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Editor-in-Chief: Tala Mohebi

Senior Editors: Katharine Keith, John Nahas, Paul Rockower, Leah Rousseau
Public Diplomacy education at USC:
Staff Editors: Martha Adams, Taleen Ananian, Melanie Ciolek, Cesar Corona, Babeeta
Two-year Master of Public Diplomacy (M.P.D.) Dhillon, Hiva Feizi, Alexis Haftvani, Tori Horton, Daniela Montiel, Mark Preston, Daniel
Smith, Di Wu
One-year Professional Master of Public Diplomacy
Mid-career Summer Institute in Public Diplomacy Production: Taleen Ananian & Babeeta Dhillon- Layout & Design
Cover Art courtesy of Aaron Montoya, aaronmontoya.com
for professional diplomats
Faculty Advisory Board
Nicholas J. Cull, Director, Master of Public Diplomacy Program, USC
Philip Seib, Director, USC Center on Public Diplomacy

Ex-Officio Members
John S. Odell, Director, School of International Relations, USC
Abby Kaun, Assoc. Dean of Academic Programs and Student Affairs, Annenberg School
Sherine Badawi Walton, Deputy Director, USC Center on Public Diplomacy

International Advisory Board

Home of the USC Center on Public Diplomacy Simon Anholt, Editor-in-Chief, Journal of Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
Matthew Bonham, Co-Director, Newhouse/Maxwell Public Diplomacy Program,
at the Annenberg School, online at Syracuse University
Andrew Cooper, Assoc. Director, CIGI & Professor, Political Science, University of Waterloo
www.uscpublicdiplomacy.com Geoffrey Cowan, Professor & Annenberg Family Chair in Communication Leadership,
University of Southern California
Harris Diamond, CEO, Weber Shandwick Worldwide
Kathy Fitzpatrick, Professor & Director, Graduate Studies in Public Relations,
U S C A N N E N B E R G S C H O O L F O R C O M M U N I C AT I O N & J O U R N A L I S M Quinnipiac University
Eytan Gilboa, Professor, International Communication, Bar-Ilan University
Howard Gillman, Dean, USC College of Letters, Arts and Sciences
• Home of the nation’s first master’s degree program in public diplomacy Peter van Hamm, Director, Global Governance Research Programme, Netherlands
Institute of International Relations Clingendael
• Combines the strengths of USC’s Annenberg School for Communication and
Markos Kounalakis, President, Washington Monthly
School of International Relations Evan Potter, Professor of Communications, University of Ottawa
Ambassador William A. Rugh, U.S. Foreign Service (Ret.)
• Center on Public Diplomacy recognized by the U.S. State Department as Crocker Snow, Edward R. Murrow Center for Public Diplomacy, Tufts University
“the world’s premier research facility” in the field Nancy Snow, Assoc. Professor, Public Diplomacy, Syracuse University
Philip M. Taylor, Professor of International Communications, University of Leeds
• Strong institutional relationships with embassies, government agencies and Shibley Telhami, Anwar Sadat Chair for Peace and Development, University of Maryland
nongovernmental organizations around the world Abiodun Williams, Vice President, Center for Conflict Analysis and Prevention, United
States Institute for Peace
• Energetic and international student body Ernest J. Wilson III, Dean and Walter Annenberg Chair in Communication, USC
Annenberg School for Communication & Journalism
• Innovative perspective informed by Los Angeles’ role as international media
capital and key position on Pacific Rim

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 FROM THE EDITORS
Issue 3, Winter 2010
S u m m e r 2010 PD has entered its second year and second phase of production led
Institute by a dedicated team of public diplomacy graduate students and support from
in Public Diplomacy scholars and practitioners in the field. We are excited to bring you this latest
issue focusing on the subject of cultural diplomacy.
AT THE “An amazing two weeks and a great forum to meet
UNIVERSITY of and network with public diplomacy practitioners.”
Governments, non-state actors, multinational corporations and
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA — 2009 Summer Institute Participant influential individuals have all, at some point, utilized culture as a tool for
communicating and relating to foreign as well as domestic audiences. While
July 19 - 30, 2010 An intensive two-week course that equips practitioners with tools this is common practice, it is not always correctly identified as cultural
to engage foreign audiences and employ innovative strategies to diplomacy. Our goal in this issue is to bring together the history and theory
improve the image and impact of their country or organization in
TO APPLY, that underpins this element of diplomacy in order to recognize its value as
or for more information, the world.
Please visit:
well as its limitations. Our lead articles, found under the heading Connecting
uscpublicdiplomacy.org Innovative Approach World Renowned Faculty Through Culture, touch upon the numerous debates that surround cultural
Unique blend of classroom International faculty of public diplo- diplomacy as a practice.
APPLICATION DEADLINE:
instruction and collaboration macy experts whose advice is sought
April 15, 2010
with colleagues from a variety of by nations and organizations around
international backgrounds. the world.
Diplomacy continues to garner strong interest from policymakers
CONTACT:
USC Center on Public Diplomacy Training provided in both theory and observers. With this in mind, we have pursued additional measures
at the Annenberg School and practice with application to to improve PD as a forum for up-to-date and dynamic dialogue. We have
Tel: (213) 821-0768
Fax: (213) 821-0774
real-world situations. taken measures to engage a broader audience by enhancing our print issue
Email: [email protected] and reconstructing our virtual presence.

PD has always been first and foremost an online publication

and our new site allows us to maintain our communication with readers
between the releases of our biannual issues. Please visit us as www.
publicdiplomacymagazine.org. We look forward to continuing this dialogue
with you.

Sincerely,

Tala Mohebi Katharine Keith John Nahas

Editor-in-Chief Senior Editor Senior Editor

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS 75

U.S.A. and UNESCO
Jim Leach

PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN PRACTICE

FORUM 79 Advancing Public Diplomacy Through World Expos
6 The Need for Sensitive Politics in the Quest for a World Without Walls Vicente González Loscertales
David Watt
87 Incredible India
NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN PUBLIC DIPLOMACY Leena Nandan
9 New Technology and New Public Diplomacy
Evgeny Morozov AT POST
94 Interview with Joe Mellot
12 International Broadcasting Conducted by PD Magazine Senior Editor Katharine Keith
Geoffrey Cowan
CASE STUDY
15 21st Century Science Diplomacy 99 Nollywood Diplomacy
Nina Fedoroff Chidiogo Akunyili

CONNECTING THROUGH CULTURE 104 Pop Culture Diplomacy
18 The Hush-Hush Debate: The Cultural Foundations of U.S. Public Kenjiro Monji
Diplomacy
Richard T. Arndt 109 Public Diplomacy in Lebanon
Etienne F. Augé
29 Cultural Diplomacy: An Overplayed Hand?
Yudhishthir Raj Isar IN PRINT
113 The Future of U.S. Public Diplomacy: An Uncertain Fate, by Kathy
45 Cosmopolitan Constructivism: Mapping a Road to the Future of R. Fitzpatrick
Cultural and Public Diplomacy Reviewed by Mark Preston
César Villanueva Rivas
116 Cold War Confrontations: U.S. Exhibitions and Their Role in the
57 Showing the Power of “Cultural Relations”: Strategic planning, Cultural Cold War, by Jack Masey and Conway Lloyd Morgan
monitoring and evaluation at the British Council Reviewed by Andrew Wulf
Sharon Memis
ENDNOTE
PERSPECTIVES 120 Soft Power and Cultural Diplomacy
70 Out from Under the Proscenium: A Paradigm for U.S. Cultural Joseph S. Nye, Jr.
Diplomacy
Peter Kovach

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 FORUM on the principle that cultural diplomacy is an indispensable tool in conducting
international relations and is not secondary to political diplomacy, but rather
functions as an intrinsic aspect of it. Cultural diplomacy can therefore be
seen as a vital foundation of all political activity.
While there is no concrete definition of the term, American
political scientist and author Milton C. Cummings’ definition of cultural
diplomacy, “the exchange of ideas, information, values, systems, traditions,
The Need for Sensitive Politics in beliefs, and other aspects of culture, with the intention of fostering mutual
understanding,” effectively encompasses the institute’s approach to the
the Quest for a World Without Walls concept. In this sense, cultural diplomacy can be interpreted to indicate any
mutual exchange between cultures.
David Watt This exchange—and cultural diplomacy in a wider sense—can be
extended via the encouragement of intercultural dialogue in an academic
context to include, for example, the politics of Soft Power and the way
that international affairs are handled. Professor Joseph Nye Jr. of Harvard
University, who coined the term “Soft Power,” underlines that the use of what
On November 9, 2009, the world watched as hundreds of giant,
we describe as cultural diplomacy is an important component of Soft Power.
painted dominoes toppled in front of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin to mark
Professor Nye categorizes the resources that lead to Soft Power as culture
20 years since the end of the Cold War. World leaders gathered to express the
(both elite and popular); policy-making and its perception from abroad; and
symbolism of this momentous event in the context of the global community
a country’s value system and legitimacy in this regard. He further suggests
of the 21st Century. That same weekend, from November 6-9, the Institute
that to successfully “attract” others—a term which he uses to refer to the act
for Cultural Diplomacy (ICD) played host to participants and speakers in the
of convincing someone that a culture or policy is appealing—leaders must
framework of “A World Without Walls: An International Congress on “Soft
“pay attention to the diversity of views and culture of others and have to
Power, Cultural Diplomacy and Interdependence.” On this momentous day,
learn to listen more.”
two decades since the fall of the Berlin Wall and the reunification of Europe,
During the “World Without Walls” Congress a great deal of emphasis
one sentiment prevailed: we are one people. There is no doubt the age of
was placed on the fact that the ability to understand changing contexts and
interdependency is upon us. An age which demands a fresh approach to
situations is critical for good leadership. To comprehend the impulses that
international relations in the context of these turbulent times, where we are
lead to opinion and reaction in consideration of the significance of cultural
faced by the threat of global warming, religious extremism and controversial
aspects and how they come to bear on society and politics is a useful resource
military conflict. It is the cue for cultural diplomacy to take to the world
for any world leader. Today more than ever, it is important to understand
stage.
actions within the framework of the culture from which they are spawned
In the 10th anniversary year of the foundation of the ICD, the “World
and in relation to which outside culture(s) they respond. Global media and
Without Walls” congress brought together the largest range of speakers in
the digital age see to the broadcasting of images and snapshots within the
the institute’s history to address the most pressing issues facing our world
myriad of world cultures constantly being observed and analyzed. One of the
today and the role that cultural diplomacy can play in their resolution. For
challenges we face in today’s world is to aid this reception and encourage
the last decade, the ICD has sought to promote global peace and stability
the active and effective digestion of this information.
by strengthening and supporting intercultural relations in the political and
The trend toward accepting the need for cultural diplomacy and the
international sphere as well as at the grass-roots level. The institute is founded

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benefits of Soft Power in achieving both common and individual interests has
grown significantly in recent years. An obvious example is the administration NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN
of U.S. President Barack Obama with its significantly different approach to
foreign policy. This may be the most shining example, relished by the media PUBLIC DIPLOMACY
and global thinkers alike, and is certainly easy to reference by the President’s
landmark speech in Cairo on June 4, 2009 and the recently bestowed Nobel
Peace Prize. Nonetheless, let us not forget UN Secretary General Ban Ki-
Moon, who champions the merits of “quiet” diplomacy with his “velvet
glove” approach. Ki-Moon describes himself as a harmonizer and consensus
builder.
During the ICD “A World Without Walls” Congress, many leading
New Technology and New Public
figures in international relations came together to support the need for
institutions promoting cultural diplomacy in an often volatile global climate
Diplomacy
and a world which is becoming increasingly interdependent. Former
candidate for the 2007 French Presidential Elections, Ségolène Royal, Evgeny Morozov
spoke of the changed world since 1989 and outlined her vision for a United
States of Europe, more effective in tackling global issues. During panel
discussions ambassadors, academics and former heads of state expressed
the views that intercultural dialogue is a necessity in today’s international Given the prominent role of social media in recent protests in
relations. Additionally, ICD Advisory Board members like Dr. Vaira Vīķe- Moldova and Iran, its potential uses and misuses have attracted significant
Freiberga, former Latvian President and candidate for the EU-Presidency attention from various parts of the American intelligence community. The
have shown their commitment to the message of the ICD. With the support most important recent development has been a significant investment by
of remarkable figures like this, the Institute for Cultural Diplomacy hopes In-Q-Tel, a CIA-funded venture capital firm, in Visible Technologies, a firm
to continue its work and secure the position of cultural diplomacy at the that tracks social media. According to an In-Q-Tel spokesman, one of the
forefront of international political relations in the future. hopes of this collaboration is that the intelligence community will get an
“early-warning detection on how issues are playing internationally.”
The State Department announced its commitment to experiment
David Watt has been a member of the team at the ICD since summer with the use of social networking for citizen engagement and civic
2009 where his responsibilities include CD News reporting and the co- participation in the Middle East (which folds nicely under Hillary Clinton’s
ordination of the Young Leaders’ Forum “The UK Meets Germany.” recently announced initiative of “Civil Society 2.0”). The State Department
is planning to award up to $5 million in grants in this area. Speaking in
Pakistan, Clinton also extended her support for the creation of Pakistan’s
first mobile phone-based social network, called Humari Awaz (“Our Voice”).
The director general of the International Telecommunications Union
warned, “the next world war could happen in cyberspace and that would be a
catastrophe.” In the meantime, a New York-based anti-globalization activist
was arrested for using Twitter to direct protesters during the G20 summit
in Pittsburgh. The Russian police admitted to reading Twitter for tips about

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protest rallies. the growing dominance of American technology firms in their markets,
A spokesman for the Israel Defense Forces announced plans for a mostly due to concerns about national security. Thus, citing concerns over
dedicated Internet and new media department unit. According to Haaretz, “information sovereignty,” Cuba has objected to plans for a new Internet
the department will focus on the Internet’s social media networks mainly cable that would connect it to the US, opting out for a more expensive cable
to reach an international audience directly rather than through the regular connection to its ally Venezuela. In Turkey, Tayfun Acarer, the chairman
media. The Iraqi government has launched a YouTube channel which, of the country’s Information Technologies and Communication Board,
according to Prime Minister Nuri al Maliki , will help to “counter lies” and announced that government engineers are working on their own search
“showcase its successes.” It has also announced a partnership with Google, engine that would better serve the sensibilities of Turkey and the rest of the
whereby the search giant will undertake scanning of archives at the Iraq Muslim world. Acarer also announced another government plan: to supply
National Museum. every Turkish citizen with a 10 GB email account - thus bypassing the need
In Iran, the Revolutionary Guards began experimenting with for them to use services like Gmail.
crowdsourcing by uploading photos of anti-government protesters in
the streets of Tehran, so that they can be identified. Thaksin Shinawatra,
Thailand’s embattled former prime minister who is currently in exile Evgeny Morozov is a contributing editor to Foreign Policy
launched an ambitious new media campaign to promote his political agenda; magazine and is a Yahoo fellow at the Institute for the Study of Diplomacy
among other tools, it relies on online television channels and text messaging. at Georgetown University. His book on Internet and democracy will be
Facebook and Stanford University announced that they are collaborating published by PublicAffairs in late 2010.
on an application known as the Peace Dot Initiative that encourages and
chronicles friendships between historically rival groups. Additionally, it
contains links to anti-violence activist groups, polls about the viability of
world peace and a “Share Your Thoughts” widget.
The Vatican persevered in its eager embrace of new media.
Representations from Facebook, YouTube and Wikipedia were invited to
brief the Council of the Bishops’ Conferences of Europe (CEEM). CEEM’s
President, Bishop Jean-Michel di Falcothe, said that the church can better
communicate its mission if it takes a more active role in its portrayal through
new media. In the meantime, a group of volunteers in Saudi Arabia launched
the Facebook Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of
Vice, a Facebook group dedicated to promoting the activities of the Saudi
religious police that bears the same name.
The mobile space continues bustling with innovation. A new initiative
from the BBC World Service Trust enables thousands of Bangladeshis to
learn English via mobile phones. Through its Janala service, the BBC offers
250 audio and SMS lessons at different levels. Each lesson is a three-minute
phone call, which costs a few pence. 300,000 people signed up to test the
service in the first few days since the launch.
More foreign governments are beginning to feel uneasy about

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International Broadcasting the popularity or unpopularity of any individual leader.
Indeed, effective public diplomacy can, at times, include programs

Geoffrey Cowan that might seem to undermine the marketing of the person in power. For
example, for international broadcasting to be effective people around the
world must find it credible and reliable; they must be convinced that it
will describe the facts even when those facts are unpleasant, even when
they place the current government in a bad light. As the Voice of America
According to various public opinion polls, most of the world now (VOA) announced in its first broadcast: “The news may be good. The news
has a vastly improved opinion of our president and our country. In early may be bad. We shall tell you the truth.” While I headed the VOA in the
July, 2009, the Pew Research Center for People and the Press reported that mid- 1990s, there was no question about the need to report details of the
“The image of the United States has improved markedly in most parts of the Whitewater probe of President Clinton, nor could my successors ignore the
world, reflecting global confidence in Barack Obama.” The improvement Monica Lewinsky story, no matter how much it might sully the President’s
is most dramatic in Western Europe, where Pew reported that, “favorable reputation around the world.
ratings for both the nation and the American people have soared.” It has been tempting, at times, for government officials charged
The country is also viewed far more favorably in most of Latin with sending speakers and performers around the world to try to exclude
America, Africa and Asia. When President Obama left for Asia in mid- those who disagree with the administration in power. Yet, successful public
November, 2009, Pew reported that more than 80 percent of the people in diplomacy practitioners don’t only use speakers and artists to celebrate and
Japan and South Korea “have at least some confidence” in Obama to do reinforce the image and policy of the administration in power; sometimes
the right thing in world affairs, a dramatic jump from a year earlier when they send out representatives who are outspoken critics of the administration
only a quarter of the Japanese and 30 percent of the South Koreans had any and its policies. The goal is often to combat unfair stereotypes, to show
confidence in President Bush. the rich talent and ideological diversity of our debate and our culture. For
President Obama’s personal story, oratorical skill and political talents example, in 2007, while she was the Under Secretary of State for Public
are undeniable American assets. He is the face of the nation and he has a Diplomacy, Karen Hughes sent Ozomatli, a popular Los Angeles-based anti-
remarkably international background. In Asia, he correctly announced that war and anti-Bush band, to the Middle East. Their goal was to reach out to
he is “America’s first Pacific President,” having spent his formative years in people who did not like the President but could still find much to like in the
Indonesia and Hawaii; in Africa, he is understandably seen as America’s first United States.
African President, the son of a Kenyan father; and he connected with many At a time when we have a popular president, it remains essential to
people of the Middle East when he told the crowd at Cairo University that put renewed vigor into the vital and sometimes very different mission of
“I am a Christian, but my father came from a Kenyan family that includes public diplomats. Though the nation is blessed by some very talented career
generations of Muslims.” officers who keep operations humming, as of a year after the election of
But no president, no matter how popular or unpopular, can or should 2008 there was no new leadership in the Bureau of Educational and Cultural
be the sole embodiment of a nation’s public diplomacy. A key goal of Affairs, where both the Assistant Secretary and Principal Deputy Assistant
public diplomacy must be to communicate a nation’s values to the people Secretary remained vacant, nor had any new leader been named to head
of the world, qualities and beliefs that transcend any particular leader or the Bureau of International Information Programs. Just recently, the White
administration. It may take decades for the experience of an exchange House nominated a roster of distinguished people to serve on the board of
program to bear fruit, for example, but exchanges are a central tool of public the Broadcasting Board of Governors, which oversees VOA, Radio Free
diplomacy. Effective public diplomacy requires a very long view of the Europe/Radio Liberty and other international broadcasting entities.
country’s interests and in that sense must be larger and more enduring that

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 The Obama administration came into office promising to increase
the country’s commitment to public diplomacy. During the first year, thanks 21st Century Science Diplomacy
to the President’s popularity, it has begun to improve America’s image in the
world. It has also initiated some important programs that may have long- Nina Fedoroff
term benefits, including those featuring scientists and women. Hopefully in
the second year it will find new ways to put fresh leadership and vitality into
the other tools of public diplomacy. Historically, science has been used by nations to gain military and
economic advantage. The role of science and scientists took on another
dimension during the Cold War of the last century. U.S. scientists continued
Geoffrey Cowan is a University Professor and Annenberg Family to communicate with their counterparts behind what was called “The
Chair in Communication Leadership at the University of Southern Iron Curtain”—an almost forgotten term today. Ongoing communications
California, and previous Dean of the Annenberg School for Communication between scientists in the Soviet Union and the United States, as well as
& Journalism. Cowan has been an important force in the communication between scientists and their respective governments, have been credited
world as a public interest lawyer, academic administrator, best-selling with keeping the Cold War cold and for laying the groundwork for eventual
author and award-winning teacher, playwright, television producer and dialogue between Reagan and Gorbachev.
government official, having served as the 22nd director of the Voice of In the immediate wake of the Soviet Union’s disintegration, both
America. the U.S. government and philanthropist George Soros invested significantly
in the science and scientists of the former Soviet Union, albeit for rather
different reasons. Under the leadership of Senators Sam Nunn and Richard
Lugar, Congress established the Cooperative Threat Reduction program
in 1991, with the objectives of disarming nuclear, chemical and biological
weapons and finding employment for Soviet weapons scientists. In 1992,
philanthropist George Soros founded the International Science Foundation,
which funded travel and research grants.
Within the State Department, the Office of the Science Adviser
to the Secretary of State was established by Secretary of State Madeleine
Albright in 2000 in response to a National Research Council study titled
“The Pervasive Role of Science, Technology, and Health in Foreign
Policy.” Under the leadership of the first Adviser, Dr. Norman Neureiter,
the number of active scientists in the department began to grow through
expansion of the AAAS Science Diplomacy Fellows program. The Jefferson
Science Fellows program was established by the second Adviser, Dr. George
Atkinson, initially with funds from the MacArthur Foundation and the
Carnegie Corporation. Jefferson Science Fellows are tenured professors at
American universities who come to the State Department for one year with
salary support from their own university and local living and travel expenses
paid by the State Department. Fellows consult for the State Department for
an additional five years after returning to their home institutions.

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 As the third Adviser, I have promoted the concept of science
diplomacy as a powerful means of bridging political and ideological CONNECTING THROUGH
differences to address the common problems facing humanity and build
constructive, knowledge-based international partnerships. But science CULTURE
diplomacy isn’t just statecraft—it can be done by scientists and engineers
everywhere. The challenge of connecting scientists in other countries,
be they developed or developing, with American scientists and scientific
expertise should increasingly become part of every scientist’s job. We need
to make global service—what I’ve called science diplomacy—a part of what

Differences in culture are often cited as roadblocks to international
we do as scientists and engineers, whether we work in a government agency, cooperation. However, when viewed through a different lens, culture can
a university, a research institute or a company. We need our scientists and reveal numerous opportunities for establishing meaningful connections.
engineers, our experts of all kinds, to help us jump the digital divide and create In fact, public diplomacy practitioners have a longstanding tradition of
a world where all people have the educational and economic opportunities employing cultural diplomacy. Opinions differ on the exact role culture
to build and live in sustainable knowledge societies. should play in diplomacy, but the fact remains that it has, and continues
to impact relations between states. The authors in Connecting Through
Culture explore the various methods in which cultural diplomacy has been
Dr. Nina Fedoroff is Science and Technology Adviser to the Secretary employed. USIA veteran Richard T. Arndt outlines the historical ties of
of State and to the Administrator of the United States Agency for International American public diplomacy to its cultural roots. In doing so he also highlights
Development. She is also is a Professor at Penn State University. Dr. Fedoroff the failures of present-day practitioners to utilize and embrace this vital tool.
is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of In contrast, former Director of the International Fund for the Promotion
Arts and Sciences, and the European Academy of Sciences. She has served of Culture at UNESCO, Yudhishthir Raj Isar, warns against the over-
on the National Science Board of the National Science Foundation. Dr. extension of the term “cultural diplomacy” as well as the limitations faced by
Fedoroff is a 2006 National Medal of Science laureate. state and non-state actors in their use of culture. Looking forward, Professor
of International Relations and Cultural Diplomacy César Villanueva Rivas
offers a new theoretical framework for cultural diplomacy by using both
cosmopolitanism and social constructivism. These discussions are followed
by Sharon Memis, the British Council USA Director, who offers insights on
evaluating and measuring the success of cultural diplomacy programs. By
presenting a snapshot of several key arenas of public diplomacy, these articles
are meant to inspire conversation and bring attention to the opportunities
made possible by connecting through culture.

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The Hush-Hush Debate: The This is curious in that Edmund Gullion’s phrase public diplomacy,
for which the most honest definition I have found is “what USIA used to

Cultural Foundations of U.S. do,” has always rested on a broad cultural foundation; anywhere from 70-95
percent of USIA’s field activity, depending on the country situation, focused
on cultural affairs since its beginnings in 1917. It is even more curious in that
Public Diplomacy what is now called PD, from 1938 until 1946, was subordinate to cultural
diplomacy and only took charge under the pressures of the undeclared Cold
Richard T. Arndt War, never to bounce back to “normal.” Now academic stars like Harvard
Dean Joseph Nye deplore the downward drift of the U.S. image around
the world, attribute the slump to poor PD, and list its tools as exchanges,
libraries, cultural centers, English teaching, books and other programs—all
In the late 1940s, a visiting American dowager gushed to young cultural tools, many of which were funded until 1977 and of course since
USIS officer Armin Meyer in Baghdad, “Oh Mr. Meyer, tell me about USIS. 1999 by the Department of State—the favorite target for PD blame. Soft
Is it very hush-hush?” Meyer’s response: “Not at all, madam, it’s very blah- Power, like it or not, means the diplomacy of cultures.
blah.” In personal terms, it seems strange that my comprehensive if massive
Things have not changed in 60 years. Anyone seeking to learn about tome on cultural diplomacy (The First Resort of Kings, 2005) circulates
public diplomacy (PD) today, with minimal internet skills, can easily find more and more widely, is adopted in more university classrooms, and begins
10,000 words a day pouring out of the collective fingertips of our great to be familiar to the English-reading world abroad, while stimulating several
nation. Six fine universities, including the host of this publication, have translation efforts. Invitations here and there by foreign scholars suggest they
established strong programs to foster research and guide students into this have noticed the disappearance of the fine people and products of American
world, be it for business or public service. The books on the subject pile cultural diplomacy, launched unofficially by Franklin and Jefferson, taken
higher by the year. over by the private world, and since 1938 supported in part by the formal
And yet Cultural Diplomacy, arguably the base on which American apparatus of government.
PD stands and the deep substance of Soft Power, is mentioned only in One journey to a far country a year ago helped me discover a great
passing, usually as a component which has been overtaken by change and bastion of the Public Diplomats at the University of Southern California.
new tools. Thoughtful Americans began writing pertinently on the subject With a colleague from culture-drenched Mexico, we argued for rescuing
early on, beginning with Franklin, Jefferson, Hawthorne and Henry James the diplomacy of cultures from the embrace of propaganda. We pointed out
and producing world-scale monographs —even before the French—like that, even in good years, the practitioners of cultural work abroad struggled
McMurry and Lee’s The Cultural Approach (1947), inspired by three-time to keep their values intact in the hard-nosed context of the world of foreign
Pulitzer winner Archibald MacLeish. The analytical output flourished during affairs, as it is has been formulated since the Congress of Vienna. USIA,
the 1950s and 1960s, culminating in masterpieces by Coombs and Frankel, that beloved club that we all miss, was in fact “a propaganda agency—and
with hearty support by the university world and the foundations. Today it is don’t ever forget it,” in the prophetic warning of the late Richard E. Neustadt
left to the novelists. to a new entrant in its cultural service (1963).
The hushing of the debate about the role of culture in diplomacy A careful search through the writing on PD since 9/11 will turn up
bothers few. The foundations await evidence that someone cares; and the little evidence that its cultural base is the sine qua non of the idea; the random
universities, finding “no one to talk to in Washington” (Robert Goheen, lip-service in such writing tends to liken culture’s role to some kind of dainty
2007), have lost heart and turned their attention to other matters. charm dangling from the foreign policy bracelet. My friend the British

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scholar Nicholas Cull, admittedly a historian of political propaganda, in a and foreign, has been halved or worse. The U.S. has left direct English
recent 35-page typescript written with Juliana Pilon on the demise of USIA, teaching to the less qualified—Iran has taken over the giant Iran-America
by-passes USIA’s and State’s Bureau of Education and Cultural Affairs Society and trebled its teaching capacity. Exchanges, including Fulbright,
(ECA), kidnapped by Carter’s USIA in 1977 and digested incompletely with have held steady in funding but suffer from inflation and over-extension; in
the pangs of dyspepsia until USIA’s end in 1999. recent decades, even Fulbright has tolerated shorter-term purposes which
Today ECA is the only remainder of USIA recognizable to old- would have horrified the founders. A few cultural centers in private hands
timers; it survives relatively intact. Its budget this year, for exchanges alone, hang on, funded by English-teaching, but U.S. government support is
will pass $600 million, if the House has its way, in contrast to the $27,000 gone. A thoughtful staffer from the Senate Foreign Relations Committee
granted its founders in 1938. It has slogged ahead, in fair weather and foul, has recently traveled abroad to press Congress’s interest in what are now
for seventy years. Its tenacity is notable, its survival impressive, its steady called “American Corners,” with three scheduled for Mexico (Guadalajara,
support thought-provoking; its visibility is close to zero. Of late, celebrations Chihuaha and Tijuana). The cultural attachés, once a stout breed of university
pop up regularly around the world as Fulbright Commissions toast 50 or dons adept in the language and culture of their host-countries and gently
60 years of operation; but the 70th anniversary of the founding of State’s resistant to the pressures of U.S. politics and “public affairs,” have given
Bureau of Educational Affairs on May 23, 1938 passed unnoticed last year. way to bright neophytes who have never practiced cultural diplomacy, who
Meanwhile, the new administration has tapped Secretary Clinton’s may or may not carry the values necessary to understanding its unstated
entourage for key appointments to ECA and the UNESCO National rules, and for whom there are few mentors left in the service brave enough
Commission, capped by as Assistant Secretary who must carry on the line to speak out.
of Ben Cherrington, Archibald MacLeish, Philip Coombs, Charles Frankel Not long ago, I called on a U.S. Cultural Attaché in a major partner
and Alice Ilchman, among other university educators of yore. nation to offer a signed copy of my book; the officer thought it amusing
When “America’s Salesman” William Benton, in one of Harry to assert that in ten years, like all books, mine would be totally obsolete. I
Truman’s better-concealed mistakes, took over the Bureau of Cultural Affairs refrained from noting that such a development would delight illiterates and
from MacLeish at the peak of his stride in the fall of 1945, the scholar- non-readers.
lawyer-poet-editor ceded to the ultimate PR-genius and advertising seized The decay is not complete. In Mexico City the flagship Benjamin
the reins from intellect. Benton’s line of successors from PR and journalism Franklin Library, the second major private U.S. library in history to be
would head the new USIA (1953), while MacLeish’s ECA successors spoke established abroad (after post-World War I Paris), is now part of USIS; its
from and for the university world. collection of 30,000 volumes is supervised by the Press Officer; it occupies a
Once in charge, the information function—as we called propaganda— handsome space shared with the U.S. Trade Office and the embassy student
gradually wove its nets around the cultural officers and drove them back to counseling center. Its director, a literate and book-loving internet expert, is
their universities or into internal exile, leaving a few dedicated officers to do dedicated to outreach, free circulation, research, and efficient inter-library
their best with what they could squeeze out of a tense collegial climate. The loans. Half a dozen outstanding staff spend their time assisting a near-
trends and cycles had little or nothing to do with U.S. party politics: culture capacity stream of research-oriented visitors; its collection is linked to the
flourished under FDR and Eisenhower, Kennedy and the senior Bush; burgeoning libraries of Mexico and its plucky but embattled universities;
USIA’s swallowing of ECA was done by Carter’s team, and the unkindest many libraries are led by former Franklin staff. Elsewhere, they have
cuts of all were made in the well-intentioned years of Clinton-Gore. disappeared, except in India and Africa, where libraries survive because the
Now, step by step, the structure built carefully over the six decades host political climate will not permit their closing.
after 1938 has been dismantled, especially in the field. From 200-odd Exchanges have fared better: thanks to the humanism of the late
libraries abroad, we have slid to a dozen or so. Cultural staff overseas, U.S. Senator Claiborne Pell, they persist at a funding level just below inflation.

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In the case of the Fulbright Program, there is more to be said: various short- product of international education and exchange, eager to learn and quick
range diversions have been tolerated, against all the rules. And a look at the to appreciate. Before 2000, only one woman had headed the Bureau: since
last three appointments to its ten-member U.S. supervisory board (FSB) is 2000 all have been women.
revealing: originally non-partisan and appointed by the president, reporting The U.S. private world has learned not to rely on government but
directly to his office, it comprised, in its first 20 years of major university has persisted. The universities and foundations, told by Sumner Welles and
presidents and educators plus General Omar Bradley representing the GIs. Cordell Hull that they would have to carry 95 percent of the burden, accepted
The newest appointees to this once-imposing body: a prep-school football a bargain in which the government played little more than a facilitative,
coach from the president’s youth, a former secretary from his father’s White cooperative and coordinative role. While the percentages changed, private
House, and the go-between who brought him together with the future first institutions are still the heart of cultural outreach; they have maintained and
lady. Despite such diminution, total funding for the bi-national Program expanded their commitment. But where the private world and the universities
rises every year as foreign government contributions mount, to the irritation dealt in 1938 with only a few dozen countries worldwide, now there are
of those USIS field chiefs who lament their loss of control. nearly 200, requiring daily attention. Their impact is vital but barely visible.
The new post of Under Secretary for Public Diplomacy, put in place Non-funded student flows survive, but new problems surface daily.
after USIA’s demise, has had seven directors in ten years, uniquely chosen Without competition until the 1990s, the U.S. could amass and maintain
from the PR world—six women and one man (in order: Lieberman, Beers, half a million foreign students on its campuses at any given moment. Now
Tutweiler, Harrison (acting), Hughes, Glassman—from broadcasting, and attractive new European programs like Erasmus make the interchange of
McHale—from Discovery Channel. One of these stumbled into a classic students in continental university systems as easy as boarding a bus. In
diplomatic gaffe by announcing to a counterpart in an allied nation’s foreign the wake of 9/11, rigidified U.S. visa rules repelled thousands; meanwhile
ministry that the U.S. was not interested in public and cultural affairs because the world’s perception of violence in U.S. cities and on its campuses has
it had only one four-letter priority—I-R-A-Q. Another boasted of supporting discouraged many others.
a presidential visit abroad by collecting thousands of e-mail addresses from Good omens these days are minute and invariably have downsides:
all embassies in the region and regaling their owners with what Americans the universal growth of English as a second language has long lulled the
call “spam.” self-indulgent American myth that Yanks are genetically incapable of
Below the Undersecretary, appointments are bright, inexperienced learning a foreign language; today it becomes clear that is also conceals the
youth. The post of Assistant Secretary for Educational and Cultural Affairs, shallow and approximate quality of the new globalized version of English,
created by MacLeish, has since 1938 been filled by university figures with limiting the depth and quality of communication. If reading is in decline, as
extensive foreign experience, with two notably successful exceptions; the my cultural officer friend reminded me, it explains why a recent question
tradition was honored as late as the Reagan and Bush I eras by four PhD- was asked of me by an intelligent and sophisticated foreign student: she
educators. Clinton opened a new door, appointing a party worker who had queried a reference in my book to the outflow of intellectuals from Europe in
served at mid-level in the Endowment for the Humanities; since then, all the 1930s; in a quiet corner, I tried to explain the racial, anti-intellectual and
four bipartisan appointments come from political campaigns or the PR anti-scientific theories of Hitler and Mussolini and their impact on education
world. The first, a fine manager with a nose for excellence, trusted staff to and science in Europe, hence their contribution to North and South America.
carry on while acting for absent Undersecretaries, then left for a leadership Without readers, U.S. book publishing has become precarious. The
role in public broadcasting. Two other came from White House offices first cuts fall on foreign translations: today only three percent of all U.S.
(Appointments and Social Secretary); one had extensive PR experience and publications are translated from a foreign language, and only a third of those,
the other was a young mother who spent most of her tour on two extended i.e. one percent, are literary or imaginative. The spread of technological
periods of maternity leave. The fourth was a bright Iranian woman, a living fads like texting and twittering feed the new “sound-bite society,” replacing

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knowledge with information and reducing human communication to what The Department of Defense, no longer able to rely on USIA to handle its
Gary Trudeau’s Roland Hedley calls “the first rough draft of gossip.” Such public affairs, has moved forcefully to develop its own PD outreach; it
gadgets contribute nothing to the deepening of human knowledge and shows openness, with the U.S. military’s traditional respect for education,
learning. Meanwhile, the easy and growing availability in any laptop of to understanding that more is needed than press releases, spin-control and
vast stores of information, as in Wikipedia, is creating a small epidemic free chewing-gum. And the caliber of the new Chairman of the National
of plagiarism in classrooms, turning teachers into sleuths and demanding Endowment for the Humanities, former Iowa Congressman James Leach,
new software to unmask the misguided and self-corrupting dishonesty of raises many hopes.
the writers. Still, these straws dance about in strong winds. The present
Downsides go unnoticed. There was worldwide jubilation when administration has inherited two wars, a damaged economy, a crippling
the U.S., having virtually destroyed UNESCO in 1983 by withdrawing and national debt, an inadequate health-care system, and long-simmering issues
taking Mrs. Thatcher’s UK with us (a 40 percent budget cut for the stunned like education and immigration. Amidst these dramatic challenges, Cultural
multilateral); the UN subsidiary dealing with Education, Science, Culture Diplomacy is not the highest priority. But there is so much that could be
and Communications remains the only way to attack global questions of done easily. For one example, surplus war materiel in Iraq, as in the first
culture, to preserve art and monuments around the globe, to fight the tsunami Gulf War, is being destroyed or sold locally with no memory of Fulbright’s
of information drowning knowledge, learning and wisdom. The U.S. ingenuity in hammering swords into plowshares through exchanges.
announced its return on September 12, 2002 but the return was half-hearted. Another: economists know that employment lags far behind in
A sound ambassadorial team assembled in Paris; but the indispensable U.S. recoveries from recession; yet no thought seems to have been given to creating
National Commission for UNESCO was hamstrung, perhaps deliberately tens of thousands of low-cost jobs for unemployed university graduates for
by anti-UNESCO elements in the administration: one hundred members work which might advance U.S. foreign interests—expanding the Peace
mandated by Congress or specified fields to represent U.S. intellect and Corps, trebling Fulbright exchanges, extending Teach For America abroad,
funnel its thinking upwards into the work of the Paris-based organization creating new overseas outreach programs in public health or infrastructural
were collected, and then sat idle. Glaringly inadequate appointments and development, or global language-acquisition programs in hard-language
legislative camouflage reduced the Commission to little more than a PR cultures.
mechanism for the party in power. The widespread U.S. support needed Our nation, without information from leadership, is beguiled by
for exercising leadership in UNESCO was squandered. UNESCO remains Soft Power and sees PD as the quick fix to all problems; but it has little
as the right vehicle to attack the word’s mega-problems, global issues like idea of what made the U.S. mix of culture and information we call public
education, hunger, immigration, and violence. Its Dialogue of Civilizations diplomacy, based on bi-national and multinational cooperation, so special,
is specifically addressed to putting the lie to Huntington’s thesis of inevitable indeed unique in human history, a remarkable American exception. With no
clash, especially with Islam. In January 2009, a stirring new administration advice to the contrary, Americans equate PD with PR and advertising; their
took office; after nearly a year, it has put a well-intentioned UNESCO team representatives in Congress are no more alert to the point. In the American
in place to rectify this skillful bit of sabotage. Now the hard work begins. hegemon’s attempt to project itself in depth to foreign friends as a benign
There are other smaller signals, such as my warm welcome at USC world leader, this blind spot is costly. It is the best way to reduce the threat
and other campuses where PD is in vogue, my two trips to Mexico, and of U.S. power, but it has been forgotten.
regular appearances elsewhere. In February 2010 in Madrid, my message While it is not the fault of the universities, the power to bridge the
will be carried to a scholarly conference with a challenging theme (Culture gap may rest in university hands. In this publication guided and edited by
and Propaganda). The Dutch scholar Jan Melissen encouragingly seems to students, it may be permissible to speculate: might a focused university
take a more European view of PD, insisting on its humanistic substance. effort, during the tenure of an administration inclined to listen, turn things

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around? In particular, what better initiative for the six universities where while deepening his or her understanding of that nation, is to review and
PD programs are in place? Students of PD are equipped to spark such a assess what is already happening between his home-country and the hosts.
campaign on their campuses and help it spread to other campuses. PD This survey by the new arrival will continue throughout the tour of duty
marches under the banner of communications: what better platform from and perhaps over a lifetime. This survey usually falls into three baskets: 1)
which to enlist other disciplines and departments. The trick is to help the relations that are flowing well and need no intervention other than awareness,
university community recognize that public diplomacy abroad, without back-pats and social interaction; 2) relations which have been established
a quasi-independent cultural diplomatic base, is mere PR. To lead the but which, for whatever reason, are not working as well as they should,
academic disciplines in the humanities, social sciences and science itself, requiring delicate reshaping and deepening over time; and 3) relations
the PD community must find language spelling out PD’s relevance to all which are not yet in place, thus not happening at all yet important enough
aspects of human knowledge and life. to warrant pump-priming efforts to start things moving—a perfect example,
In such a cause, the first step is to articulate a simple, accessible four decades ago, might have been a genuine and widespread dialogue on
theory of cultural and public diplomacy. Characteristic of PD prose is the Islam and its relationship to other religions, political systems and ideologies
nonchalance with which sound definitions are overlooked. More poignant is (it is not too late, by the way).
the elusive search for a theory to fit within the concept of communications. In all three cases, the desideratum is change: the long-range purpose
In a democracy, theories must sound like common sense if they are to bridge in each is to bring bilateral relations up from the teaching-learning model to
the gap between the conceptualizers and the implementers, thousands of the exchange practiced by relative equals—to move from the undergraduate
groundlings at their daily work abroad and at home. Perhaps it is not out of level to “associating” with professors and earning admission into their club.
order for an old-timer to suggest a commonsense approach, based on field Fostering change in another country requires subtlety; cultural diplomats
realities and functions. are like acupuncturists, in that they seek to inject tiny intruding ideas into
From the viewpoint of a cultural diplomat, PD is the art of shaping, a body-politic so as to stimulate adaptive responses and new attitudes, thus
adjusting and communicating national policies to foreign governments and narrowing gaps in communications between the two nations, over time.
publics, based largely on the tools, methods and cultures of the various When tensions are too high, as in wartime, bilateralism may have to give
media. CD on the other hand strengthens the dialogue between a nation’s way to multinational institutions like UNESCO.
intellectual and professional leaders and their students with counterparts in Diplomats do five things: they represent their country, they negotiate
every country in the world. At its best, PD values reflect the New York differences which threaten conflict and forge agreements like Fulbright to
Times, while CD’s reflect Harvard, Stanford, Michigan and USC. strengthen relations; they advise in the shaping of their nations’ policies
To define cultural diplomacy, begin with cultural relations–which towards the host-nation; they develop and use networks inside and outside
happen by themselves, a mosaic of human encounters fostered by films and the host-country, bringing useful friends to support their work, and they
media, trade, tourism, intermarriage, the arts of imagination, foreign study, “program,” arranging situations where learning can take place, sometimes
books, neighborly gossip and chance encounters. Cultural diplomacy on the no more complicated than a shared cup of tea or a walk in the woods,
other hand only begins when a nation-state steps in and tries to manage, sometimes involving a performance by a symphonic orchestra or ballet
to whatever extent it can, this natural two-way cultural flow so as better before thousands.
to advance national interests, preferably on both sides of borders. Some Good diplomats perform all five functions, but programming is the
cultural relations are teaching opportunities, others learning situations; both central preoccupation of diplomats of culture, education and ideas because
processes educate the teachers as much as the student. The goal is to move they have an array of tools at hand. Every conversation, lunch, film-show,
from teacher-student to colleagues. book-gift, short-term or long-term visit to the U.S., performance by a jazz
It then follows that a cultural diplomat’s first duty in a new country, group, visit by an American student, exhibit of photographs or painting,

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Fulbright selection process, or translation of an important book—in short,
virtually every act of the cultural diplomat’s daily life—is dedicated to Cultural Diplomacy: An
narrowing the gaps in bilateral perceptions and to deepening knowledge on
both sides. The cultural diplomats take the lead because of their tools: they Overplayed Hand?
can call down the perfect visitor to lecture to the think-tank of the Ministry
of Labor, or find the right teacher for a class in Library Science, or recruit a Yudhishthir Raj Isar
humane economist who can defuse the fear of higher mathematical methods,
or send a bright young Marxian historian to the right U.S. university to deepen
awareness of his incomplete background. This is the kind of commonsense
theory which might help engage others and win their support. Introduction
To conclude, I once asked a prominent professor of PD whether my My title connotes a certain unease with the voguish currency the term
message was pointless chaff in the wind. His answer lifted my spirits: he “cultural diplomacy” enjoys nowadays—unease not with the concept itself,
said that we culturalists must persist, that without the values and history but with the ways in which its deployment has been extended from state
that the cultural viewpoint brings to bear, his work in PD was incomplete. to non-state actors and conflated with the broader notion of international
So I continue unrolling my own particular brand of “blah-blah,” trying to cultural relations. The resulting claims now being made on cultural
bring the issues buried in PD out into the open so that its students—and all diplomacy’s behalf seem both ambiguous and overstated. The ambiguity
American citizens—may see the need for protecting the cultural dimension resides in attempts to elevate its theory and practice above the level of
of U.S. overseas outreach, whatever discomforts it may bring. national interest; the overstatement in the idea that today, cultural diplomacy
can help to “manage the international environment” to use Nicholas Cull’s
term (2009). Both claims are inadequately supported by the empirical record,
Richard T. Arndt worked for Unied States Information Agency for 24 I would argue; the first resorts to special pleading and the other to wishful
years after earning a doctorate and teaching at Columbia University. Since thinking. Public diplomacy “is a term much used but seldom subjected to
retiring from the USIA, he has served as the president of the U.S. Fulbright rigorous analysis,” Cull (2009: 10); ditto, I would argue, as regards cultural
Association, coedited The Fulbright Difference, and chaired the National diplomacy, a rallying cry adopted under somewhat false premises.
Peace Foundation and Americans for UNESCO. He lives in Washington, These skeptical views might seem surprising on the part of a former
D.C. and is the author of The First Resort of Kings: American Cultural cultural official at UNESCO, who has also been a civil society activist in
Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century. the arts field. Such an actor would be expected to uphold any discourse
that foregrounds culture. So why the heterodox impulse? The explanation
lies in my coterminous re-grounding in the critical stances of culturally
oriented social sciences’ academic disciplines. Rather than take official
cultural policy positions for granted, as a matter simply for rationalization,
such perspectives predispose one to seek out the imperatives of ideology
and power that drive them, inspired inter alia by the cultural sociology
of Pierrre Bourdieu and his school. This analytical perspective posits the
existence of an “economy of cultural prestige” or, as James English has it
“the various interests at stake for the institutional and individual agents of
culture, the games and mechanisms and stratagems by means of which these

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interests assert themselves, and the ultimate role such cultural assertions of internal to national communities if there ever was one.1
interest play in maintaining or altering the social distribution of power…” I deliberately listed the trope of “intercultural dialogue” first
(2007: 8-9). The misconceptions of the neophyte may also be to blame, for in the above enumeration, for together with the notion of “dialogue of
I have had limited exposure to scholarly studies of cultural diplomacy. I civilizations” this notion has become the favoured overarching trope for all
must therefore advance my views somewhat tentatively, although they are cultural cooperation. One would not quarrel with this ambition in itself.
based on 35 years of experience, tempered by the ethnographer’s gaze, in It is surely vital to foster the sorts of intercultural competencies needed to
the international arena of nation-state position-taking and negotiation in the respond to the dual “claims of cultures to retain their variety, and to …
realm of culture (see bio). meet and intermingle within the context of a new global civilization …
In the pages that follow, therefore, I shall first critique the portmanteau through risky dialogues with other cultures than can lead to estrangement
notion cultural diplomacy has become and seek to explain why this semantic and contestation as well as comprehension and mutual learning” (Benhabib
proliferation has occurred. Next, I shall explore the reasons why caution 2002: xii-xiv). Or, as Jacques Delors put it, to learn how to live together in
may be required and expectations cut to size. The cautionary note is “a new spirit which, guided by recognition of our growing interdependence
directed at arts practitioners and organizations as well as private-sector and a common analysis of the risks and challenges of the future, would
actors; the admonitions about expectations apply more to governments. induce people to implement common projects or to manage the inevitable
Next, I shall challenge the assumptions governments appear to make about conflicts in an intelligent and peaceful way” (Delors et al. 1996: 23).
the efficacy of cultural diplomacy. Finally, on the basis of my own direct But the forging of such a new intercultural spirit requires processes
experience of managing cultural heritage issues at UNESCO, I shall look far more complex and person-to-person based than the panoply of cultural
at a key function of cultural diplomacy that is curiously downplayed in the diplomacy can offer. Of course this is where broader definitions serve their
current proliferation of meanings: the accrual by nation-states of symbolic purpose. A case in point is Milton Cummings’ often cited belief that cultural
capital through the placing of their ideas and cultural properties in the global diplomacy “refers to the exchange of ideas, information, art and other
economy of prestige. aspects of culture among nations and their peoples in order to foster mutual
The Ever-broader Remit understanding” (Cummings, 2003: 1). In point of fact, its true actors are
Richard Arndt has distinguished, rightly in my view, between neither nations nor peoples. Governmental agents and envoys are, joining
cultural relations that “grow naturally and organically, without government nationalism and internationalism. In this process, these state actors are
intervention” and “cultural diplomacy [that] can only be said to take place deeply engaged in the practice of what Raymond Williams called “cultural
when formal diplomats, serving national governments, try to shape and policy as display.” This may consist either of “national aggrandizement,” or
channel this natural flow to advance national interests” (Arndt, 2006: xviii). “economic reductionism,” or both (the latter term refers to the justification
This is clear and unambiguous. But the term has become far more capacious of cultural investment in terms of economic and employment pay-offs).
that that, in large part because of the view that public diplomacy may be For the first, historical precedents abound—the arts patronage of princes,
practiced by a “multi-national corporation, non-governmental organization, kings and bishops. Also the great exhibitions and world fairs that ran from
international organization, terrorist organization/stateless paramilitary the mid-nineteenth and the mid-twentieth centuries; these combined both
organization or other player on the world stage” (Cull, 2009: 12). What display and commerce, concerned as they were with “promoting national
is more, its users now want it to include the entire gamut of contemporary business in a complex interplay with other nations and in the context of
issues in the field of culture. A recent cultural diplomacy conference trade rivalry” (McGuigan, 2004: 91). So why are these obvious and abiding
typically tackles issues ranging as far as the role of artists in social change, instrumental purposes of cultural diplomacy so played down, even elided,
international private philanthropy in the arts and cultural rights—an issue 1 Topics discussed at the ‘Cultures in Conflict/Culture on the Move’ conference co-
organized in Paris in November 2008 by the Aspen Institute and The American University
of Paris as the first ‘Aspen Cultural Diplomacy Forum.’

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today? Perhaps it is awkward to explicitly recognize such workings of the These noble tropes are the products of contemporary culturalism, in
“exhibitionary complex” (Bennett, 1995) built into state cultural policy for other words the ways in which agency and causality are attributed to culture,
what they are. as cultural expression and cultural difference are increasingly deployed in the
While the logic of the “new” public diplomacy may well be for service of political and other causes. Indeed politicians and policy-makers
governments to build alliances with non-state actors in order to engage the world over are using the arts and heritage as resources in the service of
with much larger publics (Cull, 2009) the question is whether artists and ends such as economic growth, employment, or social cohesion (Yúdice,
arts organizers are actually interested in singing the government-led tune. 2003). Another major trend is embodied in the special meaning of “cultural
The theatre scholar and activist Dragan Klaic suggests not; for him their diversity” that inspires UNESCO’s 2005 Convention on the Protection and
motivations in working across national boundaries are “about more than Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions). Expenditures on the
promotion,” focussing on purposes such as mutual learning; pooling of arts, even more so on the “creative industries,” are now justified not for the
resources; co-financing; technical assistance; joint reflection, debate, value or values those arts themselves, but as investments in “protecting” or
research and experimentation; and “in its most complex forms, cooperation “promoting” cultures understood as entire ways of life in the broader social
in the creative processes, the creation of new artistic works” (2007:46). science sense of the term culture. As Philip Schlesinger has observed as
The failure to recognize that cultural actors do not pursue State regards European Union audiovisual policy, it is not the intrinsic merit of the
interest-driven deliverables seems to signal a disjuncture from reality. audiovisual sector that is valued. Rather, and this applies globally, “it has
Cull recognizes (2009: 19) that “discomfort with advocacy roles and overt been the assumed impact of the production and consumption of audiovisual
diplomatic objectives have led some Cultural Diplomacy organizations to culture upon national (and European) culture as a way of life that has been
distance themselves from the term….” On the other hand, they are unlikely central to the debate… sustaining audiovisual production is commonly
to distance themselves equally from the grants available for the sorts conflated with protecting (because it is believed to shape) a whole way of
of activities listed above. Recourse to grand cultural narratives such as life” (Schlesinger, 2001: 94).
“intercultural dialogue,” or “mutual understanding” makes it easier for them Conversely, as regards governmental stances, the uptake of cultural
to adopt this stance, just as it makes it easier for governments to advance the diplomacy as a new frontier in international relations warrants interrogation
national interest cloaked in their mantle. So there is a respondent opportunism as well. Three key questions arise here. Is cultural diplomacy really a form
at work on the part of cultural actors, even if its mainsprings are different, of cooperation that transcends cooperation among elites? Is governmental
i.e. artistic, deontological, ethical or axiological rather than interest-driven agency central to achieving the goals of trans- and intercultural interaction to
in the strict sense of the word—although authors such as Cull would have us which cultural diplomacy now aspires? Can cultural diplomacy overcome
read the notion more broadly. Yet espousing the cause of cultural diplomacy negative national images? In all three cases, it seems that too much is
is no doubt good strategy, in terms of funding and visibility, even for expected of cultural diplomacy today, that it is pressed into service in the
players who may not want to be in the business of diplomacy at all. Yet this name of goods that it cannot deliver.
warrants a cautionary appeal to the culture sector not to become a prisoner Unjustified Premises?
of a rhetoric developed and propagated by others, in the service of different The first ambitious claim underpinning the boosting of cultural
agendas, to be careful about jumping on to bandwagons opportunistically, diplomacy is that it transcends cooperation at the elite level as has been
so as to position itself on the contemporary policy agenda.²1 If cultural practiced for centuries, if not millennia. Yet surely it is not for nothing that
activists must make overblown claims, for strategic reasons let’s say, then Richard Arndt called cultural diplomacy “the first resort of Kings” (Arndt,
they ought to be more fully aware of what they are doing and why, in other 2005). Yet some other accounts claim that a world of “static and traditional
words deploy a heightened reflexivity about the discourses they adopt. cultural settings” is being replaced by one “where culture is also a medium
2 I have written elsewhere of the creative industries hype and the traps it represents between people on a mass scale” (Bound, et al. 2007: 16-17). The same
for cultural actors whose activity is not ‘industry’ (Anheier and Isar, 2008).

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authors also tell us that “many-to-many cultural exchange is now very fast cultures were not being framed within bespoke government departments but
moving and capable of profound effect, both laterally and upwardly, to the in the boardrooms of very powerful transnational commercial organisations”
extent that cultural diplomacy now directly affects and may even direct the (Ahearne, 2009: 144)
more traditional forms of public diplomacy.” The second misapprehension, I would argue, has to do with
There are several problems with this claim. First, the exaggerated governmental presumptions as to their power of agency in the cultural
directive agency attributed to cultural diplomacy. Second, the implied arena. Today’s dense border-crossing flows and migrations are taking place
model of a “two-step flow,” which Cull articulates more clearly when increasingly beyond the grasp and control of nation-states. What is virtue in
he writes, “PD does not always seek its mass audience directly. Often it the intergovernmental arena is in other circles the vice of “methodological
has cultivated individuals within the target audience who are themselves nationalism,” i.e. the assumption that the nation-state is the right container
influential in the wider community” (2009:12). Closer examination would for culture. Now that the primacy of the nation-state appears past its heyday,
reveal, I suggest, that cultural diplomacy preaches largely to the converted the nexus of culture and nation no longer holds. There is a growing awareness
and that it is principally carried out within and across the “high culture” of the porosity of boundaries and the fluidity and multiplicity of cultural
forms— exhibition exchanges, the performing arts of different traditions, identities. It is not just that this “cracking open,” as Ien Ang puts it (Ang,
etc. To be sure, all these forms have become increasingly more accessible to 2011, forthcoming), of the nationalist narrative undercuts the homogenizing
larger numbers of people, but has “mass” scale really been attained? image of nationhood and national culture. More significantly, one might
Where the latter really comes into play, it seems to me, governmental observe, the purposes of mutual understanding are being achieved far more
agency is less likely to be present. As I have observed elsewhere with regard effectively by direct cultural interactions at the civil society level.
to cultural policy (Isar, 2009), public policy and its impacts are incorrectly The point that “diasporas are the exemplary communities of the
assumed to be principal determinants of what we might call the “cultural transnational moment” (Tölölyan 1991:3) is already being taken by some
system.” Clearly, today a range of other forces are at work in shaping the cultural diplomacy practitioners, e.g., the statement I heard at a Wilton Park
cultural life of any human group, whether on the level of the nation-state, conference on intercultural issues in the late 1990s by the Director of the
sub-nationally or supra-nationally. The market, or societal dispositions French Cultural Institute in London to the effect that his job was not to present
and actions, notably civil society campaigns related to cultural causes and the culture “of” France but cultural life “in” France—he was alluding to the
quality of life issues, impact on the cultural system far more deeply than plurality of national origins of artists living and working in that country.
the measures taken by ministries of culture… (this goes without saying in The second point is increasingly recognized too, as when cultural diplomacy
the USA, but it must be remembered that in practically all other countries, advisers recognize that “opportunities for global contact and exchange are
culture is a domain of public policy assumed and funded by the State directly, proliferating as never before” (Bound et al. 2007: 19). Yet curiously the
or at least at arms length). At the forefront of India’s contemporary cultural same authors invoke the challenge of enabling “mass populations to develop
system, for example, stands the popular culture generated and disseminated the vital skills of cultural literacy – where people are able to understand
by Bollywood and other major centres of film production. The policies of the themselves, and others, and the dynamic relationship between the two.” As
ministries responsible respectively for “culture” and “information” impinge argued already, it is not a question of mass populations in the first place.
but superficially on this cultural universe. Instead, they support institutions But more importantly, the informal webs of relations among artists
of “high culture,” offer awards and prizes to artists and writers, and…pursue and cultural practitioners and their supporting organizations must surely
efforts of cultural diplomacy that pale into insignificance compared with engender richer interactions than those proposed or facilitated by formal
the international reach of the film industry. A similar point was made in State institutions. For civil society actors are also among the principal agents
the European context by Geoff Mulgan and Ken Worpole, who “alerted us of phenomena such as transculturality, deterritorialization, hybridity and
long ago to the fact that the cultural policies doing most to shape national creolization—all produced by “flows and crossovers between cultures, and

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the patterns of their intermingling that are produced by the movement of as well as the radical deterioration of the American image in the rest of the
peoples and the restless cultural mixing that now characterizes developed world after the two invasions of Iraq. Both the theory and the subsequent
cultural markets” (Bennett, 2001: 19). There is also the accompanying reality, I argue, have encouraged a shift away from the reasonable aim
phenomenon of deterritorialization (García Canclini 1995), in other words of conveying a positive image of a national culture or of boosting the
the loss of the “natural” relation of culture to geographical and social recognition of a national cultural model in the rest of the world. In the
territories. Civil society organizations are among the most active explorers emblematic French case, this was the key motivation, with the creation of
of the emergent zones of culture in which old traditions survive and meld the Alliance Française, the network of French Cultural Centres and the like
with contemporary novelty, negotiating the various processes just cited. in order to combat the hegemony of the English language, formerly linked
They play a crucial role in facilitating both production and dissemination of to British imperial dominion and today to the USA’s global cultural power.
a variety of cultural forms. Thus in December 2008 the Dutch NGO HIVOS Today, however, a more ambitious goal is sought: the voluntaristic
(Humanist Institute for Co-operation with Developing Countries) and the extirpation of negative images. This was no doubt the challenge that faced
Open Society Institute (OSI), in cooperation with the Budapest-based Center post-war West Germany, which clearly used the Goethe Institute network
for the Study of Culture and Society (CSCS) organized on the Bangalore and a deliberate policy of exporting German high culture–principally
campus of the information society giant INFOSYS, a conference on “Culture music—to present a different face than that of Nazi Germany. But surely
and Civil Society Development in Asia.” The conference announcement enough people in the rest of the world knew already how wonderful German
stated that “networks in the arts and culture sector have created platforms for high culture actually was and how well its musicians could play Bach and
the interaction of practitioners and mediated between the producer, market Beethoven—nor did the latter remove the taint of Nazism. Moreover, while
and the state.” I can provide no evidence to disprove my disbelief, there is simply no good
The third misapprehension that causes cultural diplomacy to be longitudinal social science research that has compared before and after
pressed into heavy duty service beyond its capacities is the conviction that perceptions and thereby demonstrated the power of cultural diplomacy in
it can effectively overturn deeply negative images of nation-states provoked this regard. For the moment, then, it remains a stipulation, more a matter of
by their use of the hard power tools of military action and economic faith than of evidence.
domination. The conventional wisdom of cultural activists, scholars and A new avatar of cultural diplomacy is the “cultural foreign policy”
policy-makers alike is that cultural charms can dispel strongly hostile of the European Union. The challenge here is not so much to counter a
perceptions aroused by the exercise of hard power. But is it reasonable negative image of Europe in the rest of the world (imperial Europe’s past
to assume that the perceived depredations of the “Quiet American,” for colonialism is superseded by fear of imperial America) as to set itself up as
example, can be so eliminated? The very people who dislike American a more appealing alternative. The USA is the elephant in the room… Thus
hard power are probably quite admirative already—if the Pew data is to be in 2007, the European Commission put forward a “Communication on a
believed—of American performing arts; there is no apparent reason why European agenda for culture in a globalizing world” (Commission of the
they should change their minds about US foreign policy because they are European Communities, 2007). Now adopted by the EU institutions and
offered travelling exhibitions, jazz musicians and hip-hop dancers. Member States, as well as the civil society organizations that interact with
Cultural tools were certainly used by the USA to counter Soviet these institutions, this agenda sets out three sets of objectives: to promote
anti-American propaganda during the Cold War or the cultural and media cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue; to promote culture as a catalyst
imperialism thesis in both Europe and the global South (Arndt, 2007). But for creativity in the framework of the Lisbon Strategy and to promote
cultural diplomacy rose to salience as a public policy domain in the USA culture as a vital element in the Union’s international relations. The five
only after the rise of deeply hostile Islamist fundamentalism and in the wake sub-objectives of the third objective—the cultural diplomacy dimension—
of that arch-culturalist trope, Huntington’s “clash of civilizations” thesis, are to: further develop political dialogue in culture and promote cultural

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exchanges; promote market access for cultural goods and services from diversity and understanding between European societies, and to strengthen
developing countries; protect and promote cultural diversity through international dialogue and co-operation with countries outside Europe.”
financial and technical support; ensure that all cooperation programmes UNESCO in the Global Economy of Prestige
and projects take full account of local culture and contribute to increase Any locus of international cultural politics is necessarily also a site
people’s access to culture and to the means of cultural expression, including for the confrontation of ideas, interests and power-relations with respect to
people-to-people contacts; and promote the active involvement of the EU symbolic meanings. Yet UNESCO’s discourse privileges a kind of ideal
in the work of international organisations dealing with culture. What really Kantian internationalism. Phrases in its Constitution such the following
drives these laudable development-oriented goals is the desire to counter could also be construed as a sort of post-War cultural diplomacy urtext at the
the preponderance in the global cultural economy of the lone superpower. international organization level: “States Parties … are agreed and determined
The Communication indeed demonstrates a self-conscious awareness of the to develop and to increase the means of communication between their peoples
cultural diplomacy discourse: and to employ these means for the purposes of mutual understanding and a
The European Union is not just an economic process or a trading truer and more perfect knowledge of each other’s lives.” As the mission
power, it is already widely - and accurately - perceived as an unprecedented was to construct “the defences of peace in the minds of men” the assumption
and successful social and cultural project. The EU is, and must aspire to was that culture, in the singular, was a beneficent higher attribute that should
become even more, an example of a “soft power” founded on norms and be deployed for this purpose. Culture and cultural co-operation were thus
values…which, provided they are upheld and promoted, can be of inspiration means of meeting the overarching peace-building objective. Yet they were
for the world of tomorrow. not limited to this instrumental role. It was not simply a question of what
The difficulty, however, is to arrive at a common platform of culture could do for UNESCO. It was also about what UNESCO could do
“inspiration” for the rest of the world on the part of a continent whose for culture—hence by extension, for the cultures of its Member States, in
nation-states already have established traditions of cultural diplomacy and/ other words very much in a paradigm of representation.
or are highly aware of their peoples’ wariness about any loss of cultural Abstract issues and causes have of course been championed diversely
sovereignty to the supra-national entity. Hence the limited competencies by Member States for reasons of principle dictated by their respective national
for culture enjoyed by the European Union and which the Communication value systems and traditions. Yet these positions of principle have also been
is designed to help supersede. How can the EU project itself culturally as ways of marking territory and control in ideological and discursive terms, of
speaking with one voice, the very notion of “European identity” being an using institutions to try and make their own meanings of terms both dominant
aporia? Formerly, Europe symbolized empire, but today, the paradox Susan and authoritative. Thus the British anthropologist Susan Wright sat in on the
Sontag identified is that the new idea of Europe is about retrenchment: deliberations of a Drafting Committee at the Intergovernmental Conference
“the Europeanization, not of the rest of the world, but… of Europe itself” on Cultural Policies for Development held in Stockholm in 1998. In the
(cited in Morley and Robbins, 1990:3). Against this backdrop, a number drafting room, “the delegates of the member states were asserting their power
of national cultural centers/institutes have recently formed a non-profit to limit definitions of ‘culture for development’ to those compatible with
association called European Union National Institutes for Culture (EUNIC). various ‘national cultures’ of nation states” (Wright, 1998:177). Wright
While European artists associations and foundations have articulated the also identified the different “ways that ‘culture’ was being linked in a new
need for a concerted, joined-up European platform that can project an image semantic cluster with ‘creativity,’ ‘diversity,’ ‘development,’ ‘participation’
of a single “cultural Europe,” EUNIC’s mission statement makes no strict and ‘freedom’” and the ways in which “differently positioned actors draw
mention of this. It contents itself with the following boilerplate formulation: on, stretch or challenge an accumulation of meanings of ‘culture’ (and) try
“The purpose of EUNIC is to create effective partnerships and networks to make their meaning ‘stick’” (1998: 175).
between the participating organisations, to improve and promote cultural A graphic illustration of such positioning was actually provided by

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the behavior of the US Delegation to the World Conference on Cultural policy as display” is in fact what drives Member States of UNESCO. To be
Policies organized by UNESCO in Mexico City in 1982, in the second sure, Cull’s distinction between traditional forms of diplomacy that engage
year of Ronald Reagan’s first term, during which the influence of the arch- with other state actors and new ones that play the national cultural card
conservative right, led by the Heritage Foundation, was to lead the US to with broader audiences in mind is valid too—indeed governments operate
leave UNESCO. In Mexico as well, a conference-drafting group produced on both the two levels in UNESCO. But in both cases, the peace-building
an extensive “Mexico City Declaration” containing inter alia the very broad ideals of that organization, which should lead its members to cooperate in
definition of culture that has since become canonical in these circles. The an unhindered spirit of global conviviality, are trumped by the imperatives
definition reads as follows – note the part I have italicized: of national representation and recognition in the international arena. In this
perspective, then, UNESCO is a field with its own rules of negotiation and
that in its widest sense, culture may now be said to be the whole transaction, possessed, like any other, of its own forms of symbolic capital
complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features that Member States deploy.
that characterize a society or social group. It includes not only the arts and Beyond the anecdotal, my argument can also be illustrated through
letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights of the human being, the process that has unfolded over the last three decades at UNESCO around
values systems, traditions and beliefs… the expanding notion of “cultural heritage.” This has been a two-pronged
expansion, as a growing number and variety of material traces of past
The inclusion of the words “the fundamental rights of the human cultural life—structures, sites, artefacts—have entered the term’s embrace,
being” may appear somewhat incongruous; they were added at the adamant and as the idea of heritage has recently cloned itself, with the recognition
insistence of the US delegation, mindful of the coded significance, in Cold of a new double: “intangible heritage.” This development is in large part
War ideological warfare terms, of the notion of individual human rights, as the result of the workings of a global “economy of cultural prestige,” as
opposed to collective rights and peace, the code words used by the other different kinds of “heritage” status accorded to their “cultural properties”
side—and which were used to justify say the cause of the Palestinian people function as symbolic capital and “the many local markets and local scales
or the black majority in Apartheid South Africa, or deployed as counters in of value are bound into ever tighter relations of interdependence” (English,
the struggle against “cultural imperialism.” Without the italicized words, 2005: 259). The earliest UNESCO definitions used the notion of heritage
the United States would not have been a party to the Declaration and hence very narrowly, referring not to the entirety of the cultural inheritance, but to
to the consensus-based decision-making that was the rule in UNESCO at material forms only, architectural and monumental. This usage originated
that time. from the Euro-American architectural conservation community in the 1950s,
The above anecdote illustrates one facet of the image-building or then was gradually naturalised in the conceptual arsenal of UNESCO and
“branding” motivations of nation-states as they play out at UNESCO. Even other international organizations. These same conservation professionals
in this setting, where some might expect national postures to be harnessed were also the drafters of the 1972 Convention Concerning the Protection
to the promotion of high internationalist ideals, the imperatives of what of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage that established the World
Raymond Williams called “cultural policy as display” also dominate. Heritage mechanisms that in fact select cultural heritage properties and
“The public pomp of a particular social order” was Williams’ gloss on the sites for consecration on the global honour roll that is the World Heritage
ceremonials of the British Royal Family and the like, which constituted the List. Hence as the World Heritage process gathered momentum in the last
ritual symbolization of nationhood (Williams, cited in McGuigan, 2004: 61). decade of the twentieth century, it became increasingly obvious that the List
He carefully distinguished these unacknowledged, even unnoticed purposes, could not but be skewed towards those countries rich in such material traces
from “cultural policy proper,” which consists of support to the arts, media from their respective pasts. Many countries—mostly in the global South—
regulation and the negotiation of national community or identity. “Cultural would not find adequate representation on this geocultural enumeration of

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the superlative. This realization began to reach the sub-national level too, the same time, like the prizes and awards analyzed by James English, the
as both cities and regions within nations sought to gain World Heritage national “properties” inscribed as either “World” or “intangible” heritage
recognition for their distinct branding purposes. They too have tapped are also institutional agents of what he calls “capital intraconversion”: the
into the international economy prestige embodied in the World Heritage symbolic charge they contain negotiates transactions between cultural and
mechanisms. They have carried out complex processes of economic and economic, or cultural and political capital.
political negotiation and transaction with their respective national or federal References
governments in order to obtain international recognition for local cultural Ahearne, J. “Cultual Policy Explicit and Implicit: A Distinction and Some Uses” in
goods—a classic procedure of the glocalization process. International Journal of Cultural Policy, Vol. 15, No. 2, May 2009.
Precisely because governments—again at multiple levels within Ang, I. (forthcoming) in Anheier, H.K and Isar, Y.R. Heritage, Memory, Identity. London:
nation-states—are increasingly “sensitive to the value of publicly asserting SAGE Publications.
the value of their [distinctive] cultures in various forums that bestow and
reflect international prestige” (Kurin, 2004: 68) calls for action on the Anheier, H.K and Isar, Y.R. The Cultural Economy. London: SAGE Publications. 2008.
intangible front, made as early as 1972, when the World Heritage Convention
Arndt, R.T. The First Resort of Kings: American Cultural Diplomacy in the Twentieth
was adopted, and renewed fitfully thereafter, developed momentum in Century. USA: Potomac Books, 2005.
the late 1990s. By this time far more than national or local pride were at
stake, for questions of culture and cultural identity had become a global Benhabib, S. The Claims of Culture. Equality and Diversity in the Global Era. Princeton
issue, voicing rising concerns about the impacts of globalisation and the and Oxford: Princeton University Press. 2002.
belief that cultures were now being corroded far more strongly than they
Bennett, T. The Birth of the Museum – History, Theory, Politics. London and New York:
ever had been before. Thus the new century saw the emergence of a new Routledge. 1995.
cause in international cultural politics, the combat for “cultural diversity,”
a revamped articulation of the “cultural exception” movement that sought Bound, K., Briggs, R., Holden, J., Jones, S. Cultural Diplomacy. London: Demos. 2007.
to exempt cultural goods and services from international free trade rules.
For this newer avatar of cultural militancy, the alliance with the “intangible Commission of the European Communities. Communication from the Commission to the
European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and
heritage” camp was both natural and advantageous. The election of a senior the Committee of the Regions on a European Agenda for Culture in a Globalizing World.
Japanese diplomat to be UNESCO Director-General in 1999 reinforced Brussels. 2007.
the already accumulated momentum, as he brought with him his society’s
awareness of the intangible as well as his government’s determination to Cull, N.J. Public Diplomacy: Lessons from the Past. Los Angeles: Figueroa Press. 2009.
invest in globalising that sensibility, in other words to place Japan’s own
Cummings, M. Cultural Diplomacy and the United States Government: a Survey.
practice at the forefront of the global economy of prestige. Together, these Washington, D.C.: Center for Arts and Culture. http://www.culturalpolicy.org/issuepages/
factors propelled the negotiations that culminated in the adoption in 2003 of culturaldiplomacy.cfm. 2003.
the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage.
In cultural conservation terms the cause is amply justified. It is Delors, Jacques et al. (International Commission on Education for the 21st Century)
glossed by UNESCO in terms that brook no contestation: “cultural heritage Education: the t\Treasure Within. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. 1996.
is not limited to material manifestations, such as monuments and objects… English, J. The Economy of Prestige. Prizes, Awards and the Circulation of Cultural Value.
This notion also encompasses living expressions and the traditions that Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 2005.
countless groups and communities worldwide have inherited from their
ancestors and transmit to their descendants, in most cases orally” Yet at García Canclini, N. Hybrid Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Leaving Modernity.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 1995.

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Isar, Y. R. “Cultural Policy: Towards a Global Survey,” in Culture Unbound. Journal of
Current Cultural Research (electronic journal). Vol. 1, 2009. Cosmopolitan Constructivism:
Klaic, D. Mobility of Imagination. Budapest: Center for Arts and Culture, Central European
University. 2007. McGuigan, J. Rethinking Cultural Policy. Maidenhead, UK: Open
Mapping a Road to the Future of
Cultural and Public Diplomacy
University Press. 2004.

Morley, D. and Robins, K. (1990) ‘No Place like Heimat: Images of Homeland in European
Culture’, in New Formations, 12 Winter, 1-24.
César Villanueva Rivas
Tölölyan, K. (1991) ‘The Nation-State and its Others: In Lieu of a Preface’, in Diaspora,
1 (1).

Wright, S. (1998) ‘Encaging the Wind’ in International Journal of Cultural Policy, Vol. 5,
No. 1.
“How can countries gain the affection and esteem of other nations?”
asks Edward T. Hall in the introduction to The Silent Language (1959:
http://www.cscsarchive.org/ ix). “Though the United States has spent billions of dollars on foreign aid
programs, it has captured neither the affection nor esteem of the rest of the
http://www.eunic-europe.eu/ world,” asserted Hall, adding that “It is not my thesis that Americans should
http://portal.unesco.org/
be universally loved. But I take no consolation in the remark of a government
official who stated that ‘we don’t have to be liked just so long as we are
respected.’ In most countries we are neither liked nor respected,” he concluded
Yudhishthir (Raj) Isar is Professor of Cultural Policy Studies at The after a careful evaluation of the perceptions and miscommunications between
American University of Paris and Maître de Conférence at Sciences Po, American officials and foreign diplomats at the end of the 1950s. The context
Paris. He is the co-founder of The Cultures and Globalization Series of was not an easy one: the Cold War, the Korean War, and struggles within
publications. From 2004-08, he served as President of the international the Western world. However E.T. Hall, the diplomatic anthropologist had
association Culture Action Europe. Previously, he served as Executive a point: Countries care about their reputations and how they are seen by
Secretary of the World Commission on Culture and Development and Director others abroad – the way foreign nations care about domestic perceptions of
of the International Fund for the Promotion of Culture at UNESCO. From their culture, policies, and intentions. Today, diplomats invest efforts and
1986-87 he was the first Executive Director of The Aga Khan Program for resources in trying to leave a mark for their countries in a congested world
Islamic Architecture at Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of information and, paradoxically, rampant simplifications. The lesson noted
of Technology. by most countries is that the ways in which their identities and intentions are
constructed abroad count. More importantly, the way countries internalize
cosmopolitan values such as tolerance, friendship and respect for each other,
will ultimately determine how others look upon them. Foreign ministries
across the world have sooner or later come to realize this: the construction
of diplomatic cosmopolitan values matters.
The study of traditional and modern diplomatic theory has been
permeated by the political logic of a great umbrella called Rationalism,
which includes Realism and Liberal Institutionalism among its very different

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strands. As a response to the Rationalist approach, another umbrella called thus becoming inherently a public phenomenon (1999: 164). In a broad
Reflectivism has emerged, including views from diverse camps such as philosophical consideration, Social Constructivism is about seeing human
Social Constructivism, Feminism, Environmentalism, and the study of consciousness changing, adapting to, and participating in international
ethics in diplomacy. Reflectivist theories seek to challenge the fundamental (or global) life. Its foundations take into consideration the role of ideas in
assumptions of Rationalism (for instance “power struggle,” the “selfish shaping our understanding of Self-and-Other, as well as the world-out-there.
rational actor” or the “anarchy” of the international system) by introducing Social Constructivism rests on an irreducibly intersubjective dimension of
new relevant elements to the study of Diplomacy and International Relations human interaction: the capacity and will of people to take a deliberate action
(such as culture, identity, or feminism). In cultural and public diplomacy towards the world and to lend it significance. This capacity, in return, gives
terms, these debates have spun off divergent theories such as Soft Power, the rise to social facts, or facts that depend on human agreement and typically
Clash of Civilizations and more recently Nation Branding. require human institutions for their existence (money, human rights,
As a consequence of the Reflectivist challenge, public and cultural sovereignty, for example). Cultural and public diplomacies can benefit from
diplomacies require deeper review to incorporate theoretical positions into one of the most important social facts proposed by constructivist theory:
the discussion; it is the same with Cosmopolitan Constructivism. Public and collective identities. Constructivists contend that not only are identities and
cultural diplomacies are constitutive camps that can help attain universalistic interests of actors “socially constructed,” but also that they must share the
and normative foreign policy objectives, like befriending other nations, stage with a whole host of other ideational factors emanating from people
the building of sound communication channels with societies abroad, and as cultural beings. A core feature of cultural and public diplomacies may be
the understanding and appreciation of cultures different from ours. I have precisely the construction of collective identities of peace, understanding
referred to as Cosmopolitan Constructivism elsewhere (Villanueva 2007) and diversity at the international level. For the constructivist camp, values,
as a theory philosophically based on multilateral diplomacy, cosmopolitan norms, interests and behaviors are dependent on the collective identity a
theory and constructivist politics. This approach belongs to the long tradition group assumes. In constructivist lenses, there is nothing more to the point
formulated by people interested in fostering peace, understanding and friendly than MacLeish’s UNESCO preamble, which reminds us that, “since wars
relations among nations. One of them, the British diplomat Harold Nicolson, begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defenses of
noted in Diplomacy that “the progress of diplomatic theory has been from peace must be constructed.” Public and cultural diplomacies will play a role
the narrow conception of exclusive tribal rights to the wider conception of in shaping those ideas and identities accordingly.
inclusive common interests” (Nicolson 1963: 17). What Nicolson intended Why Cosmopolitanism?
was certainly a form of “moral diplomacy,” which is nothing but a reference Cosmopolitanism is traditionally associated with a straightforward
to a world-citizen view of the nation, where the international common good idea: the willingness to be part of a society of nations and participate in its
makes for sound diplomacy. Cosmopolitan Constructivism is, to paraphrase welfare, on material, institutional or moral grounds.1 This simple account
Nicolson, the global establishment of inclusive common interests. is not self-evident for most nations, or for some types of diplomacies
Why Constructivism? and diplomats. Cosmopolitanism’s simple premise is to live and let
In constructivist terms, I primarily emphasize the work of Alexander live, understand and be understood, show respect and enjoy respect in
Wendt, whose book Social Theory of International Politics (1999) is pivotal return. Cosmopolitanism has three parts: multilateralism, pluralism and
to my understanding of the “constructivist turn” in the field of cultural and reflexivity. The first is based on principles stressing a common mechanism
public diplomacies. Wendt has expressed severe criticism of traditional IR
1 There is a vast literature on the topic of Cosmopolitanism. This is not the place
approaches that fail to see the importance of identity, norms and culture
to discuss typologies and differences in conceptions. It is safe to say that in modern times
in the field. Wendt takes identity to be part of cultural phenomena, or the main point of reference for cosmopolitanism is Immanuel Kant’s book Perpetual
collective group beliefs where ideas are shared and “communally sustained,” Peace. In this sense, Cosmopolitanism is a way of building long-lasting peace beyond the
State, paying attention to the “world’s citizen”.

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of cooperation in the field of communications, culture and international which sees nations from their best side, predisposed to cooperate and create
relations; it requires diplomacies willing to engage in conventions, long lasting peace (cfr. Mayor 2008). Rather than trying to summarize that
declarations and to respect common decisions, beyond their own national rich and extensive body of work, let me just suggest some ideas around
agenda (cfr. Ruggie 1989 and 1993). The second assumes the world is to constructivist and cosmopolitan theories for its conclusiveness. To be an
be complex, hosting diverse and multiple expressions of cultures, ideas and Other-Ally or Other-Friend in diplomacy usually implies a reciprocal
peoples. The third promotes an integrated and holistic view of global cultural recognition of the Other’s self as existentially similar or following/supporting
encounters, whose main purpose is to address common problems (poverty, similar goals without obstructing or challenging them. Wendt says that in
environment, racism, etc.) based on the mutual exploration of possibilities friendship, states usually expect to observe two rules: “(1) disputes will be
and responsibilities, resorting to the principles of listening to and respecting settled without war or the threat of war (the rule of non-violence); and (2)
each other (cfr. Pérez de Cuellar, 1997). Many concrete examples of the they will fight as a team if the security of any one is threatened by a third
cosmopolitan agenda can be found in conventions and declarations issued party (the rule of mutual aid)” (1999: 299). In cultural and public diplomatic
by international organizations such as the Declaration on Race and Racial terms, this would imply stressing the long-term foreign policy objectives,
Prejudice of 1978, the Declaration of Principles on Tolerance of 1995, or or “absolute gains” side of the equation, where countries do not expect to
more recently the Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity of 2001, the “become friends” overnight, actually trying to encourage their societies to
UN Millennium Development Goals, or the forthcoming UN Framework join a process of common understanding and societal exchanges, step by step.
Convention on Climate Change. Cosmopolitan agendas may be led by non- Wendt distinguishes allies from friends, saying that the former “engage in the
official diplomatic actors like rock star Bono acting as a world citizen and same basic behaviour as friends, but they do not expect their relationship to
attracting efforts towards direct greater attention to Africa, or NGO’s such as continue indefinitely,” as is usually the case with the latter (1999: 299). This
Amnesty International fighting for freedom of conscience and human rights description of the state’s calculations on Self and Other enters the realms
on a global scale. of what Wendt categorizes as Kantian culture, or an international structure
The Theory of Cosmopolitan Constructivism where “a new international political culture has emerged in the West within
The bottom-line of Cosmopolitan Constructivism is straightforward: which non-violence and team-play are the norm” (1999: 297).
people, cultures and states matter, and cultural and public diplomacies In Wendt’s analysis of Kantian Culture, the internalization process
collaborate in the inter-subjective construction of ideas, norms and identities plays a major role in understanding why, for example, nations are willing to
towards cooperation, welfare and understanding. The point is to construct make cooperative moves by themselves, setting aside sanctions or selfishness.
durable friendly relations among states by addressing in their societies Wendt explains that beyond coercion (first-level degree, for example a
and cultures the construction of cosmopolitan ideas and identities. The treaty or a mandate), self-interest (second-level degree, for example fears
theory celebrates cultural differences, societal exchanges, and peer-to-peer of nuclear disaster or cultural clashes), legitimacy (third-level degree) lies
encounters fostering common understanding. Offices of Foreign Affairs the most developed of these actions pursued by states, since it emerges from
and citizens are welcomed as agents to formulate programs that develop the state’s principles and convictions. Wendt explains: in the “Third Degree
cosmopolitan values. Under this theoretical normative framework, cultural case actors identify with other’s expectations, relating to them as part of
and public diplomacies can also be seen as societal cosmopolitan political themselves. The Other is now inside the cognitive boundary of the Self,
arrangements conducive to the improvement of multilateral channels to constituting who it sees itself as in relation to the Other, its ‘Me’” (1999:
reach common goals, the construction of global awareness about other 273). In other words, Self is not self-interested but rather it is interested in the
people’s life conditions and lifestyles around the globe, and the spread of Other. Cosmopolitanism draws much from this idea. Multilateral diplomacy,
solidarity and peace in nations worldwide (cfr. Reus-Smit 1999). collective security “one for all, all for one” reciprocity, cooperation, and
Cosmopolitan Constructivism draws from the Ally-Friend Theory open, transparent political systems, help develop Other and Myself as

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friends. Wendt further argues that “International interests are now part of global sphere. Akira Iriye argues that the dangers of rampant nationalism
the national interest, not just interests that states have to advance in order to in societies are more evident now than before, although it was assumed
advance their separate national interest; friendship is a preference over an that a new spirit of internationalism might be fostered by means of better
outcome, not just a preference over a strategy” (1999: 305).²1 The cultivation communication and information flows across nations. What he describes as
of friendship in a global world among nations allows the achievement of “Cultural Internationalism” saw its first signs of life in the 19th century with
the Kantian notion of a “perpetual peace order,” where the interests of the birth of the Universal Postal Union, the International Bureau of Weights
humankind must prevail over those of the individual. and Measures, the Red Cross, etc. and later in the 20th century when some
But this cosmopolitan view is not a given; countries must work politicians, intellectuals and artists realized that one way of forging a stable and
hard against prejudice and blindness. John Tomlinson argues that the lasting international peace was to encourage international cultural exchange
cosmopolitans should have a sense of commitment to belonging to the and cooperation. These are the seeds of the International Commission of
world as a whole, suggesting that a cosmopolitan agenda of human rights, Intellectual Cooperation under the League of Nations and then the all-well-
environmental concerns, cultural integration and economic and political known UNESCO. In Cultural Internationalism and World Order, Iriye
progressive demands, can be a link to the development of friendly relations shows how widespread and important this idea became for the development
among peoples and states in a challenging global culture (1999 and 2002). of a cultural diplomacy without the constraints of the “national interest”
More interestingly, Tomlinson’s view reasserts that Cosmopolitanism is (1997: 142). He describes a surprising array of efforts to foster cooperation,
“first of all… a willingness to engage with the Other. It is an intellectual and from the creation of an international language to student exchange programs,
aesthetic stance of openness toward divergent cultural experiences, a search international lecture circuits, and other cultural activities. Iriye concludes
for contrast rather than uniformity” (1999: 185). that the effort of “cultural internationalism” can only be appreciated in the
A Program for Cosmopolitan Constructivism context of world politics within a cosmopolitan framework. A lasting and
In similar terms, friendship can be developed, according to Zygmunt stable world order cannot rely merely on governments and power politics,
Bauman, by looking at the universality of “ethical humanism” as an it also depends on the free exchange of cultures among peoples in pursuing
honorable aspiration, challenged by narrow economic and political views in common intellectual and cultural interests via openly cosmopolitan public
a paradoxically global world. For Bauman, universality is a communicational and cultural diplomacies.
capacity to achieve mutual understanding taking into consideration the Under the cosmopolitan constructivist framework, one might define
other’s responses and moves, allowing for a conversation across domains the mission of public and cultural diplomacies, following Paul Sharp, as a
of cultural difference (1995 and 1999). In diplomacy, Raymond Cohen has bottom-up representational activity where the focal point is “expressed as
questioned the legitimacy of this “cosmopolitan view,” saying that it is “right now having evolved to the point where states are authentic expressions of
to reject ‘ridiculous stereotypes,’ such as ‘inscrutable orientals’ and ‘haggling popular sovereignty and nations are authentic expressions of popular cultural
Arabs.” No serious student of culture would really propose such travesties. identity” (1999: 51). For Sharp diplomacy should be seen as independent of
But is not the image of the cosmopolitan diplomat, free of all narrow cultural the modern state system, because in this way it is unnecessary to restrict
limitations, an equally questionable stereotype? Is the impact of culture our analysis in determining who is and who is not a diplomatic player:
really so superficial that it can be removed by a few years of foreign travel?” “Once diplomacy is seen again in terms of representation rather than as an
(1991: 17). In fact, one pertinent observation may be the case: in today’s instrument of more substantive foreign policies, then it becomes possible
world, societies sometimes have to navigate against “parochial diplomats” to see how it expresses a human condition that precedes and transcends the
who do not understand -or want to participate- in the complex cosmopolitan experience of living in the sovereign, territorial states of the past few hundred
2 In fact, Wendt never uses the term “cosmopolitan” to refer to this or any other years” (1999: 51). And a final feature of cultural and public diplomacies is
of his main proposals, but I find many coincidences with how Cosmopolitanism reasons visible when “Diplomats not only seek to represent their states to the world,
about Other, particularly in friendly relations among parties.

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but also seek to represent that world back to their respective states, with the 5) Building the necessary channels to communicate with
objective of keeping the whole ensemble together” (1999: 53). This idea, foreign publics, to listen to their concerns, and to create mutual ways to
obvious though it may seem, lies near the heart of diplomacy, and calls for involvement. If possible, establish a television or radio broadcast service,
an examination of the political values diplomats may hold. In other words, it digital communication or web interaction to engage publics in dialogue and
is a self-reflexive issue. Diplomats have a mission to report the other states’ exchange. Well-established examples of these efforts are the BBC in the
views and interests on global issues and cultural activities, an assignment UK, TV5 Monde of France, or VOA, NPR and PBS in the US;
laden with responsibility. The representation of the Other back to their 6) Educating young people in school programs related to
countries is a diplomatic representational problem that keeps international international solidarity, mutual understanding and sensitivity for diversity
relations in motion: “these situations may be examined as instances in which and multiculturalism. Some of these programs can also be targeted to
diplomats are engaged in the construction, maintenance, and representation professionals, public officials, diplomats and teachers.
of different identities to one another” (1999: 54). At the heart of this problem, Cosmopolitan Constructivism: An Idealist Approach?
then, is the fact that representations of foreign identities are also expressions Is the theory pure idealism? Let me return to my comment on US
of the condition of domestic national identities. diplomacy at the beginning of this article. A few years back, the diplomatic
A minimalist program of Cosmopolitan Constructivism may include news from the US to the world was simplistic, black and white dichotomies
six aspects: or unilateral politics. Only a few years back, the mere prospect of listening
1) Making the creation of peace and friendly relations with other to an American president arguing for ideas other than “the American
nations one of the most important goals of foreign policy and allocate interest” or the unilateral “promotion of American values” would have been
resources to fulfill that purpose; hard to imagine. Today, the idea of an American president addressing the
2) Investing in international educational exchanges targeting groups world from Cairo, quoting the Quran, acknowledging the need to do more
in foreign societies that have the talent but may not have the resources to for the developing world, and delivering a message of hope and change
study abroad. Ideally, create bilateral or regional institutions to administer for the international community has caught us by surprise. In just a short
and organize the exchanges such as the Fulbright-García Robles program time, the quality of discourse in world politics from the world’s superpower
(Mexico) or the NordForsk (Scandinavia); has undergone a major shift from a nationalist, parochial judgment to a
3) Creating a solid infrastructure for international cooperation, in refreshing cosmopolitanism.
which money and human resources can flow together and address important After all, Cosmopolitan Constructivism is not new. Efforts to bring
and urgent common topics with other nations; for example, the Swedish about peace among peoples, cities or nations have existed ever since the
International Development Cooperation Agency, or the International birth of civilization. In our times, the most solid international platform
Cooperation Agency of Japan; summarizing what we look for as a community of states, is the UN Charter:
4) Establishing institutions abroad as a platform for sharing “to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war... to reaffirm the
knowledge about your own country, and engaging foreign publics in sharing faith in fundamental human rights...to establish conditions under which
your own national ideas about lifestyles, welfare, and the arts or to teach justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources
languages, but also to discuss domestic issues that may be relevant for the of international law can be maintained... [and] to promote social progress
two parties such as human rights, life conditions of children, or popular and better standards of life in larger freedom.” To my knowledge, no country
culture. These institutions should operate with independence in the selection has disowned these values, even if we think of them as goals, a desirable or
of their activities and policies. The British Council, the Swedish Institute, idealistic umbrella. To Americans to adopt these values is a necessary stage
the Goethe Institute, or the Cultural Center of Spain in some countries, are in US history; but it is also a message to our own civilization that we must
good examples of such initiatives; adapt if we are to reach anywhere.

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 Being aware that peoples and countries have economic, military or Constantinou, C. “Human Diplomacy and Spirituality.” Clingendael Discussion Papers in
political interests that take precedence over being friends is the goal. The Diplomacy, No. 103, April 2006: 20-32.
claim here is not for a single-minded cosmopolitan constructivist foreign Cull, N. The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda
policy. No one could reasonably advocate that all foreign policies must be and Public Diplomacy, 1945-1989. U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
only based on these universalistic principles. I issue this cautious warning
because I see very little of cosmopolitanism in cultural and public diplomacies Hall, E. T. The Silent Language. N.Y.: Doubleday/Anchor press, 1959.
worldwide (cfr. Knudsen 2004). Yet I suggest and even urge that all foreign
Held, D. “Culture and Political Community: National, Global and Cosmopolitan,” in
policies begin nurturing and developing the cosmopolitan and universalistic Conceiving Cosmopolitanism: Theory, Context and Practice, by S. Vertovec and R. Cohen.
values already embedded deeply in their own diplomacies. In truth, a Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
significant share of the activities called cultural and public diplomacies are
addressed to persuasion, manipulation, winning hearts and minds, and the Huntington, S. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. N.Y.:
selling of images and national brands. These actions flow from the logic Touchstone, 1996.
required by the security/military ethos, rather than as part of a citizen’s need Iriye, A. Cultural Internationalism and World Order. N.Y.: John Hopkins University Press,
for the promotion of diversity, exchanges and goodwill. 1997.
In sum, Cosmopolitan Constructivism can be defined as the
recognition that the construction of a peaceful community of states matters Kant, I. Perpetual Peace. NY: Prentice Hall, 1992.
as the highest goal for diplomacy, and that governments must make use
Knudsen, O. Ed. “Cultural Barriers, Cultural Bridges: Experience and Evidence from
of cultural and public diplomacies as mechanisms to collaborate in the Diplomacy and Politics.” Conference Papers 34. Stockholm, Sweden: Utikespolitiska
common understanding of their own cultures, diversities and differences. Institutet, 2004.
Put simply, Cosmopolitan Constructivism aims at constructing long-lasting
friendly relations among states by inviting their societies to learn from each Melissen, J. The New Public Diplomacy, Soft Power in International Relations. U.K.:
other in the construction of cosmopolitan cultural attitudes. This discourse Palgrave, 2005.
celebrates “cultural difference,” cultural exchange, civil societies’ diversity Mitchell, J.M. International Cultural Relations. London: Allen & Unwin, 1986.
and face-to-face encounters in the struggle to foster common understanding.
Cultural and public diplomacies are political arrangements conducive to Ninkovich, F. The Diplomacy of Ideas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980.
the construction of a plurality of representations of cultures abroad via
diplomatic institutions. It is time to take these ideas seriously, if we are to Mayor Zaragoza, F. En Píe de Paz. Spain: Gedisa, 2008.
make a difference in the 21st century. Pérez De Cuéllar, J. Our Creative Diversity: The World Commission on Culture and
References Development. France: UNESCO, 1997.
Anholt, S. Competitive Identities. U.S.A.: Prentice Hall, 2008.
Reus-Smit, Ch. The Moral Purpose of the State: Culture, Social Identity and Institutional
Arndt, R.T. The First Resort of Kings: American Cultural Diplomacy in the Twentieth Rationality in International Relations. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999.
Century. USA: Potomac Books, 2005.
Ruggie, J. Constructing the World Polity. London: Routledge, 1989.
Blum, Robert. Cultural Affairs and Foreign Relations. N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963.
Ruggie, J. Multilateralism Matters. N.Y.: Columbia University Press, 1993.
Cohen, R. Negotiating Across Cultures: International Communication in an Independent
World. Washington D.C.: US institute of Peace Press, 1997. Sharp, P. “For Diplomacy: Representation and the Study of International Relations.”
International Studies Review, 1999: 1-15.

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Sharp, P. “Making Sense of Citizen Diplomats: The People of Deluth, Minnesota, as
International Actors.” International Studies Perspectives, 2:2, 2001: 131-150. Showing the Power of “Cultural
Tomlinson, J. Globalization and Culture. U.K.: Polity, 1999. Tomlinson, J. “Interests and
Identities in Cosmopolitan Politics,” in Conceiving Cosmopolitanism: Theory, Context and
Relations”: Strategic planning,
monitoring and evaluation at the
Practice, by S. Vertovec and R. Cohen. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Villanueva, C. Representing Cultural Diplomacy: Soft Power, Cosmopolitan Constructivism

and Nation Branding in Mexico and Sweden. Växjö, Sweden: Växjö University Press, 2007.
British Council
Sharon Memis
Walker, R.J.B. Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Wendt, A. “Anarchy Is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics.”
International Organization 46, 1992, Spring: 391-425.

Wendt, A. “Collective Identity Formation and the International State.” American Political The British Council
Science Review 88 (2), 1994: 384-396. is the U.K.’s cultural relations
organization. Our 7,500 staff
Wendt, A. Social Theory of International Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, in 109 countries and territories
1999. build engagement and trust for
the U.K. through the exchange of
knowledge and ideas between people worldwide. The British Council was established 

in 1934 to counter the fascist propaganda of that period. Our founders believed that the
César Villanueva received his Ph.D. in Political Science from Växjö best way to combat extremism was through greater international cultural engagement
University, Sweden. He is Professor of International Relations and Cultural and understanding. The British Council was incorporated by Royal Charter in 1940 and
Diplomacy at Universidad Iberoamericana, in Mexico City. He teaches in 2009 we celebrated 75 years of cultural relations. As an NDPB (non-departmental
courses in Foreign Policy and Culture, Public and Cultural Diplomacy, public body) and a charity (not-for-profit), we have operational independence and
work at arm’s length from government. Our annual budget is approximately $1 billion
Theory of International Politics, and Contemporary Art. Most recently, his
with just under one third coming from a core government grant and the remainder
research interests have focused on arts diplomacy and cosmopolitan theory. ‘earned’ through other activities such as English language teaching, examination
He has authored three books and more than 20 scholarly and professional administration, development contract management and other partnership work. Our
papers. In 2009 he was the guest editor for the Mexican Journal of Foreign operational independence allows us to focus on our long-term charitable objectives
Policy, No. 85 dedicated to public and cultural diplomacy. and enables us to work when and where other relations with the U.K. are strained.
The challenges of measuring the “return on engagement” of
cultural relations
What the British Council calls “Cultural Relations”—the building
of trust and engagement through the exchange of knowledge and ideas
between people worldwide—is a long-term investment and its full benefits
are not achieved immediately. The objective of cultural relations is not to
support short-term foreign policy messages; instead, by engaging through
the common languages of education, arts, science and sport—promoting
understanding and removing misunderstanding—long-term people-to-

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people and society-to-society relationships and engagement are fostered. systematic approach to defining the “priority groups” we wished to engage
By building up a “cultural relations credit” over time, other international with, interview 50 of the most senior people (half of whom we should not
engagement can be more effective whether government-to-government know) and give questionnaires to everyone else involved in our programs.
relations are friendly or tense. For example, at a time of diplomatic tension In Paris, our “priority groups” then comprised the elite and future elite of
between Russia and the U.K., the British Council supported continuing France and professionals in the sectors in which the British Council worked.
cultural engagement through the arts by helping broker relationships that In a country where a diploma from a small group of Grandes Ecoles meant
resulted in a major exhibition of U.K. art going to Moscow and of Russian a virtually guaranteed path to influence, identifying the elite was a relatively
art going to London. easy exercise. The “professional” groups were pretty much self-defining
The difficulty with the “long-term” is that public and private given that the British Council worked in British Studies, science, English
funders tend to be more interested in the short term so international language and the arts. As obvious as it may sound today, this was the first
cultural engagement must also demonstrate value for money and impact time we had taken a systematic and strategic approach to analyzing and
in the short and medium term to retain the confidence and support of its defining our target audiences and it helped us immeasurably in sharpening
funders, stakeholders and partners. In short, there must be a demonstrable our focus.
“return on engagement.” The British Council, over a number of years, has The French found our interest in evaluation rather curious and this
developed an increasingly rigorous approach to evaluation which provides helped us gain access to an extraordinarily senior group of people. The
short, medium and long-term indicators of success. Our approach is both interview questions were, I recall, rather banal. Asking a senior government
quantitative and qualitative. The numbers that contribute to our corporate or cultural figure in Paris whether they had ever been to the U.K. was actually
“scorecard” are one aspect and help provide short-term indicators of impact a little embarrassing. However, once the questionnaire was completed, the
across our global network. We also use project specific quantitative data conversations we had were extraordinary and this was what truly enriched
and qualitative “stories” to show the medium and long-term impact of our programs and expanded our networks over the ensuing years. This
our work. Before examining how we evaluate today, it is worth looking demonstrated better than anything that listening to what people want rather
at how we started systematic and formal evaluation some 20 years ago to than designing something you think they want is more effective. Again,
understand the drivers, the learning processes involved and the challenges this sounds obvious but even today there are countless examples of public
of introducing evaluation into the “culture” of an organization such as the diplomacy agents focused more on messaging than listening.
British Council. Many of the lessons learned then are still relevant today. The second part of the process was a series of questionnaires for
Our evaluation system has of course improved immeasurably over the years those engaged in our programs, which assessed customer satisfaction and
and is increasingly accepted as essential and useful within the “culture” of tried to ascertain whether perceptions of the U.K. had improved as a result
the organization. It has taken time but the mainstreaming of evaluation really our work. We were surprised that people were quite happy to complete them
is an achievement. and even more surprised at how useful the exercise was. Asking program
Evaluation at the British Council: A Little Bit of History participants for measurable feedback was invaluable in demonstrating
In 1991, I worked at the British Council in Paris on what we called an success and in determining which programs to drop and which to continue
“evaluation pilot.” The driver was a review by the NAO (National Audit or change.
Office) which basically said that the British Council had reasonable Part of our brief was to ask our counterparts in France how they
planning systems, was relatively efficient but that we needed to improve evaluated their international cultural work. The response was splendid: “La
our impact measurement systems. We commissioned a well-known external culture est trop importante pour être évaluée” (culture is too important to be
consultancy firm to develop a methodology which they set out in a telephone- evaluated). Many of us had secret sympathy for this view at the beginning
directory sized manual. It wasn’t rocket science. We were told to take a more but as we embarked on a much more systematic approach to defining target

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audiences and took a more market-oriented approach to our work, asking by a qualitative “storyboard.” Inevitably, our first version was over-complex
a range of senior contacts what their priorities were and seeking the views and tried to measure anything that moved. Whilst we have simplified our
of our “customers” as to what they thought of the British Council and the systems and now “measure what matters,” one of the biggest challenges over
U.K., we all began to be somewhat less skeptical about monitoring and the years was how to make monitoring and evaluation part of the “culture”
evaluation. Not only did we now have quantitative evidence of success of the organization so that it was not seen simply as another management
for our funders and partners, we were also better placed to make informed task. With the tight strategic framework and the outcomes and results
resource decisions about how we could achieve the greatest impact amongst focused planning we have introduced over the last few years, monitoring
the people we wanted to reach. and evaluation has had to take a more central place in the British Council.
Almost 20 years on, this all sounds rather basic but I recount the When the most senior staff in the organization are held “accountable” for
story of our first real foray into evaluation in 1991 because the lessons results, monitoring and evaluation has to be mainstreamed and everyone
learned then in the first few post Cold-War years were invaluable, and are begins to appreciate its relevance.
still relevant today. It also serves as a useful reminder of why we need The importance of defining target audiences, objectives, outcomes
to assess the impact of cultural relations. First, most cultural relations and success measures is central to our evaluation system; planning,
practitioners are using other people’s money for at least part of their activity. monitoring and evaluation are therefore are inextricably linked. To achieve
In the case of the British Council, just under one third of our budget is from our organizational purpose, the British Council has a corporate strategic
the U.K. government; using taxpayers’ money brings with it an obligation framework which guides our programming across our global network from
to demonstrate value for money and “benefit.” The drivers behind the 1991 the smallest local projects to our large-scale international products. All our
evaluation pilot—the NAO wanting us to demonstrate efficient and effective activity contributes to three strategic programmatic strands: creative and
use of public funds—are even more important today given the enormous knowledge economy, intercultural dialogue and climate change. Strategy
pressure on public and indeed private funds. Second, and in some ways informs impact targets and planning from the top of the organization down,
more importantly, cultural relations practitioners, like most professionals, and impact deliverables contribute to the organization’s overall performance
want to know that they are “making a difference” and constantly seek to from junior colleagues “on the ground” up to the CEO. We have been quite
improve effectiveness by learning lessons from the past. Without a robust successful in ensuring our teams understand the strategic framework and the
planning, monitoring and evaluation process, this is simply not possible. importance of the role of monitoring and evaluation in delivering results.
The 1991 NAO report was therefore an important catalyst for the Establishing clear, concise and ambitious organizational objectives not only
organization to start taking evaluation seriously. It helped us see the value of provides a compass for every action we take, but it provides a set of targets
defining what we wanted to achieve, who we wanted to reach, what difference which enable effective evaluation.
we wanted to make and how we would know when we had achieved it. It Rigorous internal mechanisms for project design and development
went beyond the obligation of accountability and showed us how to achieve ensure quality control and establish a set of criteria for impact assessment.
greater impact and demonstrate success to our partners and stakeholders. Before project ideas receive any resources, teams must articulate the project
This has made us immeasurably stronger. outcomes (the change the project hopes to accomplish), outputs (the goods or
Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation in the British Council services produced to achieve these outcomes) and audiences (numbers and
Today quality of engagement). These are the basic elements of the British Council’s
In the 20 years since we embarked on formal evaluation, we have internal project commissioning informed by the Project Logic model of
developed and continue to develop, much more robust and sophisticated corporate planning and performance. A four stage process beginning with
quantitative and qualitative approaches to PME (planning, monitoring and design and development, moving on to proof of concept, build and test,
evaluation). We introduced a “balanced scorecard” in the 1990s backed up and ending with the release of the project, occurs over two to three years to

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ensure the success of the business model. The British Council recognizes that cultural relations work varies
All project proposals include a robust monitoring and evaluation from project to project. In measuring impact, short-term quantitative
process (normally, around five percent of a project’s resources are set aside measures of audiences engaged and reached are important, as well as
for evaluation) and have an “exit strategy.” If targets are not met, the project qualitative indicators of the social implications, changes achieved and lasting
will need to be changed or stopped. legacy within specific cultural contexts. Therefore we use customized
Through each project, we need to be able to articulate a story of project-specific research, monitoring and evaluation methods in addition to
impact and legacy. This is primarily through two interconnected functions: the universal “Balanced Scorecard” which ensures that all British Council
audiences and change. Who are we seeking to work with, and in what numbers? programming is subject to some standardized quantitative measures.
Three categories of audiences help us narrow our focus: Leaders—decision The Corporate Scorecard includes the level of audiences engaged
makers on a national or regional level, Influencers—emerging leaders and directly; audiences reached through cascaded means or through radio,
gatekeepers to larger audiences, and Aspirants—primarily young people television and the web; the amount of products and services delivered by
who are seeking information and opportunities. The scale to which these the project; and survey scores that assess customers’ attitudes toward and
audiences are involved in our programming depends on the outcomes of the expectations of the British Council’s programming, its quality, reputation
project—i.e. the change we wish to accomplish. Change often falls into two and likelihood of recommendation. Projects, countries and regions have
categories: it is either a personal learning change—regarding perception targets within the scorecard for which teams are accountable. This data
or capacity building, or an action change—a shift in behavior, setting an informs planning and success against organizational strategic targets and is
agenda, or an institutional change. The type of changes desired in the project becoming more important as the British Council moves towards impact-led
outcomes—both long-term and short term—dictate the level of engagement planning.
with which audience and the level of investment per individual. The changes delivered by a project among the audiences involved—
whether they are personal or action-oriented—do not tend to lend themselves
to standardized quantitative metrics. However, being clear about the
exact nature of the outcome ahead of time, and using varying evaluation
methods including surveys, network analysis, in-depth interviewing and
storyboarding does enable project managers to measure the difference a
project has made—both in the short and long term.
Our monitoring and evaluation is not perfect but the quantitative and
qualitative methods together do provide us with useful data and compelling
stories which help persuade our stakeholders and partners of the benefit
of supporting and working with the British Council. To articulate this in
practical terms, the case study below shows the strategic contributions of
one project to local, regional and corporate British Council outcomes.
Artistic Innovation Leads to More Inclusive Societies: Cultural
Relations and Human Rights
In Asia, two million people are moving into urban areas each
month, creating cities filled with the ferment of economic possibilities and
societal tensions between traditional ways of living and the impact that the
opportunities and risks of globalization present.



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 To stimulate the entrepreneurial possibilities of young people in The following are summaries of the quantitative and qualitative
these places while encouraging them to create open and diverse societies, evaluations conducted at three levels of the British Council, based
part of the British Council’s regional Creative Cities project (spanning 11 on information gathered from participants in the 48 Hour Inclusive
countries in East Asia and China), included a Hong Kong-based “48 Hour Design Challenge. Each section represents a distinct set of needs that
Inclusive Design Challenge.” each project must aim to fulfil: local/country, regional and global.
A creative workshop in the guise of a design competition, the Hong Kong
Challenge asked designers from across the region to divide into groups and The most immediate measurement of impact is at the local level:
team up with volunteers with physical disabilities, competing to produce how the project met the British Council Hong Kong office’s local strategic
a design concept for a product usable by both disabled and non disabled goals. Did the project take full advantage of—or, ideally, strengthen—the
people within 48 hours. Each team was led by a design mentor from the British Council’s pre-existing Hong Kong relationships? Did the project
U.K. and a local disabled design partner. connect the British Council with new audiences? And what sort of change
There were three outcomes for the 48 Hour Inclusive Design happened as a result?
Challenge: 1) “Put disabled people at the heart of the innovation process and British Council’s Hong Kong office was responsible for determining
demonstrate how they can be a vital part in the design process as a template the impact of the project on a local level. As they took the lead on the 48 Hour
for social inclusion.” 2) “Share U.K. expertise in Inclusive Design and Inclusive Design Challenge, they were also responsible for compiling all
increase the capacity of designers or design educators in China and the East measurement and evaluation figures for the project within each participating
Asia region to engage with a disadvantaged community in the process of country, and therefore, the impact of the project overall.
innovation. 3) “Increase the activity of city and cultural leaders to promote Since the competition was headquartered and held in Hong Kong,
the benefits of developing Inclusive Design.” it was an opportunity for the office to expand and strengthen its local
Inclusive design can be a tool for bringing business advantage, partnerships with public, private and not-for-profit institutions. The
diversity and innovation to design communities while at the same time project included extensive pre-event activities beginning several weeks
raising awareness about people with special needs. None of the East Asian before the competition to drum up interest among key influencers and the
designers in this particular competition, no matter their seniority in the design general public. Key Hong Kong design organizations joined the British
field, had ever worked with a disabled person. The British Council invited Council as partners in the project, including the Hong Kong Government’s
the Helen Hamlyn Centre of the Royal College of Arts in the U.K. to bring DesignSmart Initiative which supplied grant funding and Hong Kong Youth
inclusive design experts in as mentors, helping designers think out of the Advocates who volunteered to provide administrative support during the
box and highlighting good examples of common technology like Bluetooth competition. The partnership element is crucial; it not only ensures an
which have roots in assistive technology. informed, culturally aware approach, but it makes the most of the British
The winning team’s design, the MPwerStyx, was inspired by two Council resources assigned to the project by leveraging further investment.
brothers with an inherited metabolic disorder that damages body tissues and The British Council Hong Kong team engaged one “Leader,” with
limits the development of joint movements. The brothers enjoyed surfing the the project—Victor Lo, Chairman of the Hong Kong Design Center, in
internet, but found a traditional computer mouse cumbersome. Inspired by an effort to ensure high level support. As a senior official with national
their dexterity with Chinese cutlery, the winning team reinvented the mouse decision making capabilities, Lo is considered a “Leader” within the British
in the style of a pair of chopsticks. Council’s audience metrics, and therefore would be accounted for on the
Surveys and interviews with the design team participants and the Scorecard as such. While Lo is not the prime audience for this project,
disabled volunteers made clear that a strong shift in perception had occurred engagement with leaders is often important in securing the project’s goals
(more on that below). enjoy longevity past the competition.

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 The 48-hour Inclusive Design Challenge engaged 79 “Influencers” 48 Hour Inclusive Design Challenge asked respondents to indicate whether
in China and Hong Kong’s disabled and design communities (the second the event met their expectations, whether they considered the event “high
tier of the British Council’s Scorecard audience profile). These Influencers quality,” and whether they considered the British Council a leader in its
were either advisors and partners or local designers participating in the field. Respondents were also encouraged to provide qualitative feedback
competition. In the case of the six disabled design partners who lead the in blank spaces provided. Those surveyed were given five choices (ranging
challenge teams alongside a U.K. design mentor, longer, deeper relationships from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.”) Responses were collated
were established with the British Council as a result of collaborating and weighted to give an average score representing the given question on a
together on the project design and delivery. In opening up the challenge and hundred-point scale. The “Expectations” question, for example, yielded a
making it a publicly accessible competition, the British Council was able total score of 82 – halfway between Strongly Agree and Agree; respondents
to call upon the larger set of Influencers involved, as gatekeepers to their also felt that the event was a high quality event, earning a score of 85 in this
communities, to draw in a further 250 young people and general members category. The question about the British Council’s reputation in the cultural
of the public (Aspirants) who either volunteered during the challenge or relations field—always a difficult metric to work with if people have little
who were in attendance. Competition audiences engaged directly with the international experience—earned an average score of 76
subject matter, as they voted on the best designs. Perhaps telling a more detailed story, however, are the aims originally
Pitching the event to journalists and a partnership with a local news set out by the project team alongside the accomplishments. Project leaders
organization resulted in an estimated two million impressions in Hong Kong. aimed to “put disabled people at the heart of the innovation process and
Successful media is a key output from a project like the Design Challenge, demonstrate how they can be a vital part in the design process as a template
but the British Council does not focus on readership, or viewership within for social inclusion.” In the end, six disabled design partners collaborated
the Scorecard’s audience profile. Media helps raise awareness, but our aim with six U.K. design mentors and with 44 designers and design educators
is to measure the degree to which audiences have been directly impacted as from 11 different countries across Hong Kong, China and East Asia. These
a result of our work. 56 experts competed and then collaborated to produce the design of a product
Project partner Hong Kong Design Center provided strongly positive that ultimately solved a problem faced by disabled people.
feedback that the project met the organization’s needs: “It’s really a good Perception change amongst competition participants and audience
chance to cooperate with the British Council to co-organize this meaningful members was an important qualitative consideration at the regional level.
public event to promote the idea of inclusive design successfully. The One designer from Guangzhou commented, “In China we seldom think
event was successful as it attracted many people from design and different of people with disabilities – it’s a taboo subject. The situation is getting
industries, media and the general public to participate and arouse their better now but there is still much to be done. The competition challenged
awareness of this topic.” us morally, emotionally and technically – what an inspiration!” One of the
Regional: China and East Asia volunteers from mainland China observed, “I feel so thankful to the British
Regionally, the British Council evaluated the 48-hour Inclusive Council and all the designers for creating designs that break the barrier
Design Challenge in all 11 participating countries. Did the project achieve between the non-disabled and disabled worlds. This is the first time in my
its outcomes—did it deliver a personal-learning, or action-oriented change? life that I’ve been treated as a normal member of society.”
What could be done next time to improve the project? Did the participating Media coverage of the competition allowed seven million people
teams from regions outside of Hong Kong incorporate their learnings in to hear about the project in China and East Asia, North America and New
future projects? Project managers analyzed quantitative and qualitative data Zealand through the media; prominent full-page stories appeared in Hong
to answer these questions. Kong newspaper and stories filled Chinese websites.
A survey distributed to participants and audience members of the

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 Global: The British Council different perspectives within their region and with the U.K.—a key outcome
The Impact of the 48-hour Inclusive Design Challenge was not only of our global work in building trust and engagement between people
felt in terms of audiences engaged—Leaders, Influencers and Aspirants—or worldwide.
in the personal learning of attendees regarding the perception of disabilities,
but there was an action-oriented change in the marketplace as a direct result
of the project: the winning design concept was showcased in the 2008 London Sharon Memis is the Director of British Council USA. Memis joined
Design Festival to an audience of over 2,000 and subsequently bought by the British Council in 1988 and has managed international programs in
a production house, ready to be created and made available to millions of education, the arts, science and governance in Paris, Rome and Brussels.
people. None of these achievements could have been made in isolation. Before taking up her current post in 2006, she was director of corporate
Partnership was the key to success in this case. 50 percent of the project planning and performance in London and frequently spoke at conferences
budget was derived through strategic partnership with local government and about the British Council’s evaluation system. The British Council celebrates
NGOs. its 75th anniversary in November 2009. More information can be found
New economic and social developments often hinge upon the online at www.britishcouncil.org.
creativity and innovation that arts professionals bring to the table. This
Inclusive Design Challenge demonstrated yet again that the arts and creative
industries provide unique ways for people to debate contemporary issues,
challenge opinions and increase mutual understanding while simultaneously
laying the groundwork for innovations that will drive economic growth.
Qualitative feedback from the East Asian participants made
clear the Challenge highlighted the practical benefits of a collaborative,
inclusive approach to product design: an opportunity to identify new market
opportunities and insight into how the utilization of aesthetics combined
with usability lead to real-world entrepreneurship. Mentorship by the
Royal College of Arts staff contributed to fostering new ways of working
while simultaneously highlighting the U.K. as an effective partner for skills
development and contributing U.K. expertise to international cooperation -
both key goals for the British Council globally in our Creative and Knowledge
Economy program area and for one of the project’s key outcomes. As a
result, the Hong Kong Design Centre has already organized another Inclusive
Design workshop, and one of the project partners, Cyberport, is exploring a
future partnership with the Royal College of Art in incorporating inclusive
design in improving digital lifestyle in Hong Kong.
Beside the benefits to the regional creative economy, this project also
contributed to another priority for the British Council: through Intercultural
Dialogue, a more open and inclusive society. Through shared work in a
creative endeavour, both disabled and non-disabled participants contributed
to positive social change in East Asia while strengthening the bonds between

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 PERSPECTIVES Ballet with a Chinese acrobat swinging in the midst. All three Cold War
rivals put their iconic acts forward acting out a kind of sublimated conflict.
On the level of symbolism, these widely heralded presentations were
staged performances. The vector was the superior superpower performing
down to “third world” audiences from under proscenium arches. To the
thousands that witnessed these spectacles live and the millions that saw,
heard, or read about them in the media, the message of superiority could not
Out from Under the Proscenium: have been clearer.
I advocate an opposite approach for a new era and a new U.S.
A Paradigm for U.S. Cultural administration. The excesses and inherent resentment of the superpowers
have mounted these past four decades, and the rest of the world is catching
Diplomacy up in fits and starts. This is indeed an era in which President Obama’s tone of
“respectful engagement “among equals needs to be a watchword of people-
Peter Kovach to-people interaction. The nation’s cultural diplomacy must therefore bring
our cultural presentations “out from under the proscenium.” We must do this
in the spirit of wanting to be known and wanting, in turn, to know others. In
this age, where American juggernaut no longer garners automatic respect,
we have no choice but to advance a cultural diplomacy of engagement.
An important and highly symbolic subset of cultural presentation is Entry into the world of 2.0 communication further impels such a
a nation’s cultural diplomacy. Based on my almost 30 years of experience change in cultural diplomacy. 2.0 implies more than giving control of image,
doing cultural diplomacy in the U.S. Foreign Service and the changed political symbol and message. Creative presentation via the Internet is predicated
context in which our nation’s public diplomacy is presently conducted, I on presumed equality among those who engage their international peers as
advocate a new way forward in presenting ourselves as a culture, whether in equal co-creators, whether in the realm of the arts or ideas. The medium
the area of performance, sports, the arts more generally or other collaborative itself is a great leveler.
endeavors achieved through exchanges. Ironically, in an age of instantaneous communication, the emphasis
In the international arena, a government’s cultural program advocated here would require a commitment to longer-term exchanges on
communicates on at least two levels: firsts, the human level of substantive the ground, prepared and sustained by collaborative creation on platforms
exchange between people and institutions, whether centered on artistic such as Second Life and other social media. Even in USIA, such longer
performance or production, sports competition or training or co-mingling of exchanges, like “professionals in residence,” were only sporadically funded
intellectual creation in think-tanks or the like. The second level is symbolic, over time. To the good, they usually required some kind of cost or in-kind
as the context of the exchange and its creative results are echoed in the support from the host country institutions.
media. Implicitly at least, the interaction is modeled on this second level. Our biggest and best acts still travel far and wide on the international
Is the relationship patronizing, egalitarian and how does it empower the economy and now in the digital universe. Driven by the market, America
participants? still sends out the big names and, seductively, the entertainment markets
During the Cold War, USIA and the Department of State put their invite foreigners to see how “we do things better the American way.” Some
thumb in the dike, for symbolism’s sake and typically put a jazz Great on critics may dub this as “hegemonistic” but I think we need to take this as a
tour, to compete with the unabashed offerings from the Soviet Union and given.
China. The result was a cultural diplomacy in which Dizzie met the Bolshoi

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 A program initiative like this would project an image of America difference. The basketball exchange gave us a unique access to the Shia
willing to engage on a level playing field. An American artist, for example, majority underclass. It opened doors of access, of invitations to weddings,
would apply to go to a country based on his/her initial interest in the arts in funerals and celebrations as well as a channel of serious dialogue that stayed
the host country. The U.S. Embassy in the country would arrange compatible open for years.
hosting. The time the American participant spent on the ground would be A recent private trip to Egypt by jazzman Darryl Kennedy, illustrates
dedicated to co-creation: of music, dance, graphic art, sport or intellectual the point in a setting at the heart of U.S. post-9/11 diplomacy. Partnering
endeavors. A grant under this scheme would include money to travel the with an Egyptian musician encountered during his earlier stint as “Jazz
emerging fusion and its co-creators around the host country and region and Ambassador,” Kennedy spent two months in Cairo, jamming with a local
in some cases allow the artists etc. to bring their work to the U.S. This in group. Finding a compatible Egyptian musical partner, Kennedy finally cut
turn would validate the country partner, and add to American’s knowledge a joint CD with this Egyptian band and ended up doing a widely acclaimed
of the outside world, creating a notion that fusion of culture and creative combined concert tour in Egypt. Kennedy came across as humble, and
endeavor is something that enhances both cultures. as an American who listened and paid the highest compliment possible to
I fought hard to send a clean-cut group of Muslim-American rappers his Egyptian counterparts, generating a fusion sound, a sound that did not
out of Washington D.C., Native Deen, on the road to Indonesia and Malaysia, value one cultural component over the other. This is the prototype of what I
where their music has a following in the key, under 25 demographic that advocate. Had the group been funded to tour America, this cultural exchange,
post 9/11public diplomacy aims at. They finally traveled two years later. But would have been a perfect prototype, with the Egyptians garnering press
a Malay critic quipped to me at the time, contemplating the prospect of a notice and belying American stereotypes.
Native Deen performance on a Kuala Lumpur stage, under the proscenium: About four years ago, a young political officer out of Appalachia,
“The subliminal message will be, now Americans are even telling us how to a professional bluegrass musician, reported for duty at the U.S. Embassy
be good Muslims.” in Tunis. Encouraged by his embassy, he mixed it musically with some of
It hardly seems revolutionary to eschew mediums of “cultural Tunisia’s best pop and folk musicians. Their jam sessions eventually yielded
performance,” epitomized by the big names and price tags, for a cultural a polished fusion; CDs were cut. The Department answered Embassy Tunis’
diplomacy that travels Americans to meet their foreign counterparts on a appeal for financial support. The young officer’s musical partners from
level playing field, peer-to-peer. Such cultural diplomacy would generate Charlottesville, VA came out to Tunisia and soon the Tunisian-American
a very different symbolic value—one that listens, respects and creates ensemble launched on a tour of Tunisia and North Africa. Finally the
synthesis as an end-product rather than performance in the more traditional Americans returned to the U.S. with their Tunisian friends for a tour that
sense of our act on their stage. was highlighted by an appearance at the Kennedy Center. The media image
There are, of course, historical examples; ping-pong diplomacy with of the collaboration was one of exchange writ large, of partnership of equals
China prior to former President Nixon and Chairman Mao’s diplomatic and co-creators.
opening is a great example. We very consciously played the Chinese at a In the “fusion” century, why not disperse a stream of pop musicians
game far more theirs than ours. We probably lost more than we won. A for longer periods to jam, mix it and finally integrate unique products that
basketball exchange I instigated in Bahrain in the early 1980s is another respect the local milieu and arrive squarely in the concentric space among
good example. I persuaded the old USIA to deliberately pick a Division participating cultures.
III team from a good school, Case Western Reserve. This team I argued Renew the initiative of having an American university class share
could conceivably lose a game or two with no diminution of effort—and a curriculum between one and three other universities overseas “meeting”
they did, to the delight of Arab fans. Also, picking student-athletes from a together on a biweekly basis by Internet visual conference.
top school guaranteed a greater degree of finesse in accommodating cultural Then there is performance and conflict resolution, USAID sent

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a master of drum circles to Northern Iraq three years ago to teach social
drumming to Iraqis drawn from over a dozen confessional or ethnic U.S.A. and UNESCO
communities. Those who worked in the Arab world or Israel in the 1990s
will not soon forget the melding of young classical musicians from Israel Jim Leach
and surrounding Arab countries gathered in New Hampshire for summer
workshops, funded by the U.S. government. Together, these young Arabs
and Israelis made music, shared living spaces, hiked and even developed
crushes on Israeli contemporaries and vice versa. Speech to the 35th Session of the General Conference, UNESCO,
The experiences with the peer-to-peer cultural diplomacy suggested Paris, France, October 8, 2009
here are not novel. What we need now is to brand the concept, package As chairman of the U.S. National Endowment for the Humanities,
and fund it. One of the great things about this kind of programming is that I would like to underscore traditional American cultural interests and note
it is easy to attract private sector or host country collaboration—either in certain initiatives of the Obama Administration and their implications for
cash or kind. With funding to share the fruits of the competition or art on the future of UNESCO.
both shores, and skillful media work to include millions more participating The United States is a young country that has benefited from the
vicariously, the U.S. may happily be seen as a respectful equal—and our greatest cultural aid in history: the ideas, traditions, faith and family systems
co-citizens may learn a thing or two about the world in the process. And the brought to us from all over the world—from Europe, the Middle East, Africa,
world will have some darn good art produced in the fusion; one I think even Asia, the Caribbean and Latin America.
the most acerbic critic would label “non-hegemonic.” We consider ourselves, like all countries, to have a unique national
culture, and as a sprawling, immigrant society, a mosaic of subcultures. This
circumstance coupled with our debt to so many cultural sources obligates
Peter Kovach is a career public diplomacy officer in the senior us to respect and leads us to help preserve fundamental aspects of various
foreign service. Currently, he directs the Office of International Religious cultures the world over.
Freedom at the Department of State. He has taught at UCLA and UMass. The United States does not have a centralized Ministry of Culture.
Kovach currently teaches meditation to underserved groups and advocates International cultural initiatives are heavily the province of the private sector,
absorbing wisdom from all traditions while cultivating life insight. but they are also the province of a variety of governmental institutions, such
as the Departments of State, Education, and Energy, the National Science
The views expressed in this article are those of the author and not Foundation, the Library of Congress, the Smithsonian Institution, the
necessarily those of the Department of State or the U.S. Government. Institute of Museum and Library Services, the President’s Committee on the
Arts and Humanities, and two broad-based cultural funding institutions: The
National Endowment for the Arts, which supports creative endeavors such
as cinema, theater, the arts and craft, and the National Endowment for the
Humanities, which emphasizes the perspective of history, philosophy, and
literature.
I would like to outline the responsibilities and programs of the
institution I head. The work of the National Endowment for the Humanities
is principally domestic, but between a quarter and a third of our grants have
traditionally been awarded for projects on the history and culture of other
countries. What follows is a sampling of the range of international programs

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countries. What follows is a sampling of the range of international programs in partnership with the Library of Congress and others, the United States
we have supported: is committed to open communications and information sharing with all
• Resources to allow for the creation of an Afghanistan Digital peoples in all corners of the globe.
Library and an online version of the Encyclopaedia Iranica as well as Today’s world is hallmarked by change and acceleration.
financial collaboration on the creation of the Encyclopedia of Egyptology Unfortunately, as has been made too evident, rapid change can be
and the revision and updating of the Encyclopedia of Islam. destabilizing and sometimes violence-inducing. In this global setting, it
• Funding for the development of a Web-based archive of the is our assumption that shared learning with open dialogue is more likely
indigenous languages of Latin America, digital documentation and to lead to pacific relations between peoples of the world than any other
reconstruction of an ancient Mayan temple for a UNESCO heritage site, and circumstance. Knowledge is unifying.
curricular modules to explore the African roots of Latin music. As President Obama so presciently observed in Cairo in June 2009, “All of
• Resources to create a grammar, dictionary, and texts of the Dogon us share this world for but a brief moment in time. The question is whether
language of Mali, a Web-based trilingual dictionary for Kinyarwanda, we spend that time focused on what pushes us apart, or whether we commit
Swahili, and English, and an exhibition of dynasty and divinity in Yoruba ourselves to an effort—a sustained effort—to find common ground, to focus
art. on the future we seek for our children, and to respect the dignity of all human
• Financing the creation of a dictionary of the Gandhari language, beings.”
documentation of two endangered Papuan languages—Western Pantar Accordingly, the President suggested as a goal that a young person
and Nedebang (Indonesia), translation of early Buddhist manuscripts, re- in the American Midwest be able to communicate on a regular basis with
imaging of the ancient Buddhist caves of Xiangtangshan, digitization of a young person in the Middle East. By analogy a young person in Europe
archaeological collections from Mongolia’s High Altai region, and assistance or Africa should be able to communicate with a young person in Asia or
to a Harvard-Fudan University collaboration on creation of an authoritative South America. And, perhaps as significantly, a person of any age should be
geographic information system covering over two millennia of Chinese able to reach out and communicate with anyone in his or her own society.
history. A twittering world is a communicative place, a global neighborhood more
• Assistance to advance the publication of a multi-volume (online as likely to live with itself.
well as printed) edition of Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, In an age where terrorism has become globalized and genocidal
as well as the development of a parallel history project on NATO and the acts are recent memory, we must be ever mindful of Einstein’s warning that
Warsaw Pact. splitting the atom has changed everything except our way of thinking. We
In a new emphasis on “bridging cultures,” the National Endowment have no choice except to improve upon what has been an historical constant—
for the Humanities is open to partnering with UNESCO and member states human nature. If this is too daunting an immediate task, we must take an
in international initiatives that in our unique NEH system are competitively intermediate step and, in concert, expand shared experiences. Increasing
peer-reviewed by experts in diverse fields drawn largely from the academic knowledge, particularly of each other’s cultures, is probing humanity,
community. sharing the human condition. It widens senses of family and community.
We are particularly interested in advancing the digital humanities. As the UNESCO charter affirms, peace must be founded “upon the
The Internet, combined with the computer and smart phone and a panoply of intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind.”
new digital-age devices, represents the greatest breakthrough in knowledge With respect for the charter, the United States is fully committed
accumulation since the book and the greatest impetus to providing access to to working constructively within the multi-lateral framework of UNESCO
learning on a non-class, non-gender, non-state basis ever. and, in addition, supports a number of complementary bilateral initiatives.
As with the digital library, a concept advanced so nobly by UNESCO The Obama Administration, for instance, is committed to advancing

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basic education the world over, particularly in Africa where a quarter of
a billion dollars in education aid is targeted over a one year period. U.S. PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN
international basic education funds have increased eight-fold over the last
decade, and the Obama Administration is prepared to take the next step, PRACTICE
increasing access to higher education through an emphasis on community
colleges and the development, among other techniques, of robust courses
that can be taken online. Few educational initiatives have more potential to
help equalize access to learning around the world.
The Obama Administration is also committed to significantly
increasing support for science on the assumption that we are at an historic
juncture where advances in science and the technologies applicable to basic
Advancing Public Diplomacy
research are the most exciting aspect of life on the planet. We are learning
more and more about ourselves, our origins, and our capacity to cope with
Through World Expos
disease and extend life. Unlike gold or precious metals, science cannot be
kept in vaults. It is the most quickly shared commodity on earth. Vicente González Loscertales
In a world where overall economic activity has slowed for the
first time in several decades, the U.S. remains committed to doing its part
by playing a constructive role in UNESCO and helping advance cultural
understanding between all peoples of the earth. Encompassing connections between aesthetics and functionality,
culture and politics, tradition and innovation, entertainment and diplomacy,
utopia and reality, World Expos are an inimitable phenomenon. For two
Jim Leach is the ninth Chairman of the National Endowment centuries, World Expos have maintained a unique ability to resonate with
for the Humanities. Leach was nominated by President Barack Obama the global public and to advance the international image of nations.
and confirmed by the Senate in 2009. Leach previously served 30 years Until recently, however, the explicit connection between World
representing southeastern Iowa in the U.S. House of Representatives, where Expos and public diplomacy has not been fully explored. The concept of
he chaired the Banking and Financial Services Committee, the Subcommittee public diplomacy has always been part of the DNA of these events since their
on Asian and Pacific Affairs, the Congressional-Executive Commission on inception in the 18th century, when France took the initiative to organize
China, and founded and co-chaired the Congressional Humanities Caucus. a national exhibition in Paris. The exhibition was meant to showcase the
After leaving Congress in 2007, Leach joined the faculty at Princeton country’s industry and establish a new platform to inject novel ideas into
University’s Woodrow Wilson School, where he was the John L. Weinberg society and engage citizens in the events of an emerging nation.
Visiting Professor of Public and International Affairs until his confirmation By adding an international dimension to this event, the Great
as NEH chairman. Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations, held in London in 1851,
inaugurated Expos as the hallmark events of the globalizing industrial era.
Between April and October 1851, 25 participating countries welcomed
more than 6 million visitors who wished to discover new products, new
architectures, new materials, and new nations.
Although the concept of an international platform for communication
and exchange of industrial developments was in itself new and powerful,

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governments and cities continued to expand the scope and the contents of If the origin of Expos coincided with the Industrial Revolution and
these early Expos. Originally conceived to promote industry, Expos began to a historical period focused on creation and projection of the identity of
connect cultures and present national achievements in all domains of human nations, it is no surprise that today, in light of new world dynamics, we are
activity. Participation in an Expo also offered opportunities for political and experiencing a renewed and growing interest in World Expos. The fabric of
economic cooperation and provided an ideal framework to promote national societies is increasingly shaped by economic and communication revolutions,
identity—making each Expo an essential destination for official visits by with nations—and now cities—competing for relevance and attractiveness
heads of state and other high-level government officials. on the world stage. As nation and city-branding become strategic priorities,
As these events acquired greater international legitimacy and their World Expos provide a powerful tool to support the competitive image of
diplomatic significance increased, nations felt the need to establish a shared cities and countries.
international framework to support the development of Expos, to protect This growing interest in Expos is reflected in both quantitative and
their educational value and to ensure appropriate guarantees for organizing qualitative aspects. Today 156 nations have ratified the BIE Convention.
and participating countries. The Paris Convention of 1928 defined such a More than 250 participant countries will be present at the upcoming Shanghai
framework and established the Bureau International des Expositions (BIE), Expo 2010. The number of cities bidding to host World Expos is increasing
which remains a unique organization where conventional diplomacy and and their cultural profile is diversifying. Additionally, Expos continue to
public diplomacy go hand in hand. be the single most visited event, averaging 15-20 million visitors over six
Through its mission to foster months. Shanghai 2010 is expecting a record 70 million visitors. From a
Expos as platforms for education, content point of view, Expos offer a powerful stage for cities and nations to
innovation and cooperation, the BIE both meet and exceed their branding and communication objectives.
facilitates the link between traditional Today’s repositioning of Expos as a special type of public diplomacy
diplomatic activities and public platform is based on the awareness that these events can no longer be the
diplomacy and connects the multiplicity default presentation stage for new products. Product innovation now
of players that now engage with foreign proceeds at a faster pace than the staging of Expos and communication is
publics. Alongside governments, the becoming more immediate and specialized. People learn about new products
BIE increasingly reaches out to a variety from other more flexible platforms and about world cultures and destinations
of international organizations, non- through mobility, television and the Internet.
governmental entities, corporations, and In order to fulfil their role as platforms for education and progress,
cities. In this landscape of diverse global Expos must be able to inspire and connect the actions of governments
communicators, these actors are all searching for opportunities to catalyze and civil society in their common endeavours, in order to match available
the world’s views and energies. resources to the global challenges facing the world. To this end, Expos are
The real challenge is to create a setting where this can happen in a way changing the way in which they encapsulate and communicate innovation by
that is non-confrontational, with approaches that are innovative and with the shifting from a view of innovation, purely driven by materials and products,
conditions that allow for the bridging of high-level public institutions and to one supported by solutions and practices.
civil society. World Expos provide precisely this setting. Within an Expo, Recent Expos have placed greater emphasis on selecting a specific
the host country, the invited countries and other organizations come together theme as their central core and organizing principle. So, Expos have come to
to orchestrate an educational exchange with the global public; to promote support the dual goals of public diplomacy. On the one hand, Expos represent
the development of platforms for innovation and cultural progress; and to a key asset for governments and international organizations in their efforts
support the making of new international destinations and identities. to communicate the major issues at the top of their global agendas. At the

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same time, the host city and country can serve as a catalyst for bringing that can bridge public policy goals and practical implementations and that
global attention to a key issue for humanity, attaching to it a more innovative provide a framework for cooperation between the diverse global players
and relevant image that advances their brand as well as their cultural and in their public education efforts. Best practices are a way to bring together
political identity. the practical perspective of Expos, the central role of the theme and the
Expos provide a snapshot of the state of the world at a particular educational responsibility of all participants.
time in order to help the general public understand future perspectives. Shanghai 2010 will be the first Expo to give true exhibition status to
Therefore it is not a coincidence that the various themes of Expos, in this the concept of “best practices.” In doing so, it has made the Expo even more
new century, all make reference to the top priorities established by the universal by inviting a new group of participants, i.e., cities, which, today,
international community. Since the year 2000, the main UN agendas have hold the key to the implementation of the solutions for designing, planning
guided the selection of Expo themes. Agenda 21 of the 1992 UN Conference and building quality environments for urban life. The Urban Best Practices
on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro inspired the themes Area is a 15 hectares zone at the heart of the Expo site where cities from
of Hannover 2000 Humankind, Nature and Technology: A New World around the world will present and exchange the concrete solutions they have
Arising, Aichi 2005 Nature’s Wisdom, Zaragoza 2008 Water and Sustainable adopted to address specific urban challenges.
Development and Shanghai 2010 Better City, Better Life. With best practices, real-life takes a central role in Expos and
Following the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate contributes to enhancing its unique ability to educate the public through
Change (UNFCCC), the future Expo of Yeosu 2012, with its theme The experience, experimentation and cooperation between participants. Because
Living Ocean and Coast: Diversity of Resources and Sustainable Activities, best practices within Expos represent the best solutions from around the
will focus on harmonizing the development and environmental preservation world that can and ought to be shared, they also contribute to providing
of maritime resources with a special emphasis on climate change. Finally, concrete content to multilateral public diplomacy initiatives. As a way to
Milan 2015, through its theme Feeding the Planet, Energy for Life, has help unravel the meaning of progress in our present time and as a way of
committed to promote the UN campaign to achieve the Millennium sharing solutions in a spirit of solidarity, best practices must and will become
Development Goals. more of an integral part of Expos.
To further illustrate the current repositioning of World Expos as tools In the effort to help societies understand the processes of
for public diplomacy, I would like to stress that the concepts of “exhibition” globalization and to foster a public understanding of the interconnections
and “display” involve an active participation of players, who contribute in our world, Expos are one of the few instruments that can help fill the
means and engage in a dynamic exchange within the Expo. All the exhibitors, knowledge and awareness gap related to global problems. Furthermore, they
host countries and participants alike, make unique contributions to the urban provide opportunities to accelerate urban and economic transformations, to
and cultural regeneration efforts undertaken by the host nation. attract international participants and to raise the profile of the country on
In turn, the host country makes available to participants a unique the world’s stage. They are fertile grounds for cooperation and multilateral
stage that allows them to reach the national public as well as to connect public diplomacy ambitions.
with each other and with other institutions that might help advance medium Expos are engines of change that strongly support the top-down
and long-terms projects with mutual economic, political or technological policy efforts of governments. Their transformational power affects societies
benefits. This is why Expos facilitate multilateral cooperation and enable in both material ways (architecture, urban planning, transportation) and
the exchange of practices. As a result, Expos support, at the more concrete intangible ways (culture and education). The desire to dream, the freedom
level, a country’s strategic public communication goals or even the adoption to imagine and the inspiration to act have remained a constant characteristic
of new policies and solutions. of expos through the years, making them catalysts for urban and cultural
Expos have identified “best practices” as a new form of exhibition regeneration.

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 For the numerous international players that successfully and city’s operational systems, such as its transportation and telecommunication
productively come together in a city to build a multidimensional vision of networks. As a result, cities will increasingly reflect and rely upon a culture
the world, Expos are a new platform that allow for the expression of different of sustainable urban development with Expos as an important instrument for
voices on an equal footing. What is truly remarkable is that by marrying sharing “best practices” and facilitating global debates for better solutions.
public diplomacy and cooperation, Expos provide a non-confrontational For governments and the international community, Expos offer a unique
setting with a breadth of benefits— whether socio-economic, cultural, platform for multilateral public diplomacy: they are platforms to educate the
political, or environmental—that are second to none. public and vehicles to promote national identity, away from local political
For the public, Expos are first and foremost an ephemeral microcosm debates. Expos have become a domain in international life where the struggle
that offers memorable experiences for the duration of the event. This short- for power is not predominant and countries find a place to discuss global
term aspect is reflected in the usage of the term “World’s Fair” in the United concerns in a non-confrontational environment. Part of the reason for this
States, which unfortunately misses the long-term impact of Expos. A is that Expos are all-inclusive. Not only do they offer a place for dialogue
renewed urban environment and a regenerated cultural setting have, in fact, amongst diverse institutions, but countries can have equal opportunities to be
a tremendous power to shape the future prospects of a city and its citizens. present. In particular, developing countries increasingly value their presence
Not only do Expos have significant quality of life benefits but they help in the Expos as an opportunity to show their achievements beyond the
spark active citizenship and shape new behaviors. For instance, through the stereotypes. At the same time, organizers value the presence of developing
Expos of Aichi 2005 and Zaragoza 2008 citizens there gained a completely countries as a testimony of the universality of the values that they are trying
new awareness of the environmental implications of their behaviour and to promote.
significantly changed their daily practices. At the same time, the meeting of In fulfilling their duty to educate through innovation, Expos can also
other cultures created greater incentives for travelling abroad and learning increasingly support activities in digital public diplomacy. Although the
new foreign languages. Although this may sound like anecdotal information, Internet has often been quoted as a threat to the relevance of World Expos,
it is nonetheless very significant as it proves that Expos can be sources of its capacity to reach an even bigger public actually makes it a critical asset
inspiration and support for large public campaigns of different types. To for future Expos. Shanghai 2010 will launch a full virtual counterpart to
prove this point, there is an ongoing campaign to ban smoking in Shanghai the physical Expo, thus bringing the event to an even larger public that will
in preparation for the upcoming World Expo. be able to explore the site and the pavilions in a multidimensional digital
For host cities, Expos are a key part of a strategic plan for environment. Shanghai 2010 Online will also further expand the modes of
urban development and act as catalysts for accelerating infrastructural exhibition which, given the nature of the Internet, will be more dynamic
transformations. By linking different eras of urban life, Expos can be and open. Participants will no longer be limited by the physical constraints
thought of as the rite of passage chosen by a city to enact a vision for its of the pavilion space and will be able to enhance their presence in novel
future layout, for the mobility within its walls and for the social, economic and richer ways. At the same time, by facilitating the online presence of all
and cultural activities it will support. The role of Expos as instruments for participants, the Expo will make its own contribution towards bridging the
urban renewal has remained constant throughout the years, although it is digital divide.
amplified today with the focus on quality of life. As the world experiences For the BIE, the digital Expo is a strategic initiative which embodies
massive urbanization, much global attention is focused on solutions that can how physical expos can incorporate and be enhanced by the logic, the
improve existing major cities and enable smaller cities to grow in sustainable mediums and the trends of the 21st Century. The Internet is indeed a medium
ways. The actions that will accompany urban renewal fuelled by Expos that provides both a natural and a necessary extension to Expos by connecting
will involve, among others, the regeneration of certain areas, the overall and engaging a bigger global public, especially younger generations.
or partial branding or re-branding of the city and the reconfiguration of the As expos continue to foster their timeless and universal values of

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education, innovation and cooperation, they must also align themselves with
the expectations and the tools available to the global community. Indeed, Incredible India
Expos are first and foremost at the service of the common endeavour of a
multiplicity of actors engaged in promoting quality of life through progress Leena Nandan
and prosperity. To this end, today’s Expos bring together countries, global
actors and citizens around a theme of universal interest—becoming a key,
and possibly the broadest instrument for public diplomacy in the 21st century.
When the task of defining one word—beauty—is so vast, how much
more difficult must it be to capture the spirit and essence of a whole country. A
Vicente González Loscertales has studied country that is both ancient and modern, which has passion and wisdom, that
in Spain, France, Germany and Mexico. He has a is unchanging yet ever changing—a country that veritably defies definition.
Ph.D. in history. He took up the post of Secretary This is the conundrum that the Tourism Ministry of the Government of India
General of the International Exhibitions Bureau faced seven years ago when it embarked on the ambitious task of trying to
(BIE) in 1994. Before that he was Deputy Secretary brand the country for the first time.
General of the BIE. Previously, Loscertales served as What were the imperatives behind the branding exercise? Post 9/11,
Director of International Participation at EXPO’92 tourism all over the world had taken a downturn. There was pain, anger,
Seville, Deputy Director General for Cooperation at trauma and disbelief; travel was far from everyone’s mind. The tourism sector,
the Spanish 
 Agency for International Cooperation never very robust in India, looked like it would be sucked into the maelstrom.
of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Spain and The country had to overcome this, and to turn crisis into opportunity. The
Deputy Director General for Scientific and Technological Cooperation at first step had to be to forge a new identity, one that would distinguish India
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Spain. He has also been a professor at the in the minds of the global traveler, and create a strong, positive image under
University in Madrid. an overarching brand. For too long, myriad descriptions of “Magical India,”
“Ancient India,” “Mystical India” and similar such hyperboles had been
floating around; the time had come for out of the box thinking.
That was the genesis and within no time, the concept became a
mission. The Tourism Ministry decided to involve the best artistic minds
and introduced a countrywide creative competition to attract people who
would bring to the table a perspective that was fresh and original. Ideas for
branding came in droves so a committee was set up to evaluate, short-list and
recommend. It was a time of frenzied activity as meetings metamorphosed
into brainstorming sessions. The heady feeling of being caught up in
something creative, something unique, made the process worthwhile. And
so it went until: Eureka: “Incredible !ndia” was born.

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 Incredible India captured the imagination of everyone immediately. There is color in every
The logo, which cleverly played on the use of the exclamation mark, was aspect of Indian life—the clothes,
finalized, and the euphoria was palpable. This was creativity at its best.. The the spices, even the homes. The
buy-in from all stakeholders was instantaneous. The Indian private sector, concept was tweaked imaginatively,
generally gloomily certain of the Indian government’s dullness, were wide- so “red hot” became the description
eyed in admiration. A new era of partnership was born between public and of chilies drying in the sun while
private sectors. “pure white” perfectly described
The first campaign, rolled out in 2002-03, was based on the use of the purity of love that the Taj
brilliant images featuring the different tourism attractions of India—whether Mahal symbolizes. This creative
wildlife or wellness, deserts or monuments. There was innovation in every route was a huge hit, and, when
presentation of the “!” of India—it could be the figure of the camel on the carried over to television, the
horizon gazing across the rippling golden sands, or the spire on the graceful result was breathtaking. Audiences
dome of the Taj Mahal, eloquent in its somber silence. The imagery was discovered the different facets of
startling and the choice of media was made with equal care. Readers of India through vibrant colors, right
leading newspapers and travel magazines all over the world suddenly found from the fiery gold of the setting
themselves admiring a slick and glossy campaign promoting India—and it sun to the glowing red sandstone of
was ubiquitous. Incredible India had arrived on the world stage. The next intricately carved monuments.
stage of the campaign sought to deliver the same message in a starkly different Insofar as the campaign
fashion, and to do so with bite. A tiger in a cenotaph blandly stated, “Not all focuses on India as a tourism destination, it also keeps pace with the outside
Indians are polite, hospitable and vegetarian.” To emphasize the country’s world. Beyond photography, kitsch art-style illustrations were also used
spiritual heritage, there was an image of a Buddhist monk ascending the effectively. One ad illustration proclaimed, “Get rid of 21st century stress.
steps of an ancient university, while the caption was simple yet profound, Stand for 5000 years,” and featured an artist’s impression of a woman
“A step by step guide to salvation.” Yet another was a study in contrast, standing upside down in a yoga posture.
where a surreal black-and-white image of the Taj bore a tongue-in-cheek If style is influenced by international trends, so too is the content. The global
inscription, “And to think that men these days get away with giving flowers meltdown of 2008 had plunged the world into a mood of doom and gloom,
and chocolates to their wives.” The ads invited you to laugh with India, and so the Incredible India campaign commented on it through a visual of a
at India. It was a bold, confident, in-your-face campaign. bullock-cart race, pictured above, with the caption “A different kind of bull
Branding India for a foreign audience is a challenge in every respect. run.” It made everyone sit up, take note and smile.
India means many things to the outside world, ranging from “enigmatic” After the Mumbai terror attack, a conscious decision was taken that
and “complex,” to the not-so-complimentary “difficult.” The most advanced the campaign had to make a strong and compelling statement about the
research centers stand cheek by jowl with rippling green paddy fields entire country. So the ads showing a tiger close up included a message that
ploughed by stolid oxen. Rockets take off into outer space and the moon reflected the mood of the country through a quote from Mahatma Gandhi,
mission is the subject of drawing-room discussions, while sturdy mules with the apostle of non-violence: “I want all the cultures of all lands to blown
tinkling bells on their stout necks sedately bring the farmer back to home about my house as freely as possible. But I refuse to be blown off my feet
and hearth in a million villages. It is a country of paradoxes, and no one can by any.” It expressed forcefully the strength, resolve and resilience of this
remain indifferent to it. All five senses come alive here—and this, in fact, incredible country.
became the source of inspiration for one of the campaigns. In this era of communication and globalization, outreach cannot be

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confined to the print and television media alone. The Ministry’s campaign decided to focus on Asia—Singapore and China, to be exact. The Orchard
has taken into account FM radio and Internet, including the increasingly Plaza, a commercial hub of Singapore, was enthralled by the beats of
popular You-Tube. A new direction has been forged with the Incredible India Bhangra and the whirl of Pungcholam dancers who twirled around the stage
events worldwide, which revolve around the soft power of India. This soft even as they beat their drums. In China, the subtle flavors and aromas of
power is drawn from the graceful forms of classical music and dance, the India food and the kaleidoscope of colors of the cultural presentations were
robust and earthy folk culture, the exquisite craftsmanship of artisans and a resounding success. The food festivals, enthusiastically organized by
weavers who nurture the craft traditions of the country, and above all, the leading hotels in Beijing and Shanghai, drew people in like a magnet.
cuisine. The cultural expositions began in 2007 in Berlin where India was This year, Russia and Los Angeles have been at the receiving-end
the partner country at the International Tourism Bourse. The grey environs of our cultural diplomacy. In Moscow and St. Petersburg, the exposition
of Berlin vanished in an explosion of sound and color as 200 artists stormed of Indian culture has been a great success, so too in Los Angeles. The
every venue with pulsating beats and rhythms. Winter appeared to have print and outdoor signage campaign in Los Angeles had Hollywood as the
sulkily retreated to a corner when faced with huge outdoor brandings of a theme. “Toy Story” was tagged on an image of attractive Indian toy dolls.
crystal clear sea under a dazzling blue sky that provocatively stated “In India Meanwhile, “Natural Born Killers” was captioned with a Bengal tiger giving
it is 36 degrees centigrade.” its trademark killer look. In September 2009 the Hollywood Bowl was
Buoyed by the success of the Berlin experience, the Ministry zeroed transformed into something quite different with the “India Calling” event.
in on two new venues, especially as 2007 marked 60 years of India’s Music and graceful dance competed with the colorful pavilions of village
independence. ”India Now” in London and “Incredible India@60” in New artisans. It was a lively, noisy, crowded atmosphere—a microcosm of India
York had indoor as well as outdoor events. The size and scale of both were itself. The main program, with classical, fusion, pop, folk and Bollywood
in proportion to the vastness of India. numbers had people tapping their feet and breaking into dance.
In London, all of Regent Street was pedestrianized; every store The focus of the Incredible India campaign is innovation. The
had an India display, there were dance performances going on while spicy Ministry has been able to come up with new, stylish inspirational and
food tickled the palate of all visitors as they savored the balmy weather and creative ideas, that draw from the a country that has drama and spirituality,
festive mood. A special campaign was unveiled under the tag line, ”India chaos and serenity. You can lose yourself here and find yourself here because
is closer than you think.” The standard images of everyday London in an the discovery of India is nothing less than a journey of self-fulfillment. But
Indian setting made people do a double take. There was “Elephant & Castle” to truly understand India, one lifetime is not enough.
written across an image of a richly caparisoned elephant posing in front of
a palace. “Oxford Circus” had people perching precariously and happily on
an auto—what the image denoted was the quintessential chaos of India that Leena Nandan has extensive experience in destination promotion and
both beguiles and exasperates visitors. marketing. During her tenure in the Ministry of Tourism, the “Atithi Devo
Meanwhile, New York had never envisaged that Bryant Park could Bhavah” campaign was launched with the purpose of generating social
boast a sand sculpture of the Taj Mahal in front of which Bihu dancers awareness all over the country. The campaign now has a leading film star,
from Assam would weave their magic. The Lincoln Center was filled to Aamir Khan as its brand ambassador. She looks after the Incredible India
capacity with an audience who sat mesmerized through the choreographed Campaign in overseas markets where it has won several international awards.
performances that included a medley of classical and folk dance. The She has handled several international marketing events such as “India Now,”
photography exhibition and the fashion show on the sidelines of the event, “Incredible India@60” and “India Calling.” In addition to promotion and
all gave New Yorkers much to talk about. publicity, Nandan’s responsibilities include creation of tourism infrastructure
In 2008, after having wowed Europe and the U.S., Incredible India and development of niche products like rural eco-tourism and cruise tourism.

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 AT POST necessarily see eye-to-eye on, there is enough other underlying relationship
where we can come to terms with those issues and find areas in which we do
agree in order to move forward.
2. What activities are imperative to doing your job and reaching
your PD goals?
A lot of that starts with understanding markets that we are trying
to be a part of and trying to work with. You don’t want to say, “I want
At Post asks practitioners to break to reach people through new media or social media,” if you don’t know
what social media are important to them. You don’t want to say “I want to
down the mechanics of public create a website where I can talk to people.” That forces people to come to
your website, whereas it is much more effective to ensure that your message
diplomacy. In this interview, PD’s is actually on websites where people already go. So I think the heart of
it is being very clear on what your strategy is, what it is you’re trying to
Katherine Keith spoke with Joe accomplish; being very particular about what tools you have; and measuring
the resources you have and ensuring that they’re going to be the tools that

Mellot, Special Assistant for the actually reach people where they are. That’s a very theoretical answer to
that.
3. Describe a recent project that is demonstrative of your
Undersecretary of Public Diplomacy

organization’s PD initiatives.
I am working as a special assistant for the Undersecretary of Public
at the U.S. Department of State. Diplomacy right now. One of the areas I focus on is South and Central Asia,
which includes Pakistan. Pakistan is clearly a major policy objective for
this administration and strengthening ties between the people of Pakistan
and the people of the United States is central to what we’re trying to do with
public diplomacy in Pakistan. Doing that is part of restoring our policies
1. Definitions of public diplomacy, including the role of public at the government level—we have communication at the government-to-
diplomats, abound. What, in your own words, is your job description? government level that is not supported by relations that we’ve built people-
I think the simplest thing to say is: working on ways, as a government entity, to-people.
to build relationships between groups in two different societies, two different Secretary Clinton’s visit to Pakistan in October exemplifies the
cultures, two different countries. It is facilitating and increasing people-to- approach we are taking. When Secretary Clinton went to Pakistan she made
people engagement across borders. it very clear that one of the things she wanted to do was reinvigorate the
What I see as my job description, as a public diplomat, is finding long-existing ties between the people of the United States and the people of
ways to facilitate that kind of interaction between people and to find groups Pakistan. In August, when Ambassador Holbrook went to Pakistan prior to
with similar outlooks and so that the connections that exist between two the Secretary’s visit, the conversations that he started-up with people were
countries are deeper than just government-to-government. I want to ensure to say that we’ve talked about security, and while security is important, there
that there are links between groups in society that can ensure that when are also a number of other issues that are important to us in our relationship
we, as nation, come up against issues on which we don’t agree or don’t with Pakistan. We have to look at how our relationship has, over the

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years, developed and where we want it to go in terms of supporting civic the means of conveying those sorts of goals have to be in place all the time.
institutions that are part and parcel of the democratic institutions we want to In terms of emphasis about specific issues or regions, we have to recognize
see take place and we want to support. By doing that we can have another there are aspects of public diplomacy that are about relationship-building
conversation in Pakistan about issues and that help strengthen ties and keep that have to be long-term. You don’t build relationships by changing your
the conversation going even when times are tough. focus every two years on those sorts of things.
Some of the specific steps we took in terms of public diplomacy are to 5. Who are your strategic partners, within and outside your
ensure we have an active role in conversations that are happening within the organization - in executing your projects?
media and getting information to the public about U.S. commitment to help Strategic partners are key to actually being successful in public
Pakistanis with their issues on access to energy. We can’t allow other people diplomacy. It really depends upon the issue. I think our goal in the government
to speak on our behalf. We can’t make policies that say, if this is a difficult is to say, “this is the issue we want to address. This is the audience in this
media environment we’re not going to engage in it. Instead, we have to say particular place we want to talk to. What’s the best way we want to bring
that we will engage with them on issues that are of importance to them and value?” So in terms of determining strategic partners I think you need to
start talking about how we’re working together. That’s a difficult position in say, “What are your strategic goals? What do you want to do or what are the
a place like Pakistan where we haven’t had that sense of conversation for a issues you’re facing in the particular country or audience you’re talking to?”
long time. And how do you find the right voices to forge those kinds of relationships so
There is also the issue that being part of the conversation is tied to that it is not always such a government voice and other voices that explain
the notion of respect and mutuality. If we are not there listening and are not the story of who we are.
engaging, then it sends the message that we only engage when it’s about Strategic partners are key: universities, student groups, business
us. Public diplomacy is a two-way relationship that has to happen all the groups and private industry all play a role, which we use depends on the
time. That needs to be backed up with longer-term relationship building like issues.
exchange programs, highlighting aspects of American culture so that the 6. What is the most constructive piece of advice you have received
people understand what we are as a people. So their expectations of what for practicing public diplomacy?
Americans are and what America represents are more in line with how we Listen. Understand what other people are looking for and think about
want to be perceived. Likewise it’s important for them to understand that in what you are doing in terms of engaging other audiences. You have to figure
this conversation we developed expectations so it is a two-way street. out what the issues are that are important to them and talk about and engage
4. How does your organization establish its public diplomacy on those issues so that they’re willing to engage on issues that are important
goals? Who sets the priorities? Is there an emphasis on specific issues or to you. You’re going to be part of an exchange. Like in a conversation you
regions? cannot assume that what matters to you is going to matter to your audience.
This is one of the things we’re actually looking at right now and talking 7. Share a personal experience (good or bad) about PD in practice.
about. Undersecretary McHale is working within the State Department to Something that was surprising, interesting or otherwise influenced the
put together a public diplomacy strategy going forward and look at some of way you practice public diplomacy.
those issues. PD is a two-way street. It has to begin with a discussion with When I was in Bangladesh in 2002 I was working at the consular
our hosts, because they’re the ones who have their ear on the ground and office. If you’re engaged in cross-cultural communication of any kind,
report back to us on the issues that matter. Where is the conversation that we everything you do has an element of public diplomacy to it. I was working
need to be a part of? Who are the partners that we need to work with? But in a consular office in a majority Muslim country which we’ve had a
there also has to be leadership from above. There are also administration- longstanding relationship with. come to this country all the time and my
specific goals that may change from one to administration to the next, but work dealt with Visas. While I had a wonderful tour working in the Embassy

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there it was a very difficult time for Bangladeshis entering the United States.
There were a lot of visa restrictions since that was the first summer new CASE STUDY
students were applying to go to the United States after 9/11 and they had to
go through new procedures. So in the consular section we said, “We can go
forward and not do anything about it and a lot of people probably won’t get
their visas because they’re used to how things used to work and we could just
not engage and leave the market in Bangladesh.” Or we could say, “Where is
the audience we want to reach? Where are good students, and good business
people who we want to come to the United States; whose interest in the U.S.
Nollywood Diplomacy
we will continue to encourage and make them feel welcome despite what
they’re hearing.” And that’s what we did. So my role as a consular officer
Chidiogo Akunyili
became first and foremost as a public diplomacy officer. One of the things
that mattered to us was not to lose that audience that was paramount to
ensuring that we had good relations with the people of Bangladesh. We kept
up that dialogue so that we didn’t lose the trust of the people that we wanted “Film and video production are shining examples of how cultural
to be engaged with. industries—as vehicles of identity, values and meanings—can open the door
to dialogue and understanding between peoples, but also to economic growth
and development.” -Koïchiro Matsuura, Director-General of UNESCO.
Joe Mellott is Special Assistant in the Office of the Under Secretary
for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs. Mellott joined the Foreign Service According to the Institute for Cultural Diplomacy (ICD), a
in 2001 and has served as Embassy Spokesman and Press Attache at the Berlin-based NGO concerned with the promotion of global peace and
U.S. Embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan, as a press officer in the European stability, cultural diplomacy describes a form of peaceful and constructive
Bureau and as the action officer for Afghanistan issues and ISAF at the U.S. intercultural dialogue aimed at fostering sustainable relationships based on
Mission to NATO in Brussels. Prior to that, Mellott worked with the United understanding, and trust. The ICD further asserts that cultural diplomacy has
States Information Agency in Washington and served as the Public Affairs the power to “reduce the likelihood of socio-cultural, political, and military
Assistant at the U.S. Embassy in Tirana, Albania, and as the Information conflicts.”
and Cultural Assistant at the U.S. Embassy in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Africa is a continent of great diversity, where cultural, religious,
linguistic and geo-political differences abound. In spite of these differences,
many African countries are unified by the experience of ethnic and religious
conflicts. The ongoing war in Darfur, reminiscent of the Rwandan genocide,
comprising of ethnic violence and cleansing, readily comes to mind. In
view of Africa’s unique multi-ethnic and religious landscape, and history
of intolerance and conflicts, the benefits of cultural diplomacy—a form of
inter-cultural dialogue—cannot be underestimated.
This paper analyzes the role of film as a tool of cultural diplomacy,
with the ability to show, educate, entertain, and indoctrinate at the same time
and by doing so promote nations and cultures. This will be done using the

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case study of the Nigerian movie Industry—Nollywood. second largest movie industry, second only to Bollywood, having overtaken
As early as the 1960s and 70s, Nigerian filmmakers like Ladi Hollywood. In the English-speaking areas of Africa, Nollywood has become
Ladebo, Eddie Ugboma, Herbert Ogunde, and Ola Balogun were already a household name. Not only do the majority of sub-Saharan Africans enjoy
making films. However, owing to the economic depression of the 1980s and these movies, but also its viewership extends across the Caribbean from
90s and the devaluation of the Naira, filming in celluloid became extremely Jamaica, Trinidad, Belize, and Haiti to the United States. With a production
expensive and was largely abandoned. In the early 1990s, to fill the existing of nearly 1,000 movies per year, compared to US production of about 500,
void, a new breed of filmmakers came into view shooting on video, and and wide regional reach, Nigeria’s movie industry is a powerful tool at the
distributing directly to home video cassettes. These were the beginnings of nation’s disposal. In an interview with Emeka Mba, Director-General of
what become known as Nollywood. Nigeria’s Film and Video Censors Board (FVCB), he stated that while the
The Nigerian movie industry colloquially known as Nollywood came low quality and the often “negative” themes and stories do not do justice
to the limelight in 1992 with Kenneth Nnebue’s wildly successful film titled to Nigeria’s image, the fact remains that Nollywood is indispensable for
“Living in Bondage.” In this film, Andy Okeke, a middle class Nigerian Nigerian cultural diplomacy. “It is the most powerful PR that any nation,
male, from the East of Nigeria had a beautiful wife, a good family and a especially Nigeria, has at its disposal to change mindsets and build a new
good life. He was satisfied with this until he ran into his old friend Paulo who vision for our people and for others to share in that vision.”
was exceptionally wealthy and driving big cars. Andy, intent on partaking in In 1970, the Nigerian-Biafran war, which lasted three devastating
this life of excess joined Paulo in a secret society meeting, which promised years, concluded in the defeat of South-Eastern Nigeria (Biafra). The defeated
him all his hearts desires, but for the one ultimate sacrifice of killing the one east, predominantly comprising of Igbos, was left in ruins and its ensuing
he loved most. Andy obsessed with lust for the unimaginable riches—blood marginalization meant that Eastern development trailed far behind those of
money—that awaited him, and eventually killed his wife Merit. The carefree Northern and Southwestern counterparts. These past injustices have been
life of excess he had envisioned however, was short lived as the ghost of largely addressed by the creation of a federalist Nigeria with autonomous
Merit began haunting him. He was literally “living in bondage.” However, states and local governments. However, despite political demarches, on a
like all good movies, Andy was able to find redemption by giving up all his personal level, Igbo still had the unfortunate reputation of being backward
ill-gotten wealth and becoming “born-again.” and rural—a stereotype that Nollywood has largely dispelled in the last two
The movie managed to touch on social issues of the time capturing, decades.
in one story, many aspects of Nigerian life and realities. Its depiction of The Nollywood industry has three major clusters of production in
Paulo’s sudden wealth mirrored the reality of Nigerian elites who, overnight, the East, South, and North of Nigeria with the East being the most dominant
acquired unexplained riches; Andy on the other hand represented the average region of production. As a result, many films employ Igbo cinema stars
Nigerian, who upon witnessing the rewards of corruption, joins for the and are filmed in the East. For the first time, over 100 million non-Eastern
promise of wealth at any cost. Beautiful and unassuming Merit represented Nigerians, most of who have never been to the East, can witness the diversity
the innocent victim of unbridled greed. and richness of East Nigeria and form their own opinions. The consequence
“Living in Bondage” paved the way for a whole generation of is felt even beyond the Nigerian boarders to remote parts of Africa, where
Nollywood movies. These video productions, despite low quality, took on a Igbo phrases, such as igwe, chineke, and mannerisms like the three hand
life of their own as new movies were literally churned out on a daily basis. salutes of Igbo chiefs have become norms. Nollywood thus, on a national
This, in addition to rampant piracy, meant that a wide array of movies were and regional level plays the role of a cultural diplomat, whose ability to
cheap and readily available. foster dialogue could play a tangible role in educating and creating support
According to a global cinema survey conducted by the UNESCO to abate ethnic and religious conflict.
Institute for Statistics (UIS), in terms of annual production, Nigeria is the John McCall, associate professor at the Southern Illinois University

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Carbondale, who specialized in the study of Nollywood said, “Nigerian video motion picture, I would need nothing else to convert the entire world to
movies are one of the most visible developments of an emergent African Communism.” Nollywood, at the heart of Nigerian social and cultural
culture industry.” Given the unique position of Nollywood as a means of identity, not only shapes the lives of Nigerians that watch its movies but also
cultural expression, the Nigerian movie industry has an ability to change an ever-increasing foreign audience. By highlighting average Nigerian’s
the way Nigerians perceive our country and affect how others view Nigeria life, Nollywood has the power to not only reinforce positive attitudes, but
as well through its reach and influence. It enables a reevaluation of our also project Nigeria’s national identity to domestic audiences and visitors
conception of the role of culture in politics and on the international forum. alike—a veritable achievement of cultural diplomacy.
Nollywood has thus, simply put, become Nigeria’s unlikely ambassador.
The title of a very recent BBC documentary asked, “Can the home of
419 internet scams, corruption and voodoo ever transmit a positive image?” Chidiogo Akunyili is a citizen of Nigeria with a background in
For many years, the African story has been told by western media. The latter International Relations and Political Science. She currently resides in
often tell the single story of poverty, famine, ethnic and religious violence, Beijing, working in the field of Sino-African consulting. For more details
HIV/AIDS and corruption. While these stories are in no way false, they are please contact Akunyili at [email protected].
often misleading in their singularity and exaggeration. African countries,
irrespective of the level of development are consequently suffering from
what has come to be known as “continent brand effect,” whereby every
country bears the heavy burden of brand Africa.
Nollywood serves as a means whereby Nigeria can escape the African
brand and everyday Nigerians can be have their stories heard. Thanks to
Nollywood, the images of Nigeria’s rich and diverse culture, its people,
family values, traditions and customs can be exported, leading to a more
complete image of the country unlike the hereto perpetuation of stereotypes
that have hurt Nigerian foreign investment and its people.
The government of Nigeria has recently taken on the task of addressing
Nigeria’s negative image problem. In 2009, Nigeria, under the leadership
of the Minister of Information and Communication, launched a rebranding
project. This campaign, under the slogan of “Nigeria: Good People, Great
Nation,” aims to reinvent Nigeria’s image. One of the chosen agents of
this change was none other than the Nigerian film industry—Nollywood.
The ministry indentified film as a veritable means of shaping how we see
ourselves, and also how the rest of the world sees us. The ministry insisted
that it was time Nigeria defined an identity, character, image and influence,
challenging Nollywood with the single task of acting on the country’s behalf.
This included an appeal to abandon constant negative portrayal of Nigerians
as brash, corrupt and violent, instead using movies as a means for Nigerian
cultural diplomacy.
Joseph Stalin said, “If we could control the medium of the American

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Pop Culture Diplomacy close to 100,000 visitors each. Using anime and manga as a gateway, I hope
to encourage these fans to develop a comprehensive interest in Japan and

Kenjiro Monji its culture. In fact, interest in anime and manga has prompted an increasing
number of fans to study the Japanese language. Some wish to watch their
favorite animated films undubbed or to read the next installment in a comic
series without waiting for the translated version. The passionate interest of
some fans has even led them to make “pilgrimages” to the locations where
their favorite stories are set. For example, there has apparently been a
Before assuming my current post as director-general of the public dramatic increase in the number of foreign visitors to Washimiyamachi in
diplomacy department with the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs Saitama Prefecture, which serves as the setting for the anime series Lucky
[MOFA], I served as the Japanese ambassador to Iraq for one year and five Star.
months. Although people tend to think of Iraq as a place where military Moreover, since language defines culture, the fact that more people
power, or “hard power,” takes precedence over all else, my experience there abroad are studying Japanese is of tremendous benefit to Japan. There are
made me realize that a country’s positive image, or “soft power,” can be about three million students of the Japanese language throughout the world,
a real asset in terms of promoting diplomatic relations. The Iraqi people and Japanese-language education forms one of the pillars of our public
identify with the image of Japan’s remarkable comeback after World War II diplomacy.
and hope for the same sort of success in rebuilding their nation. This positive Interestingly, the organizer of Japan Expo told me that, while anime
view toward Japan facilitated my diplomatic responsibilities as ambassador, and manga currently occupy center stage, traditional Japanese culture is also
and I have carried this awareness of the importance of soft power with one of the main components of the festival’s events. This line of thinking
me to my new post, in which I hope very much to advance Japan’s public mirrors our own in that, he intends to place greater focus on traditional
diplomacy. culture in the future.
Tapping into the Power of Pop Culture Pop Culture Incorporated into Foreign Policy
In recent years, MOFA has taken advantage of the worldwide Then how is pop culture being incorporated into Japan’s foreign
popularity of pop culture, such as manga (comics) and anime (animated policy? MOFA has launched three notable initiatives, as outlined below:
films), as a tool for public diplomacy. This is because Japanese pop culture First, this year MOFA held the Third International MANGA Award
has been attracting a high level of interest overseas and has the potential to competition. The award was established to honor manga artists who
draw large audiences, a fact that many in Japan have yet to realize. contribute to the promotion of this genre overseas. This is the realization of
For example, in July 2009, more than 165,000 people attended Japan an idea contained in the policy speech on cultural diplomacy, “A New Look
Expo in Paris over the course of its four-day run. Japan Expo is one of the at Cultural Diplomacy: A Call to Japan’s Cultural Practitioners,” given on
largest Japanese pop culture events in the world, attracting young fans of April 28, 2006 by then-Foreign Minister Taro Aso. The award is expected
Japanese culture from both inside and outside Europe. The festival features to further enhance understanding of Japanese culture among overseas
a number of booths introducing various types of Japanese culture including cartoonists.
manga, anime, video games, music and fashion, as well as martial arts and a Second, in 2008 MOFA appointed the character Doraemon as Anime
batting cage. It has been held each July since 1999 in suburban Paris, and this Ambassador. We would like people around the world to know more about the
year, for the first time, it took place with the joint participation of MOFA, the positive side of Japan through Japanese anime characters that are universally
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, and the Japan Tourism Agency. popular. This is why the film festivals conducted by our Embassies and
Furthermore, in Spain and the United States, Japan-related events have drawn Consulates General always attract large audiences. Since anime films deal

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with everyday life in Japan, their screening conveys to people overseas what to participate in pop
ordinary Japanese people are thinking, what sort of lives we are leading, and culture events in
what sort of futures we are trying to create. Since the creation of the role of Barcelona, Moscow and
an Anime Ambassador, we have held nearly 120 screenings of Doraemon a few cities in Brazil.
movies in more than 60 cities across the world, with subtitles available in Since fashion has many
five languages. Costumed Doraemon characters have paid visits to some of subcategories, we are
those cities, where they were warmly welcomed. also considering adding
I first gained a sense of the power of Japanese anime upon hearing new members, if we can
that in Laos, children had laughed and cried as they followed the story in an find suitable individuals
animated film screened in Japanese without Laotian subtitles. I would like representing other types
to actively promote the use of anime and manga, not as a subculture but as of fashion.
one of the highly positive aspects of mainstream Japanese culture. While these Cosplay symposium
Lastly, in February this year MOFA appointed three Trend manifestations of Japanese
Communicators of Japanese fashion are gaining popularity, “cosplay” [kosupure, costume play-dressing],
Pop Culture, pictured at in which fans dress up as characters from anime, manga and video games,
right, commonly known as has come to attract a growing number of young people from all over the
Kawaii [cute] Ambassadors. world as well. The World Cosplay Summit has taken place every year
Certain aspects of Japanese since 2003 for the purpose of facilitating an international exchange of
young women’s fashion youth through a participatory event. In 2009, for the first time, the Japanese
have also struck a chord representatives won the first prize “Ministry of Foreign Affairs Award,”
in foreign countries. For vying with participants from 15 countries who had negotiated preliminary
example, girls’ high school costume competitions in their own countries.
uniforms, “Harajuku- Countering the Criticism About Pop Culture Diplomacy
style” outfits [Harajuku is While these activities have generally been favorably received, they
a trendy district in Tokyo], have also encountered some criticism. I would like to respond to this by
and “Lolita” frills-and-lace making four points.
fashion. So far, we have sent First, MOFA is by no means devoting itself solely to culture. Including
three Kawaii Ambassadors, government subsidies to the Japan Foundation, an independent body for
each of them a well-known cultural exchanges, the budget of the Public Diplomacy Department accounts
representative of these for just 3.5 percent of the Ministry’s overall budget, and the amount has
fashion genres, to Bangkok shrunk for the past eight years in a row.
and Paris. In addition, on Second, pop culture is not the only aspect of Japanese culture we are
their own initiative they seeking to disseminate. The overwhelming majority of our cultural promotion
have visited a number of activities involve traditional culture and other aspects of contemporary
other cities, including Rome, culture, such as holding biennial and triennial exhibitions. But I think it is
Barcelona and Moscow. In only natural to include pop culture if we wish to communicate an accurate
November, they are going Kawaii Ambassadors and Doraemon picture of Japanese culture to people overseas.

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 Third, I would not say that MOFA is supporting and promoting pop
culture directly. The current boom in Japanese pop culture arose without Public Diplomacy in Lebanon
any help from the government, and some creators may actually consider our
involvement irksome. So it is not so much a case of government support of Etienne F. Augé
pop culture, as one of the government tapping into its tremendous power
to attract fans. Pop culture has the potential to serve as a starting-point for
cultivating an interest in Japanese culture as a whole.
Fourth, certain matters are best handled by the government. Problems In 2009, the New York Times and Lonely Planet, two influential
like piracy and other issues concerning intellectual property need to be opinion makers, ranked Lebanon the best touristic destination of the year.
resolved at the governmental level. Even if one suspects a well-planned public relations campaign, Lebanon
While MOFA does what it can to transmit Japan’s culture overseas, I is more and more considered a fashionable and exotic destination in an
think this is a task that calls for the combined support of the entire country. unstable region. The latest conflict, in 2006, between Hezbollah and Israel
In this endeavor, I hope to promote cooperation between different branches seems to be forgotten and Lebanon is slowly reemerging as the “Switzerland
of the government and between the government and the private sector. of the Middle East”. Yet it would be a mistake to see Lebanon as a pacified
Toward Soft Power Diplomacy country, especially when none of the internal and external problems of
Soft power includes not only pop culture but also traditional culture, the country have been solved after the last legislative elections of June 7.
Japanese values and our way of life, including our reverence for the spirit Hezbollah continues to expand its influence and is trying to replace the role
of harmony and the idea of symbiosis with nature, which are becoming ever of Western powers in a country where the state is almost nonexistent.
more relevant in the globalized world of the 21st century. Indeed, energy Identity Struggles
conservation and recognition of the need for action to protect the environment From a historical perspective, Lebanon is a country open to Western
could even be considered to embody Japan’s traditional values and way of influence. The French Embassy controls almost 70 percent of primary and
life, with the backing of our leading-edge technology. As Japan’s strength secondary education systems, either directly or indirectly. French is still
lies in soft power, I would like to pursue pop culture diplomacy within the considered the language of the elite, especially in Christian families but
more broadly defined framework of soft power diplomacy. also by other confessions that appreciate the renowned system of education.
English is also taught at a very young age, and most students in urban areas
are trilingual by the time they attend high school. Although its Education
Kenjiro Monji has been Director-General for Public Diplomacy, Index is average – according to the United Nations Development Programme
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, since July 2008. He graduated (UNDP), Lebanon scored 0.845, ranking 96 out of 180 countries in 2008 –
from the Faculty of Law, Tokyo University, in 1975, whereupon he joined instruction is considered primitive in Lebanon. Parents sometimes work two
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Monji has served mainly in the areas of jobs to send their children to private schools, since public schools do not
international law and national security, holding such posts in Tokyo as provide an equal education. Several of the elite schools espouse a foreign
Deputy Director-General of the Treaties Bureau and being seconded to the curriculum – American, British, French, German – or are run by religious
Ministry of Defence as Director-General for International Affairs. He has congregations. In some cases they do both, like the Collège Notre-Dame de
worked overseas in France, Australia, Belgium, the United Kingdom and Jamhour, operated by the Jesuits and supervised by the French Embassy.
the European Union; and also served as Ambassador to Iraq from 2007 to The U.S. is also influential in Lebanon, especially in higher education
2008. Having been awarded the title of Sake Samurai by the Japan Young as evidenced by the fact that the best universities, all private, mostly follow
Sake Brewers’ Association Junior Council, Monji promotes Japanese sake the American system. Only Université Saint Joseph (established in 1875
overseas. and controlled by the Jesuit order) uses French as the official language of

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instruction, although it is becoming more open to other cultures and sources Fred Astaire is forbidden for being Jewish, but Steven Spielberg’s movies
of funding. The top university of Lebanon is the American University are authorized. Most Lebanese are not affected though, and use pirated
of Beirut (AUB). Founded in 1866, AUB attracts the best students of the versions of movies. This illegal traffic benefits mostly Hezbollah, the only
region. Being the only genuine American university in Lebanon, AUB is organization able to traffic through the Lebanese borders and decide what
paradoxically known to be one of the most anti-American institution. may enter and what may not.
Student activism remains strong in favor of Palestinians, against Israel, and Hezbollah, a State Within the State
“hence” against the U.S. Even though the U.S. embassy helped establish Just like France, Hezbollah has long understood that in order to
a center for American Studies, CASAR, in 2003, AUB remains home to a attract sympathizers, it should develop its soft power. The “Party of God”
large majority of March 8 Coalition students who repeatedly show hostility has developed a network of support for its community, but also for anyone
to the West. The U.S. embassy continues to help AUB, which ironically who would like to receive first-class medical treatment at its hospitals or
contributes to nourishing resentment against America. AUB projects a receive top-level instruction through its education network. Thanks to
reputation of excellence yet does not push students and professors to endorse the financial support of Iran – around $10 million U.S. dollars a month
the American way of life, quite the opposite. – and the control of most goods in and out of Lebanon – Hezbollah is
Furthermore, the intimidating motorcade of the American Embassy now running an impressive public service, totally independent from the
and the fortress where American diplomats are bunkerized do not provide Lebanese government. Al Rasul Al Azam Hospital for example is one of the
a positive image for a nation that shields itself from Lebanon. On the other best medical facilities in Lebanon, and is treating poor and wealthy alike
hand, France, with its ideally placed embassy on the former Green Line for minor fees. According to former AUB professor Judith Palmer Harik,
and its nine cultural centers all around Lebanon has managed to make most when it comes to reconstruction, Jihad al Binaa is the most experienced
Lebanese forget it was the former ruling power. Even though France is association in Lebanon. Since reconstructions occur all the time as a result of
probably the most influential Western nation in Lebanon, this is not reflected repeated conflicts in Lebanon, Jihad al Binaa is always busy; as opposed to
by its trade with the country. Currently China is the first commercial partner the Lebanese government which lacks funding, expertise and political will.
of Lebanon. While Europe used to hold this place, it did so by combining One last example of the will of Hezbollah to take care of its own is the Al
the efforts of all European Embassies. France is investing a massive amount Jarrah Association, which is making sure the wounded of the paramilitary
of money into Lebanese cultural life, and helps organize major international department of Hezbollah do not have to worry about their future, in some
events such as the Jeux de la Francophonie. In September 2009, these cases introducing them to wives who will consider them not as crippled, but
Francophone games (French-speaking Olympics) took place in Beirut and as martyrs of the cause.
attracted 70 countries. Failing to show a rise in French cultural influence, Yet, the most powerful weapon in Hezbollah’s arsenal is its media
the Jeux de la Francophonie were a complete failure. On the other hand, network, including Al Nour, a radio station, the weekly publication Al
the yearly Salon du Livre, a major French book fair is the largest in the Intiqad, and most importantly Al Manar, its television station. Al Manar
world after Paris and Montréal, according to the press release. Also, the started broadcasting in 1991 and is the official TV of the “Resistance”. It
best film schools (IESAV and ALBA) use French as their language of has become increasingly popular among Arab nations and even beyond, to
instruction. France and to a lesser extent French-speaking countries are the the point that France, Spain, Germany and the U.S. have banned it from
main providers of funds for the Lebanese cinema, which could not survive broadcasting through satellite. The reasons for such a ban are diverse, but
without foreign help. The Lebanese government does not support culture in mostly involve the continuous spread of hate against Israel, even if the
general and cinema in particular, especially since censorship is strong and Jewish state is never named as such, but is instead labeled as the “Zionist
is imposed according to three main criteria: religion, morality and politics. entity.” Support to Palestinians is continuous on Al Manar, songs and videos
Sometimes, the result of this control over cinema is hardly understandable. are frequent to exhort viewers to support the “Resistance” against Zionism

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and the West. Consequently, Al Manar is extremely popular among Arab
audiences, but also with viewers from the rest of the world who consider IN PRINT
the fight against Israel and the U.S. a new ideology. More engaged than
the Qatari Al Jazeera, Al Manar aims to be the voice against oppression,
especially after the July war of 2006 when Hassan Nasrallah, leader of
Hezbollah, appeared like the “New Nasser,” defying the great nations and
uniting most Arabs and anti-Zionists. This image is contradictory, Hezbollah
being mainly funded by Iran who is not an Arab nation but a Persian one.
As for Western channels, Lebanese can enjoy most of them through pirated
The Future of U.S. Public
satellite networks, which helps them learn foreign languages; but such
channels are watched in Lebanon only for their entertainment value. When
Diplomacy: An Uncertain Fate, by
looking for news and political analysis, Lebanese viewers will immediately
turn to local and/or regional stations, including Al Manar.
Kathy R. Fitzpatrick
Little by little, new allegiances emerge in Lebanon, and the old
tutelary Western powers lose ground to Arabic and Persian influences.
Millions of dollars are poured into a country populated by only 4 million
inhabitants. Why is Lebanon so important for other nations? Probably Reviewed by Mark Preston
because against all odds, Lebanon has remained a democracy in a region
dominated by kingdoms and dictatorships. A gate between East and West,
Lebanon has not yet chosen which side of the world it wants to endorse. Historically, public diplomacy has been one
This situation makes it unique, and probably a premium choice for tourists of the most important yet misunderstood components
all year long who are looking for a thrilling experience. Yet this fragile of international relations. Only during times of war
equilibrium might soon come to an end, as Lebanon will have to choose in or national crisis has the United States devoted the
the near future which model of society it will call its own. This choice might resources necessary to support mutual exchange with
be the end of the Lebanese exception, for better or for worse. foreign publics while simultaneously welcoming
their opinion. There has never been a standard
operating procedure for public diplomacy, and its
Etienne F. Augé teaches propaganda and public diplomacy at Anglo- future function remains largely in question.
American University in Prague, Czech Republic. Previously he served in the In The Future of Public Diplomacy, Kathy
French Foreign Ministry and served in the French Embassy in Beirut. He is Fitzpatrick delineates key lessons of the past in order
also a visiting professor at Université Saint Joseph in Beirut, Lebanon. to facilitate contemporary debate among the next generation of scholars and
practitioners who are charged with developing and implementing concrete
solutions. Critical mistakes can best be understood from the reflections of an
expert group of former diplomats who Fitzpatrick refers to as the “collective”
voice. By viewing past experiences as a guide for progress, today’s scholars
can learn how to be better listeners, interact with locals, build long-term
relationships, be honest, and responsible in the use of new technology.
Fitzpatrick begins her assessment by describing 9/11 as a wakeup call

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for U.S. public diplomacy. The significance of 9/11, suggests Fitzpatrick, are referring to as “smart power.” Unlike “soft power,” which involves
is that it seared the necessity of maintaining positive relations with the cultural and ideologically-based dialogue to influence support from foreign
international community into the U.S. foreign policy apparatus. However, nations, “smart power” combines economic and military advantages with
as old habits within the establishment die hard, so too do the reactionary public diplomacy for strategic balance.
critique and condescension from State Department officials and Foreign In illustrating how various dimensions of this new public diplomacy
Service elite. Throughout the Cold War and even after 9/11, public diplomacy can be incorporated to produce positive results, Fitzpatrick recommends
has failed to consistently serve as a proactive enterprise that advances U.S. honesty as the best policy for moving forward. Numerous surveys and
national interests. After long periods of resource depletion, culminating suggestions from former diplomats maintain that only truth can help yield the
with the dissolution of the United States Information Agency (USIA)—the level of trust needed to sustain long-term relationships between the U.S. and
only independently run organization devoted to public diplomacy—and its foreign publics that are capable of producing mutually beneficial outcomes.
subsequent merger into the State Department, public diplomacy has been By illuminating the misjudgments that have steered public diplomacy into
plagued by myopic leadership and haphazard strategic direction. its current state of disarray, Fitzpatrick opens the door for U.S. policymakers
Throughout her book, Fitzpatrick repeatedly emphasizes that the U.S. to accept accountability for previous mistakes and move on, since dithering
has projected a lack of respect toward the opinions and attitudes of foreign can ultimately lead to an irrevocably tragic fate.
publics. Amidst such self-induced setbacks, imagination and innovation Scholarship is a continuous journey that requires patience, tolerance,
are fundamental characteristics that will enable what she calls “new public and above all humility. The Future of Public Diplomacy is an invaluable
diplomacy” to move forward. However, fresh initiatives are continually contribution to a field in need of repair by instilling tomorrow’s practitioners
suppressed by what Fitzpatrick refers to as a “bureaucratic straightjacket.” to lead with a higher purpose in connecting people with ideas rather than
Change cannot come without a reality check, Fitzpatrick points out. While bluster, nations with principle rather than cowardice, and mankind with
sustained funding from the US government is necessary, collaboration peace instead of fear.
from outside entities such as private corporations and non-governmental
organizations are increasingly important in representing a broad spectrum
of interests. Since 9/11, there have been numerous proposals for how public
diplomacy can be applied in branding America. Ideas including bringing
back USIA, starting a new government branch entirely, developing a private
agency, or transferring large quantities of public diplomacy functions to
separate nonprofit or private sector organizations. Other suggestions include
restructuring public diplomacy within the State Department, delegating
various programs to separate government agencies, or simply keeping the
current structure in place. In any case, the list of options continues to grow.
Fitzpatrick puts options for change into context by showing the reader
how the balance of power between nations has become more diffuse as a
result of globalization. Emerging technology, increased interdependence,
and the rising influence of non-state actors have led to a greater degree of
network-based engagement. As a result of these developments, Fitzpatrick
argues that “soft power,” a term coined by Joseph Nye, which traditionally
was used to describe public diplomacy, is being replaced with what others

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Cold War Confrontations: U.S. own accounts of his work with the United States Information Agency from
1951 to 1979, where for much of that period he was director of design. It is

Exhibitions and Their Role in the from this unique perspective in which the thought-provoking contribution to
the literature is most profound, for Masey was seemingly everywhere during

Cultural Cold War, by Jack Masey

this period, designing America’s charm war, from “the kitchen” in Moscow
to kimonos in Osaka.
Masey’s description of his many years on the Cold War’s cultural
and Conway Lloyd Morgan front lines:

For those who lived through it, it was a real experience of combat,
and a combat in which all weapons, except the nuclear ultimate, could be
Reviewed by Andrew Wulf used. For the USIA the chosen weapon was information outreach, and part
of its arsenal of communication was the medium of exhibitions, designed to
illuminate, inform and influence as wide an audience as possible (p. 412).
The USIA exhibits that grew in size and
complexity through the Cold War era were spawned Masey began his career as an exhibits designer in Company B of the
by the belief that personal contact—with enemies 603rd Camouflage Engineers, a sub-unit of the “Ghost Army”. After D-Day
as well as friends—was an important element in it used decoy inflatable rubber tanks and assorted battle materiel to dupe
creating more favorable conditions for stability and the German armies on the battlefields of World War II Europe. Remarkably,
peace (Masey and Morgan, p. 402). his brothers in subterfuge included future fashion legend Bill Blass and
color field painter Ellsworth Kelly. Conway Lloyd Morgan is a British
Jack Masey and Conway Lloyd Morgan’s author whose works on contemporary architecture and design include works
Cold War Confrontations: U.S. Exhibitions and devoted to Jean Nouvel, Philippe Starck, and Marc Newson.
Their Role in the Cultural Cold War is not a typical As in the Ellis biography, the authors address only a handful of
historical analysis of American cultural diplomacy, important moments in the history of U.S. sponsored exhibitions, yet they do
refracted through archival evidence and extensive interviews with foreign so with a zoom lens. The book follows a chronological trajectory—replete
service personnel. This book does not attempt to tell a comprehensive story with hundreds of photos that illustrated the visitor’s experience of a series of
of how America “laid claim to the cultural sector” in its nearly five-decade exhibitions, particularly those that visited the Soviet Union, which preached
face-off with the Soviet Union. At first glance, the authors’ method of against the hysteria that Americans were monsters. These traveling shows
historiography reminds this reader of Joseph Ellis’ fascinating biography of initially targeted Western Europe in the days of the Truman Doctrine and
Thomas Jefferson, American Sphinx. Both are popular histories that, instead the Marshall Plan, specifically to safeguard Germany’s revitalization as a
of taking on the full freight of their subjects they attempt a nuanced, even demilitarized and democratic republic, and Europe’s ongoing alliance and
cinematic approach, to invoke Ellis, in explicating providential moments identification with America and the ideals for which the Allies fought so
that best explain the subject at hand. hard.
This book tells the seldom heard story of American design at World’s In the introduction, Masey and Morgan effectively situate the genesis
Fairs and international exhibitions within their political and cultural contexts, of the cultural Cold War within its proper historical setting. Additionally, they
based mainly on Masey’s personal archives, declassified documents, and his remind the reader of a prominent clause in Truman’s policy: the promise of

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American support for free peoples “who are resisting subjugation by armed Throughout this compelling study, Masey and Morgan offer unusual
minorities or by outside pressure.” This phrase referenced more than the insight into the process of how America’s cultural values were projected
risk of a rising communist regime in Greece. In short, both Truman’s and to the world during the Cold War. It is arguable that as a result of personal
Marshall’s ideas directly echoed George Kennan’s 1946 telegram that urged memoirs such as these, the international exhibitions are becoming identified
American containment of the post-war Soviet regime, a “conspiracy within by scholars less as curious relics of bygone eras and more as learning tools
a conspiracy” that understands only force, disrespect for objective truth, and for future American foreign relations. Admittedly, a cultural historian is hard
“the exploiting of differences and conflicts between capitalist powers.” This pressed to describe just how good design could effectively send America’s
warning shot across the bow of American foreign relations would help ignite message to foreign publics. The authors conclude their descriptions of
decades of nuclear proliferation, proxy wars like Korea and Vietnam, and exhibitions with two world’s fairs. At Montreal’s Expo ’67, American
endless spy games on both sides of the Iron Curtain. This brief history of newspapers lambasted the American pavilion. The Washington Star declared:
the international climate in the first years of the Cold War sets the stage for
America’s drive to contain through culture, and this is where Jack Masey The net effect of the U.S. pavilion is one of gawky self-
steps into the picture. consciousness…the disproportionate emphasis…on aging film sirens…can
By the mid-1950s these international exhibitions were focused only tend to reaffirm the shopworn cliché once cherished by all foreigners—
on a wider audience base and began to enlist the talents of a number of that American culture is composed of movies and chewing gum.
designers who, half a century later, continue to influence modern aesthetics.
These individuals included R. Buckminster Fuller, Charles and Ray Eames, The Charleston Gazette took the rebuke of the American section one
George Nelson, Peter Blake, Ivan Chermayeff, and Thomas Geismar. These step further: “What the hell does all this mean?” However, as was sometimes
designers and others, not to mention legions of government and museum the case in which attitudes at home toward American culture differed from
personnel, contributed to the ultimate look, feel, and message of these those abroad, the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung stated:
displays of American values.
A brief overview of the scope of this book: at the 1955 Indian Wit, elegance and irony are best accomplished in the American
Industries Fair in New Delhi, the U.S. pavilion featured an “atomics” exhibition which we look upon as the sensation of Expo ’67. There is no
exhibition that echoed Eisenhower’s 1953 Atoms for Peace address to the boasting about technical achievements, nor about industrial products; the
United Nations general assembly. In 1956, the U.S. built a pavilion at the largest industrial nation in the world does not exhibit one single automobile…
Jeshyn International Fair in Kabul, Afghanistan, showcasing Fuller’s nylon- they are not trying to educate, to boast; they are just pleasing.
encased dome. The year 1957 saw the beginning of a series of U.S. exhibitions
at the George C. Marshall House in West Berlin (designed by Blake), which What is richly evident in Jack Masey and Conway Lloyd Morgan’s
delivered a sleek, modern aesthetic to otherwise odd exhibition subjects book is that exhibitions do not stop having relevance after their de-
of medicine, building, and daily life in Kalamazoo, Michigan. The 1958 installation. This paean to a vital chapter of American public diplomacy
Brussels Universal Exposition emphasized the theme of nuclear energy; offers an insider’s view as to just how and why American cultural exhibitions
however the U.S. aimed to show a more human side by including fashion abroad took shape during the Cold War when the United States and Soviet
shows, New York “streetscapes” designed by Chermayeff and Geismar, Union brandished culture as an ideological weapon. Ultimately, the authors
and a display of voting machines. The authors lend a considerable focus champion the human element of these cultural endeavors: the presence of
to the American National Exhibition of 1959 in Moscow and additional American guides speaking with inquisitive visitors at these venues around
exhibitions on all things American—from plastics to books—that toured the the world. This is what Edward R. Murrow meant when he celebrated “the
Soviet Union through the mid-1960s. last three feet…one person talking to another.”

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 ENDNOTE rather than coerces them.
Soft power rests on the ability to shape the preferences of others.
At the personal level, it is the power of attraction and seduction. Political
leaders have long understood the power that comes from setting the agenda
and determining the framework of a debate. Soft power is a staple of
daily democratic politics. The ability to establish preferences tends to be
associated with intangible assets such as an attractive personality, culture,
Soft Power and Cultural Diplomacy political values and institutions, and policies that are seen as legitimate or
having moral authority.
Joseph S. Nye, Jr. Culture is a soft power resource that produces attraction that can
be measured by asking people through polls or focus groups. Whether that
attraction in turn produces desired policy outcomes has to be judged in
particular cases. The gap between power measured as resources and power
This article is adapted from a speech delivered at Syracuse judged as the outcomes of behavior is not unique to soft power. It occurs
University Cultural Diplomacy Symposium, New York, Sept. 20, 2009 with all forms of power.
Culture is the way in which humans transmit knowledge and give The distinction between power measured in behavioral outcomes
meaning to our lives. Culture can also be an instrument of power. A Nazi and power measured in terms of resources is important for understanding
leader is alleged to have said that when he heard the word culture, he reached the relationship between soft power and cultural diplomacy. In international
for his gun. Stalin once asked derisively how many divisions the Pope had, politics, the resources that produce soft power arise from the values an
but Catholic culture outlasted Soviet culture. In China, President Hu Jintao organization or country expresses in its culture, in the examples it sets by
has told the 17th party congress that China needs to invest more in soft its internal practices and policies, and in the way it handles its relations
power. As a result, China has begun to establish Confucius Institutes around with others. Cultural diplomacy is one of the public diplomacy instruments
the world to promote appreciation of its culture. Here at home, Assistant that governments use to mobilize these resources to produce attraction by
Secretary of State Andrew J. Shapiro recently said that smart power, the communicating with the publics rather then merely the governments of
intelligent integration of hard and soft power tools, “is at the very heart other countries. If the content of a country’s culture, values and policies are
of President Obama and Secretary Clinton’s foreign policy vision.” I will not attractive, public diplomacy that “broadcasts” them cannot produce soft
show that cultural diplomacy is an important soft power tool, but first let me power. It may produce just the opposite.
discuss what soft power means. Diplomacy in the Global Information Age
Soft Power Promoting positive images of one’s country is not new, but the
Power is the ability to affect others to obtain the outcomes you conditions for projecting soft power have transformed dramatically in recent
want. One can affect their behavior in three main ways: threats of coercion years. Information is power and today a much larger part of the world’s
(“sticks”); inducements and payments (“carrots”); and attraction that makes population has access to that power. Technological advances have led to
others want what you want. A country may obtain the outcomes it wants in dramatic reduction in the cost of processing and transmitting information.
world politics because other countries want to follow it. It is also important The result is an explosion of information, and that has produced a “paradox
to set the agenda and attract others in world politics, and not only force them of plenty.” Plenty of information leads to scarcity of attention. Therefore,
to change through the threat or use of military or economic weapons. Soft attention rather than information becomes the scarce resource, and those
power—getting others to want the outcomes that you want— co-opts people who can distinguish valuable information from background clutter gain

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power. Editors and cue-givers become more in demand, and this is a source our way. All information goes through cultural filters, and declamatory
of power for those who can tell us where to focus our attention. statements are rarely heard as intended.
Among editors and cue-givers, credibility is the crucial resource. Even when policy and communications are “in sync,” wielding soft
Governments compete for credibility not only with other governments, but power resources in an information age is difficult. For one thing, government
with a broad range of alternatives including news media, corporations, non- communications are only a small fraction of the total communications
governmental organizations, inter-governmental organizations, and networks among societies in an age that is awash in information. Developing long-
of scientific communities. Under the new conditions of the information age, term relationships is not always profitable in the short term, and thus
the soft sell may prove more effective than a hard sell. Without underlying leaving it simply to the market may lead to under-investment. While higher
national credibility, the instruments of public diplomacy cannot translate education may pay for itself, and non-profit organizations can help, many
cultural resources into the soft power of attraction. The effectiveness of exchange programs would shrink without government support. At the
public diplomacy is measured by minds changed not dollars spent. same time, post-modern publics are generally skeptical of authority, and
Prospects for Public and Cultural Diplomacy governments are often mistrusted. It often behooves governments to keep
Skeptics who treat the term “public diplomacy” as a mere euphemism in the background and to work with private actors. Some NGOs enjoy more
for propaganda miss the point. Simple propaganda often lacks credibility, trust than governments do, and though they are difficult to control, they can
and thus is counterproductive as public diplomacy. be useful channels of communication. Companies can also take the lead in
The mix of direct government information to long-term cultural sponsoring specific public diplomacy projects.
relationships varies with three dimensions of public diplomacy. The first and Another benefit to indirect citizen diplomacy is that it is often able to
most immediate dimension is daily communications. The second dimension take more risks in presenting a range of views. It is sometimes domestically
is strategic communication, which develops a set of simple themes much difficult for the government to support presentation of views that are critical
as a political or advertising campaign does. The third dimension of public of its own policies. Yet such criticism is often the most effective way of
diplomacy is the development of lasting relationships with key individuals establishing credibility. Part of America’s soft power grows out of the
over many years through scholarships, exchanges, training, seminars, openness of its society and polity and the fact that a free press, Congress and
conferences, and access to media channels. courts can criticize and correct policies. When the government instruments
Each of these dimensions of public diplomacy plays an important avoid such criticism, they not only diminish their own credibility but also
role in helping create an attractive image of a country that can improve fail to capitalize on an important source of attraction for foreign elites.
its prospects for obtaining its desired outcomes. But policies that appear Finally, it is a mistake to see public diplomacy simply in adversarial
narrowly self-serving or arrogantly presented are likely to consume rather terms. Sometimes there is a competition of “my information” versus “your
produce soft power. At best, long-standing friendly relationships may lead information,” but often there can be gains for both sides. Political leaders
others to be slightly more tolerant in their responses. Sometimes friends will may share mutual and similar objectives—for example the promotion of
give you the benefit of the doubt or forgive more willingly. This is what is democracy and human rights. In such circumstances, there can be joint
meant by an enabling or a disabling environment for policy. gains from public and cultural diplomacy programs. Cooperative public
Effective public diplomacy is a two-way street that involves listening diplomacy can also help take the edge off suspicions of narrow national
as well as talking. In order to get others to want the same outcomes you motives.
want, you have to understand how they are hearing your messages and adapt Cultural diplomacy is an important tool in the arsenal of smart
accordingly. Preaching at foreigners is not the best way to convert them. power, but smart public diplomacy requires an understanding of the role
Too often political leaders think that the problem is simply that others lack of credibility, self-criticism, and the role of civil society in generating soft
information, and that if they simply knew what we know, they will see things power. Public diplomacy that degenerates into propaganda not only fails

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to convince, but can undercut soft power. Soft power depends upon an
understanding of the minds of others. The best public and cultural diplomacy
is a two way street.

Joseph S. Nye, Jr. was Dean of the John F. Kennedy School of

Government at Harvard University from 1995 to 2004. From 1977 to 1979,
he was Deputy to the Under Secretary of State for Security Assistance,
Science and Technology. He also chaired the National Security Council
Group on Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons. In 1993 and 1994, he was
chairman of the National Intelligence Council. In 1994 and 1995, he served
as Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs. He has
written extensively about the role of soft power.
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APDS
The Association of Public Diplomacy Scholars was founded
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