vapour phase occupies that that part of the pore space between the
soil particles that is not filled with water.”
1941 “The pedologist’s concept of soil is not that of a mere mass of inorganic and organic material; rather it takes Jenny (1941)
cognizance of a certain element of organization that persistently presents itself in every soil. Although
soils vary widely in their properties, they possess one common feature: they are anisotropic.”
1941 “The term “soil” as used by engineers usually designates earth material, either lying in its original Krynine (1941)
undisturbed state, or removed from the earth crust in order to be placed in a structure, or having already
been placed there. The terms “soil mass” or “earth mass” in engineering language refer synonymously to
natural or artificially laid bodies of each material.”
1946 “The soil consists of the outer layer of the earth’s crust, usually unconsolidated, ranging in thickness from a Lutz and
mere film to a maximum of somewhat more than 10 feet, which differs from the material beneath it, also Chandler (1946)
usually unconsolidated, in color, structure, physical constitution, chemical composition, biological
characteristic, probably in chemical processes, in reaction, and in morphology.” “Soil may also be defined
as “the natural medium for the growth of land plants on the surface of the earth” or as “a natural body on
the surface of the earth in which plants grow, composed of organic and mineral materials.”
1949 “The soil is a natural body of mineral and organic constituents, differentiated into horizons, of variable Joffe (1936) also in
depth, which differs from the material below in morphology, physical makeup, chemical properties and Birkeland
composition, and biological characteristics” (1974, 1999)
1949 “The soil is a living body, inasmuch as it has an embryonic state, followed by a period of growth during Joffe (1949)
which it passes from youth to maturity. Besides the soil body is teeming with life, plant and animal, on
which it depends in no small measure for the supply of ingredients that go to maintain its existence and its
functions. The soil as a body in nature may be examined by 4 out of the 5 natural senses. No sounds of
significance emanate from the soil, and the sense of hearing is of no aid in studying it.”

99
(Continued )
 100
Table 3 Definitions of soil in soil science text books from 1900 to 2014.—cont'd.
Year Definition of soil Reference
1957 “(1) The natural medium for the growth of land plants. (2) A dynamic natural body on the surface of the earth Simonson (1968)
in which plants grow, composed of mineral and organic materials and living forms. (3) The collection of
natural bodies occupying parts of the earth’s surface that support plants and that have properties due to the
integrated effect of climate and living matter acting upon parent material, as conditioned by relief, over
periods of time. A soil is an individual three-dimensional body on the surface of the earth unlike the
adjoining bodies. The area of individual soils ranges from less than one-half acre to more than 300 acres.”
1959 “Although the soil itself does not give birth to life, it is the incubator for the living world.” “This solid earth Farb (1959)
is not solid at all; in fact, many soils are more than half empty, filled only with air, water, and a multitude of
living things between the particles.”
1963 “Soil is the superficial later of the earth’s crust on dry land, inhabited by organisms, containing organic Vilenskii (1963)
matter, and possessing fertility, i.e., the capability of sustaining vegetable crops.”
1964 “Soil if the collection of natural bodies formed by alteration of sedimentary and/or igneous bodies due to Brewer (1964)
exposure at the earth’s surface and having an anisotropic arrangement of properties along and axis normal
to the earth’s surface.”
1967 “The soil system consists of three phases: solid, liquid, and gaseous.” Fried and
Broeshart (1967)
1973 “Soil may, therefore, consist of four parts: Russell (1973)
1. Mineral matter derived from the rocks, but more or less altered by decomposition.
2. Calcium carbonate and resistant organic compounds derived from plants or organisms present at an
earlier period.
3. Residues of plants and microorganisms recently added to the soil.
4. The soil water, which is a solution of the various soluble and partially soluble salts present in the soil.

A.E. Hartemink
Under temperature humid conditions this solution is dilute, but under some arid conditions, particularly
in areas with poor drainage, it may become very concentrated. During dry periods such soils may contain
appreciable quantities of soluble salts as crystals.”
1974 “The natural space-time continuum occurring at the surface of the earth and supporting plant life” Fitzpatrick (1974)
 The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s
1976 “Soil cannot be truly defined outside the environment within which it has formed. In itself, a soil Duchaufour
constitutes a complex “environment,” generally in equilibrium with all the ecological factors such as (1976)
climate, vegetation, and mineral parent material, whose action its integrates.”
1980 “The term soil refers to the weathered and fragmented outer layer of the earth’s terrestrial surface. It is Hillel (1980)
formed initially through disintegration and decomposition of rocks by physical and chemical processes,
and is influenced by the activity and accumulated residues of numerous species of microscopic and
macroscopic plants and animals.”
1989 “Soils are porous media created at the land surface by weathering processes derived from biological, Sposito (1989)
geological, and hydrologic phenomena. Soils differ from mere weathered rock because they show an
approximately vertical stratification (the soil horizons) produced by the continual influence of percolating
water and living organisms. From the point of view of chemistry, soils are multicomponent, open,
biogeochemical systems containing solids, liquids, and gases.”
1992 “Soils are good integrators of several factors in their past and present environments.” Daniels and
Hammer (1992)
1994 “Soil consists of mineral material, the roots of plants, microbial and animal biomass, organic matter in Killham (1994)
various states of decay, as well as water and a gaseous atmosphere.”
1998 “Soil is organic or lithic material at the surface of planets and similar bodies altered by biological, chemical Johnson (1998)
and/or physical agents”
2000 “The soil is a dynamic system that serves as a home for myriad organisms, a receptor for nature’s wastes, a Fisher and
filter for toxic substances, and a storehouse for scarce nutrient ions. The soil is a product as well as an Binkley (2000)
important component of its environment.”
2003 “Soils are heterogeneous mixtures of air, water, inorganic and organic solids, and microorganisms (both Sparks (2003)
plant and animal in nature)”
2003 “Soil exists at the boundary between the atmosphere and the Earth’s subsurface. It plays a critical role in the Warrick (2003)
hydrologic cycle, in addition to serving as the location of most human activity. The soil has developed from
parent material through biological and other factors of weathering. If time is sufficient, then horizons will
have formed with differing physical and chemical properties. At greater depths the soil merges with

101
additional unconsolidated material. Eventually, at still greater depths, bedrock is encountered.”
(Continued )
 102
Table 3 Definitions of soil in soil science text books from 1900 to 2014.—cont'd.
Year Definition of soil Reference
2004 “..the soil is an ecological system to which the customary properties of systems are applicable, particularly Gobat et al. (2004)
those related to living organisms” and “The soil, an ecological system par excellence”
2005 “The unconsolidated mineral and organic material on the surface that serves as a natural medium for the Schaetzl and
growth of land plants, or that responds to diurnal and seasonal climatic and microclimatic conditions in Anderson
the absence of plants (as in parts of Antarctica) OR the unconsolidated mineral and organic matter on the (2005)
surface that has been subjected to and influenced by genetic and environmental factors of parent material,
climate (including moisture and temperature effects), macro- and microorganisms, topography, all acting
over a period of time and producing a product – soil – that differs from the material from which it is
derived in many physical chemical, biological and morphological properties and characteristics.”
2005 “Soil is the biologically excited layer of the earth’s crust. It is an organized mixture of organic and mineral Baskin (2005)
matter. Soil is created by and responsive to organisms, climate, geologic processes, and the chemistry of
the aboveground atmosphere. Soil is the rooting zone for terrestrial plants and the filtration medium that
influences the quality and quantity of the Earth’s waters. Soil supports the nearly unexplored communities
of microorganisms that decompose organic matter and recirculate many of the biosphere’s chemical
elements.”
2007 “Soils are dynamic, open systems with influxes and effluxes of matter and energy. Soil is the organic and Borggaard and
inorganic layered materials of the up to 2 thick outermost part of the earth crust that can support living Elberling (2007)
materials”
2010 “soil is a material composed of mineral, gases, water, organic substances, and microorganisms plus roots, Brady and Weil
animals, rocks, artefacts and so forth” (2008)
2012 “a natural three-dimensional body at the Earth’s surface. It is capable of supporting plants and has properties Lindbo et al.
resulting from the effects of climate and living matter acting on earthy parent material, as conditioned by (2012)

A.E. Hartemink
relief and by the passage of time.”
2014 “Soil is made up of mineral particles, organic substances, air, water and living organisms.” Wallander (2014)
The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s 103

medium for the growth of land plants regardless of whether it has soil
horizons and the greatest interest in soil is centerd on this meaning (Soil
Survey Staff, 1975). The second edition of SoilTaxonomy (1999), included
a definition of soil that has the soil genesis concepts of Simonson (1959)
“Soil is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and organic matter),
liquid, and gases that occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and is
characterized by one or both of the following: horizons, or layers, that are
distinguishable from the initial material as a result of additions, losses,
transfers, and transformations of energy and mater or the ability to sup-
port rooted plants in a natural environment.” The definition had to be
expanded as soils of Antarctica (Bockheim, 1982) were included where
pedogenesis occurs but no higher plant forms grow (Soil Survey Staff,
2010). The soil forming factors and soil genesis are present in the defi-
nition of the soil through the soil genesis concepts of Simonson (1959)
but they are officially not part of any of the diagnostic criteria
(Bockheim et al., 2014).
The current definition of soil in SoilTaxonomy is “Soil is a natural body
comprised of solids (mineral and organic matter), liquid, and gases that
occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one or
both of the following: horizons, or layers, that are distinguishable from the
initial material as a result of additions, losses, transfers, and transformations of
energy and matter or the ability to support rooted plants in a natural
environment.” (Soil Survey Staff, 2010). This definition has a strong pedo-
logical base and recognizes the generalized theory of soil genesis by
Simonson (1959) and the fact that soil supports plant growth. It does not
include many of the other soil functions.

5. THE EXPANDING VIEW

The previous sections analysed how soils were defined in the 19th
century, leading to the established definition of Dokuchaev, and how soils
were defined in soil survey and classification in the 20th century. In this
section, I will review how soils have been defined in the past 115 years,
and how the definition expanded and became influenced by the different
subdisciplines of soil science.
Table 3 lists 45 definitions of soil in soil science textbooks from 1900 to
2014. In the first half of the 20th century, definitions followed a mixture of
Dokuchaev’s overarching definition (natural body, independent study) and
104 A.E. Hartemink

the more geology and chemical view of soils. Russell (1973), coming out of a
long tradition of soil chemistry (Rothamsted, E.J. Russell), emphasized the
chemical aspects of the soil. Others stressed the geology origin of the soil, and
for example, Whitson and Walster (1918) as well as Weir (1920) emphasized
the origin of soils as decaying rocks. Joffe (1936) followed the more inde-
pendent definition of Dokuchaev but included that the soil is alive. Also
Simonson (1968) proposed a definition that viewed soils as a natural body; he
provided three definitions “(1) The natural medium for the growth of land
plants. (2) A dynamic natural body on the surface of the earth in which plants
grow, composed of mineral and organic materials and living forms. (3) The
collection of natural bodies occupying parts of the earth’s surface that support
plants and that have properties due to the integrated effect of climate and
living matter acting upon parent material, as conditioned by relief, over
periods of time. A soil is an individual three-dimensional body on the surface
of the earth unlike the adjoining bodies.”
Some new terms and words started to appear in the definition of soil.
Jenny (1941) emphasized the anisotropic nature of the soil “The pedologist’s
concept of soil is not that of a mere mass of inorganic and organic material;
rather it takes cognizance of a certain element of organization that persis-
tently presents itself in every soil. Although soils vary widely in their prop-
erties, they possess one common feature: they are anisotropic.”
Buol et al. (1973) introduced the term synthograph for the soil which was
defined as a natural device which records a synthesis of much what has
happened at the site, that is, “a soil may contain billion-year-old grains
of quartz, fresh crystals of calcite, one-thousand-year-old pottery fragments,
some organic matter inherited from a plant five thousand years ago, and
incorporated forest litter a few weeks old. The challenge to the soil scientist is
to learn to read this graph.” Manil (1959) defined soils as multidimensional
system in space and time, and soils as natural space-time continuum was
coined by Fitzpatrick (1974). Nikitin (2001) defined the soil as bio-abiotic
polyfunctional system whereas Targulian and Sokolova (1996) defined the
soil as a reactor, memory, and regulator of biosphere interactions.
Since its inception the soil science discipline has had strong ties to
agriculture and to geology and earth sciences (Hartemink and Bouma,
2012). The soil science discipline expanded in the 1970s into broader envi-
ronmental research (Allegre and Courtillot, 1999; Hillel, 1993; McBratney,
1992; Tinker, 1985). The environmental aspects has given a boost to soil
chemistry. Concerns about organic and inorganic contaminants in water and
The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s 105

soil increased, and the emphasis of soil chemistry moved to environmental

soil chemistry that also includes radionuclides, metalloids, and organic
chemical in addition to plant nutrients (Sparks, 2003). Sposito’s
definition included “From the point of view of chemistry, soils are multi-
component, open, biogeochemical systems containing solids, liquids, and
gases” (Sposito, 1989).
In the past two decades, there have been several papers on the role and
future of soil science in a rapidly changing world. There has been a search for
the soil science identity, funding, directions for the future in different coun-
tries, and the environmental and agricultural aspects of soil research
(Hartemink, 2006a). The search includes the identity of the soil science
discipline and the basic and applied aspects of research (Dobrovolskii,
1999; Ruellan, 1997; Vance, 1998; Wild, 1989). The soil view expanded
and was seen as an element in a larger system as part of the earth sciences
(Lovelock, 1993; Bockheim and Gennadiyev, 2010), with a more holistic
view of the discipline (Bridges and Catizzone, 1996), in closer contact with
society (Bouma, 2001; Yaalon and Arnold, 2000) and executed by a new type
of soil scientist (Warkentin, 1999). Since the late 1990s, soil research became
more interdisciplinary, and global thematic issues like sustainability, soil
degradation, and holistic themes related to the soil environment were on
the soil research agenda (Hartemink, 2015b). Soil definitions highlighted
soils as open and dynamic systems. The global thematic issues that currently
frame soil research include food production, water quality, biodiversity loss,
bioenergy generation, climate change, and human health. The soil security
concept frames the soil in five dimensions: capability, condition, capital,
connectivity, and codification which is an overarching concept of soil
(McBratney et al., 2014).
A small part of the soil science community is involved in extra-terres-
trial research activities (Johnson, 1998). The Mars expeditions have yielded
various publications that speak about soils on the red planet (Amundson
et al., 2008; Anon, 2012; Banin, 1996) which raises the question whether a
soil needs to contain life in other to be defined a soil. Certini and Ugolini
(2013) embraced the idea of including a more universal definition, and
proposed the following “soil is a centimetric or thicker unconsolidated
layer of fine-grained mineral and/or organic material, with or without
coarse elements and cemented portions, lying at or near the surface of
planets, moons, and asteroids, which shows clear evidence of chemical
weathering.”
106 A.E. Hartemink

6. SOIL DEFINITIONS IN DICTIONARIES AND GLOSSARIES

One of the first soil science glossaries was published in the 1920s when
the need developed for standardization in methods and nomenclature (Shaw,
1928). Since that time, many dictionaries and glossaries have been published
and Table 4 lists 10 definitions from 1928 to 2006—several other definitions
are given in the 5 soil encyclopaedia and 2 handbooks that have been
published since 2000 (Hartemink, 2012). Shaw (1928) provided both the
old definition of soil as mixture of broken down rock fragments with organic
matter, as well as Dokuchaev’s definition of soils as natural bodies. Most of
the definitions in dictionaries and glossaries are detailed and stress the organic
and inorganic part of the soil as well the origin, complexity, and some of its
functions. The definition of Lozet et al. (1991) is one of the few definitions
that includes some soil processes “... the parent material is altered under the
influence of the climate and the early vegetation, the organic matter is mixed
with the soil, the rock minerals are weathered, the organic matter is degraded
slowly first into fresh humus, finally into carbonic acid, water, ammonia and
nitrates. Finally these organic and mineral elements can be transported by the
infiltrated rainwater and can thus differentiate the soil into a succession of
layers of differing texture, structure and colour called horizons. The soil thus
defined attains a degree of development varying in accordance with the
manner and length of time it had been subjected to the action of the
pedogenetic factors.” It is one of the few definitions that recognizes that
the soil is a four-dimensional structure.
There are many definitions of soil on the World Wide Web—too many to
list, also given the fact that many URLs are short lived. Nonetheless, such
definitions may be more often consulted than the soil science dictionaries,
glossaries and encyclopedia. The October 2015 definition of soil on
Wikipedia was “Soil is the mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids,
and the countless organisms that together support life on earth. Soil is a
natural body known as the pedosphere and which performs four important
functions: it is a medium for plant growth; it is a means of water storage,
supply and purification; it is a modifier of the atmosphere of Earth; it is a
habitat for organisms; all of which, in turn, modify the soil. Soil is considered
to be the “skin of the earth” and interfaces with its lithosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere, and biosphere. Soil consists of a solid phase (minerals and
organic matter) as well as a porous phase that holds gases and water.
Accordingly, soils are often treated as a three-state system. Soil is the end
 The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s
Table 4 Definitions of soil in soil science dictionaries and glossaries from 1928-2006.
Year Definition of soil Reference
1928 “The soil itself has been variously defined. In, a study of some fifty or more published definitions, there Shaw (1928)
appears to be two general concepts of the soil which I have designated the fragmental concept and the
natural concept. The former is the older and the commoner, and usually defines the soil as “a mass of
more or less decomposed and disintegrated rock fragments.,.. .with some organic matter.....” The latter
recognizes the soil as a natural body with surface and subsoil conditions due to natural forces and
produced by orderly development.”
1958 “The superficial part of the earth’s crust that which one stirs with the feet, which supports vegetation, and Plaisance and
which is tilled. Sometimes more pejorative than terre [earth]: “sol ingrat” ungrateful, unproductive soil Cailleux (1958)
(Lafaye). Can be natural or reworked by man. The superficial part of rocks, weathered at contact with the
atmosphere and with living beings. A natural living complex including the mineral matter, which comes
from the parent rock, and the organic material coming from living beings, all evolving under the action of
external agents, such as the fauna, and of the internal flora. Sometimes homogeneous, sometimes formed
of several superimposed horizons. Often loose.”
1964 “In its traditional meaning, soil is the natural medium for the growth of land plants, whether or not it has ISSS (1964)
developed horizons. “A soil” consists of one or many pedons, bounded on all sides by “not soil” or by
pedons of unlike character in respect to one or more characteristics diagnostic for a soil series.”
1965 “(i) The unconsolidated mineral material on the immediate surface of the earth that serves as a natural SSSA (1965)
medium or the growth of land plants. (ii) The unconsolidated mineral matter on the surface of the earth
that has been subjected to and influenced by genetic and environmental factors of: parent material,
climate (including moisture and temperature effects), macro, and microorganisms, and topography, all
acting over a period of time and producing a product—soil—that differs from the material from which it
is derived in many physical, chemical, biological and morphological properties and characteristics.”
(Continued )

107
 108
Table 4 Definitions of soil in soil science dictionaries and glossaries from 1928-2006.—cont'd.
Year Definition of soil Reference
1991 “Product of weathering, reworking and organization of the upper layers of the earth’s crust under the Lozet et al. (1991)
action of life, atmosphere, an energy exchanges manifested in them (Aubert and Boulaine). It is therefore
a dynamic and complex medium developing under the influence of the external factors (hydrosphere,
atmosphere, biosphere). Its properties are progressively acquired under the combined action of these
factors: the parent material is altered under the influence of the climate and the early vegetation, the
organic matter is mixed with the soil, the rock minerals are weathered, the organic matter is degraded
slowly first into fresh humus, finally into carbonic acid, water, ammonia and nitrates. Finally these organic
and mineral elements can be transported by the infiltrated rainwater and can thus differentiate the soil into
a succession of layers of differing texture, structure and colour called horizons. The soil thus defined
attains a degree of development varying in accordance with the manner and length of time it had been
subjected to the action of the pedogenetic factors. Consequently, the soil is a four-dimensional structure
(time, space) in which persist, and are transitory:
– the results and the products of alteration of the surface mineral layer of the globe.
– the dead or living organic materials of the biomass associated with this surface layer.
– the elements coming from the atmosphere, accidentally in a cyclic manner (Boulaine).”
1997 “(i) The unconsolidated mineral or organic material on the immediate surface of the earth that serves as a SSSA (1997)
natural medium for the growth of land plants. (ii) The unconsolidated mineral or organic matter on the
surface of the earth that has been subjected to and shows effects of genetic and environmental factors of:
climate (including water and temperature effects) and macro-, and microorganisms, conditioned by
relief, acting on parent material over a period of time. A product-soil differs from the material from which
it is derived in many physical, chemical, biological, and morphological properties and characteristics.”
2000 “(1) The unconsolidated mineral or organic materials on the immediate surface of the Earth that serves as a Gregorich et al.

A.E. Hartemink
natural medium for the growth of land plants. (2) The natural, unconsolidated mineral or organic matter (2000)
on the surface of the Earth that has been influenced by parent material, climate, macro- and
microorganisms, and relief, all acting over a period of time to produce a material different from which it
was derived in many physical, chemical, biological, morphological properties.”
 The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s
2003 “1. the highly variable unconsolidated mixture of mineral and organic matter that supports plant life at the Troeh and
surface of the Earth. 2. the natural product formed at the surface of the Earth by the action of climate and Donahue (2003)
living organisms on weathered rock as influenced by topography and time. 3. any unconsolidated earthy
material. Also called regolith. 4. An environment where something may develop, as despair provides he
soil for crime. 5. to make unclean or dirty; to smudge or stain. 6. to tarnish or damage figuratively, as to
soil one’s reputation.”
2006 “A collection of natural bodies in the Earth’s surface, in places modified or even made by man of earthy Canarache et al.
materials, containing living matter and supporting or capable of supporting plant out-of-doors.” (2006)

109
110 A.E. Hartemink

product of the influence of the climate, relief (elevation, orientation, and

slope of terrain), organisms, and parent materials (original minerals) inter-
acting over time. Soil continually undergoes development by way of numer-
ous physical, chemical and biological processes, which include weathering
with associated erosion.”
The EncyclopaediaBritannica web definition of soil is “the biologically active,
porous medium that has developed in the uppermost layer of the Earth’s crust.
Soil is one of the principal substrata of life on Earth, serving as a reservoir of
water and nutrients, as a medium for the filtration and breakdown of injurious
wastes, and as a participant in the cycling of carbon and other elements
through the global ecosystem. It has evolved through weathering processes
driven by biological, climatic, geologic, and topographic influences.”

7. DISCUSSION

In this paper, soil definitions from the early 1800s to the present were
reviewed. Most definitions were taken from text books but also from soil survey
and classification works, as well as glossaries, and dictionaries. Most introductory
and advanced soil science text books contain a soil definition. It was found that
books on soils of the tropics often have no definition of soil; they usually include a
definition of “the tropical environment” (Buringh, 1970; Hartemink, 2003; Juo
and Franzluebbers, 2003; Lal, 1987; Sanchez, 1976; van Wambeke, 1992). The
absence of a definition of soils in the tropics in such text books may have to do
with the fact that research in the tropics is often more edaphological (Hartemink,
2002) and that pedological differences between soils of the tropical and temper-
ate regions are limited (Sanchez and Buol, 1975). In this discussion, I shall focus
on (1) the framing of the definition, (2) how the definition of soil evolved over
time, and (3) propose two new definitions.

7.1 Framing of the Definitions

The definitions of the soil can be framed in different ways and an attempt is made
to unravel the basis of the soil definitions based on what soils are, how they are
formed, and how the definitions differ for different groups of soil scientists.
7.1.1 Soils as Functional Material and the Soil Forming Factors
There are about six aspects of soil that determine its definition based on:
• material (organic, inorganic, clay, sand etc.)
• composition (three phase system, solid, liquids, gas)
The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s 111

• origin (broken down rocks, geology, diluvium, alluvium etc.)

• behavior (dynamics, changes over time)
• medium for properties and processes (C storage, water filter)
• functions (biomass production, carbon pool, building material).
The functional material definition is being used for characterizing and
defining soil (see Tables 2–5) but it is also being used to name soils. For
example, and increasing number of soil science papers refer to sandy soils
(Herbrich et al., 2015) or clay soils (D’Angelo et al., 2014). Also defining soils
based on their origin, for example, alluvial soils (Jordanova et al., 2013), or
based on their function for biomass production, for example, agricultural soil
(Beguerı́a et al., 2015; Rubk et al., 2013) is increasing. These are examples
how the definition of the soil has become dominant over the proper soil
classification name (Hartemink, 2015c).
There are countless studies in which soil material is studied under dif-
ferent vegetation or land use systems. Many of these studies focus on bio-
chemical properties and are often detailed and laboratory based. In many of
these studies, soils have been defined as products one of the five soil forming
factors:
• in the climatic and zonal context (tropical soils)
• as a product of rock weathering (parent material: basalt soils)
• as determined by land use (agricultural soils, forest soils)
• as influenced by their topographic position (eg, valley soils) or
• based on their age (young soils, highly weathered soils).
Defining soils based on particular soil features was popular in the first half
of the 20th century. The land-use, topographic, age, parent material and
even color classification of soils continue to appear in soil science journals but
the discipline’s scientific base has evolved beyond such relative simple char-
acterizations (Hartemink, 2015c).
An important issue in the definition of soil are its boundary—both
vertically and horizontally, as well as in time. The importance of soil depth
was already discussed by Boussingault (1845) “There is an important element
which must always be taken into the account in estimating the value of soils,
no matter what their special composition; this element is their depth, or
thickness.” He distinguished the importance of the topsoil designated as
mould or vegetable earth, as was common in the 1800s (Darwin, 1881),
and the subsoil which is generally less fertile but important for storing
moisture. The rooting depth has been proposed as the lower boundary of
the soil (Hilgard, 1906) but there are many trees and shrubs that root several
tens of meters.
112 A.E. Hartemink

Soil depth or the depth to include in soil classification has been an

evolving issue in SoilTaxonomy. This applies to both the upper and lower
limit. In the 2nd edition of SoilTaxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1999), the upper
limit was of the soil was set as the boundary between soil and air, shallow
water (< 2.5 m), live plants, or plant materials that have not begun to
decompose. The lower boundary that separates soil from nonsoil underneath
is most difficult to define as it grades to hard rock or materials devoid of
biological activity. The lower boundary of soil is set to 2 m—even if the soil is
deeper (Soil Survey Staff, 1999). In WRB, the object classified is: any
material within 2 m of the Earth’s surface that is in contact with the atmo-
sphere, excluding living organisms, areas with continuous ice not covered by
other material, and water bodies deeper than 2 m. If explicitly stated, the
object classified in the WRB includes layers deeper than 2 m (IUSS Working
Group WRB, 2014).
To set the lower boundary of the soil at a specific depth reveals the
linkages to agriculture as most annual crops (eg, maize, wheat) have rooting
depths that do not exceed the observational depth that is practically possible
through the use of an auger of digging a soil pit. There have been various calls
for claiming the deeper subsoil into the realm of soil research (eg, Hartemink
and Minasny, 2014; Juilleret et al., 2016; Wysocki et al., 2005). Also geope-
dologists (Cremeens et al., 1994; Scott and Pain, 2009; Zanner and Graham,
2005), and the international network of Critical Zone Observatories
(Banwart et al., 2012) include the deeper subsoil into their research. Hunt
(2015) investigated soil depth as a function of time for different parts of the
world. The lower limit of the soil continues to be debated but the deep
subsoil has not made it in the soil definitions that mostly tend to focus on the
cultivatable part of the soil.
The upper limit is usually set at the boundary between soil and the air so
excludes living organisms and aboveground vegetation. Francis Hole has
argued that the highest point of the vegetation should be viewed as part
of the soil. Jenny (1980) distinguished the difference between the soil space
and the vert space (green space) as the forest floor and the base of the tree.
Some soils are also found in trees, for example, arboreal Histosols
(Enloe et al., 2006). The consensus seems to be that the aboveground
vegetation is excluded from the soil definition.

7.1.2 Soils and Their Researchers

Soil means different things to different people, that is: farmer, horticulturist,
engineer, hydrologist, environmentalist, business man, archaeologist, or
The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s 113

pedologist (Borggaard and Elberling, 2007; Schaetzl and Anderson, 2005).

This has to do with soil as part of the earth, as soils for plant growth, building
and construction, or as material for manufacturing cement, glass, ceramic,
for bituminous mixtures, road surfaces, buildings, or for construction mate-
rial in dams and levees. Soils are studied by a very diverse group of scientists,
probably more diverse than ever before in its research history. There is a
rapidly expanding soil knowledge base, and new disciplinary groups study
the soil and expand the focus and breadth of soil research (eg, vadose zone
researchers, soil C community, microbiologists, biogeochemists, soil biodi-
versity researchers, geographers). For many of the nontraditional soil science
groups, the soil may solely be a medium—just as it was for von Liebig. A
medium that contains specific properties, fauna or elements. The effect of
increased specialization and expansion in soil science causes that the detail of
the investigation prevails over the idea of soil as a complex dynamic system
that is part of the earth system.
The soil science community holds wide views on soils, and they have
been defined as:
• a three-phase system by soil physicists
• reactors of chemical properties and composition by soil chemists
• stores and transformers of plant nutrients by soil fertility specialists
• buffers and filters of water by hydropedologists
• a natural resource that degrades and under threat by environmental soil
scientists
• a medium for small fauna by micriobiologists and soil biologists
• a storage tank and transformer for organics and inorganics by
biogeochemists
• a functional element in ecosystem services by ecological soil scientists
• an element of the landscape by soil geomorphologists
• objects of individual study by most pedologists
• soil as a natural capital by ecological economists
• soil as a building material by engineers
• soil as an forgotten, unseen and underfoot element (by pedo-pessimists)
The definitions given in Tables 1–4 are all related to the scope of the
research and the particular soil science community that studies soil. How
soils were viewed and thus defined largely depends on whom studies it.
Pedologists seek definitions that involve the soil’s origin, genesis, and vari-
ation across the landscape and world, whereas biogeochemists have a more
restricted view or single out a single property of the soil. The framing of the
definition has been based on soil intrinsic properties and processes or to the
114 A.E. Hartemink

soil’s relation to its soil forming factors. These have been differently empha-
sized by different subdisciplines whereby the views are depending on the
expertise and background of the soil scientist. There seems to be an increase
of soil biological terms in soil definitions.
Traditionally, soil scientists have always been good in linking soils to the
large global themes like hunger, poverty, and soil degradation (Buringh,
1977; Jacks and Whyte, 1939; Russell, 1954) and thinking about the need
for soil information in making informed decisions about global soil use. That
trends continues to date (Hartemink, 2008; Janzen et al., 2011; Lin, 2014;
McBratney et al., 2014) but may be hampered by a narrower view that does
not necessarily reflect the complexity and dynamics of the soil system. The
interdisciplinary approach to study soil has been widely advocated (Bouma,
2001). The current thematic interdisciplinary approach has the potential to
reduce soil and soil information to medium for plant growth, or for merely
water and carbon storage. The decreasing research attention to soil funda-
mentals might aggravate this (McKenzie, 2006; Ruellan, 1997).
The definitions are influenced by national or regional differences
(Barrera-Bassols and Zinck, 2003) as well as the cultural and societal aspects
of the soil science discipline (Churchman and Landa, 2014; Landa and
Feller, 2010; McNeill and Winiwater, 2006). Some definitions may have a
national or regional flavor. In some languages (eg, German, Dutch) there
are different words for soil as material (Grund, grond) versus soil as natural
resource and entity (Boden,bodem). The English language distinguishes such
difference in ground and soil whereby ground usually refers to a tract of land
or indicating a place (ie, homeground). The cultural and societal aspects are
no less diverse than the soil itself.

7.2 Evolution of the Definitions

The definition of soil has evolved in the past 200 years. In the 1800s, soils
were defined as the products of broken down and rotten rock or as medium
for plant growth. A more holistic definition appeared with the works of V.V.
Dokuchaev whereby soils were defined as natural body that required inde-
pendent study. Throughout the 1900s, these definitions were used and
further expanded with environmental and biological terms. Russian soil
science continues to deliver soil definitions and Bockheim et al. (2005)
reviewed some of the recent definitions, that include soil as a natural “exon,”
which has properties resulting from autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms
and exogenic transformations (Dmitriev, 1996). The soil has also been
The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s 115

defined as a reactor, memory, and regulator of biosphere interactions

(Targulian and Sokolova, 1996), as pedomatrix (Targulian and Krasilnikov,
2007), as an abiotic system with numerous biospheric functions, and as a
planetary membrane that maintains the biosphere (Nikitin, 2001). Soils as
natural body is a term that may need some revision now the majority of our
soils are directly or indirectly influenced by human activities.
The key concepts that define a soil have evolved over time and
Bockheim et al. (2005) listed these to be: (1) The soil is a medium for plant
growth; (2) The soil is a mantle of loose and weathered rock; (3) The soil is an
independent, natural, evolutionary body; (4) The soil is the “excited skin” of
the subaerial part of the Earth’s crust and a key component of the biosphere;
and (5) The soil is a natural body composed of solids (minerals and organic
matter), liquids, and gases that occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and
is characterized by horizons or layers that are distinguishable from the initial
material. Brevik and Arnold (2015) noted that the modern definition of soil
as used by pedologists includes the following key elements: (1) Soils are
natural bodies, (2) Soils are both spatial and temporal, (3) Soils form at the
surface, (4) Soils are the result of complex biogeochemical and physical
processes, (5) Soils are capable of supporting life, and (6) Soils can be mapped
at appropriate scales.
A further expansion of those categories is:
• The soil is the weathering product of rocks and minerals formed insitu or
formed in transported and deposited material.
• The soil is a medium for plant growth focusing on its biological, chemical
and physical fertility.
• Soils as independent natural bodies that have genetic horizons reflecting
the effects of local and zonal soil-forming agents.
• The soil is an element in the landscape and interacts with all its forming
factors (climate, living organisms, parent material, relief) over time giving
rise to an independent natural body with a unique morphology.
• Soil as an environmental regulator, filtering and storing water, harboring a
myriad of organisms.
• The soil as most precious resource that is limited, threatened by human
activities and degraded in many parts of the world.
Many definitions have focused on soil as a material with a particular
origin, uniqueness and use or functions. The different meaning of soil reflect
the diversity of soil functions (biomass, filter etc.) (Borggaard and Elberling,
2007). These functions include biomass production, storing, filtering and
transforming of nutrients, substances and water, biodiversity pool, physical
116 A.E. Hartemink

and cultural environment, source of raw materials, acting as a carbon pool,

and archive of geological and cultural heritage (McBratney et al., 2014).
In the introduction to one of the most cited and influential books in soil
science (FactorsofSoilFormation ^ASystemofQuantitativePedology), Hans Jenny
wrote “As a science grows, its underlying concepts change, although the
words remain the same” (Jenny, 1941). Here, it was shown that the meaning
expanded mostly from a utilitarian point of view, that is: soil functions. The
material itself was fairly well defined in the 1800s. Over time the function of
the soil and more technical and holistic details entered soil definitions. In
1941, Jenny stated there was no urgent need for universal agreement on the
definition of soil (Jenny, 1941). Given the many developments in the soil
science discipline (specialization, fragmentation, expansion of scope, and
educational need) it is not surprising that many definitions have appeared
since that time. It will continue do so. For example, the Universal Soil
Classi¢cation System that currently is being developed (Hempel et al., 2013;
Michéli et al., 2015) may attempt to broaden the definition of soil based on
new insights, regrouping of soils based on centroids and geographic patterns.
Likewise, the increased research attention to the deeper subsoil as well as
developments in extra-terrestrial pedology may yield revised soil definitions.
Our view on soils has changed over time (Hartemink, 2009), and we have
technology available to view soils beyond the visible light—it will likely lead
to a definition of soil beyond the many that have been published.

7.3 Two New Definitions

After having reviewed hundreds of definitions of soil since the 1800s, I will
aim to provide some new definitions inspired by all that was read and insight
that was gained. There are some inherent problems in defining what a soil
is—there is an almost infinite variation in soils, which is also at the crux of
developing a soil classification system. Each soil is formed by some specific
pedogenic processes that are biotic and abiotic (Targulian and Krasilnikov,
2007). The first question is what the definition should include and whom the
definition is for (the audience: lay person, students, soil scientists, or other
scientists). Morton (1843) already perceived that we should have two defini-
tions of soil, one scientific, and the other to explain it to the farmer. It is in
that light that I define soil in two ways.
A definition of soil for the students and practitioners of soil science should
include information on the material, its origin, depth, behavior, key prop-
erties, processes, factors, dynamics, its variation across space and time and
The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s 117

perhaps its function in the world. The definition of soil should include the
uniqueness, and among others these are: the formation and properties of soil
horizons, the occurrence and properties of aggregates in soil, and the occur-
rence and behavior of soil colloids (Churchman, 2010). Furthermore, soils
are four-dimensional and open systems with connections to the atmosphere,
biosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Taking all this into account and
aiming for a brief definition (if not an abridged description), here is a
suggestion for a scientific definition of soil:

The soil is a living, four-dimensional natural entity containing solids, water (or ice)
and air. Most soils are outside and are open systems, but soils also occur in shallow
lakes and underneath pavement. A soil can have any colour, any age, be very
shallow or deep, and consists mostly of a structured mixture of sand, silt and clay
(inorganics), rocks and organic material (dead and alive). The soil has one or more
genetic horizons, is an intrinsic part of the landscape, and changes over time. Soil
are distributed across the earth mostly in a systematic manner. Soils store and
transform energy and matter. The soil often supports vegetation, carries all terres-
trial life, and produces most of our food. It is an integral part of the natural world
interacting with the climate, lithosphere and hydrosphere. Soils are often studied in
combination with land-use, climate, geomorphology or the hydrology of an area.

This definition highlights the four dimensions of the open system, the
mixture of structured materials, its geography, and provides some informa-
tion on its use and how it is studied. A possible definition for the lay person
should stress that soils are the foundation of life and could be:

Soils are the thin layer covering our planet earth. They are complex blends of living
and mineral materials. Just like birds or plants there are thousands of kinds of soil.
Soil is a vital natural resource, it filters and stores water, and is an important part of
the Earth system. Most of our food comes from cultivated soils.

8. SOME CONCLUDING REMARKS

In this paper, I have reviewed how soils were defined in the past
200 years. As a soil scientist (so not an historian or epistemologist), I realize
that such historical analysis may have some limitations as “... the history of
soil knowledge is full of contradictions, (mis)-interpretations and at times
seems circular” (Winiwater, 2006). Nonetheless, I hope that the breadth and
historical embedding reveals some insight on how our thinking about soils
has evolved, how soils were defined, and how we could define them.
118 A.E. Hartemink

Much of what we know about soils has come from thousands of soil
surveys across all parts of the globe, from systematic and refined laboratory
analysis and interpretation, from the development and testing of sound
theory, and the borrowing and use of techniques from other disciplines. In
short, the definition of soil reflects our knowledge about one of the most
important natural resources on our planet. The definition of soil as natural
body and object of study has mostly been made by pedologists—which is
logical and natural as the soil is their main object of study. Subdisciplines in
soil science have added components to the definition, such as an emphasis
on soil ecology, or soils as transformers and stores of matter and energy.
How soils are defined is largely based on the background and expertise of
the person that defined the soil; it has also changed over time. It reflects the
transformation of soil science from a somewhat pure and fundamental
science focused on a natural resource equivalent in importance to climate
and geology, to a discipline that also focuses on environmental aspects of
the soil.
The past three decades are characterized by a strong call for interdisci-
plinary approaches and have seen specialization and fragmentation of the
discipline, which brings with it a risk of reducing the soil to a material
(medium) and not studying it as a natural body and part of the landscape.
Soil science is now fully back on the global agenda and its relevance in issues
like climate change and water availability is widely recognized. The soil
itself has to become a clearly defined research entity and a common per-
ception and understanding of its meaning is essential. This paper is no call
for studying soil in isolation of the big global issues or separate from other
disciplines. It calls for an intradisciplinary approach studying not only the
biochemical, hydropedology or vadose zone but also the entire dynamic
complex of the soil system.
The identity of soil science as a discipline is narrowly linked to its object
of study: the soil. The soil itself has to become a clearly defined research
entity and it is essential that we develop a shared perception and understand-
ing of its meaning that reflects the reconsolidation of acquired knowledge
and wisdom. There are many new techniques available for measuring,
modeling and quantifying soil properties, processes, and their spatial and
temporal distribution. As a result, or as a driving force, new research tech-
nologies and topics have emerged like pedometrics, vadose zone research, or
extra-terrestrial pedology—to name a few. These push the boundaries of our
soil knowledge and may expand the definition of soil beyond those offered in
this paper.
The Definition of Soil Since the Early 1800s 119

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
At the first class of any soil science course that I teach, I ask the students to write down two
things: what they would like to learn, and how they define the soil. Both questions yield
fascinating answers, and the question on the definition of soil formed the kernel that led to this
paper. It took a few years. I am indebted to Prof Jim Bockheim, Bill Bland, Alex McBratney,
and Sissel Schroeder for commenting on parts and drafts of this paper. Thank you to all my
friends, students, and colleagues in soil science for sharing thoughts and debates about that
scientific discipline of ours. To that wonderful and most exciting discipline: soil science!

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