MODULE 4.

CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF FUELS

Fuels. Fuels is any substance, natural or artificial which upon combustion, release heat energy. It
is a substance which, when burnt, i.e. on coming in contact and reacting with oxygen or air, produces heat.
Thus, the substances classified as fuel must necessarily contain one or several of the combustible elements:
carbon, hydrogen, sulfur.

Lesson 1. Solid Fuels

Solid Fuels refers to various forms of solid material that can be burnt to release energy, providing
heat and light through the process of combustion. Solid fuels can be contrasted with liquid
fuels and gaseous fuels. Common examples of solid fuels include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, Hexamine
fuel tablets, wood pellets, corn, wheat, rye, and other grains. Solid fuels are extensively used
in rocketry as solid propellants. Solid fuels have been used throughout human history to create fire and
solid fuel is still in widespread use throughout the world in the present day.

Types of Solid Fuels

1. Biomass
Biomass is a cellulose material which can be broadly classified as woody and non woody biomass.
Woody biomass maybe further split into soft woods and hard woods. On woody biomass that can be used
as a fuel include agricultural residue such as bagasse, straws, stalks, husk, and pits. Also manure can be
used as a fuel. Biomass is synonymous of vegetable matter used as fuel (biofuel), either grown for that
purpose, or recovered from other industries waste (forestry, farming, food industry…); urban and animal
waste might be included too, but its importance is marginal. Municipal solid waste (MSW) has great
organic content and can be used as a fuel in incineration power plants, with HHV=7-12 MJ/kg, but dioxin
emission is a problem. It excludes organic material which has been transformed by geological processes
into coal, petroleum, or natural gas (fossil fuels).

Example of Biomass and its Composition (% wt.)

2. Wood
Although wood is a form of biomass, but the term usually refers to other natural plant material
that can be burnt for fuel. Common biomass fuels include waste wheat, straw, nut shells and other fibrous
material. Wood is the hard, porous, fibrous substance found beneath the bark of trees and shrubs. Wood
is used for timber (construction), for paper making, and as a fuel (up to 30% of wood production in
industrialized countries, mostly the debris, but up to 90% in developing countries). Hard wood (resistant
to sawing) comes from deciduous broad-leafed trees: oak, elm and fruit trees. Soft woods come from pine,
cedar, fir. Paper is made from chemically and mechanically processed wood fibers (typically 30 mm in
diameter and 2 mm long) which are self-binding when dried from a wet state.
2.1. Composition. Wood is a natural composite material consisting of hollow polymer fibers in a
polymer matrix. The hollow fibers are tubular cells (most of them dead), with cellulosic walls (70%
cellulose and 30% lignin) holding aqueous solutions in the inside space (water content varies a lot, from
60%wt in freshly cut trees, to 5%wt in artificially-dried furniture-wood); the matrix is made of
hemicellulose and lignin. Trees are cut in winter to minimize initial water content.

`
 2.2. Properties of Wood.
Density. It depends on water and air content (porosity). Maximum is ρ cellulose=1550 kg/m3, but
very soft wood only has 50 kg/m3.
Thermal conductivity. It depends on water and air content (porosity), and on direction
(anisotropy). Dry wood is a very good insulator due to the air spaces, with k=0.3 W/(m⋅K) along the fibers
and k=0.1 W/(m⋅K) transversally.
Heating value. It depends on water content (moisture). Maximum is HHV=20 MJ/kg for dry
wood; wood pellets may have HHV=17-18 MJ/kg, log wood HHV=15-16 MJ/kg, and wood chips
HHV=13-15 MJ/kg.

3. Charcoal
Charcoal is made by heating wood in the absence of air to produce char. Charcoal is relatively
clean burning fuel. Charcoal can be pulverized easily and made into briquettes by addition of a binder such
as starch. Sometimes briquettes are manufactures with tubular holes for better air circulation.

4. Peat
Peat also known as turf, is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter. It is
unique to natural areas called peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs. The peatland ecosystem is the
most efficient carbon sink on the planet because peatland plants capture CO2 naturally released from the
peat, maintaining an equilibrium. In natural peatlands, the "annual rate of biomass production is greater
than the rate of decomposition", but it takes "thousands of years for peatlands to develop the deposits of
1.5 to 2.3 m [4.9 to 7.5 ft], which is the average depth of the boreal [northern] peatlands".
Peat has some 70-90% of trapped water, and it is not used as commercial fuel (it must be dried to
at least 30% in water to be burned, and was used in open fires). Plant decomposition has progressed only
partially, and it is possible sometimes to identify the remains of individual leaves in peat, cellulose being
still the main component.

5. Coke
Coke is a grey, hard, and porous fuel with a high carbon content and few impurities, made by
heating coal or oil in the absence of air—a destructive distillation process. It is an important industrial
product, used mainly in iron ore smelting, but also as a fuel in stoves and forges when air pollution is a
concern.

6. Coal
Coal is the most plentiful fuel available on Earth; proven commercial reserve in 2000 were
>1000⋅1012 kg (some 30% in USA, 20% in Russia, 15% in China, 15% in EU-15), but it is a finite, non-
renewable and very-polluting source. Estimations in 2000 gave a reserve/consumption ratio of some 250
years. Coal is a compact black or dark-brown sedimentary rock (a mixture, not a mineral) formed some
300 million years ago (Carboniferous Period, although smaller deposits exists from 200 Myr, dinosaurs
era, and 100 Myr ago), by high pressure and temperature anaerobic decomposition of dead plants (mainly
ferns), but the degree of metamorphosis varies a lot and several types of coal can be found today;: from
more to less ‘cooking’: anthracite, bituminous coal, and lignite.

6.1. Types of Coal. Coals are classified in a maturity rank according to age and fixed carbon
content: •
Anthracite. This is the hardest, purest, more brittle and scarce coal; too precious for a fuel (it is
used for chemicals). It is a dense black solid, with brilliant luster and very low moisture. (<5% of trapped
water).
Bituminous coal. Bituminous coal is a dense black solid that frequently contains bright bands with
a brilliant luster. It has some 2-10% of trapped water. Volatile matter range is 10-30%, and the typical
heating value is 30 MJ/kg. •
Lignite. Lignite, or brown coal, is the most abundant form of coal. It has some 40-60% of trapped
water. Sometimes, the remaining texture of the original vegetation can be discerned. Volatiles may reach
up to 30% in some lignite, and the typical heating value is 15 MJ/kg. •
Analysis of Composition of Solid Fuels

Proximate analysis. Proximate analysis (ASTM D3173-11) is an analysis of the composition of

the fuel which gives, on mass basis, the relative amount of the moisture content, volatile matter, fixed
carbon and ash. This analysis enables the engineer to predict the behavior of fuel in the furnace to a certain
degree. The proximate analysis provides a useful comparison between fuels.
Procedure. A sample of coal is crushed and dried in an oven at 105 to 110C to constant weight for
1 hour to determine residual moisture. The sample is then heated in a covered crucible at 900C for 7
minutes to constant weight. This weight loss is referred as volatile matter. The remaining sample is then
placed in an oven at 750C with the cover off so that the sample is combusted. The weight loss upon
combustion is termed fixed carbon or char. The remaining residue is defined as ash (Borman and Ragland,
1998).
Moisture, M. Moisture in fuels exist as (1) surface moisture from weather from washing. (2)
Inherent moisture which is chemically bound within the fuel structure.
𝑊𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 105𝐶−110𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
%M= 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑥 100%

Volatile matter, VM. It consists of volatile substances formed during heating of coal out of contact
of air. Essentially these are gaseous substances like CO, H2, H2O, CO2, CH4, N2,O2 and other
hydrocarbons. Volatile matter does not include moisture of coal but includes water formed during reaction
between hydrogen and oxygen of coal.
𝑊𝑡.𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟
% VM = 𝑊𝑡.𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑥 100%
Total weight loss of moist coal=Wt. loss due to VM + Moisture
Wt. loss due to VM = Total weight loss of moist coal –Moisture
If coal sample is dry, then weight loss is due to VM only.

Ash, (A). Ash refers to the residue that is left after the sample is fired at 2000F until there is no more
sign of loss in weight.
𝑊𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
%A= 𝑊𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑥 100%

Fixed Carbon, (FC). The quantity of fixed carbon in percent is the sum of the percentage of
moisture, volatile matter, and ash subtracted from 100.The measure of the relative cooking properties of
the coals.
FC=100- (%M + %A + %VM)
Empirical formula maybe used in approximating the weight of the chemical constituents from the
proximate analysis of the fuel. The following empirical formulae are recommended by Carpenter and
Diederichs:
7.35
Hydrogen= 𝑉𝑀 [𝑉𝑀+10 − 0.013]
Total Carbon, C=Fixed Carbon + Volatile Carbon
C= F +0.02(VM)2 for Anthracite
C = F+ 0.9(VM-10) for semi –anthracite
C= F + 0.9(VM-14) for bituminous coals
C = F + 0.9(VM-18) for lignite
N=0.07VM for Anthracite and semi –anthracite
N=2.10 - 0.012VM for bituminous and lignite
Where:
H- % Hydrogen in the combustible.
VM- % Volatile matter in the combustible.
C- % Total Carbon in the combustible.
F- % fixed carbon in the combustible.
 Proximate Analysis Report. The different ways to report analysis of coal can be illustrated by
the table below. Consider sub‐bituminous coal.

As received Dry Basis Dry-ash free Dry mineral matter free

%M 6.8 --------- -------- --------
%A 12.3 13.2 -------- --------
%VM 36.2 38.84 44.7 44.6
%FC 44.2 47.42 54.7 55.4
%S 0.5 0.54 0.6 -------
Total 100 100 100 100

Ultimate Analysis. The ultimate analysis (ASTM 3176) is an analysis of the composition of fuel
which gives on mass basis the relative amount of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, ash and
moisture. (Apart from associated mineral matter, MM)

Procedure. Carbon and hydrogen are determined by burning the sample in oxygen in a closed
system and quantitatively measuring the combustion products. The carbon includes organic carbon as
well as carbon from the mineral carbonates. The hydrogen includes organic hydrogen as well as hydrogen
from the moisture of the dried sample and mineral hydrates. The extraneous carbon and hydrogen are
usually negligible. Nitrogen and sulfur are determined chemically. Oxygen is determined by the
differences between 100 and the sum of C,H,N and S. Sometimes, chlorine is included in the ultimate
analysis (Borman and Ragland, 1998).
Moisture. Moisture in fuels exist as 1) surface moisture from weather from washing. 2) Inherent
moisture which is chemically bound within the fuel structure.
Total carbon. This is the sum of the fixed carbon and that in the volatile matter. Fixed carbon or
uncombined carbon is that which does not distill easily hen heated while in volatile matter is liberated
when coal is heated.
Hydrogen. This element may exist as one constituents of the volatile matter and in the inherent
moisture .The analysis breaks down any unevaporated moisture into hydrogen and oxygen.
Oxygen. All oxygen in the coal is assumed to be in combination with hydrogen as moisture and
therefore is accounted for in the breakdown of moisture above.
Nitrogen. This exist in very small amount. It does not give any harmful effect except that it adds
to the weight of the fuel.
Sulfur. Majority of coals contains some amount of sulfur. It can only be determined by chemical
analysis.
Ash. The residue left after the sample is burned at 2000F until there is no more loss in weight is
known as ash. Coal contains from 5 to 20% of ash. Ash is residue obtained after complete combustion of
coal and consists of CaO, MgO, SiO2, Al2O3 etc.
Mineral Matter (MM)).In fact, coal contains mineral matter (MM) like CaCO3, MgCO3, SiO2,
Al2O3, Na2 CO3 etc. but not ash. Ash and mineral matter are not identical. Total mineral matter (MM) can
be calculated by Parr formula:
MM = 1.08A + 0.55 %S
While calculating FC on mineral matter basis, Parr subtracts 0.15% S from measured fixed carbon

Ultimate Analysis Report. Ultimate analysis report of sub‐bituminous coal is illustrated below.
Heating Value/Calorific Value of Solid Fuels

Calorific value (CV) or Heating Value (HV) is a direct indication of the heat content (energy
value) of a fuels. It is one of the most important parameters by which the coal is mined for
combustion applications, and is the most commonly used benchmark of coal quality and he
nce its economic value. The CV is usually expressed as the gross calorific value (the higher
heating value) or the net calorific value (the lower heating value). The difference between the
gross calorific value (GCV) and the net calorific value (NCV) is the latent heat of condensati
on of the water vapor produced during the combustion process. The heating value is determined
in a bomb calorimeter (ASTM D2105).
Gross Calorific Value/Higher Heating Value. The GCV assumes that all
of the vapor produced from coal moisture during the combustion process is fully condensed.

The heating value of solid fuel can be obtained by:

Dulong’s Formula: Dulong’s Formula is used for solid fuels of known ultimate analysis.
The energy liberated by the complete combustion of 1lb of each of the ff. elements are:
Carbon-14,540Btu Hydrogen -62,000 Btu Sulfur-4,050Btu
HHV=GCV=Qh=14,540C + 62,000(H-O/8) + 4050S BTU/lb
HHV=GCV=Qh=33,820C + 144,212(H-O/8) + 9,304S KJ/kg
Net Calorific Value/ Lower Heating Value. The NCV or LHV assumes that the water is removed
with the combustion products without being fully condensed. The lower heating value is obtained from
the HHV by subtracting the heat of vaporization of water in the products:

𝑚
LHV=HHV- 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑓𝑔
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

Where: hfg is the latent heat of vaporization of water at 25C which is equal to 2440 kJ/kg or
1050 BTU/lb.
𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 is the mass of water in the product of combustion
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 is mass of fuel

LHV=HHV-24.44 (9%H + %M), kJ/kg------ Dulong’s Formula

SAMPLE PROBLEM:

1. A solid fuel contains 6% hydrogen, 30% moisture, and 10% ash has a higher heating value of 5000
Btu/ lbm (all wt % as –received). Determine the lower heating value (LHV) based on Dry –ash free
basis.

Solution:
𝐵𝑡𝑢
5000
𝑙𝑏
𝐻𝐻𝑉(𝑑𝑟𝑦, 𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒) = = 8,333.333 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏
1−0.30−0.10

6
% H of dry-ash free = 𝑥 100% = 10%
100−30−10

𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐿𝐻𝑉 = 𝐻𝐻𝑉 − ℎ
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑔

𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 0.1 lb 𝐻2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 0 18 𝑙𝑏 𝐻 0

𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
= 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑥 (2 𝑙𝑏 𝐻 2 ) ( 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 ) ( 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻20 )
2 2 2

= 0.90 𝑙𝑏 𝐻2 0 / 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
`
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐿𝐻𝑉 = 8,333.333 𝑙𝑏
− 0.90 (1050 𝑙𝑏
) = 7,388.333𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏

2. Calculate the higher heating value in BTU/lb of coal base on the ultimate analysis given below:
C=68.5% H=2.5% S=1.5% O=3.5% Ash=12%
 𝑂
𝐻𝐻𝑉 = 14,540𝐶 + 62,000 (𝐻 − 8 ) + 4,050𝑆 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏

0.035
𝐻𝐻𝑉 = 14,540(0.685) + 62,000 (0.025 − 8
)+ 4,050(0.015), 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏
= 11,299.4 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏

EXERCISES:
1. A sample of pine bark has the following ultimate analysis, percent by mass: 5.6% H, 53.4% C,
0.1% S, 0.1% N, 37.9% O, and 2.9% ash. This bark will be used as a fuel by burning it with no
excess air in a furnace. Determine the HHV of the pine bark in Kcal/kg.
2. A coal water slurry contains 70% dry powdered bituminous coal and 30% water. If the coal has
a dry higher heating value of 13,000 Btu/lb. and contains 5 %( wt.) Hydrogen, find the higher
and lower heating value of the slurry. Neglect any ash in the coal.